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Psalmi 88

¹ (O cântare. Un psalm al fiilor lui Core. Către mai marele cântăreţilor. De cântat cu flautul. O cântare a lui Heman, Ezrahitul.) Doamne, Dumnezeul mântuirii mele! Zi şi noapte strig înaintea Ta!

² S-ajungă rugăciunea mea înaintea Ta! Ia aminte la cererile mele;

³ căci mi s-a săturat sufletul de rele, şi mi se apropie viaţa de locuinţa morţilor.

⁴ Sânt pus în rândul celor ce se pogoară în groapă, sânt ca un om, care nu mai are putere.

⁵ Stau întins printre cei morţi, ca cei ucişi şi culcaţi în mormânt, de cari nu-Ţi mai aduci aminte, şi cari sânt despărţiţi de mâna Ta.

⁶ M-ai aruncat în groapa cea mai de jos, în întunerec, în adâncuri.

⁷ Mânia Ta mă apasă, şi mă năpădeşti cu toate valurile Tale. -

⁸ Ai îndepărtat dela mine pe toţi prietenii mei, m-ai făcut o pricină de scârbă pentru ei; sânt închis şi nu pot să ies.

⁹ Mi se topesc ochii de suferinţă; în toate zilele Te chem, Doamne, şi-mi întind mânile spre Tine!

¹⁰ Oare pentru morţi faci Tu minuni? Sau se scoală morţii să Te laude? -

¹¹ Se vorbeşte de bunătatea Ta în mormânt, şi de credincioşia Ta în Adânc?

¹² Sânt cunoscute minunile Tale în întunerec, şi dreptatea Ta în ţara uitării?

¹³ Doamne, eu îşi cer ajutorul, şi dimineaţa rugăciunea mea se înalţă la Tine.

¹⁴ Pentruce, Doamne, lepezi sufletul meu? Pentruce îmi ascunzi Faţa Ta?

¹⁵ Din tinereţă, sânt nenorocit şi trag să mor, sânt cuprins de spaimele Tale, şi nu ştiu ce să mai fac.

¹⁶ Mânia Ta trece peste mine, spaimele Tale mă nimicesc de tot.

¹⁷ Ele mă înconjoară toată ziua, ca nişte ape, mă înfăşoară toate deodată.

¹⁸ Ai depărtat dela mine pe prieteni şi tovarăşi; şi cei de aproape ai mei s-au făcut nevăzuţi.

{"verseMap":{"1":[{"id":11817,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Ezrahite","title_en":"Ezrahite","content_ro":"<h3>EZRAHITE<\/h3>\nWord occurring only three times in the OT. Twice it is used as a title for Ethan (1 Kgs 4:31; Ps 89 title) and once as a name given to Heman (Ps 88 title). It is no longer thought to be a family name, but instead signifies a member of a pre-Israelite family.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>EZRAHITE<\/h3>\nWord occurring only three times in the OT. Twice it is used as a title for Ethan (1 Kgs 4:31; Ps 89 title) and once as a name given to Heman (Ps 88 title). It is no longer thought to be a family name, but instead signifies a member of a pre-Israelite family.<\/p>","summary_ro":"EZRAHITE Word occurring only three times in the OT. Twice it is used as a title for Ethan (1 Kgs 4:31; Ps 89 title) and once as a name given to Heman (Ps 88 title). It is no longer thought to be a family name, but instead signifies a member of a pre-Israelite family.","summary_en":"EZRAHITE Word occurring only three times in the OT. Twice it is used as a title for Ethan (1 Kgs 4:31; Ps 89 title) and once as a name given to Heman (Ps 88 title). It is no longer thought to be a family name, but instead signifies a member of a pre-Israelite family.","source":"Articles\/E.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":16191,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Heman","title_en":"Heman","content_ro":"<h3>HEMAN<\/h3>\n<li>1. Lotan’s son, the brother of Hori and a descendant of Seir the Horite (Gn 36:22); alternately spelled Homam in 1 Chronicles 1:39, reflecting a later scribal error.<\/li>\n<li>2. Mahol’s son, descendant of Zerah from Judah’s tribe and one of the sages whose wisdom was surpassed by King Solomon’s (1 Kgs 4:31; 1 Chr 2:6). He is perhaps the Ezrahite and author of Psalm 88.<\/li>\n<li>3. Kohathite Levite, Joel’s son and one appointed, along with Asaph and Ethan (also called Jeduthun), by David to lead the musicians in the sanctuary (1 Chr 6:33; 15:17; 16:41). During the transport of the ark from Obed-edom’s house to Jerusalem, he was responsible for sounding the bronze cymbals (1 Chr 15:19; 2 Chr 5:12). Heman fathered 14 sons and 3 daughters, all of whom served as musicians in the Lord’s house (1 Chr 25:1-6). Later, his descendants participated in the cleansing of the temple during King Hezekiah’s reign (715–686 BC<\/span>; 2 Chr 29:14) and assisted with the Passover celebration initiated by King Josiah (640–609 BC<\/span>; 2 Chr 35:15).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>HEMAN<\/h3>\n<li>1. Lotan’s son, the brother of Hori and a descendant of Seir the Horite (Gn 36:22); alternately spelled Homam in 1 Chronicles 1:39, reflecting a later scribal error.<\/li>\n<li>2. Mahol’s son, descendant of Zerah from Judah’s tribe and one of the sages whose wisdom was surpassed by King Solomon’s (1 Kgs 4:31; 1 Chr 2:6). He is perhaps the Ezrahite and author of Psalm 88.<\/li>\n<li>3. Kohathite Levite, Joel’s son and one appointed, along with Asaph and Ethan (also called Jeduthun), by David to lead the musicians in the sanctuary (1 Chr 6:33; 15:17; 16:41). During the transport of the ark from Obed-edom’s house to Jerusalem, he was responsible for sounding the bronze cymbals (1 Chr 15:19; 2 Chr 5:12). Heman fathered 14 sons and 3 daughters, all of whom served as musicians in the Lord’s house (1 Chr 25:1-6). Later, his descendants participated in the cleansing of the temple during King Hezekiah’s reign (715–686 BC<\/span>; 2 Chr 29:14) and assisted with the Passover celebration initiated by King Josiah (640–609 BC<\/span>; 2 Chr 35:15).<\/li>","summary_ro":"HEMAN 1. Lotan’s son, the brother of Hori and a descendant of Seir the Horite (Gn 36:22); alternately spelled Homam in 1 Chronicles 1:39, reflecting a later scribal error. 2. Mahol’s son, descendant of Zerah from Judah’s tribe and one of the sages whose wisdom was surpassed by King Solomon’s (1 Kgs 4:31; 1 Chr 2:6). He is perhaps the Ezrahite and author of Psalm 88. 3. Kohathite Levite, Joel’s son and one appointed, along with Asaph and Ethan (also called Jeduthun), by David to lead the music...","summary_en":"HEMAN 1. Lotan’s son, the brother of Hori and a descendant of Seir the Horite (Gn 36:22); alternately spelled Homam in 1 Chronicles 1:39, reflecting a later scribal error. 2. Mahol’s son, descendant of Zerah from Judah’s tribe and one of the sages whose wisdom was surpassed by King Solomon’s (1 Kgs 4:31; 1 Chr 2:6). He is perhaps the Ezrahite and author of Psalm 88. 3. Kohathite Levite, Joel’s son and one appointed, along with Asaph and Ethan (also called Jeduthun), by David to lead the music...","source":"Articles\/H.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":23931,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Leannoth*, Mahalath","title_en":"Leannoth*, Mahalath","content_ro":"<h3>MAHALATH LEANNOTH*<\/h3>\nHebrew phrase in the title of Psalm 88, translated “The Suffering of Affliction”; perhaps a familiar ancient melody to which the psalm was performed. See<\/em> Music.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>MAHALATH LEANNOTH*<\/h3>\nHebrew phrase in the title of Psalm 88, translated “The Suffering of Affliction”; perhaps a familiar ancient melody to which the psalm was performed. See<\/em> Music.<\/p>","summary_ro":"MAHALATH LEANNOTH* Hebrew phrase in the title of Psalm 88, translated “The Suffering of Affliction”; perhaps a familiar ancient melody to which the psalm was performed. See Music.","summary_en":"MAHALATH LEANNOTH* Hebrew phrase in the title of Psalm 88, translated “The Suffering of Affliction”; perhaps a familiar ancient melody to which the psalm was performed. See Music.","source":"Articles\/M.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":26585,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Music","title_en":"Music","content_ro":"<h3>MUSIC<\/h3>\nA natural human expression that probably began with speech-singing and developed into songs, which were then accompanied by instruments. Music as we know it has become quite complex, a luxury and entertainment; music in antiquity, however, was a functional expression of daily life, work, and worship.<\/p>\nThe phrase “sing to the Lord,” common to the OT (Ex 15:21; 1 Chr 16:9; Pss 68:32; 96:1-2; Is 42:10; Jer 20:13), was not unique to the Jewish nation. All religions draw on the natural human impulse to sing. The injunction “sing to the Lord” was a signal for the people to pour out their praise in song.<\/p>\nThe Bible, however, is limited in its treatment of music in ancient Israel. Since there was no written musical notation, the primary record of songs sung by the Hebrews is the collection of texts, particularly the psalms, and a few enigmatic musical instructions. The biblical writers were writing a history not of their culture but of their relationship with God; hence, their comments about music are not critical. Also, the biblical documents cover a long span of history and are grouped according to category rather than in chronological order, thus making it difficult to order the development of musical style with precision. Finally, there is the problem of understanding the biblical descriptions of music and its performance. Only in this century have scholars been able to interpret the information provided in the Bible in terms of Eastern music systems.<\/p>\nPreview<\/p>\n• Music in the Old Testament<\/p>\n• Music in the Psalms<\/p>\n• Music in the New Testament<\/p>\nMusic in the Old Testament<\/p>\nThe first musician mentioned in the Bible is “Jubal, the first musician—the inventor of the harp and flute” (Gn 4:21, nlt<\/span>). The importance of this description of a musician so early in history lies in the equality Jubal is given with his brothers Jabal, the herdsman, and Tubal-cain, the smith. Music making is recognized among the earliest professions of nomadic peoples. The name Jubal is believed to be a derivative from the Hebrew word for “ram.” The ram’s horn (<\/em>shophar<\/span>)<\/em> was an early instrument of the Jewish people and was significant in signaling important events.<\/p>\nFor the most part, the music described in early biblical history was of a functional nature. Music gained special significance as it became an important part of temple worship. Many of the descriptions of music making in ancient Israel, before David’s time, are quite utilitarian. There are accounts of music at times of farewell (Gn 31:27), at times of rejoicing and feasting (Ex 32:17-18; Is 5:12; 24:8-9), at military victories (2 Chr 20:27-28), and for work (Nm 21:17, the song of the well diggers; Is 16:10; Jer 48:33). Most of this music was probably rather crude and primitive in nature, especially the music associated with military advances, which was meant to terrify the enemy (Jgs 7:17-20). The music and dancing that greeted Moses as he descended from the mountain was described as if it sounded like “war in the camp” (Ex 32:17-18).<\/p>\nIn the early history of the Jewish people, women played an important part in the performance of music. The image of women dancing and singing for joy accompanied by percussion instruments is repeated several times: Miriam led the women in a hymn of thanksgiving after the deliverance from the Red Sea (Ex 15); Jephthah’s daughter welcomed her father in his victory (Jgs 11:34); Deborah joined with Barak in singing a song of victory (Jgs 5); and women hailed David after his defeat of the Philistines (1 Sm 18:6-7). There is little mention of women as musicians following the establishment of the temple in Jerusalem, but there are a few allusions to the fact that women did participate in singing and dancing. The account of the return from exile in Babylon includes both male and female singers (Neh 7:67), confirming that women still took part in musical performance.<\/p>\nAs Jerusalem became the religious center of the Hebrew people (950–850 BC<\/span>), the role of the professional musician became more important. The women’s songs became insignificant compared to the pomp and ceremony associated with the temple and the royal court. While the Levitical singers took most of the musical responsibility at the temple, the development of antiphonal singing allowed the people to join in on responses in the singing of psalms.<\/p>\n<h5>Musical Style and Use<\/h5>\nThe Jewish people seem to have been especially musical. Of course, they were influenced by other ancient cultures, but there is evidence that they were in demand as musicians by other peoples. According to an Assyrian document, King Hezekiah gave as tribute to King Sennacherib many male and female Jewish musicians. The Babylonians demanded that the captive Jews sing to them and entertain them (cf. Ps 137:3).<\/p>\nSince the OT’s purpose was to narrate the relationship between the Jewish nation and God, most of the references to music deal with its function in worship. However, evidence reveals that there was also a large body of secular musical literature. There may have been guilds of poets and singers early in Jewish history. The kinds of songs recorded in the early part of the OT represent a folklike poetry. The song of thanksgiving to the Lord by Moses and the people of Israel after their escape at the Red Sea is a stirring national song. Many descriptions of the biblical writers reflect the spirit of bardic song. This would be logical, as these stories were meant to be passed on. Marching songs (2 Chr 20:27-28), and songs of triumph (Jgs 5) also indicate a secular body of music.<\/p>\n<h5>Music in Worship<\/h5>\nThe singers and musicians for the temple worship were chosen from the tribe of Levi. King David assembled the Levites for a census, and out of the total of 38,000 men over the age of 30, 4,000 were chosen as musicians. These 4,000 were subsequently given specific jobs. “David and the chiefs of the service also set apart for the service certain of the sons of Asaph, and of Heman, and of Jeduthun, who should prophesy with lyres, with harps, and with cymbals. . . . The number of them along with their brethren, who were trained in singing to the Lord<\/span>, all who were skilful, was two hundred and eighty-eight” (1 Chr 25:1, 7, rsv<\/span>). The singers were further divided into 24 groups of 12 singers, who rotated in participating in the weekday, Sabbath, and high holy day services.<\/p>\nAccording to a later source, there were minimum and maximum numbers of singers and instrumentalists required at each service. The minimum number of singers was twelve, the maximum was unlimited. There had to be in attendance at least two harps but no more than six, at least two flutes but no more than twelve, a minimum of two trumpets with no maximum, and a minimum of nine lyres with no maximum. There was only one player with a pair of cymbals.<\/p>\nA singer was admitted to the Levitical choir at the age of thirty following a five-year apprenticeship (1 Chr 23:3). Five years is a relatively short time considering the amount of material these singers had to memorize (for there was no notation) and the liturgical ritual they had to master; it is speculated that they actually were in training from childhood. The Levites lived in villages outside the city wall and may have been actively involved in the musical education of their children (Neh 12:29). The Levites performed other duties connected with the sacred service, but the singers were excused from all other duties because they were on duty day and night (1 Chr 9:33). Their skills were an important part of the temple worship, and they were able to devote their entire life to the development of their musical ability. A singer served in the choir for 20 years, from age 30 to 50, and the music was of a high quality due to strict discipline and continuous practice and performance.<\/p>\nFrom the beginning of Jewish formal worship connected with the tabernacle, music and sound was important. In Exodus 28:34-35 the descriptions of Aaron’s robe include bells attached to the lower hem that sounded as he entered the Holy Place. The first liturgical music mentioned in the OT is found in 2 Samuel 6 in the descriptions of the transfer of the ark: David and the Israelites sang, played instruments, and danced to the glory of the Lord. This music bore little resemblance to the stately ceremony described later in Solomon’s temple. In 2 Chronicles 7:6, David is given recognition for inventing the musical instruments used in the temple. In the postexilic era Levitical singers are mentioned as the descendants of Asaph, the “singing master” appointed by David (Ezr 2:41; Neh 7:44; 11:22-23). From passages such as these, we have a definite indication that liturgical music and organization stemmed from David’s time.<\/p>\nThe ceremonies in the Jewish temple were organized around the sacrifice. Singing formed an integral part of the sacrificial service and was necessary to validate the sacrificial action. There were special musical settings for each sacrifice; thus the daily burnt, expiatory, and laudatory offerings and libations had individual liturgies. Particular psalms became associated with certain sacrifices as well as with certain days of the week. The psalm of the day was intoned as the high priest started to pour out the drink offering. The psalm was divided into three sections, each signaled by the blowing of the trumpets, on which signal the people would prostrate themselves. This is the only time the trumpets were used together with the other instruments in orchestral fashion on solemn occasions (2 Chr 5:12-13).<\/p>\nMusic in the Psalms<\/p>\n<h5>Musical Psalm Titles<\/h5>\nThe collection of 150 lyric poems known as the book of Psalms contains the most information on music making in ancient Israel. The Psalter contains not only religious songs but also songs that have their roots in secular or popular songs, such as work songs, love songs, and wedding songs. The majority are songs of praise, thanksgiving, prayer, and repentance. There are also historic odes that relate great national events—for example, Psalm 30, “a song at the dedication of the temple,” and Psalm 137, which portrays the sufferings of the Jews in captivity.<\/p>\nThe psalms were an important part of all the services of the temple; the Psalter became the liturgical hymnal of the Israelites. Worship included an appointed psalm for each day of the week. On the first day of the week, Psalm 24 was sung in remembrance of the first day of creation, Psalm 48 was sung on the second day, Psalm 82 on the third, Psalm 94 on the fourth, Psalm 81 on the fifth, Psalm 93 on the sixth, and Psalm 92 on the Sabbath. After the sacrificial offerings, Psalm 105:1-5 was sung at the morning service and Psalm 96 at the evening service. The Hallel psalms (Pss 113–118, 120–136, 146–148) were sung during the offering of the paschal lamb at the Passover feast.<\/p>\nWhile most of the liturgical music was performed by Levites, texts of the psalms suggest that there was also congregational participation. The forms of music found both in synagogal and ecclesiastical chant had their source in the forms of the poetic text of the psalms. The simplest is the plain psalmody sung by one person (e.g., Pss 3–5, 46). In responsorial psalmody the soloist is answered by the choir (e.g., Ps 67:1-2; the soloist sang verse 1 and the choir answered with verse 2). Antiphonal psalmody involves two groups singing alternately (e.g., Ps 103:20-22). The congregation would chant a refrain such as appears in Psalm 80: “Restore us, O God; let thy face shine, that we may be saved!” recurs throughout the psalm (rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\nEven though the synagogue had no altar for sacrifice, psalm singing retained an important place. After the Romans destroyed the temple, the worship heritage of the Jews could have been lost if the customs, including musical customs, had not become an integral part of synagogue worship.<\/p>\nThe most enigmatic part of the psalms is the headings that are not part of the poetic text. The first question is whether these should even be considered as superscripts. Greek, Latin, Hebrew, and other ancient languages were written in such a way that the text ran together without any break between chapters or paragraphs. This means that the verses, and even the division of the psalms themselves, were partially determined by copyists, chiefly the Masoretes. There is some question as to which psalms the extrapoetic texts actually belong with; they may actually be subscripts instead of superscripts. Sumerian and Babylonian poetry had information such as the name of the author, the musical instrument used for accompaniment, the tune, the purpose, and such listed at the end of the poem. Hence, some of the headings may actually be endings.<\/p>\nThe indications at the beginning of a psalm fall into three categories. They are either musical terms giving direction for the actual performance, musical cues designating the tune to which the psalm would be sung, or comments indicating the function of the psalm. These terms have been interpreted in various ways.<\/p>\nOriginally, these headings may have been marginal notes for the choir leaders. Realizing that these terms were not related to the psalm text proper, early biblical scribes may not have been overly careful with their placement in the text, which may explain some of the discrepancies among the early manuscripts—why certain words are left out in some and why terms assigned to only a few psalms may originally have been indicated on more of them.<\/p>\nAll but 50 of the psalms contain a proper name in the heading. These names possibly indicate the author; other commentators, interpreting the preposition appearing before the names to mean “for,” think the names are a dedication. Thus the title would be “A Psalm for David,” not “A Psalm of David.” This may be the case with the names of Asaph, Heman, Ethan, and especially the sons of Korah, where it would make better sense for the psalm to be written for rather than by the family. Seventy-three psalms have David’s name in the heading, hence the common reference to the Psalter as the Psalms of David. Twelve include the name of Asaph, eleven the children of Korah, two Solomon, and one each contains Moses, Heman, and Ethan.<\/p>\n<h5>Musical Terms in the Psalm Titles<\/h5>\nNumerous musical terms are included in the superscriptions to cue the kind of instrumental accompaniment, mood, and style of performance for the psalm.<\/p>\nAlamoth<\/span> is one of the most controversial terms found in the psalm headings. It appears at the beginning of Psalm 46 and also in 1 Chronicles 15:20. One meaning for the Hebrew word is “maiden,” and musicologists interpret this as an instruction that the psalm should be sung in the range of the female singing voice. The reference in Chronicles is to harps in the range of women’s voices. This interpretation does not seem to fit Psalm 46, but if we look at the preceding psalm and read the term as a subscript, it becomes logical. Psalm 45 is a song of love, actually a nuptial ode; it would be natural for women to sing the second half (vv 10-17). While there is little mention of women singing in the temple, there is speculation that young boys in training may have sung along with the Levitical singers. Also this may be a case where the term appears only once in the modern text but may have been used more often in the original. Another possible meaning for Alamoth<\/span> is “flutes,” perhaps describing the kind of musical accompaniment for the performance of the psalm.<\/p>\nGittith<\/span> is a term found in the superscriptions of Psalms 8, 81, and 84. It may be a musical cue, indicating a mood for the performance of these psalms, but a more common explanation is that it is a collective term for the stringed instruments that would have accompanied them.<\/p>\nMahalath<\/span> has been left in its original Hebrew form by early translators and is found in the headings of Psalms 53 and 88. It may have roots in the Hebrew mahaleh<\/span> “sickness” or mahot<\/span> “dance,” though neither of these words can be related to the psalm texts. Another explanation is a musical one. Mahalath<\/span> may come from the word halal<\/span> meaning “to pierce,” implying that the psalm was to be accompanied with pipes.<\/p>\nMaskil<\/span> (kjv<\/span> “Maschil”) appears in the headings of 13 psalms (Pss 32, 42, 44–45, 52–55, 74, 78, 88–89, 142). The term is probably derived from the verb sakal<\/span>,<\/em> “to have insight or comprehension,” but there is no agreement among commentators. By looking at the psalms themselves, their didactic nature and the structure of stanzas and refrains, musicologists conclude the term represents a song of praise, possibly sung by a soloist with participation by the choir.<\/p>\nMenazzeah<\/span> appears in the heading of 55 psalms. It appears 52 times in the first three books of Psalms (Pss 1–89), not at all in book four (Pss 90–106), and 3 times in book five (Pss 107–150). The most common modern translations are “to the Choirmaster” (rsv<\/span>), “to the choir director” (nasb<\/span>, nlt<\/span>), “to the director of music” (niv<\/span>), “to the chief Musician” (kjv<\/span>, nkjv<\/span>). The word is derived from the Hebrew verb nazzah<\/span>,<\/em> appearing in 1 Chronicles 23:4 and Ezra 3:8-9 in the sense of “administering.” In 1 Chronicles 15:21 the word is found in relation to leading or directing song in the temple. Menazzeah<\/span> relates to the choirmaster and represents the singer chosen to lead the music who probably was involved in rehearsing and instructing. It is now assumed that menazzeah<\/span> indicates the psalm was to be sung partially or entirely by a soloist. This is evidenced by the change in some texts from “I” where the soloist sang, to “we” where the choir or congregation sang. Psalm 5 is an example of a text divided for solo and choral singing: verses 1-3 solo; verses 4-6 choral; verses 7-8 solo; verses 9-10 choral; and verses 11-12 end the psalm with the combined soloist and choir.<\/p>\nMiktam<\/span> (kjv<\/span> “Michtam”) is another term that has no clear musical meaning, due mainly to the fact that its etymology is unknown. It occurs in Psalms 16 and 56–60, all of which have a character of lamentation or supplication. In a musical sense, it probably meant that a certain well-known tune was to be selected as the melody of the psalm.<\/p>\nMizmor<\/span> (Hebrew, meaning a song sung to instrumental accompaniment) is found nowhere else in the Bible; it is included in the superscriptions of 57 psalms. It probably indicated a song accompanied by melodic instruments as opposed to a dance song accompanied by rhythmic instruments.<\/p>\nNeginah<\/span> appears in the superscriptions of Psalms 4, 6, 54–55, 61, 67, and 76. The term neginah<\/span> and its plural neginoth<\/span> are found in Psalm 77:7, Lamentations 5:14, Isaiah 38:20, and Habakkuk 3:19. Neginah<\/span>,<\/em> from the Hebrew root naggen<\/span>,<\/em> “to touch the strings,” instructs that stringed instruments accompany the singing.<\/p>\nNehiloth<\/span> is found only in the introduction to Psalm 5 (kjv<\/span>). The origin of the word is problematic. It could come from the verb nahal<\/span>,<\/em> “to possess or inherit,” or more feasibly from halal<\/span>,<\/em> meaning “to pierce.” The latter implies the idea of a pierced instrument (the flute or pipe) to be used for accompaniment.<\/p>\nSheminith<\/span> appears in Psalms 6 and 12 and also in 1 Chronicles 15:21. The Hebrew word means literally “over the eighth.” Some scholars feel it had something to do with an octave, but the Hebrew musical language probably did not include a musical unit divided into eight parts. Other scholars interpret sheminith<\/span> as meaning an eight-stringed instrument. A more logical interpretation comes from examining its use in 1 Chronicles. In 15:20 the instructions are for musicians to play the harps according to alamoth<\/span> and in verse 21 to play the lyres according to sheminith<\/span>.<\/em> Here the terms alamoth<\/span> and sheminith<\/span> seem to be used in opposition. If alamoth<\/span> implies a register of the female voice, then sheminith<\/span> would imply a lower register. Thus, it may have been an instruction to use a lower pitched instrument for accompaniment.<\/p>\n<h5>Psalm Varieties in the Titles<\/h5>\nSome of the notes in the psalm headings are indications of the type or variety of psalm.<\/p>\nHazkir<\/span> is found in the headings of Psalms 38 and 70. According to the Targum, this is an indication that the psalm was sung at the sacrificial rite called askara<\/span> and is translated “for a memorial offering.”<\/p>\nLammed<\/span> appears in the superscription of Psalm 60 in the phrase le-lammed<\/span>,<\/em> translated “to teach.” According to tradition, this was a psalm, though undoubtedly not the only one, taught to young people as part of their education. This is another example of a term that may have been omitted from other psalms in later versions of the Psalter.<\/p>\nShiggaion<\/span> is in the heading of Psalm 7 and also in Habakkuk 3:1. The word probably comes from the Hebrew verb shagah<\/span>,<\/em> “to wander,” but may also be connected with the Assyrian liturgical term shigu<\/span>,<\/em> which represented a plaintive song in several stanzas. Biblical scholars have assumed shiggaion<\/span>,<\/em> plural shigionoth<\/span>,<\/em> was a lament or penitential song.<\/p>\nShir<\/span> is the simplest word for “song” and was probably used in the headings at an early stage of the Psalter; it is usually found with mizmor<\/span> (13 times). Fifteen psalms have this heading. It was probably the term for a specific type of praise song, usually performed by the choir.<\/p>\nShir Hamaalot<\/span> and Shir Lamaalot<\/span> occur in the headings of Psalms 120–134, which are often referred to as the Psalms of Ascent (kjv<\/span> “Psalms of Degrees”). Most explanations offered relate to the fact that the temple was situated on high ground. Often these 15 psalms are associated with the 15 steps leading from the Court of the Women to the Court of the Israelites. But most contemporary scholars believe the idea of “going up” referred to the pilgrims’ journey to Jerusalem to worship at the temple. These psalms are short, with popular appeal, making them appropriate for singing during the journey.<\/p>\nShir Hanukkat Habayit<\/span> is found only in the heading of Psalm 30. This phrase tells that the psalm was to be used for the dedication or rededication of the house of God.<\/p>\nShir-yedidot<\/span> appears only in Psalm 45. It refers to a love song that was probably sung at wedding ceremonies.<\/p>\nTefillah<\/span> is a common term for “prayer” and appears in the headings of Psalms 17, 86, 90, 102, and 142, and also in Habakkuk 3:1. The word probably refers to a specific form of poetic prayer.<\/p>\nSelah<\/span> is one of the most frequently used, but most enigmatic, terms found in the book of Psalms. It occurs in 39 psalms, appearing a total of 71 times in the Psalter—67 times within the text and 4 times at the end of a psalm. It is most frequent in the first three books. In the first book selah<\/span> appears in 9 psalms; in the second book, 17 psalms; in the third book, 11 psalms. In the fourth book it is not found at all and in the fifth book in only two psalms. Thirty-one of these psalms also include the term menazzeah<\/span> in their superscriptions, which implies that they were sung by a soloist and choir. Most commonly, selah<\/span> is interpreted as a signal for a break in the singing and possibly for an instrumental interlude. It never appears at the beginning of a psalm but only in the middle of the text or at the end. The regularity of its appearance within a psalm is not consistent, and in only a few instances do these divisions break the psalm into equal sections. Because of the random placement of the term, some scholars believe that, like the headings, selah<\/span> was not always carefully copied into the text. It may have been a note appearing only in the texts of the musicians, which would explain this inconsistency. An explanation of selah<\/span> is found in the Talmudic tradition: “Ben Azra clashed the cymbal and the Levites broke forth into singing. When they reached a break in the singing they blew upon the trumpets and the people prostrated themselves; at every break there was a blowing of the trumpet and at every blowing of the trumpet a prostration. This was the rite of the daily whole offering in the service of the House of our God.” Selah<\/span>,<\/em> then, would be an instruction for the musicians that the singing was to cease and the instrumentalists were to play.<\/p>\nThe term higgaion selah<\/span> appears once, in Psalm 9:16. The word higgaiaon<\/span> comes from the root hagah<\/span>,<\/em> “to murmur, to growl, to produce a low sound.” This may have been an instruction for the interlude to be more subdued than a normal selah<\/span>.<\/em><\/p>\n<h5>Ancient Melodies in the Titles<\/h5>\nMany psalms contain headings that are not direct musical references but are cue words to suggest well-known tunes. They probably refer either to names or the first words of popular secular songs (<\/em>makams<\/span>)<\/em> whose melodic patterns were used in singing the psalm. Many biblical scholars have tried to find hidden meaning in these headings, but most musicologists believe these are simply references or introductions to melodies.<\/p>\nAijeleth Shahar<\/span>,<\/em> in Psalm 22 (kjv<\/span>), is translated “according to The Hind of the Dawn” (rsv<\/span>), and “To the tune of ‘The Doe of the Morning’ ” (niv<\/span>), “To the tune ‘Doe of the Dawn’ ” (nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nAl-taschith<\/span>,<\/em> in Psalms 57–59 and 75 (kjv<\/span>), is translated “To the tune ‘Do Not Destroy!’ ” (nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nJonath-elem-rechokim<\/span>,<\/em> in Psalm 56 (kjv<\/span>), is translated “according to The Dove on Far-off Terebinths” (rsv<\/span>), and “To the tune ‘Dove on Distant Oaks’ ” (nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nMahalath Leannoth<\/span>,<\/em> in Psalm 88, is translated “To the tune ‘The Suffering of Affliction’ ” (nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nMuthlabben<\/span>,<\/em> in Psalm 9, is translated “To the tune ‘Death of the Son’ ” (nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nShoshannim<\/span>,<\/em> in Psalms 45 and 69 (kjv<\/span>), is translated “To the tune ‘Lilies’ ” (nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nShoshannim-Eduth<\/span>,<\/em> in Psalm 80 (kjv<\/span>), is translated “To the tune ‘Lilies of the Covenant’ ” (nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nShushan-eduth<\/span>,<\/em> in Psalm 60, is translated “To the tune ‘Lily of the Testimony’ ” (nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nThese melody types appear only in the first three books of the Psalter, and this may imply that these popular makams<\/span> had fallen into disuse by the time the final books of the Psalter were written. Other makam<\/span>-types had probably become popular, and the authors, realizing the relatively short life of a popular tune, did not include them in the headings of the Psalms but left the choice up to the performer.<\/p>\nMusic in the New Testament<\/p>\n<h5>First-Century Influences<\/h5>\n<h6>The Synagogue<\/h6>\nBy the time of Christ, the synagogue had become the chief place of worship for the Jewish people. It began as a place for study of the law but gradually became the center of worship for Jews unable to attend the temple. The liturgical service of the temple could not be duplicated in the synagogue as there was no sacrificial rite, and the music could not be exactly reproduced as there were no trained Levitical singers. Scholars do not agree about the amount of continuity between the music of the temple and the music of the synagogue, but there is evidence that certain musical practices did remain constant between the two places of worship.<\/p>\nInformation on the customs and rituals of the synagogue come from Talmudic writings. The musical elements of worship in the synagogue were the chanting of Scripture, psalmody, and spiritual songs. The choral singing of the temple was replaced by a single cantor. The cantor was a layman who, according to tradition, had to have the following qualifications: “He had to be well educated, gifted with a sweet voice, of humble personality, recognized by the community, conversant with Scripture and all the prayers; he must not be a rich man, for his prayers should come from his heart.” His most important job was the cantillation of the Law and the Prophets. A series of accents and punctuations, forerunners of actual musical notation, were indications for the cantor in the musical interpretation of the Scripture.<\/p>\nPsalm singing was gradually transplanted from the temple to the synagogue, which in turn influenced the early Christian church. Gregorian psalm tones have their roots in Hebrew psalmody.<\/p>\n<h6>Greek and Roman Cultures<\/h6>\nWhile both the temple and the synagogue were familiar to the early Christians (Acts 2:46-47; 3:1; 5:42; 9:20; 18:4; etc.), the Greek and Roman cultures also played a major part in shaping the young church. Hellenistic influences by the time of Christ had long been felt in the Middle East, and while it was strongly opposed by some Jewish leaders, the Greek arts had permeated Jewish culture. Greek philosophers considered music a cathartic force that could lead humans into metaphysical knowledge. This understanding led to the belief that music had a moral substance that could influence people to either good or evil. If this philosophy had totally encompassed Judeo-Christian thought, certainly Paul would have encouraged the use of music in the spread of the gospel. However, Paul’s omission of this theory implies that the Judeo-Christian world at that time had rejected the Greek ideal, at least in part.<\/p>\nWhile the Jewish rabbis considered music an art form for the praise of God, and while the Greek philosophers thought of it as a powerful moral force in creation, the Romans considered music mainly as entertainment. The music of the Roman games was neither religious nor philosophic and, from the accounts of witnesses, it was not technically exceptional. In the Roman Empire musicians were given a lower status and looked on as mere entertainers. One reason the early church did not include instrumental music in their worship was in reaction to the debased secular use of instruments by the Romans.<\/p>\n<h5>In the New Testament Writings<\/h5>\nOne of the few mentions of instruments in the NT is the use of flutes at a wake (Mt 9:23). As in the OT, music is associated with feasting and merrymaking (e.g., the return of the prodigal son, Lk 15:25). Five passages mention music metaphorically (Mt 6:2; 11:17; Lk 7:32; 1 Cor 13:1; 14:7-8). The most well known of these is Paul’s celebration of love in 1 Corinthians 13. The denunciation of the gong and cymbals must be understood in light of the attitude of the early Christians toward the music of the Pharisees. Here the signal instruments of the temple were used to represent pompous display of religious pietism.<\/p>\n\nMost references to music are found in the eschatological visions and prophetic passages scattered throughout the NT—most frequently in the book of Revelation (also Mt 24:31; 1 Cor 15:52; 1 Thes 4:16; Heb 12:19). Many of these descriptions have a direct association with musical references in the OT (e.g., the use of harps and trumpets and the singing of the Hallelujah). But the value of many of the passages in Revelation comes from their literary style. These doxological and psalmlike passages were probably spontaneous “spiritual songs” composed by the young church (e.g., Rv 5:9-10).<\/p>\nThe passages that mention religious or liturgical music are often more conceptual than literal. Two parallel passages describing the Last Supper (Mt 26:30; Mk 14:26) mention that Christ and his disciples sang a hymn. This is the only direct account of Jesus singing, but it is probable that when he read in the synagogue he did so in the accepted vocal style (Lk 4:16-20). There is much controversy surrounding the actual events at the Last Supper, but we can assume that the hymn sung was a traditional Jewish hymn, probably associated with the Passover.<\/p>\nFrom the account in Acts 16:25 we know that Paul and Silas sang hymns while in jail. Paul gives instruction for music making in 1 Corinthians 14:15, 26 in terms of a balance between rationalism and emotion. And, as with all the gifts of the Spirit, Paul asks that singing be done for edification.<\/p>\nIn two similar passages (Eph 5:19; Col 3:16) Paul groups together three musical terms—psalms, hymns, and spiritual songs. The singing of psalms was an obvious carryover from the synagogue, and we can assume that the early Christian psalm singing followed the Jewish style. The term for “hymns” probably refers to poetic texts, possibly modeled after the psalms, but in praise of Christ. “Spiritual songs” may refer to a spontaneous, ecstatic form of musical prayer, possibly wordless (perhaps related to glossolalia), in a style that was popular in mystical Judaism. These outbursts of song were probably melismatic (sung on one tone) and are perhaps the forerunners of the later Alleluia chant.<\/p>\n<h5>Hymnody in the New Testament<\/h5>\nIt can be assumed that the early Christians composed hymns in praise of Christ. Logically, most of the hymns found in the NT are based on Hebrew poetic psalm forms, but there is Greek and Latin influence also. The hymns from the Gospel of Luke have become well-known canticles adopted by the church: the Magnificat (Lk 1:46-55), the Benedictus (1:68-79), the Gloria (2:14) and the Nunc Dimittis (2:29-32). While patterned after the psalms of the OT, these hymns are full of confidence in the salvation of Christ and in his imminent return. Other Christological hymns found in the NT include the prologue to the Gospel of John, Ephesians 2:14-16, Philippians 2:6-11, Colossians 1:15-20, 1 Timothy 3:16, Hebrews 1:3, and 1 Peter 3:18-22.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>MUSIC<\/h3>\nA natural human expression that probably began with speech-singing and developed into songs, which were then accompanied by instruments. Music as we know it has become quite complex, a luxury and entertainment; music in antiquity, however, was a functional expression of daily life, work, and worship.<\/p>\nThe phrase “sing to the Lord,” common to the OT (Ex 15:21; 1 Chr 16:9; Pss 68:32; 96:1-2; Is 42:10; Jer 20:13), was not unique to the Jewish nation. All religions draw on the natural human impulse to sing. The injunction “sing to the Lord” was a signal for the people to pour out their praise in song.<\/p>\nThe Bible, however, is limited in its treatment of music in ancient Israel. Since there was no written musical notation, the primary record of songs sung by the Hebrews is the collection of texts, particularly the psalms, and a few enigmatic musical instructions. The biblical writers were writing a history not of their culture but of their relationship with God; hence, their comments about music are not critical. Also, the biblical documents cover a long span of history and are grouped according to category rather than in chronological order, thus making it difficult to order the development of musical style with precision. Finally, there is the problem of understanding the biblical descriptions of music and its performance. Only in this century have scholars been able to interpret the information provided in the Bible in terms of Eastern music systems.<\/p>\nPreview<\/p>\n• Music in the Old Testament<\/p>\n• Music in the Psalms<\/p>\n• Music in the New Testament<\/p>\nMusic in the Old Testament<\/p>\nThe first musician mentioned in the Bible is “Jubal, the first musician—the inventor of the harp and flute” (Gn 4:21, nlt<\/span>). The importance of this description of a musician so early in history lies in the equality Jubal is given with his brothers Jabal, the herdsman, and Tubal-cain, the smith. Music making is recognized among the earliest professions of nomadic peoples. The name Jubal is believed to be a derivative from the Hebrew word for “ram.” The ram’s horn (<\/em>shophar<\/span>)<\/em> was an early instrument of the Jewish people and was significant in signaling important events.<\/p>\nFor the most part, the music described in early biblical history was of a functional nature. Music gained special significance as it became an important part of temple worship. Many of the descriptions of music making in ancient Israel, before David’s time, are quite utilitarian. There are accounts of music at times of farewell (Gn 31:27), at times of rejoicing and feasting (Ex 32:17-18; Is 5:12; 24:8-9), at military victories (2 Chr 20:27-28), and for work (Nm 21:17, the song of the well diggers; Is 16:10; Jer 48:33). Most of this music was probably rather crude and primitive in nature, especially the music associated with military advances, which was meant to terrify the enemy (Jgs 7:17-20). The music and dancing that greeted Moses as he descended from the mountain was described as if it sounded like “war in the camp” (Ex 32:17-18).<\/p>\nIn the early history of the Jewish people, women played an important part in the performance of music. The image of women dancing and singing for joy accompanied by percussion instruments is repeated several times: Miriam led the women in a hymn of thanksgiving after the deliverance from the Red Sea (Ex 15); Jephthah’s daughter welcomed her father in his victory (Jgs 11:34); Deborah joined with Barak in singing a song of victory (Jgs 5); and women hailed David after his defeat of the Philistines (1 Sm 18:6-7). There is little mention of women as musicians following the establishment of the temple in Jerusalem, but there are a few allusions to the fact that women did participate in singing and dancing. The account of the return from exile in Babylon includes both male and female singers (Neh 7:67), confirming that women still took part in musical performance.<\/p>\nAs Jerusalem became the religious center of the Hebrew people (950–850 BC<\/span>), the role of the professional musician became more important. The women’s songs became insignificant compared to the pomp and ceremony associated with the temple and the royal court. While the Levitical singers took most of the musical responsibility at the temple, the development of antiphonal singing allowed the people to join in on responses in the singing of psalms.<\/p>\n<h5>Musical Style and Use<\/h5>\nThe Jewish people seem to have been especially musical. Of course, they were influenced by other ancient cultures, but there is evidence that they were in demand as musicians by other peoples. According to an Assyrian document, King Hezekiah gave as tribute to King Sennacherib many male and female Jewish musicians. The Babylonians demanded that the captive Jews sing to them and entertain them (cf. Ps 137:3).<\/p>\nSince the OT’s purpose was to narrate the relationship between the Jewish nation and God, most of the references to music deal with its function in worship. However, evidence reveals that there was also a large body of secular musical literature. There may have been guilds of poets and singers early in Jewish history. The kinds of songs recorded in the early part of the OT represent a folklike poetry. The song of thanksgiving to the Lord by Moses and the people of Israel after their escape at the Red Sea is a stirring national song. Many descriptions of the biblical writers reflect the spirit of bardic song. This would be logical, as these stories were meant to be passed on. Marching songs (2 Chr 20:27-28), and songs of triumph (Jgs 5) also indicate a secular body of music.<\/p>\n<h5>Music in Worship<\/h5>\nThe singers and musicians for the temple worship were chosen from the tribe of Levi. King David assembled the Levites for a census, and out of the total of 38,000 men over the age of 30, 4,000 were chosen as musicians. These 4,000 were subsequently given specific jobs. “David and the chiefs of the service also set apart for the service certain of the sons of Asaph, and of Heman, and of Jeduthun, who should prophesy with lyres, with harps, and with cymbals. . . . The number of them along with their brethren, who were trained in singing to the Lord<\/span>, all who were skilful, was two hundred and eighty-eight” (1 Chr 25:1, 7, rsv<\/span>). The singers were further divided into 24 groups of 12 singers, who rotated in participating in the weekday, Sabbath, and high holy day services.<\/p>\nAccording to a later source, there were minimum and maximum numbers of singers and instrumentalists required at each service. The minimum number of singers was twelve, the maximum was unlimited. There had to be in attendance at least two harps but no more than six, at least two flutes but no more than twelve, a minimum of two trumpets with no maximum, and a minimum of nine lyres with no maximum. There was only one player with a pair of cymbals.<\/p>\nA singer was admitted to the Levitical choir at the age of thirty following a five-year apprenticeship (1 Chr 23:3). Five years is a relatively short time considering the amount of material these singers had to memorize (for there was no notation) and the liturgical ritual they had to master; it is speculated that they actually were in training from childhood. The Levites lived in villages outside the city wall and may have been actively involved in the musical education of their children (Neh 12:29). The Levites performed other duties connected with the sacred service, but the singers were excused from all other duties because they were on duty day and night (1 Chr 9:33). Their skills were an important part of the temple worship, and they were able to devote their entire life to the development of their musical ability. A singer served in the choir for 20 years, from age 30 to 50, and the music was of a high quality due to strict discipline and continuous practice and performance.<\/p>\nFrom the beginning of Jewish formal worship connected with the tabernacle, music and sound was important. In Exodus 28:34-35 the descriptions of Aaron’s robe include bells attached to the lower hem that sounded as he entered the Holy Place. The first liturgical music mentioned in the OT is found in 2 Samuel 6 in the descriptions of the transfer of the ark: David and the Israelites sang, played instruments, and danced to the glory of the Lord. This music bore little resemblance to the stately ceremony described later in Solomon’s temple. In 2 Chronicles 7:6, David is given recognition for inventing the musical instruments used in the temple. In the postexilic era Levitical singers are mentioned as the descendants of Asaph, the “singing master” appointed by David (Ezr 2:41; Neh 7:44; 11:22-23). From passages such as these, we have a definite indication that liturgical music and organization stemmed from David’s time.<\/p>\nThe ceremonies in the Jewish temple were organized around the sacrifice. Singing formed an integral part of the sacrificial service and was necessary to validate the sacrificial action. There were special musical settings for each sacrifice; thus the daily burnt, expiatory, and laudatory offerings and libations had individual liturgies. Particular psalms became associated with certain sacrifices as well as with certain days of the week. The psalm of the day was intoned as the high priest started to pour out the drink offering. The psalm was divided into three sections, each signaled by the blowing of the trumpets, on which signal the people would prostrate themselves. This is the only time the trumpets were used together with the other instruments in orchestral fashion on solemn occasions (2 Chr 5:12-13).<\/p>\nMusic in the Psalms<\/p>\n<h5>Musical Psalm Titles<\/h5>\nThe collection of 150 lyric poems known as the book of Psalms contains the most information on music making in ancient Israel. The Psalter contains not only religious songs but also songs that have their roots in secular or popular songs, such as work songs, love songs, and wedding songs. The majority are songs of praise, thanksgiving, prayer, and repentance. There are also historic odes that relate great national events—for example, Psalm 30, “a song at the dedication of the temple,” and Psalm 137, which portrays the sufferings of the Jews in captivity.<\/p>\nThe psalms were an important part of all the services of the temple; the Psalter became the liturgical hymnal of the Israelites. Worship included an appointed psalm for each day of the week. On the first day of the week, Psalm 24 was sung in remembrance of the first day of creation, Psalm 48 was sung on the second day, Psalm 82 on the third, Psalm 94 on the fourth, Psalm 81 on the fifth, Psalm 93 on the sixth, and Psalm 92 on the Sabbath. After the sacrificial offerings, Psalm 105:1-5 was sung at the morning service and Psalm 96 at the evening service. The Hallel psalms (Pss 113–118, 120–136, 146–148) were sung during the offering of the paschal lamb at the Passover feast.<\/p>\nWhile most of the liturgical music was performed by Levites, texts of the psalms suggest that there was also congregational participation. The forms of music found both in synagogal and ecclesiastical chant had their source in the forms of the poetic text of the psalms. The simplest is the plain psalmody sung by one person (e.g., Pss 3–5, 46). In responsorial psalmody the soloist is answered by the choir (e.g., Ps 67:1-2; the soloist sang verse 1 and the choir answered with verse 2). Antiphonal psalmody involves two groups singing alternately (e.g., Ps 103:20-22). The congregation would chant a refrain such as appears in Psalm 80: “Restore us, O God; let thy face shine, that we may be saved!” recurs throughout the psalm (rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\nEven though the synagogue had no altar for sacrifice, psalm singing retained an important place. After the Romans destroyed the temple, the worship heritage of the Jews could have been lost if the customs, including musical customs, had not become an integral part of synagogue worship.<\/p>\nThe most enigmatic part of the psalms is the headings that are not part of the poetic text. The first question is whether these should even be considered as superscripts. Greek, Latin, Hebrew, and other ancient languages were written in such a way that the text ran together without any break between chapters or paragraphs. This means that the verses, and even the division of the psalms themselves, were partially determined by copyists, chiefly the Masoretes. There is some question as to which psalms the extrapoetic texts actually belong with; they may actually be subscripts instead of superscripts. Sumerian and Babylonian poetry had information such as the name of the author, the musical instrument used for accompaniment, the tune, the purpose, and such listed at the end of the poem. Hence, some of the headings may actually be endings.<\/p>\nThe indications at the beginning of a psalm fall into three categories. They are either musical terms giving direction for the actual performance, musical cues designating the tune to which the psalm would be sung, or comments indicating the function of the psalm. These terms have been interpreted in various ways.<\/p>\nOriginally, these headings may have been marginal notes for the choir leaders. Realizing that these terms were not related to the psalm text proper, early biblical scribes may not have been overly careful with their placement in the text, which may explain some of the discrepancies among the early manuscripts—why certain words are left out in some and why terms assigned to only a few psalms may originally have been indicated on more of them.<\/p>\nAll but 50 of the psalms contain a proper name in the heading. These names possibly indicate the author; other commentators, interpreting the preposition appearing before the names to mean “for,” think the names are a dedication. Thus the title would be “A Psalm for David,” not “A Psalm of David.” This may be the case with the names of Asaph, Heman, Ethan, and especially the sons of Korah, where it would make better sense for the psalm to be written for rather than by the family. Seventy-three psalms have David’s name in the heading, hence the common reference to the Psalter as the Psalms of David. Twelve include the name of Asaph, eleven the children of Korah, two Solomon, and one each contains Moses, Heman, and Ethan.<\/p>\n<h5>Musical Terms in the Psalm Titles<\/h5>\nNumerous musical terms are included in the superscriptions to cue the kind of instrumental accompaniment, mood, and style of performance for the psalm.<\/p>\nAlamoth<\/span> is one of the most controversial terms found in the psalm headings. It appears at the beginning of Psalm 46 and also in 1 Chronicles 15:20. One meaning for the Hebrew word is “maiden,” and musicologists interpret this as an instruction that the psalm should be sung in the range of the female singing voice. The reference in Chronicles is to harps in the range of women’s voices. This interpretation does not seem to fit Psalm 46, but if we look at the preceding psalm and read the term as a subscript, it becomes logical. Psalm 45 is a song of love, actually a nuptial ode; it would be natural for women to sing the second half (vv 10-17). While there is little mention of women singing in the temple, there is speculation that young boys in training may have sung along with the Levitical singers. Also this may be a case where the term appears only once in the modern text but may have been used more often in the original. Another possible meaning for Alamoth<\/span> is “flutes,” perhaps describing the kind of musical accompaniment for the performance of the psalm.<\/p>\nGittith<\/span> is a term found in the superscriptions of Psalms 8, 81, and 84. It may be a musical cue, indicating a mood for the performance of these psalms, but a more common explanation is that it is a collective term for the stringed instruments that would have accompanied them.<\/p>\nMahalath<\/span> has been left in its original Hebrew form by early translators and is found in the headings of Psalms 53 and 88. It may have roots in the Hebrew mahaleh<\/span> “sickness” or mahot<\/span> “dance,” though neither of these words can be related to the psalm texts. Another explanation is a musical one. Mahalath<\/span> may come from the word halal<\/span> meaning “to pierce,” implying that the psalm was to be accompanied with pipes.<\/p>\nMaskil<\/span> (kjv<\/span> “Maschil”) appears in the headings of 13 psalms (Pss 32, 42, 44–45, 52–55, 74, 78, 88–89, 142). The term is probably derived from the verb sakal<\/span>,<\/em> “to have insight or comprehension,” but there is no agreement among commentators. By looking at the psalms themselves, their didactic nature and the structure of stanzas and refrains, musicologists conclude the term represents a song of praise, possibly sung by a soloist with participation by the choir.<\/p>\nMenazzeah<\/span> appears in the heading of 55 psalms. It appears 52 times in the first three books of Psalms (Pss 1–89), not at all in book four (Pss 90–106), and 3 times in book five (Pss 107–150). The most common modern translations are “to the Choirmaster” (rsv<\/span>), “to the choir director” (nasb<\/span>, nlt<\/span>), “to the director of music” (niv<\/span>), “to the chief Musician” (kjv<\/span>, nkjv<\/span>). The word is derived from the Hebrew verb nazzah<\/span>,<\/em> appearing in 1 Chronicles 23:4 and Ezra 3:8-9 in the sense of “administering.” In 1 Chronicles 15:21 the word is found in relation to leading or directing song in the temple. Menazzeah<\/span> relates to the choirmaster and represents the singer chosen to lead the music who probably was involved in rehearsing and instructing. It is now assumed that menazzeah<\/span> indicates the psalm was to be sung partially or entirely by a soloist. This is evidenced by the change in some texts from “I” where the soloist sang, to “we” where the choir or congregation sang. Psalm 5 is an example of a text divided for solo and choral singing: verses 1-3 solo; verses 4-6 choral; verses 7-8 solo; verses 9-10 choral; and verses 11-12 end the psalm with the combined soloist and choir.<\/p>\nMiktam<\/span> (kjv<\/span> “Michtam”) is another term that has no clear musical meaning, due mainly to the fact that its etymology is unknown. It occurs in Psalms 16 and 56–60, all of which have a character of lamentation or supplication. In a musical sense, it probably meant that a certain well-known tune was to be selected as the melody of the psalm.<\/p>\nMizmor<\/span> (Hebrew, meaning a song sung to instrumental accompaniment) is found nowhere else in the Bible; it is included in the superscriptions of 57 psalms. It probably indicated a song accompanied by melodic instruments as opposed to a dance song accompanied by rhythmic instruments.<\/p>\nNeginah<\/span> appears in the superscriptions of Psalms 4, 6, 54–55, 61, 67, and 76. The term neginah<\/span> and its plural neginoth<\/span> are found in Psalm 77:7, Lamentations 5:14, Isaiah 38:20, and Habakkuk 3:19. Neginah<\/span>,<\/em> from the Hebrew root naggen<\/span>,<\/em> “to touch the strings,” instructs that stringed instruments accompany the singing.<\/p>\nNehiloth<\/span> is found only in the introduction to Psalm 5 (kjv<\/span>). The origin of the word is problematic. It could come from the verb nahal<\/span>,<\/em> “to possess or inherit,” or more feasibly from halal<\/span>,<\/em> meaning “to pierce.” The latter implies the idea of a pierced instrument (the flute or pipe) to be used for accompaniment.<\/p>\nSheminith<\/span> appears in Psalms 6 and 12 and also in 1 Chronicles 15:21. The Hebrew word means literally “over the eighth.” Some scholars feel it had something to do with an octave, but the Hebrew musical language probably did not include a musical unit divided into eight parts. Other scholars interpret sheminith<\/span> as meaning an eight-stringed instrument. A more logical interpretation comes from examining its use in 1 Chronicles. In 15:20 the instructions are for musicians to play the harps according to alamoth<\/span> and in verse 21 to play the lyres according to sheminith<\/span>.<\/em> Here the terms alamoth<\/span> and sheminith<\/span> seem to be used in opposition. If alamoth<\/span> implies a register of the female voice, then sheminith<\/span> would imply a lower register. Thus, it may have been an instruction to use a lower pitched instrument for accompaniment.<\/p>\n<h5>Psalm Varieties in the Titles<\/h5>\nSome of the notes in the psalm headings are indications of the type or variety of psalm.<\/p>\nHazkir<\/span> is found in the headings of Psalms 38 and 70. According to the Targum, this is an indication that the psalm was sung at the sacrificial rite called askara<\/span> and is translated “for a memorial offering.”<\/p>\nLammed<\/span> appears in the superscription of Psalm 60 in the phrase le-lammed<\/span>,<\/em> translated “to teach.” According to tradition, this was a psalm, though undoubtedly not the only one, taught to young people as part of their education. This is another example of a term that may have been omitted from other psalms in later versions of the Psalter.<\/p>\nShiggaion<\/span> is in the heading of Psalm 7 and also in Habakkuk 3:1. The word probably comes from the Hebrew verb shagah<\/span>,<\/em> “to wander,” but may also be connected with the Assyrian liturgical term shigu<\/span>,<\/em> which represented a plaintive song in several stanzas. Biblical scholars have assumed shiggaion<\/span>,<\/em> plural shigionoth<\/span>,<\/em> was a lament or penitential song.<\/p>\nShir<\/span> is the simplest word for “song” and was probably used in the headings at an early stage of the Psalter; it is usually found with mizmor<\/span> (13 times). Fifteen psalms have this heading. It was probably the term for a specific type of praise song, usually performed by the choir.<\/p>\nShir Hamaalot<\/span> and Shir Lamaalot<\/span> occur in the headings of Psalms 120–134, which are often referred to as the Psalms of Ascent (kjv<\/span> “Psalms of Degrees”). Most explanations offered relate to the fact that the temple was situated on high ground. Often these 15 psalms are associated with the 15 steps leading from the Court of the Women to the Court of the Israelites. But most contemporary scholars believe the idea of “going up” referred to the pilgrims’ journey to Jerusalem to worship at the temple. These psalms are short, with popular appeal, making them appropriate for singing during the journey.<\/p>\nShir Hanukkat Habayit<\/span> is found only in the heading of Psalm 30. This phrase tells that the psalm was to be used for the dedication or rededication of the house of God.<\/p>\nShir-yedidot<\/span> appears only in Psalm 45. It refers to a love song that was probably sung at wedding ceremonies.<\/p>\nTefillah<\/span> is a common term for “prayer” and appears in the headings of Psalms 17, 86, 90, 102, and 142, and also in Habakkuk 3:1. The word probably refers to a specific form of poetic prayer.<\/p>\nSelah<\/span> is one of the most frequently used, but most enigmatic, terms found in the book of Psalms. It occurs in 39 psalms, appearing a total of 71 times in the Psalter—67 times within the text and 4 times at the end of a psalm. It is most frequent in the first three books. In the first book selah<\/span> appears in 9 psalms; in the second book, 17 psalms; in the third book, 11 psalms. In the fourth book it is not found at all and in the fifth book in only two psalms. Thirty-one of these psalms also include the term menazzeah<\/span> in their superscriptions, which implies that they were sung by a soloist and choir. Most commonly, selah<\/span> is interpreted as a signal for a break in the singing and possibly for an instrumental interlude. It never appears at the beginning of a psalm but only in the middle of the text or at the end. The regularity of its appearance within a psalm is not consistent, and in only a few instances do these divisions break the psalm into equal sections. Because of the random placement of the term, some scholars believe that, like the headings, selah<\/span> was not always carefully copied into the text. It may have been a note appearing only in the texts of the musicians, which would explain this inconsistency. An explanation of selah<\/span> is found in the Talmudic tradition: “Ben Azra clashed the cymbal and the Levites broke forth into singing. When they reached a break in the singing they blew upon the trumpets and the people prostrated themselves; at every break there was a blowing of the trumpet and at every blowing of the trumpet a prostration. This was the rite of the daily whole offering in the service of the House of our God.” Selah<\/span>,<\/em> then, would be an instruction for the musicians that the singing was to cease and the instrumentalists were to play.<\/p>\nThe term higgaion selah<\/span> appears once, in Psalm 9:16. The word higgaiaon<\/span> comes from the root hagah<\/span>,<\/em> “to murmur, to growl, to produce a low sound.” This may have been an instruction for the interlude to be more subdued than a normal selah<\/span>.<\/em><\/p>\n<h5>Ancient Melodies in the Titles<\/h5>\nMany psalms contain headings that are not direct musical references but are cue words to suggest well-known tunes. They probably refer either to names or the first words of popular secular songs (<\/em>makams<\/span>)<\/em> whose melodic patterns were used in singing the psalm. Many biblical scholars have tried to find hidden meaning in these headings, but most musicologists believe these are simply references or introductions to melodies.<\/p>\nAijeleth Shahar<\/span>,<\/em> in Psalm 22 (kjv<\/span>), is translated “according to The Hind of the Dawn” (rsv<\/span>), and “To the tune of ‘The Doe of the Morning’ ” (niv<\/span>), “To the tune ‘Doe of the Dawn’ ” (nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nAl-taschith<\/span>,<\/em> in Psalms 57–59 and 75 (kjv<\/span>), is translated “To the tune ‘Do Not Destroy!’ ” (nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nJonath-elem-rechokim<\/span>,<\/em> in Psalm 56 (kjv<\/span>), is translated “according to The Dove on Far-off Terebinths” (rsv<\/span>), and “To the tune ‘Dove on Distant Oaks’ ” (nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nMahalath Leannoth<\/span>,<\/em> in Psalm 88, is translated “To the tune ‘The Suffering of Affliction’ ” (nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nMuthlabben<\/span>,<\/em> in Psalm 9, is translated “To the tune ‘Death of the Son’ ” (nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nShoshannim<\/span>,<\/em> in Psalms 45 and 69 (kjv<\/span>), is translated “To the tune ‘Lilies’ ” (nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nShoshannim-Eduth<\/span>,<\/em> in Psalm 80 (kjv<\/span>), is translated “To the tune ‘Lilies of the Covenant’ ” (nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nShushan-eduth<\/span>,<\/em> in Psalm 60, is translated “To the tune ‘Lily of the Testimony’ ” (nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nThese melody types appear only in the first three books of the Psalter, and this may imply that these popular makams<\/span> had fallen into disuse by the time the final books of the Psalter were written. Other makam<\/span>-types had probably become popular, and the authors, realizing the relatively short life of a popular tune, did not include them in the headings of the Psalms but left the choice up to the performer.<\/p>\nMusic in the New Testament<\/p>\n<h5>First-Century Influences<\/h5>\n<h6>The Synagogue<\/h6>\nBy the time of Christ, the synagogue had become the chief place of worship for the Jewish people. It began as a place for study of the law but gradually became the center of worship for Jews unable to attend the temple. The liturgical service of the temple could not be duplicated in the synagogue as there was no sacrificial rite, and the music could not be exactly reproduced as there were no trained Levitical singers. Scholars do not agree about the amount of continuity between the music of the temple and the music of the synagogue, but there is evidence that certain musical practices did remain constant between the two places of worship.<\/p>\nInformation on the customs and rituals of the synagogue come from Talmudic writings. The musical elements of worship in the synagogue were the chanting of Scripture, psalmody, and spiritual songs. The choral singing of the temple was replaced by a single cantor. The cantor was a layman who, according to tradition, had to have the following qualifications: “He had to be well educated, gifted with a sweet voice, of humble personality, recognized by the community, conversant with Scripture and all the prayers; he must not be a rich man, for his prayers should come from his heart.” His most important job was the cantillation of the Law and the Prophets. A series of accents and punctuations, forerunners of actual musical notation, were indications for the cantor in the musical interpretation of the Scripture.<\/p>\nPsalm singing was gradually transplanted from the temple to the synagogue, which in turn influenced the early Christian church. Gregorian psalm tones have their roots in Hebrew psalmody.<\/p>\n<h6>Greek and Roman Cultures<\/h6>\nWhile both the temple and the synagogue were familiar to the early Christians (Acts 2:46-47; 3:1; 5:42; 9:20; 18:4; etc.), the Greek and Roman cultures also played a major part in shaping the young church. Hellenistic influences by the time of Christ had long been felt in the Middle East, and while it was strongly opposed by some Jewish leaders, the Greek arts had permeated Jewish culture. Greek philosophers considered music a cathartic force that could lead humans into metaphysical knowledge. This understanding led to the belief that music had a moral substance that could influence people to either good or evil. If this philosophy had totally encompassed Judeo-Christian thought, certainly Paul would have encouraged the use of music in the spread of the gospel. However, Paul’s omission of this theory implies that the Judeo-Christian world at that time had rejected the Greek ideal, at least in part.<\/p>\nWhile the Jewish rabbis considered music an art form for the praise of God, and while the Greek philosophers thought of it as a powerful moral force in creation, the Romans considered music mainly as entertainment. The music of the Roman games was neither religious nor philosophic and, from the accounts of witnesses, it was not technically exceptional. In the Roman Empire musicians were given a lower status and looked on as mere entertainers. One reason the early church did not include instrumental music in their worship was in reaction to the debased secular use of instruments by the Romans.<\/p>\n<h5>In the New Testament Writings<\/h5>\nOne of the few mentions of instruments in the NT is the use of flutes at a wake (Mt 9:23). As in the OT, music is associated with feasting and merrymaking (e.g., the return of the prodigal son, Lk 15:25). Five passages mention music metaphorically (Mt 6:2; 11:17; Lk 7:32; 1 Cor 13:1; 14:7-8). The most well known of these is Paul’s celebration of love in 1 Corinthians 13. The denunciation of the gong and cymbals must be understood in light of the attitude of the early Christians toward the music of the Pharisees. Here the signal instruments of the temple were used to represent pompous display of religious pietism.<\/p>\n\nMost references to music are found in the eschatological visions and prophetic passages scattered throughout the NT—most frequently in the book of Revelation (also Mt 24:31; 1 Cor 15:52; 1 Thes 4:16; Heb 12:19). Many of these descriptions have a direct association with musical references in the OT (e.g., the use of harps and trumpets and the singing of the Hallelujah). But the value of many of the passages in Revelation comes from their literary style. These doxological and psalmlike passages were probably spontaneous “spiritual songs” composed by the young church (e.g., Rv 5:9-10).<\/p>\nThe passages that mention religious or liturgical music are often more conceptual than literal. Two parallel passages describing the Last Supper (Mt 26:30; Mk 14:26) mention that Christ and his disciples sang a hymn. This is the only direct account of Jesus singing, but it is probable that when he read in the synagogue he did so in the accepted vocal style (Lk 4:16-20). There is much controversy surrounding the actual events at the Last Supper, but we can assume that the hymn sung was a traditional Jewish hymn, probably associated with the Passover.<\/p>\nFrom the account in Acts 16:25 we know that Paul and Silas sang hymns while in jail. Paul gives instruction for music making in 1 Corinthians 14:15, 26 in terms of a balance between rationalism and emotion. And, as with all the gifts of the Spirit, Paul asks that singing be done for edification.<\/p>\nIn two similar passages (Eph 5:19; Col 3:16) Paul groups together three musical terms—psalms, hymns, and spiritual songs. The singing of psalms was an obvious carryover from the synagogue, and we can assume that the early Christian psalm singing followed the Jewish style. The term for “hymns” probably refers to poetic texts, possibly modeled after the psalms, but in praise of Christ. “Spiritual songs” may refer to a spontaneous, ecstatic form of musical prayer, possibly wordless (perhaps related to glossolalia), in a style that was popular in mystical Judaism. These outbursts of song were probably melismatic (sung on one tone) and are perhaps the forerunners of the later Alleluia chant.<\/p>\n<h5>Hymnody in the New Testament<\/h5>\nIt can be assumed that the early Christians composed hymns in praise of Christ. Logically, most of the hymns found in the NT are based on Hebrew poetic psalm forms, but there is Greek and Latin influence also. The hymns from the Gospel of Luke have become well-known canticles adopted by the church: the Magnificat (Lk 1:46-55), the Benedictus (1:68-79), the Gloria (2:14) and the Nunc Dimittis (2:29-32). While patterned after the psalms of the OT, these hymns are full of confidence in the salvation of Christ and in his imminent return. Other Christological hymns found in the NT include the prologue to the Gospel of John, Ephesians 2:14-16, Philippians 2:6-11, Colossians 1:15-20, 1 Timothy 3:16, Hebrews 1:3, and 1 Peter 3:18-22.<\/p>","summary_ro":"MUSIC A natural human expression that probably began with speech-singing and developed into songs, which were then accompanied by instruments. Music as we know it has become quite complex, a luxury and entertainment; music in antiquity, however, was a functional expression of daily life, work, and worship. The phrase “sing to the Lord,” common to the OT (Ex 15:21; 1 Chr 16:9; Pss 68:32; 96:1-2; Is 42:10; Jer 20:13), was not unique to the Jewish nation. All religions draw on the natural human ...","summary_en":"MUSIC A natural human expression that probably began with speech-singing and developed into songs, which were then accompanied by instruments. Music as we know it has become quite complex, a luxury and entertainment; music in antiquity, however, was a functional expression of daily life, work, and worship. The phrase “sing to the Lord,” common to the OT (Ex 15:21; 1 Chr 16:9; Pss 68:32; 96:1-2; Is 42:10; Jer 20:13), was not unique to the Jewish nation. All religions draw on the natural human ...","source":"Articles\/M.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":31943,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Book of Psalms","title_en":"Book of Psalms","content_ro":"<h3>PSALMS, Book of<\/h3>\nPoems sung to musical accompaniment, originally the harp. The alternative title, the Psalter, refers to a collection of songs sung to harp accompaniment. The English title, therefore, broadly defines the form employed, whereas the Hebrew title of the book, “Praises,” or “Book of Praises,” suggests the content.<\/p>\nPreview<\/p>\n• Authors<\/p>\n• Date<\/p>\n• Background<\/p>\n• Structure<\/p>\n• Canonicity<\/p>\n• Purpose and Theology<\/p>\n• Content<\/p>\nAuthors<\/p>\n<h5>The Evidence of the Titles<\/h5>\nThe Hebrew Bible credits David with 73 psalms, compared with 84 in the Septuagint and 85 in the Latin Vulgate. Korah and Asaph, the leaders of the Levitical singing groups, are connected with 11 and 12 psalms, respectively (although Ps 43 is almost certainly to be attributed to Korah also). Two psalms are ascribed to Solomon (Pss 72; 127), one to Moses (Ps 90), and one to Ethan (Ps 89), while Heman shares the credit for one psalm with the sons of Korah (Ps 88). The remainder are sometimes called “orphan psalms” because of their anonymity.<\/p>\nThe preposition “of” found in the titles (for example, “A Psalm of David”) usually indicates authorship. But in the case of groups, such as the sons of Asaph or Korah, it may simply indicate that the psalms were included in their repertoire. Less plausible is the idea that it may also be rendered “for the use of.” For example, some of the “Psalms of David” might be “for the use of” the Davidic king on some occasion.<\/p>\n<h5>Historical Allusions in the Titles<\/h5>\nMany of the titles refer to specific events in the life of David (e.g., Pss 3; 7; 18; 30; 34; 51). There is evidence that the titles were added at an early date. When the psalms were translated into Greek, there appears to have been some difficulty in translating the titles, possibly because of their antiquity. If the historical references were added at a late date, there is no reason why plausible backgrounds could not have been supplied for all the Davidic psalms, instead of only a few. Moreover, the apparent disparity between the title and the actual content of some psalms (e.g., Ps 30) indicates that the titles were supplied by those who knew about a connection unknown to a later editor. Admittedly, there are minor discrepancies between the titles and the references in the historical books. For example, in Psalm 34 David acts the madman before Abimelech, whereas in 1 Samuel it is before Achish. But probably Abimelech was the general name (like Pharaoh for the kings of Egypt) for all the Philistine kings (e.g., Gn 21:32; 26:26).<\/p>\nEvidence of authorship and historical background in the titles, therefore, may be taken as a reasonably reliable guide. But the internal difficulties, together with the freedom exercised by successive translators into Greek, Syriac, and Latin, indicates that they were not regarded as inspired.<\/p>\n<h5>The Case for Davidic Authorship<\/h5>\nFive points can be offered to support David’s authorship of several psalms:<\/p>\n1. The authenticity of David’s lament over Saul and Jonathan (2 Sm 1:19-27) is generally accepted. This indicates a deeply poetic spirit and a generous temperament that prepares us to accept those psalms ascribed to David that evidence similar characteristics. “The last words of David” is another Davidic poem in the historical books (2 Sm 23:1-7).<\/p>\n<li>2. David had a reputation as a skillful musician at Saul’s court (1 Sm 16:16-18). Amos comments on his inventiveness as a musician (Am 6:5), while the Chronicler repeatedly stresses his contribution to the musical aspect of temple worship (e.g., 1 Chr 6:31; 16:7; Ezr 3:10). The Jewish historian Josephus said that David composed songs and hymns to God in varied meters. The probability is that David, as well as amassing materials and preparing the plans for Solomon’s temple, also gave attention to the temple worship. This is his place in Jewish tradition.<\/li>\n<li>3. The early monarchy, with a freshly secured independence, national prestige, and a new prosperity, would most likely be a time of artistic creativity. David was at the heart of this movement.<\/li>\n<li>4. There is a close correspondence between David’s life as described in the historical books and certain psalms, for example, his sin concerning Bathsheba and Uriah (2 Sm 11:2–12:25) and Psalm 51, as witnessed in the title. David’s lapses and genuine repentance, as well as the varied aspects of his career—shepherd, fugitive, warrior, and so on—find expression in many of the psalms attributed to him. The correspondence between the David of the psalms and the David of the historical books is close, especially in the display of strong faith in God.<\/li>\n<li>5. Although some scholars believe that when “David” is mentioned in the NT, it is simply a reference to the book of Psalms and not an ascription of authorship, a straightforward interpretation of the NT text strengthens the case for Davidic authorship. David is specifically named as the author of various psalms in Matthew 22:41-45; Acts 1:16; 2:25, 34; Romans 4:6; 11:9.<\/li>\nIn conclusion, there is strong support for the view that the substantial nucleus of the Psalter is Davidic. Moreover, it is probable that some of the anonymous psalms were the work of the “sweet psalmist of Israel” (2 Sm 23:1). Hebrews 4:7 refers one of these, Psalm 95, to David (see also Acts 4:25 and Ps 2).<\/p>\nDate<\/p>\nOnce David’s authorship of several psalms is established, then it must follow that these psalms are dated during David’s life. Thus, most of the psalms formed the hymnbook of Israel in the period of the monarchy. Other psalms were written later. For example, Psalm 137 is clearly exilic, and Psalms 107:2-3 and 126:1 allude to the return from captivity. Psalms 44 and 79 are probably, but not conclusively, postexilic.<\/p>\nThe book of Psalms was probably the product of a considerable period of growth. The incidence of Davidic psalms in the first section indicates that it was completed early, possibly toward the end of David’s reign. The remainder of the process of compilation is difficult to reconstruct, but the fact that the titles, with their allusions to authors, events, and musical directions, become less frequent in the two final collections (Pss 90–150) lends support to the probability that the collections were combined chronologically in the sequence in which they are found today. Ezra is traditionally credited with the final grouping and editing of the psalms, a hypothesis that appears reasonable in light of his vital contribution to the systematic reshaping of the national religious life. In any case, the process was completed before the translation of the Psalter into Greek (the Septuagint) at the end of the third century BC<\/span>, since the traditional order is found there. General, but not complete, support comes also from the evidence of the Dead Sea Scrolls. At some point minor dislocations occurred. Psalms 9 and 10 may have originally formed one psalm (as in the Septuagint), and there is a strong case for combining Psalms 42 and 43.<\/p>\nBackground<\/p>\nAs the book of Psalms lies before us, its connection with temple worship is apparent. Fifty-five psalms are addressed to the choirmaster, and as we have noted, 23 or 24 are linked with the two main guilds of Levitical singers, Asaph and Korah. The musical instruments, such as stringed instruments (Ps 55 title) and flutes (Ps 5 title) are noted. Probably other terms concern musical directions: Selah<\/span>,<\/em> which occurs 71 times, may indicate a pause or crescendo; Higgaion<\/span> (Ps 9:16) may recommend a meditative attitude. Seemingly obscure references like “The Hind of the Dawn” (Ps 22 title), “Lilies” (Pss 45 title; 80 title) and “The Dove on Far-off Terebinths” (Ps 56 title) may indicate the tunes to which the psalms were to be sung. The precise meaning of other terms, such as Shiggaion<\/span> (Ps 7 title) or Alamoth<\/span> (conjecturally a choir of ladies, Ps 46 title), may also be in the realm of musical directions.<\/p>\nStructure<\/p>\nThe Psalter, possibly in conscious imitation of the five books of Moses in the Law, is divided into five sections (Pss 1–41; 42–72; 73–89; 90–106; 107–150), separated by four doxologies (41:13; 72:18-19; 89:52; 106:48). While the editorial comment in Psalm 72:20 notes that the psalms of David were ended, Davidic psalms are found later in the book (Pss 86; 101; 103), suggesting that at least some of these sections circulated independently until their inclusion in the final collection. Such independence is further indicated by the duplications in the various sections (e.g., Pss 14 and 53; 40:13-17 and 70) and by the use of different names for God, who is usually referred to as “Lord” in the first collection and as “God” in the second.<\/p>\nCanonicity<\/p>\nIn the various recensions of the third section of the Hebrew canon, the Writings or Holy Books, the book of Psalms is almost invariably placed first. It was clearly regarded as the most important book in this section, and in Luke 24:44, “Psalms” is synonymous with “Writings” as its title. While the canonicity of all the contents of the Writings was not finalized until the end of the first century AD<\/span>, it is likely that the book of Psalms was accepted as inspired long before this, probably by 300 BC<\/span>.<\/p>\nIt must not be inferred that all the psalms had their origin in the cultic life of the community, but the sanctuary was the focal point of Israel’s worship for the greater part of the OT period. Prayer was possible elsewhere, but whenever practicable, it was customary for the worshiper to present his petitions at the main sanctuary. And thanksgiving in ancient Israel was almost invariably connected with a thank offering, vow offering, or freewill offering. The psalms could have been composed by individuals, like David, who had the requisite technical ability. And it must be appreciated that poetry, an unfamiliar medium to most Western civilizations, was the natural way for the ancient Easterner to express his emotions. Or the individual could have engaged a member of the Levitical guilds of musicians to frame either his supplication or his thanksgiving. Gradually, a comprehensive collection of psalms would be available for the use of individuals, the congregation, and even the entire nation in any conceivable situation. Once finalized, this collection served not only the subsequent needs of Israel but the devotional requirements of successive generations of Christians as well. Whatever the origin of an individual psalm, each has finally been incorporated in a cultic setting, and it may be assumed that the best of Israel’s psalmody has thus been preserved.<\/p>\nPurpose and Theology<\/p>\n<h5>The Doctrine of God<\/h5>\nIn both adversity and prosperity, the psalmists indicate a strong faith in God and a clear conception of his attributes. Understandably, anthropomorphisms (ascribing human characteristics to nonhuman things) abound, with references to God’s voice, words, ears, eyes, face, or hands and fingers. No exception needs to be taken to this. Anthropomorphisms of this kind are, in fact, widely used by present-day Christians. Their great value is that they make God real to the worshiper. How else could humans describe God, except in terms of their own understanding?<\/p>\nThe monotheism of the psalms emerges clearly in Psalms 115:3-8; 135:15-18; 139. God is viewed as the Creator (Pss 8:3; 89:11; 95:3-5), with references to the creation mythology of surrounding nations (e.g., Ps 89:10) serving merely as illustrations of his almighty creative power. He is proclaimed as the Lord of history (Pss 44, 78, 80, 81, 105, 106) and as the sovereign controller of nature (Pss 18:7; 19:1-6; 65:8-13; 105:26-42; 135:5-7). The psalmists never tired of celebrating God’s absolute greatness.<\/p>\n<h5>The Human Perspective<\/h5>\nThe Psalter is a God-centered book, but humanity has a worthy place, in spite of the vast gulf between them and their Creator (Pss 8:3-4; 145:3-4) and the limitations of their earthly life (Ps 90:9-10). By the will of God, humans occupy a responsible, mediating position between God and all other created beings (Ps 8:5-8). The relationship with a righteous God is endangered by sin (Ps 106), but God is gracious and long-suffering (Ps 103), faithful and forgiving (Ps 130). While references to the sacrificial system are not lacking (Pss 20:3; 50:8-9), the emphasis is upon a personal piety that demands obedience and a surrendered heart (Ps 40:6-8). Psalm 51 indicates a depth of sin with which the sacrificial system was totally inadequate to cope; the psalmist could only cast himself, in total penitence, upon God’s mercy. Man’s moral obligations (Pss 15; 24:3-5) and loyalty to the law (Pss 19:7-11; 119) are fully accepted. Throughout, there is the revelation of a strong personal relationship that encourages prayer and praise and invites trust.<\/p>\n<h5>The Afterlife<\/h5>\nThe Psalms maintain the traditional Hebrew view of Sheol as the abode of the departed, without distinction between the good and evil, where all but mere existence has perished. The chief complaint of the devout man was that, in Sheol, all meaningful relationship with God ceased (Pss 6:5; 88:10-12). However, it was recognized that, since God was almighty, even Sheol was not exempt from his reach (Ps 139:8). Added to this was the preciousness and strength of fellowship with God, which could not be terminated even by death. Psalms 16:9-11, 49:15, and 73:23-26 well illustrate this insight. The Psalter, therefore, witnesses to an important transitional phase in Israel’s belief.<\/p>\n<h5>Universal Recognition of God<\/h5>\nPassages like Psalms 9:11; 47:1-2, 7-9; 66:8; 67; and 117:1 call upon all nations to acknowledge and praise God and show an awareness of his sovereignty over all nations. But this universalism does not appear to involve any desire to convert the heathen nations and, indeed, it is balanced by strong particularistic elements. God’s covenant relationship with his people and his mighty deeds on their behalf are the chief items for which the praise of all nations is summoned (Pss 47:3-4; 66:8-9; 126:2). As elsewhere in the OT, the role of Israel is passive; her continued existence witnesses to God’s faithfulness and brings glory to him.<\/p>\n<h5>Lasting Value<\/h5>\nWhatever the emotion of the psalmists, be it bitter complaint, anguished lament, or joyous exultation, all the psalms reflect one or other of the many aspects of communion with God. The reader may look “into the heart of all the saints” (so said Luther) as they faced life’s experiences in the awareness of a God who was all-seeing, all-knowing, and all-powerful. The strength of that personal relationship with God that typified OT worship at its best is exemplified here, and the many echoes of the psalms elsewhere in Israel’s literature show the powerful influence of these testimonies on the faithful. The fact that, almost invariably, little specific detail is given of the psalmists’ actual conditions has made it easier for the Psalter to become the universal hymnbook and devotional treasury of God’s people, in both public and private worship, until and including the present day. Modern life, materially, is vastly different from that of ancient Israel, but God remains unchanged and so do the basic needs of the human heart. The Holy Spirit, therefore, can still use this spiritual treasury as a means of revelation and communication between God and man. Few books in the Bible have exercised so profound an influence or been so widely used.<\/p>\nContent<\/p>\n<h5>Introduction<\/h5>\nIt is more helpful to describe the psalms in categories than to explain them one by one in canonical order. The psalms can be categorized as follows:<\/p>\nPsalms of praise<\/p>\nRoyal, messianic psalms<\/p>\nPassion psalms<\/p>\nPsalms about Zion<\/p>\nLaments<\/p>\nImprecatory psalms<\/p>\nPenitential psalms<\/p>\nWisdom psalms and historical psalms<\/p>\nPsalms of trust<\/p>\n<h5>Psalms of Praise<\/h5>\nThe Hebrew title, “Praises,” defines accurately a large part of the contents of the book. Each of the first four sections concludes with a doxology, while the fifth section concludes with five psalms, each of which begins and ends with one or two “Hallelujahs.” The last of these, Psalm 150, sounds the call to total praise. God is to be praised for his being, for his great acts in creation, nature, and history on both the individual and the communal level.<\/p>\n1. Individual praise. In comparison with the number of individual laments, there are relatively few psalms in this category. Those normally included are Psalms 9, 18, 32, 34, 116, and 138. This may, in part, be due to the universal tendency to complain rather than to express thanks. But a number of the laments do, in fact, include the note of thanksgiving for the anticipated deliverance, and the normal round of congregational thanksgiving would allow the individual to express his personal praise. However, it was customary in temple worship to give a verbal act of thanksgiving before the whole assembly whenever a vow offering or a thank offering was made. Such public testimony, and the communal meal associated with this type of sacrifice, is indicated in Psalms 22:22-26; 66:13-20; 116:17-19. The inclusion of such opportunities for personal praise and testimony must have added warmth and significance to worship. Each act of deliverance and every experience of God’s mercy became part of salvation history, which was a cumulative, ongoing concept, not simply a recital of God’s deeds in earlier centuries.<\/p>\n<li>2. General communal praise. This is sometimes entitled “hymns” or “descriptive praise,” its main feature being linked to a particular act of deliverance. God is usually referred to in the third person, not directly. Psalm 103 may be taken as representative of this group. It begins and ends with individual references (vv 1-5, 22b), but the central section (esp. vv 6-14) shows that the psalmist was part of a worshiping community. There is first of all the imperative call to praise God for the full range of his mercy to each individual, including physical and spiritual deliverance and his sustaining and satisfying grace. Then the focus changes to his great works in history (vv 6-7). This forms a natural basis for the recital of those gracious qualities revealed so consistently during the course of the national history, especially his tender, fatherly care (vv 8-14). The frailty of humanity contrasts with God’s constancy (vv 15-18), and his rule, being universal and absolute (v 19), merits the praise of all things, living and inanimate, in heaven and on earth (vv 19-22). There is, however, a great number of possible variations in the way in which God is celebrated, as Psalms 113 and 136, which come within this class, illustrate.<\/li>\n<li>3. Specific communal praise. Occasionally termed “declarative praise,” this type of psalm connects with a particular outstanding evidence of God’s mercy and would most naturally follow soon after the event itself. Deliverance from an enemy provides the occasion for most of the psalms in this category (e.g., Pss 124, 129). Psalm 66:8-12, now the nucleus of an expanded recital of God’s goodness, was possibly once complete in itself. Psalms 46–48 may form a trilogy connected with the remarkable deliverance of Jerusalem from Sennacherib’s Assyrians in 701 BC<\/span> (2 Kgs 18:17–19:37). Psalm 67 was probably composed in gratitude for a particular harvest. It is easy to see how psalms of this type could, in the process of time, acquire a more general usage.<\/li>\n<li>4. Praise for the God of nature. The first part of Psalm 19 pictures the praise of God sounding from the heavens; Psalm 29 celebrates him as the God of the thunderstorm, which, sweeping in from the Mediterranean near Lebanon, pursues its awe-inspiring path southward into the wilderness of Kadesh, with the result that “in his temple” (the created world?) all are praising, “Glory, glory to the Lord<\/span>” (v 9). His sovereignty and self-sufficiency in this world are celebrated in Psalm 50:10-12; he is the God of growth and harvest (Ps 65:9-13); in Psalm 104, often called the “Hymn of Creation,” he sustains and supplies everything on the earth and in the seas and is the absolute Lord of all life (vv 29-30). There is no confusion between God and his creation; even the seemingly permanent heaven and earth will perish, but “you go on forever” (Ps 102:25-27). Nature’s role is to proclaim the glory of God (Ps 19:1) and to praise him (Ps 148). People see themselves as insignificant when set against those forces of nature, which are themselves dwarfed by God—hence, the awareness of the immeasurable gulf between God and people that God has bridged by his grace (Ps 8).<\/li>\n<li>5. Praise for God’s kingship. A relatively small group of psalms (Pss 47, 93, 96–99) celebrate the kingship of God in a way that goes beyond the ascription of praise noted in the foregoing groups. They are marked by acclamation, by both shouting and clapping when God “ascends.” Presumably, the reference is to his throne (Ps 47:1-5; cf. 99:1-2). “The Lord<\/span> reigns” (Pss 93:1; 97:1; 99:1) is the frequent cry, and the nature of his reign is extolled (Ps 99:4-5).<\/li>\n<h5>Royal, Messianic Psalms<\/h5>\nPsalms 2, 18, 20, 21, 45, 61, 72, 89, 101, 110, 132, and 144 are usually included as the royal psalms. They do not form a literary category, since psalms of various types are included, but they all have some reference to the king, the nature of his rule, and his relationship to God. Since the Davidic monarchy was terminated in 586 BC<\/span>, these psalms, almost certainly, were composed before that date. The language in these psalms often shows the king as being God’s vice-regent. For example, Psalm 45, a royal marriage psalm, contains the assertion “Your throne, O God, endures for ever and ever” (45:6). But this is best understood in terms of the throne being regarded as the Lord’s, occupied by the king as his representative. Similarly, the wording in Psalm 110:1, “Sit at my right hand,” indicates the privileges and prerogatives that the king enjoys as God’s vice-regent. The balance of the OT evidence concerning the king shows that the monarchy in Israel was qualified by the nature of God’s covenantal relationship with his people; the king did not enjoy the absolutism claimed by most of the rulers of surrounding kingdoms.<\/p>\nMost of the royal psalms can also be called messianic psalms. They were interpreted as such in the early Christian church, as witnessed in Jesus Christ’s general statement that the psalmists wrote of him (Lk 24:44) and by particular NT quotations. The main psalms concerned, and the NT references, are the following:<\/p>\n1. Psalm 2 (Acts 13:33; Heb 1:5; 5:5), while linked with the Davidic king, nevertheless speaks of a universal vindication and rule, which far transcended even David’s rule. Further, the picture of the Davidic king, anointed to rule on the earth as the representative of God, who is enthroned in heaven, strongly suggests Christ’s mediating, incarnate ministry.<\/p>\n<li>2. Psalm 45 (Heb 1:8-9), a marriage psalm for one of the Davidic kings, possibly Solomon, speaks not only of love and marriage but also a permanence and quality of rule. In the most obvious translation of verse 6, the writer addresses God, “Your divine throne endures for ever and ever.” The writer to the Hebrews clearly accepted this interpretation (Heb 1:8-9) and used it in contrast to the exalted status of even the angels, reinforcing it with two other quotations from the psalms that originally applied to God (Ps 97:7; 102:25-27; cf. Heb 1:6, 10-12).<\/li>\n<li>3. Psalm 110 is the most frequently quoted messianic psalm (Mt 22:43-45; Acts 2:34-35; Heb 1:13; 5:5-10; 6:20; 7:21). The language, speaking of the privileges, universal victory and continuing priesthood of David and his successors, would be considered hyperbolic and possibly misleading except for its fulfillment in “great David’s greater Son.” In contrast to the angels, who are privileged to stand in God’s presence (Lk 1:19), Christ the Son sits in the place of power and authority (Heb 1:13).<\/li>\nOther psalms that could also be designated messianic but are not specifically included among the royal psalms are Psalm 8 (1 Cor 15:27); Psalm 40 (Heb 10:5-10); Psalm 72, with its idealized picture of the nature, consequences, and extent of the rule of God’s representative; Psalm 118:22-23; and Psalm 132 (Acts 2:30).<\/p>\n\n<h5>Passion Psalms<\/h5>\nThe four psalms in this group (Pss 16; 22; 40; 69; some scholars would also include Pss 102; 109) may also be regarded as messianic. They connect with that line of OT prophecy that interprets the Messiah’s ministry in terms of the Suffering Servant who features prominently in Isaiah (e.g., Is 42:1-9; 52:13–53:12). Of these four, Psalm 22 is the most remarkable. Jesus recited part of it when he was on the cross (Ps 22:1; cf. Mt 27:46), and other connections with the crucifixion scene are noteworthy (e.g., Ps 22:6-8, 14-18). Some further considerations are even more significant: there is no suggestion of any awareness of sin; the suffering of the psalmist appears completely unjustified; there is no imprecatory element, even in the face of bitter persecution. This connects with the sinless Christ (2 Cor 5:21), who could even pray for his executioners (Lk 23:34). Psalm 16:10 anticipates the triumph of the incorruptible Christ over the grave (cf. Acts 2:24-31). Psalm 40:6-8 foreshadows the Incarnation and self-giving redemptive work of Christ (Heb 10:5-10). Psalm 69 refers to the isolation resulting from a commitment to God’s cause (Ps 69:8-9) and anticipates the part played by Judas in what was fundamentally God’s work in Christ (Ps 69:25-26; cf. Ps 109:8; Is 53:10; Acts 1:20).<\/p>\n<h5>Psalms about Zion<\/h5>\nThis group could have been classified as a subsection of communal praise, but due to the close historical connection between God’s choice of the house of David and Jerusalem (Pss 78:68-72; 132:11-13), and their subsequent interrelated fortunes, we consider them at this point. There was a biting satire in the request of the Babylonians to the refugees of a shattered city to “Sing us one of the songs of Zion!” (Ps 137:3, niv<\/span>), but it witnesses to the existence of such a collection. Praise of Zion was, in fact, almost synonymous with the praise of the Lord who dwelt there. Jerusalem’s continued survival, in spite of its difficulties, was ample demonstration of God’s enduring greatness (Ps 48:11-14) and peculiar affection for the city that housed his temple (Ps 87:1-3). Psalms 48, 76, 84, 87 and 122 are the main psalms in this category, but the theme itself appears widely throughout the psalms (e.g., 102:16; 125:1; 126:1-3; 133:3; 147:2). The basis of the NT concept of a heavenly Jerusalem, the spiritual home of the regenerate of all nations, finds its origin in this concept, especially in Psalm 87.<\/p>\n<h5>Laments<\/h5>\nThese are associated with specific occasions of distress and are of two types:<\/p>\n1. National. The prophetic and historical books give several examples of the kind of occasion, such as drought, locust infestation, or enemy attack, that could prompt national laments, and also the inward and outward attitudes that accompanied them (e.g., Jgs 20:23, 26; Jer 14:1-12; 36:9; Jl 1:13-14; 2:12-17; Jon 3:5). There is a regular structure in the psalms of this class: the distressing situation is first described; God is petitioned to come to the aid of his people, often with the reminder of his past mercies for Israel; finally, there is often an expression of confidence that God would heed their cry. Israel’s adversaries are clearly in mind in Psalms 14, 44, 60, 74, 80, and 83, while Psalms 58, 106, and 125 reflect situations less critical.<\/p>\n<li>2. Individual. There are so many of this type (approximately 50) that it is frequently described as the backbone of the Psalter. Their most obvious features are the sharpness of complaint and the bitterness of attack upon those responsible. As in the national laments, there is often complaint against God, especially for his lack of attention or his tardiness in intervening. The basic components of this type are almost identical to the national laments, except that they often conclude with the avowal to praise God in anticipation of deliverance (e.g., Ps 13:5-6). Frequently, the lament is accompanied by thanksgiving for the deliverance sought and experienced, as illustrated in the two sections of Psalms 22:1-21 and 28:1-9.<\/li>\n<h5>Imprecatory Psalms<\/h5>\nApproximately 20 psalms contain passionate pleas for the overthrow of the wicked, in language that is often shocking. Any instant condemnation of this attitude must, however, be tempered by certain relevant considerations:<\/p>\nThe cry for vengeance was not purely personal; it was firmly believed that God’s honor was at stake (e.g., Ps 109:21). In an age where there was a less developed view of an afterlife, it was axiomatic that rewards and punishments resulting from obedience or disobedience to God, must be observable within this lifetime. Whenever this was not apparent, it would seem that no righteous God existed, and the name of God was dishonored (e.g., Ps 74:10). This burning desire for the eradication of evil and evil men sprang from a consciousness of a moral God and virtually demanded the triumph of truth.<\/p>\nThe poetic language is also prone to hyperbole—a feature not confined to the psalms (e.g., Neh 4:4-5; Jer 20:14-18; Am 7:17). Such language is startling; indeed, part of its function was probably to startle—to express and promote a sense of outrage.<\/p>\nIn the pre-Christian period, therefore, such outbursts were not completely unjustifiable. But in the light of the fuller revelation in the NT, such an attitude cannot be condoned. The Christian is to love as Christ loved (Jn 13:34), to pray for his enemies and to forgive them (Mt 5:38-48; Col 3:13). The theme of judgment continues into the NT and is indeed heightened there, since Christ’s coming has left people without excuse to live in sin (Jn 16:8-11), but there can be no place for purely private vengeance.<\/p>\n<h5>Penitential Psalms<\/h5>\nPsalms 32, 38, 51, and 130 are the clearest examples of penitential psalms, although traditionally the church has also included Psalms 6, 102, 143, where there is no explicit confession of sin. In an age when adversity in its various forms was seen as God’s judgment for wrongdoing, the admission of distress was tantamount to a confession of guilt. In the four main examples there is an intensity of feeling and a deep sense of the enormity of sin in God’s sight, although, as elsewhere, there is no indication of specific sin, even in Psalm 51, which is surely to be connected with David’s sin against Bathsheba (2 Sm 11–12). Significantly, David bypasses the sacrificial system, which was totally inefficacious in his case, casting himself entirely on the mercy of God (Ps 51:1, 16). The burden of unconfessed sin is clearly revealed in Psalm 32, and sin’s searing and corrupting effect in Psalm 38.<\/p>\n<h5>Wisdom Psalms and Historical Psalms<\/h5>\nWhile it is accepted that prophets, priests, and wise men all functioned at the major sanctuaries, some overlap in their modes of expression is to be expected. Proverbial forms are not infrequently found in the psalms (Pss 37:5, 8, 16, 21-22; 111:10; 127:1-5). Psalm 1, probably an introduction to the whole Psalter, contrasts the diverging paths of the righteous and ungodly (cf. Ps 112), while Psalms 127 and 128 concentrate on the blessings given to the godly. Psalm 133 is written in praise of unity. The problem of explaining the sufferings of a righteous person and the apparent prosperity of evil people, dealt with in the Wisdom Literature in the book of Job and in the prophets also (e.g., Jer 12:1-4), is taken up in Psalms 37, 49, and 73.<\/p>\nThe historical psalms should be included in this category, since they underscore the lessons arising from the favored nation’s often bitter experience. It is apparent that Israel delighted in the recital of salvation history. The main psalms, and the periods covered are Psalm 78, from the exodus to the establishment of the Davidic monarchy (note the declared intention to teach in vv 1-4); Psalm 105, from Abraham to the conquest of Canaan; Psalm 106, from Egypt to the judges; and Psalm 136, from the Creation to the Promised Land.<\/p>\n<h5>Psalms of Trust<\/h5>\nWhile some of these may also be classified as laments, the dominant feature of this group is the serene trust in God revealed, which makes them particularly suitable for devotional use. Many of these psalms begin with an affirmation of gratitude to and affection for God. Psalms 23 and 27 are the outstanding examples of this type, which could also include Psalms 11, 16, 62, 116, 131, and 138.<\/p>\nConclusion<\/p>\nThe difficulties in any precise categorization of psalms are obvious; many do not neatly fall into one group—hence, the occasional overlap. What is clearly evident is a pulsating, vital devotional life that has found its clearest expression in the book of Psalms. To say that it expresses the worship and devotion of the ordinary person is a simplification; kings and priests, wise men and prophets all contributed to this remarkable collection. Yet there remains the truth that, in God’s sight, all people, regardless of human achievement or privilege, are “ordinary,” for all are sinners in need of God’s grace and goodness. So the worshiping community of ancient Israel, and the saints of every succeeding generation, in the vastness of their diversity, have found the expression of their own hearts’ condition, desires, and devotion in this unique treasury—the Psalms.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> David; Messiah; Music; Poetry, Biblical; Singers in the Temple; Tabernacle; Temple; Wisdom; Wisdom Literature.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>PSALMS, Book of<\/h3>\nPoems sung to musical accompaniment, originally the harp. The alternative title, the Psalter, refers to a collection of songs sung to harp accompaniment. The English title, therefore, broadly defines the form employed, whereas the Hebrew title of the book, “Praises,” or “Book of Praises,” suggests the content.<\/p>\nPreview<\/p>\n• Authors<\/p>\n• Date<\/p>\n• Background<\/p>\n• Structure<\/p>\n• Canonicity<\/p>\n• Purpose and Theology<\/p>\n• Content<\/p>\nAuthors<\/p>\n<h5>The Evidence of the Titles<\/h5>\nThe Hebrew Bible credits David with 73 psalms, compared with 84 in the Septuagint and 85 in the Latin Vulgate. Korah and Asaph, the leaders of the Levitical singing groups, are connected with 11 and 12 psalms, respectively (although Ps 43 is almost certainly to be attributed to Korah also). Two psalms are ascribed to Solomon (Pss 72; 127), one to Moses (Ps 90), and one to Ethan (Ps 89), while Heman shares the credit for one psalm with the sons of Korah (Ps 88). The remainder are sometimes called “orphan psalms” because of their anonymity.<\/p>\nThe preposition “of” found in the titles (for example, “A Psalm of David”) usually indicates authorship. But in the case of groups, such as the sons of Asaph or Korah, it may simply indicate that the psalms were included in their repertoire. Less plausible is the idea that it may also be rendered “for the use of.” For example, some of the “Psalms of David” might be “for the use of” the Davidic king on some occasion.<\/p>\n<h5>Historical Allusions in the Titles<\/h5>\nMany of the titles refer to specific events in the life of David (e.g., Pss 3; 7; 18; 30; 34; 51). There is evidence that the titles were added at an early date. When the psalms were translated into Greek, there appears to have been some difficulty in translating the titles, possibly because of their antiquity. If the historical references were added at a late date, there is no reason why plausible backgrounds could not have been supplied for all the Davidic psalms, instead of only a few. Moreover, the apparent disparity between the title and the actual content of some psalms (e.g., Ps 30) indicates that the titles were supplied by those who knew about a connection unknown to a later editor. Admittedly, there are minor discrepancies between the titles and the references in the historical books. For example, in Psalm 34 David acts the madman before Abimelech, whereas in 1 Samuel it is before Achish. But probably Abimelech was the general name (like Pharaoh for the kings of Egypt) for all the Philistine kings (e.g., Gn 21:32; 26:26).<\/p>\nEvidence of authorship and historical background in the titles, therefore, may be taken as a reasonably reliable guide. But the internal difficulties, together with the freedom exercised by successive translators into Greek, Syriac, and Latin, indicates that they were not regarded as inspired.<\/p>\n<h5>The Case for Davidic Authorship<\/h5>\nFive points can be offered to support David’s authorship of several psalms:<\/p>\n1. The authenticity of David’s lament over Saul and Jonathan (2 Sm 1:19-27) is generally accepted. This indicates a deeply poetic spirit and a generous temperament that prepares us to accept those psalms ascribed to David that evidence similar characteristics. “The last words of David” is another Davidic poem in the historical books (2 Sm 23:1-7).<\/p>\n<li>2. David had a reputation as a skillful musician at Saul’s court (1 Sm 16:16-18). Amos comments on his inventiveness as a musician (Am 6:5), while the Chronicler repeatedly stresses his contribution to the musical aspect of temple worship (e.g., 1 Chr 6:31; 16:7; Ezr 3:10). The Jewish historian Josephus said that David composed songs and hymns to God in varied meters. The probability is that David, as well as amassing materials and preparing the plans for Solomon’s temple, also gave attention to the temple worship. This is his place in Jewish tradition.<\/li>\n<li>3. The early monarchy, with a freshly secured independence, national prestige, and a new prosperity, would most likely be a time of artistic creativity. David was at the heart of this movement.<\/li>\n<li>4. There is a close correspondence between David’s life as described in the historical books and certain psalms, for example, his sin concerning Bathsheba and Uriah (2 Sm 11:2–12:25) and Psalm 51, as witnessed in the title. David’s lapses and genuine repentance, as well as the varied aspects of his career—shepherd, fugitive, warrior, and so on—find expression in many of the psalms attributed to him. The correspondence between the David of the psalms and the David of the historical books is close, especially in the display of strong faith in God.<\/li>\n<li>5. Although some scholars believe that when “David” is mentioned in the NT, it is simply a reference to the book of Psalms and not an ascription of authorship, a straightforward interpretation of the NT text strengthens the case for Davidic authorship. David is specifically named as the author of various psalms in Matthew 22:41-45; Acts 1:16; 2:25, 34; Romans 4:6; 11:9.<\/li>\nIn conclusion, there is strong support for the view that the substantial nucleus of the Psalter is Davidic. Moreover, it is probable that some of the anonymous psalms were the work of the “sweet psalmist of Israel” (2 Sm 23:1). Hebrews 4:7 refers one of these, Psalm 95, to David (see also Acts 4:25 and Ps 2).<\/p>\nDate<\/p>\nOnce David’s authorship of several psalms is established, then it must follow that these psalms are dated during David’s life. Thus, most of the psalms formed the hymnbook of Israel in the period of the monarchy. Other psalms were written later. For example, Psalm 137 is clearly exilic, and Psalms 107:2-3 and 126:1 allude to the return from captivity. Psalms 44 and 79 are probably, but not conclusively, postexilic.<\/p>\nThe book of Psalms was probably the product of a considerable period of growth. The incidence of Davidic psalms in the first section indicates that it was completed early, possibly toward the end of David’s reign. The remainder of the process of compilation is difficult to reconstruct, but the fact that the titles, with their allusions to authors, events, and musical directions, become less frequent in the two final collections (Pss 90–150) lends support to the probability that the collections were combined chronologically in the sequence in which they are found today. Ezra is traditionally credited with the final grouping and editing of the psalms, a hypothesis that appears reasonable in light of his vital contribution to the systematic reshaping of the national religious life. In any case, the process was completed before the translation of the Psalter into Greek (the Septuagint) at the end of the third century BC<\/span>, since the traditional order is found there. General, but not complete, support comes also from the evidence of the Dead Sea Scrolls. At some point minor dislocations occurred. Psalms 9 and 10 may have originally formed one psalm (as in the Septuagint), and there is a strong case for combining Psalms 42 and 43.<\/p>\nBackground<\/p>\nAs the book of Psalms lies before us, its connection with temple worship is apparent. Fifty-five psalms are addressed to the choirmaster, and as we have noted, 23 or 24 are linked with the two main guilds of Levitical singers, Asaph and Korah. The musical instruments, such as stringed instruments (Ps 55 title) and flutes (Ps 5 title) are noted. Probably other terms concern musical directions: Selah<\/span>,<\/em> which occurs 71 times, may indicate a pause or crescendo; Higgaion<\/span> (Ps 9:16) may recommend a meditative attitude. Seemingly obscure references like “The Hind of the Dawn” (Ps 22 title), “Lilies” (Pss 45 title; 80 title) and “The Dove on Far-off Terebinths” (Ps 56 title) may indicate the tunes to which the psalms were to be sung. The precise meaning of other terms, such as Shiggaion<\/span> (Ps 7 title) or Alamoth<\/span> (conjecturally a choir of ladies, Ps 46 title), may also be in the realm of musical directions.<\/p>\nStructure<\/p>\nThe Psalter, possibly in conscious imitation of the five books of Moses in the Law, is divided into five sections (Pss 1–41; 42–72; 73–89; 90–106; 107–150), separated by four doxologies (41:13; 72:18-19; 89:52; 106:48). While the editorial comment in Psalm 72:20 notes that the psalms of David were ended, Davidic psalms are found later in the book (Pss 86; 101; 103), suggesting that at least some of these sections circulated independently until their inclusion in the final collection. Such independence is further indicated by the duplications in the various sections (e.g., Pss 14 and 53; 40:13-17 and 70) and by the use of different names for God, who is usually referred to as “Lord” in the first collection and as “God” in the second.<\/p>\nCanonicity<\/p>\nIn the various recensions of the third section of the Hebrew canon, the Writings or Holy Books, the book of Psalms is almost invariably placed first. It was clearly regarded as the most important book in this section, and in Luke 24:44, “Psalms” is synonymous with “Writings” as its title. While the canonicity of all the contents of the Writings was not finalized until the end of the first century AD<\/span>, it is likely that the book of Psalms was accepted as inspired long before this, probably by 300 BC<\/span>.<\/p>\nIt must not be inferred that all the psalms had their origin in the cultic life of the community, but the sanctuary was the focal point of Israel’s worship for the greater part of the OT period. Prayer was possible elsewhere, but whenever practicable, it was customary for the worshiper to present his petitions at the main sanctuary. And thanksgiving in ancient Israel was almost invariably connected with a thank offering, vow offering, or freewill offering. The psalms could have been composed by individuals, like David, who had the requisite technical ability. And it must be appreciated that poetry, an unfamiliar medium to most Western civilizations, was the natural way for the ancient Easterner to express his emotions. Or the individual could have engaged a member of the Levitical guilds of musicians to frame either his supplication or his thanksgiving. Gradually, a comprehensive collection of psalms would be available for the use of individuals, the congregation, and even the entire nation in any conceivable situation. Once finalized, this collection served not only the subsequent needs of Israel but the devotional requirements of successive generations of Christians as well. Whatever the origin of an individual psalm, each has finally been incorporated in a cultic setting, and it may be assumed that the best of Israel’s psalmody has thus been preserved.<\/p>\nPurpose and Theology<\/p>\n<h5>The Doctrine of God<\/h5>\nIn both adversity and prosperity, the psalmists indicate a strong faith in God and a clear conception of his attributes. Understandably, anthropomorphisms (ascribing human characteristics to nonhuman things) abound, with references to God’s voice, words, ears, eyes, face, or hands and fingers. No exception needs to be taken to this. Anthropomorphisms of this kind are, in fact, widely used by present-day Christians. Their great value is that they make God real to the worshiper. How else could humans describe God, except in terms of their own understanding?<\/p>\nThe monotheism of the psalms emerges clearly in Psalms 115:3-8; 135:15-18; 139. God is viewed as the Creator (Pss 8:3; 89:11; 95:3-5), with references to the creation mythology of surrounding nations (e.g., Ps 89:10) serving merely as illustrations of his almighty creative power. He is proclaimed as the Lord of history (Pss 44, 78, 80, 81, 105, 106) and as the sovereign controller of nature (Pss 18:7; 19:1-6; 65:8-13; 105:26-42; 135:5-7). The psalmists never tired of celebrating God’s absolute greatness.<\/p>\n<h5>The Human Perspective<\/h5>\nThe Psalter is a God-centered book, but humanity has a worthy place, in spite of the vast gulf between them and their Creator (Pss 8:3-4; 145:3-4) and the limitations of their earthly life (Ps 90:9-10). By the will of God, humans occupy a responsible, mediating position between God and all other created beings (Ps 8:5-8). The relationship with a righteous God is endangered by sin (Ps 106), but God is gracious and long-suffering (Ps 103), faithful and forgiving (Ps 130). While references to the sacrificial system are not lacking (Pss 20:3; 50:8-9), the emphasis is upon a personal piety that demands obedience and a surrendered heart (Ps 40:6-8). Psalm 51 indicates a depth of sin with which the sacrificial system was totally inadequate to cope; the psalmist could only cast himself, in total penitence, upon God’s mercy. Man’s moral obligations (Pss 15; 24:3-5) and loyalty to the law (Pss 19:7-11; 119) are fully accepted. Throughout, there is the revelation of a strong personal relationship that encourages prayer and praise and invites trust.<\/p>\n<h5>The Afterlife<\/h5>\nThe Psalms maintain the traditional Hebrew view of Sheol as the abode of the departed, without distinction between the good and evil, where all but mere existence has perished. The chief complaint of the devout man was that, in Sheol, all meaningful relationship with God ceased (Pss 6:5; 88:10-12). However, it was recognized that, since God was almighty, even Sheol was not exempt from his reach (Ps 139:8). Added to this was the preciousness and strength of fellowship with God, which could not be terminated even by death. Psalms 16:9-11, 49:15, and 73:23-26 well illustrate this insight. The Psalter, therefore, witnesses to an important transitional phase in Israel’s belief.<\/p>\n<h5>Universal Recognition of God<\/h5>\nPassages like Psalms 9:11; 47:1-2, 7-9; 66:8; 67; and 117:1 call upon all nations to acknowledge and praise God and show an awareness of his sovereignty over all nations. But this universalism does not appear to involve any desire to convert the heathen nations and, indeed, it is balanced by strong particularistic elements. God’s covenant relationship with his people and his mighty deeds on their behalf are the chief items for which the praise of all nations is summoned (Pss 47:3-4; 66:8-9; 126:2). As elsewhere in the OT, the role of Israel is passive; her continued existence witnesses to God’s faithfulness and brings glory to him.<\/p>\n<h5>Lasting Value<\/h5>\nWhatever the emotion of the psalmists, be it bitter complaint, anguished lament, or joyous exultation, all the psalms reflect one or other of the many aspects of communion with God. The reader may look “into the heart of all the saints” (so said Luther) as they faced life’s experiences in the awareness of a God who was all-seeing, all-knowing, and all-powerful. The strength of that personal relationship with God that typified OT worship at its best is exemplified here, and the many echoes of the psalms elsewhere in Israel’s literature show the powerful influence of these testimonies on the faithful. The fact that, almost invariably, little specific detail is given of the psalmists’ actual conditions has made it easier for the Psalter to become the universal hymnbook and devotional treasury of God’s people, in both public and private worship, until and including the present day. Modern life, materially, is vastly different from that of ancient Israel, but God remains unchanged and so do the basic needs of the human heart. The Holy Spirit, therefore, can still use this spiritual treasury as a means of revelation and communication between God and man. Few books in the Bible have exercised so profound an influence or been so widely used.<\/p>\nContent<\/p>\n<h5>Introduction<\/h5>\nIt is more helpful to describe the psalms in categories than to explain them one by one in canonical order. The psalms can be categorized as follows:<\/p>\nPsalms of praise<\/p>\nRoyal, messianic psalms<\/p>\nPassion psalms<\/p>\nPsalms about Zion<\/p>\nLaments<\/p>\nImprecatory psalms<\/p>\nPenitential psalms<\/p>\nWisdom psalms and historical psalms<\/p>\nPsalms of trust<\/p>\n<h5>Psalms of Praise<\/h5>\nThe Hebrew title, “Praises,” defines accurately a large part of the contents of the book. Each of the first four sections concludes with a doxology, while the fifth section concludes with five psalms, each of which begins and ends with one or two “Hallelujahs.” The last of these, Psalm 150, sounds the call to total praise. God is to be praised for his being, for his great acts in creation, nature, and history on both the individual and the communal level.<\/p>\n1. Individual praise. In comparison with the number of individual laments, there are relatively few psalms in this category. Those normally included are Psalms 9, 18, 32, 34, 116, and 138. This may, in part, be due to the universal tendency to complain rather than to express thanks. But a number of the laments do, in fact, include the note of thanksgiving for the anticipated deliverance, and the normal round of congregational thanksgiving would allow the individual to express his personal praise. However, it was customary in temple worship to give a verbal act of thanksgiving before the whole assembly whenever a vow offering or a thank offering was made. Such public testimony, and the communal meal associated with this type of sacrifice, is indicated in Psalms 22:22-26; 66:13-20; 116:17-19. The inclusion of such opportunities for personal praise and testimony must have added warmth and significance to worship. Each act of deliverance and every experience of God’s mercy became part of salvation history, which was a cumulative, ongoing concept, not simply a recital of God’s deeds in earlier centuries.<\/p>\n<li>2. General communal praise. This is sometimes entitled “hymns” or “descriptive praise,” its main feature being linked to a particular act of deliverance. God is usually referred to in the third person, not directly. Psalm 103 may be taken as representative of this group. It begins and ends with individual references (vv 1-5, 22b), but the central section (esp. vv 6-14) shows that the psalmist was part of a worshiping community. There is first of all the imperative call to praise God for the full range of his mercy to each individual, including physical and spiritual deliverance and his sustaining and satisfying grace. Then the focus changes to his great works in history (vv 6-7). This forms a natural basis for the recital of those gracious qualities revealed so consistently during the course of the national history, especially his tender, fatherly care (vv 8-14). The frailty of humanity contrasts with God’s constancy (vv 15-18), and his rule, being universal and absolute (v 19), merits the praise of all things, living and inanimate, in heaven and on earth (vv 19-22). There is, however, a great number of possible variations in the way in which God is celebrated, as Psalms 113 and 136, which come within this class, illustrate.<\/li>\n<li>3. Specific communal praise. Occasionally termed “declarative praise,” this type of psalm connects with a particular outstanding evidence of God’s mercy and would most naturally follow soon after the event itself. Deliverance from an enemy provides the occasion for most of the psalms in this category (e.g., Pss 124, 129). Psalm 66:8-12, now the nucleus of an expanded recital of God’s goodness, was possibly once complete in itself. Psalms 46–48 may form a trilogy connected with the remarkable deliverance of Jerusalem from Sennacherib’s Assyrians in 701 BC<\/span> (2 Kgs 18:17–19:37). Psalm 67 was probably composed in gratitude for a particular harvest. It is easy to see how psalms of this type could, in the process of time, acquire a more general usage.<\/li>\n<li>4. Praise for the God of nature. The first part of Psalm 19 pictures the praise of God sounding from the heavens; Psalm 29 celebrates him as the God of the thunderstorm, which, sweeping in from the Mediterranean near Lebanon, pursues its awe-inspiring path southward into the wilderness of Kadesh, with the result that “in his temple” (the created world?) all are praising, “Glory, glory to the Lord<\/span>” (v 9). His sovereignty and self-sufficiency in this world are celebrated in Psalm 50:10-12; he is the God of growth and harvest (Ps 65:9-13); in Psalm 104, often called the “Hymn of Creation,” he sustains and supplies everything on the earth and in the seas and is the absolute Lord of all life (vv 29-30). There is no confusion between God and his creation; even the seemingly permanent heaven and earth will perish, but “you go on forever” (Ps 102:25-27). Nature’s role is to proclaim the glory of God (Ps 19:1) and to praise him (Ps 148). People see themselves as insignificant when set against those forces of nature, which are themselves dwarfed by God—hence, the awareness of the immeasurable gulf between God and people that God has bridged by his grace (Ps 8).<\/li>\n<li>5. Praise for God’s kingship. A relatively small group of psalms (Pss 47, 93, 96–99) celebrate the kingship of God in a way that goes beyond the ascription of praise noted in the foregoing groups. They are marked by acclamation, by both shouting and clapping when God “ascends.” Presumably, the reference is to his throne (Ps 47:1-5; cf. 99:1-2). “The Lord<\/span> reigns” (Pss 93:1; 97:1; 99:1) is the frequent cry, and the nature of his reign is extolled (Ps 99:4-5).<\/li>\n<h5>Royal, Messianic Psalms<\/h5>\nPsalms 2, 18, 20, 21, 45, 61, 72, 89, 101, 110, 132, and 144 are usually included as the royal psalms. They do not form a literary category, since psalms of various types are included, but they all have some reference to the king, the nature of his rule, and his relationship to God. Since the Davidic monarchy was terminated in 586 BC<\/span>, these psalms, almost certainly, were composed before that date. The language in these psalms often shows the king as being God’s vice-regent. For example, Psalm 45, a royal marriage psalm, contains the assertion “Your throne, O God, endures for ever and ever” (45:6). But this is best understood in terms of the throne being regarded as the Lord’s, occupied by the king as his representative. Similarly, the wording in Psalm 110:1, “Sit at my right hand,” indicates the privileges and prerogatives that the king enjoys as God’s vice-regent. The balance of the OT evidence concerning the king shows that the monarchy in Israel was qualified by the nature of God’s covenantal relationship with his people; the king did not enjoy the absolutism claimed by most of the rulers of surrounding kingdoms.<\/p>\nMost of the royal psalms can also be called messianic psalms. They were interpreted as such in the early Christian church, as witnessed in Jesus Christ’s general statement that the psalmists wrote of him (Lk 24:44) and by particular NT quotations. The main psalms concerned, and the NT references, are the following:<\/p>\n1. Psalm 2 (Acts 13:33; Heb 1:5; 5:5), while linked with the Davidic king, nevertheless speaks of a universal vindication and rule, which far transcended even David’s rule. Further, the picture of the Davidic king, anointed to rule on the earth as the representative of God, who is enthroned in heaven, strongly suggests Christ’s mediating, incarnate ministry.<\/p>\n<li>2. Psalm 45 (Heb 1:8-9), a marriage psalm for one of the Davidic kings, possibly Solomon, speaks not only of love and marriage but also a permanence and quality of rule. In the most obvious translation of verse 6, the writer addresses God, “Your divine throne endures for ever and ever.” The writer to the Hebrews clearly accepted this interpretation (Heb 1:8-9) and used it in contrast to the exalted status of even the angels, reinforcing it with two other quotations from the psalms that originally applied to God (Ps 97:7; 102:25-27; cf. Heb 1:6, 10-12).<\/li>\n<li>3. Psalm 110 is the most frequently quoted messianic psalm (Mt 22:43-45; Acts 2:34-35; Heb 1:13; 5:5-10; 6:20; 7:21). The language, speaking of the privileges, universal victory and continuing priesthood of David and his successors, would be considered hyperbolic and possibly misleading except for its fulfillment in “great David’s greater Son.” In contrast to the angels, who are privileged to stand in God’s presence (Lk 1:19), Christ the Son sits in the place of power and authority (Heb 1:13).<\/li>\nOther psalms that could also be designated messianic but are not specifically included among the royal psalms are Psalm 8 (1 Cor 15:27); Psalm 40 (Heb 10:5-10); Psalm 72, with its idealized picture of the nature, consequences, and extent of the rule of God’s representative; Psalm 118:22-23; and Psalm 132 (Acts 2:30).<\/p>\n\n<h5>Passion Psalms<\/h5>\nThe four psalms in this group (Pss 16; 22; 40; 69; some scholars would also include Pss 102; 109) may also be regarded as messianic. They connect with that line of OT prophecy that interprets the Messiah’s ministry in terms of the Suffering Servant who features prominently in Isaiah (e.g., Is 42:1-9; 52:13–53:12). Of these four, Psalm 22 is the most remarkable. Jesus recited part of it when he was on the cross (Ps 22:1; cf. Mt 27:46), and other connections with the crucifixion scene are noteworthy (e.g., Ps 22:6-8, 14-18). Some further considerations are even more significant: there is no suggestion of any awareness of sin; the suffering of the psalmist appears completely unjustified; there is no imprecatory element, even in the face of bitter persecution. This connects with the sinless Christ (2 Cor 5:21), who could even pray for his executioners (Lk 23:34). Psalm 16:10 anticipates the triumph of the incorruptible Christ over the grave (cf. Acts 2:24-31). Psalm 40:6-8 foreshadows the Incarnation and self-giving redemptive work of Christ (Heb 10:5-10). Psalm 69 refers to the isolation resulting from a commitment to God’s cause (Ps 69:8-9) and anticipates the part played by Judas in what was fundamentally God’s work in Christ (Ps 69:25-26; cf. Ps 109:8; Is 53:10; Acts 1:20).<\/p>\n<h5>Psalms about Zion<\/h5>\nThis group could have been classified as a subsection of communal praise, but due to the close historical connection between God’s choice of the house of David and Jerusalem (Pss 78:68-72; 132:11-13), and their subsequent interrelated fortunes, we consider them at this point. There was a biting satire in the request of the Babylonians to the refugees of a shattered city to “Sing us one of the songs of Zion!” (Ps 137:3, niv<\/span>), but it witnesses to the existence of such a collection. Praise of Zion was, in fact, almost synonymous with the praise of the Lord who dwelt there. Jerusalem’s continued survival, in spite of its difficulties, was ample demonstration of God’s enduring greatness (Ps 48:11-14) and peculiar affection for the city that housed his temple (Ps 87:1-3). Psalms 48, 76, 84, 87 and 122 are the main psalms in this category, but the theme itself appears widely throughout the psalms (e.g., 102:16; 125:1; 126:1-3; 133:3; 147:2). The basis of the NT concept of a heavenly Jerusalem, the spiritual home of the regenerate of all nations, finds its origin in this concept, especially in Psalm 87.<\/p>\n<h5>Laments<\/h5>\nThese are associated with specific occasions of distress and are of two types:<\/p>\n1. National. The prophetic and historical books give several examples of the kind of occasion, such as drought, locust infestation, or enemy attack, that could prompt national laments, and also the inward and outward attitudes that accompanied them (e.g., Jgs 20:23, 26; Jer 14:1-12; 36:9; Jl 1:13-14; 2:12-17; Jon 3:5). There is a regular structure in the psalms of this class: the distressing situation is first described; God is petitioned to come to the aid of his people, often with the reminder of his past mercies for Israel; finally, there is often an expression of confidence that God would heed their cry. Israel’s adversaries are clearly in mind in Psalms 14, 44, 60, 74, 80, and 83, while Psalms 58, 106, and 125 reflect situations less critical.<\/p>\n<li>2. Individual. There are so many of this type (approximately 50) that it is frequently described as the backbone of the Psalter. Their most obvious features are the sharpness of complaint and the bitterness of attack upon those responsible. As in the national laments, there is often complaint against God, especially for his lack of attention or his tardiness in intervening. The basic components of this type are almost identical to the national laments, except that they often conclude with the avowal to praise God in anticipation of deliverance (e.g., Ps 13:5-6). Frequently, the lament is accompanied by thanksgiving for the deliverance sought and experienced, as illustrated in the two sections of Psalms 22:1-21 and 28:1-9.<\/li>\n<h5>Imprecatory Psalms<\/h5>\nApproximately 20 psalms contain passionate pleas for the overthrow of the wicked, in language that is often shocking. Any instant condemnation of this attitude must, however, be tempered by certain relevant considerations:<\/p>\nThe cry for vengeance was not purely personal; it was firmly believed that God’s honor was at stake (e.g., Ps 109:21). In an age where there was a less developed view of an afterlife, it was axiomatic that rewards and punishments resulting from obedience or disobedience to God, must be observable within this lifetime. Whenever this was not apparent, it would seem that no righteous God existed, and the name of God was dishonored (e.g., Ps 74:10). This burning desire for the eradication of evil and evil men sprang from a consciousness of a moral God and virtually demanded the triumph of truth.<\/p>\nThe poetic language is also prone to hyperbole—a feature not confined to the psalms (e.g., Neh 4:4-5; Jer 20:14-18; Am 7:17). Such language is startling; indeed, part of its function was probably to startle—to express and promote a sense of outrage.<\/p>\nIn the pre-Christian period, therefore, such outbursts were not completely unjustifiable. But in the light of the fuller revelation in the NT, such an attitude cannot be condoned. The Christian is to love as Christ loved (Jn 13:34), to pray for his enemies and to forgive them (Mt 5:38-48; Col 3:13). The theme of judgment continues into the NT and is indeed heightened there, since Christ’s coming has left people without excuse to live in sin (Jn 16:8-11), but there can be no place for purely private vengeance.<\/p>\n<h5>Penitential Psalms<\/h5>\nPsalms 32, 38, 51, and 130 are the clearest examples of penitential psalms, although traditionally the church has also included Psalms 6, 102, 143, where there is no explicit confession of sin. In an age when adversity in its various forms was seen as God’s judgment for wrongdoing, the admission of distress was tantamount to a confession of guilt. In the four main examples there is an intensity of feeling and a deep sense of the enormity of sin in God’s sight, although, as elsewhere, there is no indication of specific sin, even in Psalm 51, which is surely to be connected with David’s sin against Bathsheba (2 Sm 11–12). Significantly, David bypasses the sacrificial system, which was totally inefficacious in his case, casting himself entirely on the mercy of God (Ps 51:1, 16). The burden of unconfessed sin is clearly revealed in Psalm 32, and sin’s searing and corrupting effect in Psalm 38.<\/p>\n<h5>Wisdom Psalms and Historical Psalms<\/h5>\nWhile it is accepted that prophets, priests, and wise men all functioned at the major sanctuaries, some overlap in their modes of expression is to be expected. Proverbial forms are not infrequently found in the psalms (Pss 37:5, 8, 16, 21-22; 111:10; 127:1-5). Psalm 1, probably an introduction to the whole Psalter, contrasts the diverging paths of the righteous and ungodly (cf. Ps 112), while Psalms 127 and 128 concentrate on the blessings given to the godly. Psalm 133 is written in praise of unity. The problem of explaining the sufferings of a righteous person and the apparent prosperity of evil people, dealt with in the Wisdom Literature in the book of Job and in the prophets also (e.g., Jer 12:1-4), is taken up in Psalms 37, 49, and 73.<\/p>\nThe historical psalms should be included in this category, since they underscore the lessons arising from the favored nation’s often bitter experience. It is apparent that Israel delighted in the recital of salvation history. The main psalms, and the periods covered are Psalm 78, from the exodus to the establishment of the Davidic monarchy (note the declared intention to teach in vv 1-4); Psalm 105, from Abraham to the conquest of Canaan; Psalm 106, from Egypt to the judges; and Psalm 136, from the Creation to the Promised Land.<\/p>\n<h5>Psalms of Trust<\/h5>\nWhile some of these may also be classified as laments, the dominant feature of this group is the serene trust in God revealed, which makes them particularly suitable for devotional use. Many of these psalms begin with an affirmation of gratitude to and affection for God. Psalms 23 and 27 are the outstanding examples of this type, which could also include Psalms 11, 16, 62, 116, 131, and 138.<\/p>\nConclusion<\/p>\nThe difficulties in any precise categorization of psalms are obvious; many do not neatly fall into one group—hence, the occasional overlap. What is clearly evident is a pulsating, vital devotional life that has found its clearest expression in the book of Psalms. To say that it expresses the worship and devotion of the ordinary person is a simplification; kings and priests, wise men and prophets all contributed to this remarkable collection. Yet there remains the truth that, in God’s sight, all people, regardless of human achievement or privilege, are “ordinary,” for all are sinners in need of God’s grace and goodness. So the worshiping community of ancient Israel, and the saints of every succeeding generation, in the vastness of their diversity, have found the expression of their own hearts’ condition, desires, and devotion in this unique treasury—the Psalms.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> David; Messiah; Music; Poetry, Biblical; Singers in the Temple; Tabernacle; Temple; Wisdom; Wisdom Literature.<\/p>","summary_ro":"PSALMS, Book of Poems sung to musical accompaniment, originally the harp. The alternative title, the Psalter, refers to a collection of songs sung to harp accompaniment. The English title, therefore, broadly defines the form employed, whereas the Hebrew title of the book, “Praises,” or “Book of Praises,” suggests the content. Preview • Authors • Date • Background • Structure • Canonicity • Purpose and Theology • Content Authors The Evidence of the Titles The Hebrew Bible credits David with 73...","summary_en":"PSALMS, Book of Poems sung to musical accompaniment, originally the harp. The alternative title, the Psalter, refers to a collection of songs sung to harp accompaniment. The English title, therefore, broadly defines the form employed, whereas the Hebrew title of the book, “Praises,” or “Book of Praises,” suggests the content. Preview • Authors • Date • Background • Structure • Canonicity • Purpose and Theology • Content Authors The Evidence of the Titles The Hebrew Bible credits David with 73...","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":39239,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Zerah","title_en":"Zerah","content_ro":"<h3>ZERAH<\/h3>\n<li>1. One of the chiefs of the Edomites (Gn 36:17; 1 Chr 1:37), listed as the son of Reuel, Esau’s son by his wife Basemath, and likely the ancestor of Jobab, who later assumed the position of king of the Edomites (Gn 36:13, 33).<\/li>\n<li>2. One of the twin sons of Judah by his daughter-in-law Tamar (Gn 38:30; 46:12; Mt 1:3). Although Zerah thrust out his hand first, he retracted it, allowing his brother, Perez, to be born first. The descendants of Zerah (the Zerahites) became one of the most influential clans of Judah (Nm 26:20; Jos 7:1, 18; 22:20; 1 Chr 2:4-6; 9:6). Because Ethan and Heman are listed as sons of Zerah in 1 Chronicles 2:6, the Ezrahites mentioned in 1 Kings 4:31 and the titles to Psalms 88 and 89 are also considered to be Zerahites. However, Ethan and Heman are listed as Levites in 1 Chronicles 15:17, thus making it more likely that the Ezrahites were a Levite clan.<\/li>\n<li>3. One of the sons of Simeon from whom the Zerahite clan descended (Nm 26:13; 1 Chr 4:24); alternately called Zohar in Genesis 46:10 and Exodus 6:15.<\/li>\n<li>4. One of the sons of Iddo, from the Gershonite branch of Levi’s tribe (1 Chr 6:21).<\/li>\n<li>5. One of the ancestors of Asaph from Levi’s tribe, listed as the son of Adaiah and the father of Ethni (1 Chr 6:41). Several believe him to be the same individual as #4 above.<\/li>\n<li>6. Commander of the Ethiopians (Cushites) who fought against Asa, king of Judah (2 Chr 14:9). It is difficult to identify this individual or the historical event with any certainty. The most common identification has been with Usarkon II of Egypt. The account of the battle agrees with the chronology of Usarkon’s reign in Egypt, as do the number and nationalities of the troops involved in the conflict.<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>ZERAH<\/h3>\n<li>1. One of the chiefs of the Edomites (Gn 36:17; 1 Chr 1:37), listed as the son of Reuel, Esau’s son by his wife Basemath, and likely the ancestor of Jobab, who later assumed the position of king of the Edomites (Gn 36:13, 33).<\/li>\n<li>2. One of the twin sons of Judah by his daughter-in-law Tamar (Gn 38:30; 46:12; Mt 1:3). Although Zerah thrust out his hand first, he retracted it, allowing his brother, Perez, to be born first. The descendants of Zerah (the Zerahites) became one of the most influential clans of Judah (Nm 26:20; Jos 7:1, 18; 22:20; 1 Chr 2:4-6; 9:6). Because Ethan and Heman are listed as sons of Zerah in 1 Chronicles 2:6, the Ezrahites mentioned in 1 Kings 4:31 and the titles to Psalms 88 and 89 are also considered to be Zerahites. However, Ethan and Heman are listed as Levites in 1 Chronicles 15:17, thus making it more likely that the Ezrahites were a Levite clan.<\/li>\n<li>3. One of the sons of Simeon from whom the Zerahite clan descended (Nm 26:13; 1 Chr 4:24); alternately called Zohar in Genesis 46:10 and Exodus 6:15.<\/li>\n<li>4. One of the sons of Iddo, from the Gershonite branch of Levi’s tribe (1 Chr 6:21).<\/li>\n<li>5. One of the ancestors of Asaph from Levi’s tribe, listed as the son of Adaiah and the father of Ethni (1 Chr 6:41). Several believe him to be the same individual as #4 above.<\/li>\n<li>6. Commander of the Ethiopians (Cushites) who fought against Asa, king of Judah (2 Chr 14:9). It is difficult to identify this individual or the historical event with any certainty. The most common identification has been with Usarkon II of Egypt. The account of the battle agrees with the chronology of Usarkon’s reign in Egypt, as do the number and nationalities of the troops involved in the conflict.<\/li>","summary_ro":"ZERAH 1. One of the chiefs of the Edomites (Gn 36:17; 1 Chr 1:37), listed as the son of Reuel, Esau’s son by his wife Basemath, and likely the ancestor of Jobab, who later assumed the position of king of the Edomites (Gn 36:13, 33). 2. One of the twin sons of Judah by his daughter-in-law Tamar (Gn 38:30; 46:12; Mt 1:3). Although Zerah thrust out his hand first, he retracted it, allowing his brother, Perez, to be born first. The descendants of Zerah (the Zerahites) became one of the most influ...","summary_en":"ZERAH 1. One of the chiefs of the Edomites (Gn 36:17; 1 Chr 1:37), listed as the son of Reuel, Esau’s son by his wife Basemath, and likely the ancestor of Jobab, who later assumed the position of king of the Edomites (Gn 36:13, 33). 2. One of the twin sons of Judah by his daughter-in-law Tamar (Gn 38:30; 46:12; Mt 1:3). Although Zerah thrust out his hand first, he retracted it, allowing his brother, Perez, to be born first. The descendants of Zerah (the Zerahites) became one of the most influ...","source":"Articles\/Z.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":49698,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Psalmi 88:1","title_en":"Study Note: Psalmi 88:1","content_ro":"Ps 88<\/strong> In this lament, the psalmist sees himself as cast out from God’s presence. At first, he calls on the Lord. When he finds no relief from his suffering, he presents three charges against God (88:6-7, 8-12, 13-17).<\/p>","content_en":"Ps 88<\/strong> In this lament, the psalmist sees himself as cast out from God’s presence. At first, he calls on the Lord. When he finds no relief from his suffering, he presents three charges against God (88:6-7, 8-12, 13-17).<\/p>","summary_ro":"Ps 88 In this lament, the psalmist sees himself as cast out from God’s presence. At first, he calls on the Lord. When he finds no relief from his suffering, he presents three charges against God (88:6-7, 8-12, 13-17).","summary_en":"Ps 88 In this lament, the psalmist sees himself as cast out from God’s presence. At first, he calls on the Lord. When he finds no relief from his suffering, he presents three charges against God (88:6-7, 8-12, 13-17).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":49699,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Psalmi 88:1","title_en":"Study Note: Psalmi 88:1","content_ro":"88:<\/strong>title<\/span> Heman the Ezrahite<\/em> might be a sage from Solomon’s time (1 Kgs 4:31), a descendant of Judah (1 Chr 2:6), or a member of the Levitical family charged with singing at the Temple (1 Chr 15:17; 2 Chr 5:12).<\/p>","content_en":"88:<\/strong>title<\/span> Heman the Ezrahite<\/em> might be a sage from Solomon’s time (1 Kgs 4:31), a descendant of Judah (1 Chr 2:6), or a member of the Levitical family charged with singing at the Temple (1 Chr 15:17; 2 Chr 5:12).<\/p>","summary_ro":"88:title Heman the Ezrahite might be a sage from Solomon’s time (1 Kgs 4:31), a descendant of Judah (1 Chr 2:6), or a member of the Levitical family charged with singing at the Temple (1 Chr 15:17; 2 Chr 5:12).","summary_en":"88:title Heman the Ezrahite might be a sage from Solomon’s time (1 Kgs 4:31), a descendant of Judah (1 Chr 2:6), or a member of the Levitical family charged with singing at the Temple (1 Chr 15:17; 2 Chr 5:12).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":49700,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Psalmi 88:1","title_en":"Study Note: Psalmi 88:1","content_ro":"88:1-5<\/strong> The psalmist calls on the Lord<\/span> for salvation<\/em>.<\/p>","content_en":"88:1-5<\/strong> The psalmist calls on the Lord<\/span> for salvation<\/em>.<\/p>","summary_ro":"88:1-5 The psalmist calls on the Lord for salvation.","summary_en":"88:1-5 The psalmist calls on the Lord for salvation.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":77324,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Psalmi 88:1","title_en":"Study Note: Psalmi 88:1","content_ro":"Ps 88<\/strong> In this lament, the psalmist sees himself as cast out from God’s presence. At first, he calls on the Lord. When he finds no relief from his suffering, he presents three charges against God (88:6-7, 8-12, 13-17).<\/p>","content_en":"Ps 88<\/strong> In this lament, the psalmist sees himself as cast out from God’s presence. At first, he calls on the Lord. When he finds no relief from his suffering, he presents three charges against God (88:6-7, 8-12, 13-17).<\/p>","summary_ro":"Ps 88 In this lament, the psalmist sees himself as cast out from God’s presence. At first, he calls on the Lord. When he finds no relief from his suffering, he presents three charges against God (88:6-7, 8-12, 13-17).","summary_en":"Ps 88 In this lament, the psalmist sees himself as cast out from God’s presence. At first, he calls on the Lord. When he finds no relief from his suffering, he presents three charges against God (88:6-7, 8-12, 13-17).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":77325,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Psalmi 88:1","title_en":"Study Note: Psalmi 88:1","content_ro":"88:<\/strong>title<\/span> Heman the Ezrahite<\/em> might be a sage from Solomon’s time (1 Kgs 4:31), a descendant of Judah (1 Chr 2:6), or a member of the Levitical family charged with singing at the Temple (1 Chr 15:17; 2 Chr 5:12).<\/p>","content_en":"88:<\/strong>title<\/span> Heman the Ezrahite<\/em> might be a sage from Solomon’s time (1 Kgs 4:31), a descendant of Judah (1 Chr 2:6), or a member of the Levitical family charged with singing at the Temple (1 Chr 15:17; 2 Chr 5:12).<\/p>","summary_ro":"88:title Heman the Ezrahite might be a sage from Solomon’s time (1 Kgs 4:31), a descendant of Judah (1 Chr 2:6), or a member of the Levitical family charged with singing at the Temple (1 Chr 15:17; 2 Chr 5:12).","summary_en":"88:title Heman the Ezrahite might be a sage from Solomon’s time (1 Kgs 4:31), a descendant of Judah (1 Chr 2:6), or a member of the Levitical family charged with singing at the Temple (1 Chr 15:17; 2 Chr 5:12).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":77326,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Psalmi 88:1","title_en":"Study Note: Psalmi 88:1","content_ro":"88:1-5<\/strong> The psalmist calls on the Lord<\/span> for salvation<\/em>.<\/p>","content_en":"88:1-5<\/strong> The psalmist calls on the Lord<\/span> for salvation<\/em>.<\/p>","summary_ro":"88:1-5 The psalmist calls on the Lord for salvation.","summary_en":"88:1-5 The psalmist calls on the Lord for salvation.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":104950,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Psalmi 88:1","title_en":"Study Note: Psalmi 88:1","content_ro":"Ps 88<\/strong> In this lament, the psalmist sees himself as cast out from God’s presence. At first, he calls on the Lord. When he finds no relief from his suffering, he presents three charges against God (88:6-7, 8-12, 13-17).<\/p>","content_en":"Ps 88<\/strong> In this lament, the psalmist sees himself as cast out from God’s presence. At first, he calls on the Lord. When he finds no relief from his suffering, he presents three charges against God (88:6-7, 8-12, 13-17).<\/p>","summary_ro":"Ps 88 In this lament, the psalmist sees himself as cast out from God’s presence. At first, he calls on the Lord. When he finds no relief from his suffering, he presents three charges against God (88:6-7, 8-12, 13-17).","summary_en":"Ps 88 In this lament, the psalmist sees himself as cast out from God’s presence. At first, he calls on the Lord. When he finds no relief from his suffering, he presents three charges against God (88:6-7, 8-12, 13-17).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":104951,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Psalmi 88:1","title_en":"Study Note: Psalmi 88:1","content_ro":"88:<\/strong>title<\/span> Heman the Ezrahite<\/em> might be a sage from Solomon’s time (1 Kgs 4:31), a descendant of Judah (1 Chr 2:6), or a member of the Levitical family charged with singing at the Temple (1 Chr 15:17; 2 Chr 5:12).<\/p>","content_en":"88:<\/strong>title<\/span> Heman the Ezrahite<\/em> might be a sage from Solomon’s time (1 Kgs 4:31), a descendant of Judah (1 Chr 2:6), or a member of the Levitical family charged with singing at the Temple (1 Chr 15:17; 2 Chr 5:12).<\/p>","summary_ro":"88:title Heman the Ezrahite might be a sage from Solomon’s time (1 Kgs 4:31), a descendant of Judah (1 Chr 2:6), or a member of the Levitical family charged with singing at the Temple (1 Chr 15:17; 2 Chr 5:12).","summary_en":"88:title Heman the Ezrahite might be a sage from Solomon’s time (1 Kgs 4:31), a descendant of Judah (1 Chr 2:6), or a member of the Levitical family charged with singing at the Temple (1 Chr 15:17; 2 Chr 5:12).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":104952,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Psalmi 88:1","title_en":"Study Note: Psalmi 88:1","content_ro":"88:1-5<\/strong> The psalmist calls on the Lord<\/span> for salvation<\/em>.<\/p>","content_en":"88:1-5<\/strong> The psalmist calls on the Lord<\/span> for salvation<\/em>.<\/p>","summary_ro":"88:1-5 The psalmist calls on the Lord for salvation.","summary_en":"88:1-5 The psalmist calls on the Lord for salvation.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":132576,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Psalmi 88:1","title_en":"Study Note: Psalmi 88:1","content_ro":"Ps 88<\/strong> In this lament, the psalmist sees himself as cast out from God’s presence. At first, he calls on the Lord. When he finds no relief from his suffering, he presents three charges against God (88:6-7, 8-12, 13-17).<\/p>","content_en":"Ps 88<\/strong> In this lament, the psalmist sees himself as cast out from God’s presence. At first, he calls on the Lord. When he finds no relief from his suffering, he presents three charges against God (88:6-7, 8-12, 13-17).<\/p>","summary_ro":"Ps 88 In this lament, the psalmist sees himself as cast out from God’s presence. At first, he calls on the Lord. When he finds no relief from his suffering, he presents three charges against God (88:6-7, 8-12, 13-17).","summary_en":"Ps 88 In this lament, the psalmist sees himself as cast out from God’s presence. At first, he calls on the Lord. When he finds no relief from his suffering, he presents three charges against God (88:6-7, 8-12, 13-17).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":132577,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Psalmi 88:1","title_en":"Study Note: Psalmi 88:1","content_ro":"88:<\/strong>title<\/span> Heman the Ezrahite<\/em> might be a sage from Solomon’s time (1 Kgs 4:31), a descendant of Judah (1 Chr 2:6), or a member of the Levitical family charged with singing at the Temple (1 Chr 15:17; 2 Chr 5:12).<\/p>","content_en":"88:<\/strong>title<\/span> Heman the Ezrahite<\/em> might be a sage from Solomon’s time (1 Kgs 4:31), a descendant of Judah (1 Chr 2:6), or a member of the Levitical family charged with singing at the Temple (1 Chr 15:17; 2 Chr 5:12).<\/p>","summary_ro":"88:title Heman the Ezrahite might be a sage from Solomon’s time (1 Kgs 4:31), a descendant of Judah (1 Chr 2:6), or a member of the Levitical family charged with singing at the Temple (1 Chr 15:17; 2 Chr 5:12).","summary_en":"88:title Heman the Ezrahite might be a sage from Solomon’s time (1 Kgs 4:31), a descendant of Judah (1 Chr 2:6), or a member of the Levitical family charged with singing at the Temple (1 Chr 15:17; 2 Chr 5:12).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":132578,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Psalmi 88:1","title_en":"Study Note: Psalmi 88:1","content_ro":"88:1-5<\/strong> The psalmist calls on the Lord<\/span> for salvation<\/em>.<\/p>","content_en":"88:1-5<\/strong> The psalmist calls on the Lord<\/span> for salvation<\/em>.<\/p>","summary_ro":"88:1-5 The psalmist calls on the Lord for salvation.","summary_en":"88:1-5 The psalmist calls on the Lord for salvation.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"3":[{"id":16144,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Hell","title_en":"Hell","content_ro":"<h3>HELL<\/h3>\nPlace of future punishment for the lost, unrepentant, wicked dead.<\/p>\nPreview<\/p>\n• Definition and Description<\/p>\n• Biblical Terms<\/p>\n• The Justice of Eternal Punishment<\/p>\nDefinition and Description<\/p>\nHell is the final destiny of unbelievers and is variously described by the figures of a furnace of fire, eternal fire, eternal punishment (Mt 13:42, 50; 25:41, 46); outer darkness, the place of weeping and torment (8:12); the lake of fire, the second death (Rv 21:8); a place for the devil and his demons (Mt 25:41). Evidently, those in hell experience everlasting separation from the Lord, never to see the glory of his power (2 Thes 1:9). Those who worshiped the beast will be subject to continuous torment (Rv 14:10-11).<\/p>\nOther expressions that indicate that the final state of the wicked is eternal are these: “burn with unquenchable fire” (Mt 3:12); “to the unquenchable fire . . . where their worm does not die, and the fire is not quenched” (Mk 9:43, 48); there is sin that “will not be forgiven, either in this age or in the age to come” (Mt 12:32, rsv<\/span>). When Scripture is understood properly, there is no hint anywhere of the termination of the terrible state of unbelievers in hell. Their doom is unending; there is a solemn finality about their miserable condition. (It is significant that the most descriptive and conclusive utterances about hell come from the lips of Jesus.)<\/p>\nA summary of all Scripture that speaks of hell indicates that there is the loss and absence of all good, and the misery and torment of an evil conscience. The most terrifying aspect is the complete and deserved separation from God and from all that is pure, holy, and beautiful. In addition, there is the awareness of being under the wrath of God and of enduring the curse of a righteous sentence because of one’s sins that were consciously and voluntarily committed.<\/p>\nAlthough the biblical descriptions of hell are stated in very physical and literal terms, the essential character of hell should not be conceived in or limited to designations such as the worm that devours, the stripes that are inflicted, the burning or being consumed by fire. This affirmation does not detract from the horror or the gravity of the situation in hell, because nothing could possibly be worse than separation from God and the torment of an evil conscience. Hell is hell for those who are there essentially because they are completely alienated from God, and wherever there is alienation from God, there is always estrangement from one’s fellows. This is the worst possible punishment to which anyone could be subject: to be totally and irrevocably cut off from God and to be at enmity with all those who are around oneself. Another painful consequence of such a condition is to be at odds with oneself—torn apart from within by an accusing sense of guilt and shame. This condition is one of total conflict: with God, one’s neighbors, and oneself. This is hell! If the descriptions of hell are figurative or symbolic, the conditions they represent are more intense and real than the figures of speech in which they are expressed.<\/p>\nPunishment for sin is a persistent teaching of the Bible. The doctrine of judgment is as extensive as the Canon itself. Typical of such passages are Genesis 2:17; 3:17-19; 4:13; Leviticus 26:27-33; Psalm 149:7; Isaiah 3:11; Ezekiel 14:10; Amos 1:2–2:16; Zechariah 14:19; Matthew 25:41, 46; Luke 16:23-24; Romans 2:5-12; Galatians 6:7-8; Hebrews 10:29-31; and Revelation 20:11-15.<\/p>\nBiblical Terms<\/p>\nThe Hebrew word “Sheol” in the OT is predominantly used for “the grave, the pit, the place of the departed dead” (Gn 37:35; Jb 7:9; 14:13; 17:13-16; Pss 6:5; 16:10; 55:15; Prv 9:18; Eccl 9:10; Is 14:11; 38:10-12, 18). There does not seem to be a very clear distinction in the OT between the final destiny of the good and the evil. They all alike go to the grave, to the world below, a world of gloom, weariness, darkness, decay, and forgetfulness, where one is remote from God (Jb 10:20-22; Ps 88:3-6), yet accessible to him (Jb 26:6; Ps 138:8; Am 9:2). It is a place characterized by silence (Pss 94:17; 115:17) and rest (Jb 3:17). Other texts, however, seem to suggest some aspect of consciousness, hope, and communication in Sheol (Jb 14:13-15; 19:25-27; Pss 16:10; 49:15; Is 14:9-10; Ez 32:21). A few texts seem to suggest the threat of divine judgment after death (Pss 9:17; 55:15). On the whole, Sheol was regarded with dismay and foreboding (Dt 32:22; Is 38:18).<\/p>\nIt was not until the time of the postcanonical Jewish literature, the writings that were developed between the close of the OT and the beginning of NT times, that clear distinctions were made between the final destinies of the righteous and the unrighteous. The idea of separate divisions within Sheol for the good and the evil was developed. It is unmistakable that there was in Jewish thought, as reflected throughout the OT, a belief in a future and continued existence beyond death, however shadowy and indefinite the concept.<\/p>\nThe Greek word “hades” in the NT is used very similarly to “Sheol” in the OT. It was, in fact, used by the translators of the Septuagint, the Greek version of the OT, for Sheol. It designated in general the place or state of the dead, the grave, or death itself. In some versions the word is not translated at all but is transliterated simply as “hades.” The NT is not always very explicit about the meaning of hades, other than what has just been described. Use of the word often does not reveal much about the specific condition of the dead. There are some passages, however, that indicate a distinct advance over the use of Sheol in the OT. One NT passage definitely describes hades as a place of evil and punishment of the wicked, and may appropriately be translated “hell” (Lk 16:23). In all other instances, hades indicates nothing more than the place of the dead.<\/p>\nThe Greek word “Gehenna” is used in a number of NT texts to designate the fiery place for punishment of sinners and is often translated “hell” or “the fires of hell” (Mt 5:22, 29-30; 10:28; 18:9; 23:15, 33; Mk 9:43, 45, 47; Jas 3:6). It is usually used in connection with the final judgment and often has the suggestion that the punishment spoken of is eternal. Gehenna is derived by transliteration from the Hebrew of the OT “valley of Hinnom” or the “valley of the son of Hinnom,” a ravine on the south side of Jerusalem. This valley was the center of idolatrous worship in which children were burned by fire as an offering to the heathen god Molech (2 Chr 28:3; 33:6). In the time of Josiah it became a place of abomination, polluted by dead men’s bones and rubbish (2 Kgs 23:10-14) and by the garbage and filth of Jerusalem dumped there. A fire burned continuously in this valley. It thus became a symbol of the unending fires of hell where the lost are consumed in torment. It was a symbol of judgment to be imposed on the idolatrous and disobedient (Jer 7:31-34; 32:35).<\/p>\nAnother Greek word used to designate hell or “the lower regions” is “Tartarus” (2 Pt 2:4), a classical word for the place of eternal punishment. The apostle Peter uses it for the fallen angels who were thrown into hell, “committed . . . to pits of nether gloom to be kept until the judgment” (rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\nAs noted above, there are, in addition to these terms, the very explicit and vivid phrases that clearly teach the doctrine of hell, as developed at the beginning of this article. The biblical doctrine is determined much more by these decisive phrases than by the somewhat indecisive but frequently used terms “Sheol” and “hades.”<\/p>\n\nThe Justice of Eternal Punishment<\/p>\nIt is difficult for us to understand the righteous judgment of a holy God who, on one hand, hates all evil, yet, on the other hand, loves the evildoers enough to sacrifice his only Son for their salvation from sin. Divine wrath is the necessary reaction of a holy God who hates all that is contrary to his righteous nature. When the only remedy for human sin is rejected and all appeals of a loving, seeking God for the reconciliation of rebellious sinners are refused, there is no other course of action that God himself can pursue but to leave the sinner to his self-chosen destiny. Punishment for sin is then the inevitable and inescapable response of holiness to that which is morally opposite, and it must continue as long as the sinful condition requiring it continues. There is no indication anywhere in Scripture that lost sinners in hell are capable of repentance and faith. If in this life they did not turn away from sin and receive Christ as Savior with all the favorable circumstances and opportunities afforded them on earth, it is unreasonable to think they will do so in the life to come. Punishment cannot come to an end until guilt and sin come to an end. When the sinner ultimately resists and rejects the work of the Holy Spirit whereby he is convicted of sin, there remains no more possibility of repentance or salvation. He has committed an eternal sin (Mk 3:29; Rv 22:11), which deserves eternal punishment.<\/p>\nThe impossibility of faith and repentance in hell is seen also from the tragic reality of the depraved will, conditioned and determined by its repeated rebellion against God. Sin reproduces itself in the will, and character tends to become irrevocably fixed. God responds to endless sinning with the necessary counterpart of endless punishment.<\/p>\nIf the question is raised, How can a loving God send people to an everlasting hell? it must be replied that God does not choose this destination for people; they freely choose it for themselves. God simply concurs in their self-chosen way and reveals the full consequences of their evil choice. It must always be remembered that God is not only loving; he is also holy and righteous. There must be some adequate reckoning with justice in the universe where a revolt against God has brought evil consequences of enormous proportions.<\/p>\nWhile the duration of punishment in hell is eternal for all who have chosen that destiny for themselves, there are degrees of punishment proportional to the degrees of guilt of each individual. Only God is able to determine what those degrees are, and he will assign the consequences with perfect justice according to the responsibility of each one. Evidence of such gradations in future punishment is found in Scripture (Mt 11:20-24; Lk 12:47-48; Rv 20:12-13; cf. Ez 16:48-61). An obvious comparison is made in these texts between the differing intensities of punishment that are involved in the contrasting privileges, knowledge, and opportunities.<\/p>\nFrom all that has been said, it should be obvious that a variety of nonbiblical views must be ruled out, however attractively they may be presented by their advocates and however popular they may be from time to time. Among these views are the erroneous, but sometimes persuasive, doctrines of universalism, annihilationism, and second probation. Universalism promotes the concept that God will save everyone in the end. Annihilationism teaches that hell is not a place of conscious suffering but of final extermination. And second probation is a notion that people can be delivered from hell. It must always be remembered that the Bible is our rule of faith for the doctrine of hell, however difficult the doctrine may seem for natural reason or for human sentiment. Scripture leaves no doubt about the terrible nature and the eternal duration of hell. Rejection or neglect of this doctrine will have dire effects upon the mission of the church.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> “Abraham’s Bosom”; Dead, Place of the; Death; Gehenna; Hades; Intermediate State; Sheol; Wrath of God.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>HELL<\/h3>\nPlace of future punishment for the lost, unrepentant, wicked dead.<\/p>\nPreview<\/p>\n• Definition and Description<\/p>\n• Biblical Terms<\/p>\n• The Justice of Eternal Punishment<\/p>\nDefinition and Description<\/p>\nHell is the final destiny of unbelievers and is variously described by the figures of a furnace of fire, eternal fire, eternal punishment (Mt 13:42, 50; 25:41, 46); outer darkness, the place of weeping and torment (8:12); the lake of fire, the second death (Rv 21:8); a place for the devil and his demons (Mt 25:41). Evidently, those in hell experience everlasting separation from the Lord, never to see the glory of his power (2 Thes 1:9). Those who worshiped the beast will be subject to continuous torment (Rv 14:10-11).<\/p>\nOther expressions that indicate that the final state of the wicked is eternal are these: “burn with unquenchable fire” (Mt 3:12); “to the unquenchable fire . . . where their worm does not die, and the fire is not quenched” (Mk 9:43, 48); there is sin that “will not be forgiven, either in this age or in the age to come” (Mt 12:32, rsv<\/span>). When Scripture is understood properly, there is no hint anywhere of the termination of the terrible state of unbelievers in hell. Their doom is unending; there is a solemn finality about their miserable condition. (It is significant that the most descriptive and conclusive utterances about hell come from the lips of Jesus.)<\/p>\nA summary of all Scripture that speaks of hell indicates that there is the loss and absence of all good, and the misery and torment of an evil conscience. The most terrifying aspect is the complete and deserved separation from God and from all that is pure, holy, and beautiful. In addition, there is the awareness of being under the wrath of God and of enduring the curse of a righteous sentence because of one’s sins that were consciously and voluntarily committed.<\/p>\nAlthough the biblical descriptions of hell are stated in very physical and literal terms, the essential character of hell should not be conceived in or limited to designations such as the worm that devours, the stripes that are inflicted, the burning or being consumed by fire. This affirmation does not detract from the horror or the gravity of the situation in hell, because nothing could possibly be worse than separation from God and the torment of an evil conscience. Hell is hell for those who are there essentially because they are completely alienated from God, and wherever there is alienation from God, there is always estrangement from one’s fellows. This is the worst possible punishment to which anyone could be subject: to be totally and irrevocably cut off from God and to be at enmity with all those who are around oneself. Another painful consequence of such a condition is to be at odds with oneself—torn apart from within by an accusing sense of guilt and shame. This condition is one of total conflict: with God, one’s neighbors, and oneself. This is hell! If the descriptions of hell are figurative or symbolic, the conditions they represent are more intense and real than the figures of speech in which they are expressed.<\/p>\nPunishment for sin is a persistent teaching of the Bible. The doctrine of judgment is as extensive as the Canon itself. Typical of such passages are Genesis 2:17; 3:17-19; 4:13; Leviticus 26:27-33; Psalm 149:7; Isaiah 3:11; Ezekiel 14:10; Amos 1:2–2:16; Zechariah 14:19; Matthew 25:41, 46; Luke 16:23-24; Romans 2:5-12; Galatians 6:7-8; Hebrews 10:29-31; and Revelation 20:11-15.<\/p>\nBiblical Terms<\/p>\nThe Hebrew word “Sheol” in the OT is predominantly used for “the grave, the pit, the place of the departed dead” (Gn 37:35; Jb 7:9; 14:13; 17:13-16; Pss 6:5; 16:10; 55:15; Prv 9:18; Eccl 9:10; Is 14:11; 38:10-12, 18). There does not seem to be a very clear distinction in the OT between the final destiny of the good and the evil. They all alike go to the grave, to the world below, a world of gloom, weariness, darkness, decay, and forgetfulness, where one is remote from God (Jb 10:20-22; Ps 88:3-6), yet accessible to him (Jb 26:6; Ps 138:8; Am 9:2). It is a place characterized by silence (Pss 94:17; 115:17) and rest (Jb 3:17). Other texts, however, seem to suggest some aspect of consciousness, hope, and communication in Sheol (Jb 14:13-15; 19:25-27; Pss 16:10; 49:15; Is 14:9-10; Ez 32:21). A few texts seem to suggest the threat of divine judgment after death (Pss 9:17; 55:15). On the whole, Sheol was regarded with dismay and foreboding (Dt 32:22; Is 38:18).<\/p>\nIt was not until the time of the postcanonical Jewish literature, the writings that were developed between the close of the OT and the beginning of NT times, that clear distinctions were made between the final destinies of the righteous and the unrighteous. The idea of separate divisions within Sheol for the good and the evil was developed. It is unmistakable that there was in Jewish thought, as reflected throughout the OT, a belief in a future and continued existence beyond death, however shadowy and indefinite the concept.<\/p>\nThe Greek word “hades” in the NT is used very similarly to “Sheol” in the OT. It was, in fact, used by the translators of the Septuagint, the Greek version of the OT, for Sheol. It designated in general the place or state of the dead, the grave, or death itself. In some versions the word is not translated at all but is transliterated simply as “hades.” The NT is not always very explicit about the meaning of hades, other than what has just been described. Use of the word often does not reveal much about the specific condition of the dead. There are some passages, however, that indicate a distinct advance over the use of Sheol in the OT. One NT passage definitely describes hades as a place of evil and punishment of the wicked, and may appropriately be translated “hell” (Lk 16:23). In all other instances, hades indicates nothing more than the place of the dead.<\/p>\nThe Greek word “Gehenna” is used in a number of NT texts to designate the fiery place for punishment of sinners and is often translated “hell” or “the fires of hell” (Mt 5:22, 29-30; 10:28; 18:9; 23:15, 33; Mk 9:43, 45, 47; Jas 3:6). It is usually used in connection with the final judgment and often has the suggestion that the punishment spoken of is eternal. Gehenna is derived by transliteration from the Hebrew of the OT “valley of Hinnom” or the “valley of the son of Hinnom,” a ravine on the south side of Jerusalem. This valley was the center of idolatrous worship in which children were burned by fire as an offering to the heathen god Molech (2 Chr 28:3; 33:6). In the time of Josiah it became a place of abomination, polluted by dead men’s bones and rubbish (2 Kgs 23:10-14) and by the garbage and filth of Jerusalem dumped there. A fire burned continuously in this valley. It thus became a symbol of the unending fires of hell where the lost are consumed in torment. It was a symbol of judgment to be imposed on the idolatrous and disobedient (Jer 7:31-34; 32:35).<\/p>\nAnother Greek word used to designate hell or “the lower regions” is “Tartarus” (2 Pt 2:4), a classical word for the place of eternal punishment. The apostle Peter uses it for the fallen angels who were thrown into hell, “committed . . . to pits of nether gloom to be kept until the judgment” (rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\nAs noted above, there are, in addition to these terms, the very explicit and vivid phrases that clearly teach the doctrine of hell, as developed at the beginning of this article. The biblical doctrine is determined much more by these decisive phrases than by the somewhat indecisive but frequently used terms “Sheol” and “hades.”<\/p>\n\nThe Justice of Eternal Punishment<\/p>\nIt is difficult for us to understand the righteous judgment of a holy God who, on one hand, hates all evil, yet, on the other hand, loves the evildoers enough to sacrifice his only Son for their salvation from sin. Divine wrath is the necessary reaction of a holy God who hates all that is contrary to his righteous nature. When the only remedy for human sin is rejected and all appeals of a loving, seeking God for the reconciliation of rebellious sinners are refused, there is no other course of action that God himself can pursue but to leave the sinner to his self-chosen destiny. Punishment for sin is then the inevitable and inescapable response of holiness to that which is morally opposite, and it must continue as long as the sinful condition requiring it continues. There is no indication anywhere in Scripture that lost sinners in hell are capable of repentance and faith. If in this life they did not turn away from sin and receive Christ as Savior with all the favorable circumstances and opportunities afforded them on earth, it is unreasonable to think they will do so in the life to come. Punishment cannot come to an end until guilt and sin come to an end. When the sinner ultimately resists and rejects the work of the Holy Spirit whereby he is convicted of sin, there remains no more possibility of repentance or salvation. He has committed an eternal sin (Mk 3:29; Rv 22:11), which deserves eternal punishment.<\/p>\nThe impossibility of faith and repentance in hell is seen also from the tragic reality of the depraved will, conditioned and determined by its repeated rebellion against God. Sin reproduces itself in the will, and character tends to become irrevocably fixed. God responds to endless sinning with the necessary counterpart of endless punishment.<\/p>\nIf the question is raised, How can a loving God send people to an everlasting hell? it must be replied that God does not choose this destination for people; they freely choose it for themselves. God simply concurs in their self-chosen way and reveals the full consequences of their evil choice. It must always be remembered that God is not only loving; he is also holy and righteous. There must be some adequate reckoning with justice in the universe where a revolt against God has brought evil consequences of enormous proportions.<\/p>\nWhile the duration of punishment in hell is eternal for all who have chosen that destiny for themselves, there are degrees of punishment proportional to the degrees of guilt of each individual. Only God is able to determine what those degrees are, and he will assign the consequences with perfect justice according to the responsibility of each one. Evidence of such gradations in future punishment is found in Scripture (Mt 11:20-24; Lk 12:47-48; Rv 20:12-13; cf. Ez 16:48-61). An obvious comparison is made in these texts between the differing intensities of punishment that are involved in the contrasting privileges, knowledge, and opportunities.<\/p>\nFrom all that has been said, it should be obvious that a variety of nonbiblical views must be ruled out, however attractively they may be presented by their advocates and however popular they may be from time to time. Among these views are the erroneous, but sometimes persuasive, doctrines of universalism, annihilationism, and second probation. Universalism promotes the concept that God will save everyone in the end. Annihilationism teaches that hell is not a place of conscious suffering but of final extermination. And second probation is a notion that people can be delivered from hell. It must always be remembered that the Bible is our rule of faith for the doctrine of hell, however difficult the doctrine may seem for natural reason or for human sentiment. Scripture leaves no doubt about the terrible nature and the eternal duration of hell. Rejection or neglect of this doctrine will have dire effects upon the mission of the church.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> “Abraham’s Bosom”; Dead, Place of the; Death; Gehenna; Hades; Intermediate State; Sheol; Wrath of God.<\/p>","summary_ro":"HELL Place of future punishment for the lost, unrepentant, wicked dead. Preview • Definition and Description • Biblical Terms • The Justice of Eternal Punishment Definition and Description Hell is the final destiny of unbelievers and is variously described by the figures of a furnace of fire, eternal fire, eternal punishment (Mt 13:42, 50; 25:41, 46); outer darkness, the place of weeping and torment (8:12); the lake of fire, the second death (Rv 21:8); a place for the devil and his demons (Mt...","summary_en":"HELL Place of future punishment for the lost, unrepentant, wicked dead. Preview • Definition and Description • Biblical Terms • The Justice of Eternal Punishment Definition and Description Hell is the final destiny of unbelievers and is variously described by the figures of a furnace of fire, eternal fire, eternal punishment (Mt 13:42, 50; 25:41, 46); outer darkness, the place of weeping and torment (8:12); the lake of fire, the second death (Rv 21:8); a place for the devil and his demons (Mt...","source":"Articles\/H.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":23200,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Life","title_en":"Life","content_ro":"<h3>LIFE<\/h3>\nIn biblical perspective, life flows from the living Father through the Son (his agent in creation and redemption) into a world thirsting for “real” life (see Jn 6:57).<\/p>\nThe Living Father<\/p>\nGod the Father is above all else “the living God” (Jer 10:10; Jn 5:26). God, the source of all life (1 Tm 6:13), “inbreathed” humans at creation and sustains them continually (Jb 34:14-15). God alone gives life (Gn 17:16) and takes it away (Gn 3:22-24; 6:3; Ps 104:29; Lk 12:20).<\/p>\nThe sign of life is movement; man is a “lively,” animated body (Mt 27:50; Lk 8:55). Animals also have this animating “breath-soul” (Hebrew of Gn 1:24; 6:17). Thus, all nature is instilled with life deriving from God (Acts 17:24-28). Life is therefore sacred, but unfortunately it is as transient as grass, clouds, dew, shadow (1 Chr 29:15; Jb 7:6, 9; Jas 4:13-16; 1 Pt 1:24). Long life is desired (Gn 35:29); any life is preferable to death and of infinite value (Eccl 9:4-6; Mt 6:25; 16:26), for Sheol houses a ghostly “nonliving life,” bereft of feeling, hope, or divine help (Ps 88:3-12). One’s life can be enhanced by loving and serving God (Dt 30:15-20; 1 Pt 3:8-12), by experiencing God’s deliverance (Is 38:16), and by receiving divine blessings (Mt 5:3-12).<\/p>\nChrist as Life<\/p>\nThe Greek word for “life” is zoe<\/span>.<\/em> In classical Greek this word was used for life in general. There are a few examples of this meaning in the New Testament (see Acts 17:25; Jas 4:14: Rv 16:3), but in all other instances the word was used to designate the divine, eternal life—the life of God (Eph 4:18). This life resided in Christ, and he made it available to all who believe in him. Human beings are born with the natural life—called psuche<\/span> in Greek (translated “soul,” “personality,” or “life”); they do not possess the eternal life. This life can be received only by believing in the one who possesses the zoe<\/span>-life,<\/em> namely, Jesus Christ.<\/p>\nThe overflowing, vibrant quality of life made available in Christ was evident in the authority of his speech and the power of his touch (Mt 9:18; Mk 1:27, 41-42; 5:27-29). He is “the author of life” (Acts 3:15), who provides the way into life (Mt 7:14; 25:46; Mk 8:35-37; 9:42-47). And he raised the dead with his life-giving power. His own resurrection made him “a life-giving spirit,” with the power of “an indestructible life” (Rom 8:2; 1 Cor 15:45; Heb 7:16). Thus, Jesus Christ is “our life” (Col 3:4)—in union with whom we find “newness of life” (Rom 6:4) and are newly created, living henceforth not for ourselves but for him (2 Cor 5:15-17).<\/p>\nJohn, especially, dwells on the theme that Christ is the source of this new life (Jn 3:14-16; 5:21) for the children of God (1:12; 3:3, 5). This life is enjoyed already by those who know God and Christ (5:24; 17:3; 1 Jn 5:11-12), for they have already passed from death into eternal life (Jn 10:28; 11:26). Such life is abundant (10:10), enlightened (8:12), free and satisfied (10:9), victorious (Rom 6:6-14), full of peace and joy (Rom 5:1-11), inexhaustibly refreshed (Jn 4:13-14; 7:37-38) and immortal (Jn 5:24; 1 Cor 15:51-57).<\/p>\nAll this is possible because from the beginning “all that came to be was alive with his life” (Jn 1:4, neb<\/span>). Thus, the life within the Father flows into the world through the Son, who also “has life in himself” and gives it to whom he will (5:26). He is “the resurrection and the life” (11:25; 14:6) and demonstrates it by restoring life to paralyzed limbs, raising the dead, and conquering death (5:5-9; 11:43; ch 20). People remain in death only because they will not “come” and “have life” (5:40; cf. 1 Jn 3:14).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Eternal Life.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>LIFE<\/h3>\nIn biblical perspective, life flows from the living Father through the Son (his agent in creation and redemption) into a world thirsting for “real” life (see Jn 6:57).<\/p>\nThe Living Father<\/p>\nGod the Father is above all else “the living God” (Jer 10:10; Jn 5:26). God, the source of all life (1 Tm 6:13), “inbreathed” humans at creation and sustains them continually (Jb 34:14-15). God alone gives life (Gn 17:16) and takes it away (Gn 3:22-24; 6:3; Ps 104:29; Lk 12:20).<\/p>\nThe sign of life is movement; man is a “lively,” animated body (Mt 27:50; Lk 8:55). Animals also have this animating “breath-soul” (Hebrew of Gn 1:24; 6:17). Thus, all nature is instilled with life deriving from God (Acts 17:24-28). Life is therefore sacred, but unfortunately it is as transient as grass, clouds, dew, shadow (1 Chr 29:15; Jb 7:6, 9; Jas 4:13-16; 1 Pt 1:24). Long life is desired (Gn 35:29); any life is preferable to death and of infinite value (Eccl 9:4-6; Mt 6:25; 16:26), for Sheol houses a ghostly “nonliving life,” bereft of feeling, hope, or divine help (Ps 88:3-12). One’s life can be enhanced by loving and serving God (Dt 30:15-20; 1 Pt 3:8-12), by experiencing God’s deliverance (Is 38:16), and by receiving divine blessings (Mt 5:3-12).<\/p>\nChrist as Life<\/p>\nThe Greek word for “life” is zoe<\/span>.<\/em> In classical Greek this word was used for life in general. There are a few examples of this meaning in the New Testament (see Acts 17:25; Jas 4:14: Rv 16:3), but in all other instances the word was used to designate the divine, eternal life—the life of God (Eph 4:18). This life resided in Christ, and he made it available to all who believe in him. Human beings are born with the natural life—called psuche<\/span> in Greek (translated “soul,” “personality,” or “life”); they do not possess the eternal life. This life can be received only by believing in the one who possesses the zoe<\/span>-life,<\/em> namely, Jesus Christ.<\/p>\nThe overflowing, vibrant quality of life made available in Christ was evident in the authority of his speech and the power of his touch (Mt 9:18; Mk 1:27, 41-42; 5:27-29). He is “the author of life” (Acts 3:15), who provides the way into life (Mt 7:14; 25:46; Mk 8:35-37; 9:42-47). And he raised the dead with his life-giving power. His own resurrection made him “a life-giving spirit,” with the power of “an indestructible life” (Rom 8:2; 1 Cor 15:45; Heb 7:16). Thus, Jesus Christ is “our life” (Col 3:4)—in union with whom we find “newness of life” (Rom 6:4) and are newly created, living henceforth not for ourselves but for him (2 Cor 5:15-17).<\/p>\nJohn, especially, dwells on the theme that Christ is the source of this new life (Jn 3:14-16; 5:21) for the children of God (1:12; 3:3, 5). This life is enjoyed already by those who know God and Christ (5:24; 17:3; 1 Jn 5:11-12), for they have already passed from death into eternal life (Jn 10:28; 11:26). Such life is abundant (10:10), enlightened (8:12), free and satisfied (10:9), victorious (Rom 6:6-14), full of peace and joy (Rom 5:1-11), inexhaustibly refreshed (Jn 4:13-14; 7:37-38) and immortal (Jn 5:24; 1 Cor 15:51-57).<\/p>\nAll this is possible because from the beginning “all that came to be was alive with his life” (Jn 1:4, neb<\/span>). Thus, the life within the Father flows into the world through the Son, who also “has life in himself” and gives it to whom he will (5:26). He is “the resurrection and the life” (11:25; 14:6) and demonstrates it by restoring life to paralyzed limbs, raising the dead, and conquering death (5:5-9; 11:43; ch 20). People remain in death only because they will not “come” and “have life” (5:40; cf. 1 Jn 3:14).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Eternal Life.<\/p>","summary_ro":"LIFE In biblical perspective, life flows from the living Father through the Son (his agent in creation and redemption) into a world thirsting for “real” life (see Jn 6:57). The Living Father God the Father is above all else “the living God” (Jer 10:10; Jn 5:26). God, the source of all life (1 Tm 6:13), “inbreathed” humans at creation and sustains them continually (Jb 34:14-15). God alone gives life (Gn 17:16) and takes it away (Gn 3:22-24; 6:3; Ps 104:29; Lk 12:20). The sign of life is moveme...","summary_en":"LIFE In biblical perspective, life flows from the living Father through the Son (his agent in creation and redemption) into a world thirsting for “real” life (see Jn 6:57). The Living Father God the Father is above all else “the living God” (Jer 10:10; Jn 5:26). God, the source of all life (1 Tm 6:13), “inbreathed” humans at creation and sustains them continually (Jb 34:14-15). God alone gives life (Gn 17:16) and takes it away (Gn 3:22-24; 6:3; Ps 104:29; Lk 12:20). The sign of life is moveme...","source":"Articles\/L.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":35965,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Soul","title_en":"Soul","content_ro":"<h3>SOUL<\/h3>\nTerm translating the Greek word psuche<\/span> and the Hebrew nephesh<\/span>.<\/em><\/p>\nThe Greek philosopher Plato (fourth century BC<\/span>) perceived the soul as the eternal element in humans; whereas the body perishes at death, the soul is indestructible. At death the soul enters another body; if it has been wicked in this life, it may be sent into an inferior human being or even an animal or bird. By means of transmigration from one body to another, the soul is eventually purged of evil. In the early centuries of the Christian era, Gnosticism also taught that the body was the prison house of the soul. Redemption comes to those initiated into the Gnostic secrets, leading to the release of the soul from the body.<\/p>\nBiblical thought about the soul is different. In the OT the soul signifies that which is vital to humans in the broadest sense. The Hebrew and Greek words for soul often can be translated as “life”; occasionally, they can be used for the life of creatures (Gn 1:20; Lv 11:10). “Soul for soul” means “life for life” (Ex 21:23). In legal writings, a soul refers to a person in relation to a particular law (e.g., “If a soul shall sin . . . ,” Lv 4:2, kjv<\/span>). When people were counted, they were counted as souls, that is, persons (Ex 1:5; Dt 10:22).<\/p>\nIn a narrower sense, the soul denotes human emotions and inner powers. People are called to love God with all their heart and soul (Dt 13:3). Knowledge and understanding (Ps 139:14), thought (1 Sm 20:3), love (1 Sm 18:1), and memory (Lam 3:20) all originate in the soul. Here the soul comes close to what today would be called the self, one’s person, personality, or ego.<\/p>\nThere is no suggestion in the OT of the transmigration of the soul as an immaterial, immortal entity. Man is a unity of body and soul—terms that describe not so much two separate entities in a person as much as one person from different standpoints. Hence, in the description of man’s creation in Genesis 2:7, the phrase “a living soul” (kjv<\/span>) is better translated as “a living being.” The thought is not that men and women became souls,<\/em> for clearly they had bodies. The use of the word in the original draws attention to the vital aspect of humans as “living beings.” The Hebrew view of the unity of the person may help to explain why people in the OT had only a shadowy view of life after death, for it would be difficult to conceive how people could exist without a body (Pss 16:10; 49:15; 88:3-12). Where hope of an afterlife exists, it is not because of the intrinsic character of the soul itself (as in Plato). It is grounded in confidence in the God who has power over death and the belief that communion with him cannot be broken even by death (Ex 3:6; 1 Sm 2:6; Jb 19:25-26; Pss 16:10-11; 73:24-25; Is 25:8; 26:19; Dn 12:2; Hos 6:1-3; 13:14).<\/p>\nIn the NT the word for soul (psuche<\/span>) has a range of meanings similar to that in the OT. Often it is synonymous with life itself. Followers of Jesus are said to have risked their lives (souls) for his sake (Acts 15:26; cf. Jn 13:37; Rom 16:4; Phil 2:30). As the Son of Man, Jesus came not to be served but to serve and to give his life (soul) as a ransom for many (Mt 20:28; Mk 10:45). As the Good Shepherd, he lays down his life (soul) for the sheep (Jn 10:14, 17-18). In Luke 14:26 the condition of discipleship is to hate one’s soul, that is, to be willing to deny oneself to the point of losing one’s life for Christ’s sake (cf. Lk 9:23; Rv 12:11).<\/p>\nFrequently “soul” can mean “person” (Acts 2:43; 3:23; 7:14; Rom 2:9; 13:1; 1 Pt 3:20). The expression “every living soul” (Rv 16:3, kjv<\/span>) reflects the vital aspect of living beings. As in the OT, the soul can denote not only the vital aspect of the person on the physical level, but it can also connote one’s emotional energies. It denotes the person himself, the seat of his or her emotions, one’s inmost being. For example, when Jesus was agonizing about his death, he spoke of his soul being crushed (Mt 26:38; Mk 14:34; cf. Ps 42:6). In an entirely different setting, Jesus promised rest to the souls of those who come to him (Mt 11:29). Here, as elsewhere, “soul” denotes the essential person (cf. Lk 2:35; 2 Cor 1:23; 2 Thes 2:8; 3 Jn 1:2).<\/p>\nSeveral passages place the soul alongside the spirit. Luke 1:46 is probably a case of Hebrew poetic parallelism, which expresses the same idea in two different ways. Both terms denote Mary as a person in the depths of her being. Similarly, in Hebrews 4:12, dividing the soul and the spirit is a graphic way of saying how the Word of God probes the inmost recesses of our being. The prayer in 1 Thessalonians 5:23—that the readers may be kept blameless in spirit, soul, and body—is a way of speaking of the whole being. Here soul probably suggests physical existence, as in Genesis 2:7 and 1 Corinthians 2:14, whereas spirit may imply the higher or “spiritual” side of life.<\/p>\nIn other passages, the emotions, the will, and even the mind come to the fore, though in each case there is the accompanying idea of a person’s inmost being. People are to love God with all the soul (Mt 22:37; Mk 12:30; cf. Dt 6:5). The expression “from the soul” (Eph 6:6; Col 3:23) means “from the heart,” with all one’s being. In Philippians 1:27 believers are called to be of one mind (cf. Acts 4:32; 14:2). Passages that speak of the soul in relation to salvation include Matthew 10:28; Luke 12:5; Hebrews 6:19; 10:39; 12:3; 13:7; James 1:21; 5:20; 1 Peter 1:9, 22-23; 2:25; 4:19; and Revelation 6:9; 20:4. Such passages speak of the soul either to stress the essential human being, as distinct from the physical body, or to express man’s continued existence with God prior to the resurrection.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Man; Spirit of Man.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>SOUL<\/h3>\nTerm translating the Greek word psuche<\/span> and the Hebrew nephesh<\/span>.<\/em><\/p>\nThe Greek philosopher Plato (fourth century BC<\/span>) perceived the soul as the eternal element in humans; whereas the body perishes at death, the soul is indestructible. At death the soul enters another body; if it has been wicked in this life, it may be sent into an inferior human being or even an animal or bird. By means of transmigration from one body to another, the soul is eventually purged of evil. In the early centuries of the Christian era, Gnosticism also taught that the body was the prison house of the soul. Redemption comes to those initiated into the Gnostic secrets, leading to the release of the soul from the body.<\/p>\nBiblical thought about the soul is different. In the OT the soul signifies that which is vital to humans in the broadest sense. The Hebrew and Greek words for soul often can be translated as “life”; occasionally, they can be used for the life of creatures (Gn 1:20; Lv 11:10). “Soul for soul” means “life for life” (Ex 21:23). In legal writings, a soul refers to a person in relation to a particular law (e.g., “If a soul shall sin . . . ,” Lv 4:2, kjv<\/span>). When people were counted, they were counted as souls, that is, persons (Ex 1:5; Dt 10:22).<\/p>\nIn a narrower sense, the soul denotes human emotions and inner powers. People are called to love God with all their heart and soul (Dt 13:3). Knowledge and understanding (Ps 139:14), thought (1 Sm 20:3), love (1 Sm 18:1), and memory (Lam 3:20) all originate in the soul. Here the soul comes close to what today would be called the self, one’s person, personality, or ego.<\/p>\nThere is no suggestion in the OT of the transmigration of the soul as an immaterial, immortal entity. Man is a unity of body and soul—terms that describe not so much two separate entities in a person as much as one person from different standpoints. Hence, in the description of man’s creation in Genesis 2:7, the phrase “a living soul” (kjv<\/span>) is better translated as “a living being.” The thought is not that men and women became souls,<\/em> for clearly they had bodies. The use of the word in the original draws attention to the vital aspect of humans as “living beings.” The Hebrew view of the unity of the person may help to explain why people in the OT had only a shadowy view of life after death, for it would be difficult to conceive how people could exist without a body (Pss 16:10; 49:15; 88:3-12). Where hope of an afterlife exists, it is not because of the intrinsic character of the soul itself (as in Plato). It is grounded in confidence in the God who has power over death and the belief that communion with him cannot be broken even by death (Ex 3:6; 1 Sm 2:6; Jb 19:25-26; Pss 16:10-11; 73:24-25; Is 25:8; 26:19; Dn 12:2; Hos 6:1-3; 13:14).<\/p>\nIn the NT the word for soul (psuche<\/span>) has a range of meanings similar to that in the OT. Often it is synonymous with life itself. Followers of Jesus are said to have risked their lives (souls) for his sake (Acts 15:26; cf. Jn 13:37; Rom 16:4; Phil 2:30). As the Son of Man, Jesus came not to be served but to serve and to give his life (soul) as a ransom for many (Mt 20:28; Mk 10:45). As the Good Shepherd, he lays down his life (soul) for the sheep (Jn 10:14, 17-18). In Luke 14:26 the condition of discipleship is to hate one’s soul, that is, to be willing to deny oneself to the point of losing one’s life for Christ’s sake (cf. Lk 9:23; Rv 12:11).<\/p>\nFrequently “soul” can mean “person” (Acts 2:43; 3:23; 7:14; Rom 2:9; 13:1; 1 Pt 3:20). The expression “every living soul” (Rv 16:3, kjv<\/span>) reflects the vital aspect of living beings. As in the OT, the soul can denote not only the vital aspect of the person on the physical level, but it can also connote one’s emotional energies. It denotes the person himself, the seat of his or her emotions, one’s inmost being. For example, when Jesus was agonizing about his death, he spoke of his soul being crushed (Mt 26:38; Mk 14:34; cf. Ps 42:6). In an entirely different setting, Jesus promised rest to the souls of those who come to him (Mt 11:29). Here, as elsewhere, “soul” denotes the essential person (cf. Lk 2:35; 2 Cor 1:23; 2 Thes 2:8; 3 Jn 1:2).<\/p>\nSeveral passages place the soul alongside the spirit. Luke 1:46 is probably a case of Hebrew poetic parallelism, which expresses the same idea in two different ways. Both terms denote Mary as a person in the depths of her being. Similarly, in Hebrews 4:12, dividing the soul and the spirit is a graphic way of saying how the Word of God probes the inmost recesses of our being. The prayer in 1 Thessalonians 5:23—that the readers may be kept blameless in spirit, soul, and body—is a way of speaking of the whole being. Here soul probably suggests physical existence, as in Genesis 2:7 and 1 Corinthians 2:14, whereas spirit may imply the higher or “spiritual” side of life.<\/p>\nIn other passages, the emotions, the will, and even the mind come to the fore, though in each case there is the accompanying idea of a person’s inmost being. People are to love God with all the soul (Mt 22:37; Mk 12:30; cf. Dt 6:5). The expression “from the soul” (Eph 6:6; Col 3:23) means “from the heart,” with all one’s being. In Philippians 1:27 believers are called to be of one mind (cf. Acts 4:32; 14:2). Passages that speak of the soul in relation to salvation include Matthew 10:28; Luke 12:5; Hebrews 6:19; 10:39; 12:3; 13:7; James 1:21; 5:20; 1 Peter 1:9, 22-23; 2:25; 4:19; and Revelation 6:9; 20:4. Such passages speak of the soul either to stress the essential human being, as distinct from the physical body, or to express man’s continued existence with God prior to the resurrection.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Man; Spirit of Man.<\/p>","summary_ro":"SOUL Term translating the Greek word psuche and the Hebrew nephesh. The Greek philosopher Plato (fourth century BC) perceived the soul as the eternal element in humans; whereas the body perishes at death, the soul is indestructible. At death the soul enters another body; if it has been wicked in this life, it may be sent into an inferior human being or even an animal or bird. By means of transmigration from one body to another, the soul is eventually purged of evil. In the early centuries of ...","summary_en":"SOUL Term translating the Greek word psuche and the Hebrew nephesh. The Greek philosopher Plato (fourth century BC) perceived the soul as the eternal element in humans; whereas the body perishes at death, the soul is indestructible. At death the soul enters another body; if it has been wicked in this life, it may be sent into an inferior human being or even an animal or bird. By means of transmigration from one body to another, the soul is eventually purged of evil. In the early centuries of ...","source":"Articles\/S.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"4":[{"id":30467,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Pit","title_en":"Pit","content_ro":"<h3>PIT<\/h3>\nWord used frequently in the OT to denote the grave, the abode of the dead, or Sheol—that is, a shadowy existence that the living feared because it cut them off from light, joy, and vitality. Godly people abhorred it because it seemed to them that it would negate their fellowship with God: Hezekiah (Is 38:17-18), Job (Jb 17:13-16; 33:22), and the psalmists (Pss 28:1; 30:3; 55:23; 88:4-6).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Bottomless Pit; Dead, Place of the; Death; Sheol.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>PIT<\/h3>\nWord used frequently in the OT to denote the grave, the abode of the dead, or Sheol—that is, a shadowy existence that the living feared because it cut them off from light, joy, and vitality. Godly people abhorred it because it seemed to them that it would negate their fellowship with God: Hezekiah (Is 38:17-18), Job (Jb 17:13-16; 33:22), and the psalmists (Pss 28:1; 30:3; 55:23; 88:4-6).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Bottomless Pit; Dead, Place of the; Death; Sheol.<\/p>","summary_ro":"PIT Word used frequently in the OT to denote the grave, the abode of the dead, or Sheol—that is, a shadowy existence that the living feared because it cut them off from light, joy, and vitality. Godly people abhorred it because it seemed to them that it would negate their fellowship with God: Hezekiah (Is 38:17-18), Job (Jb 17:13-16; 33:22), and the psalmists (Pss 28:1; 30:3; 55:23; 88:4-6). See also Bottomless Pit; Dead, Place of the; Death; Sheol.","summary_en":"PIT Word used frequently in the OT to denote the grave, the abode of the dead, or Sheol—that is, a shadowy existence that the living feared because it cut them off from light, joy, and vitality. Godly people abhorred it because it seemed to them that it would negate their fellowship with God: Hezekiah (Is 38:17-18), Job (Jb 17:13-16; 33:22), and the psalmists (Pss 28:1; 30:3; 55:23; 88:4-6). See also Bottomless Pit; Dead, Place of the; Death; Sheol.","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"5":[{"id":8932,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Place of the Dead","title_en":"Place of the Dead","content_ro":"<h3>DEAD, Place of the<\/h3>\nTerm covering a number of descriptive biblical images of the whereabouts of those who have died. Those images include Sheol and “the pit” in the OT, plus hades, Gehenna, paradise, and “Abraham’s bosom” in the NT. As their understanding advanced, the Hebrews’ idea of what happens at death changed from rather hazy beginnings to a developed concept found in the NT.<\/p>\nIn the Old Testament<\/p>\nThe OT contains meager information about the dead. At death, according to some OT passages, one descends to Sheol (often translated as “grave,” “hell,” “pit,” or simply “the dead”), which at times means merely that one is laid in a grave (Nm 16:30, 33), but more often indicates an underworld. The abode of the dead is pictured as a place beneath the earth to which one “goes down” (Gn 42:38; Prv 15:24; Ez 26:20) and as a place of gloomy darkness (Jb 10:21-22), silence (Pss 94:17; 115:17), and forgetfulness (Ps 88:12). God is not remembered there and his praises are never sung (Pss 6:5; 30:9; 115:17). Even God himself, it was believed, does not remember those who are there (Ps 88:5, 11; Is 38:18). The dead were seen as permanently cut off from contact with the Lord and from participating in his activity in history. Even though the border between life and death was considered fluid (as shown by a resurrection in 2 Kgs 4:32-37 and by Samuel’s ghost in 1 Sm 28:7-25), communication with the dead was forbidden to the Jews (Dt 18:11). (Worshiping the dead was a common practice in the nations surrounding Israel.)<\/p>\nAlthough one’s fate in the underworld could not properly be called life, it was a kind of existence, perhaps even in the company of one’s countrymen and ancestors (Gn 25:8; Ez 32:17-30). The realm of the dead was not beyond the reach of God’s power (Ps 139:8; Am 9:2; Jon 2:2). Although Sheol was pictured as a hungry monster wolfing down the living (Prv 27:20; 30:16), God’s power could save one from its grasp (Pss 49:15; 86:13). By the end of the OT period, there was even hope that one would finally be delivered from Sheol (Jb 14:13-22; 19:25-27; Pss 49:15; 73:23-28), although only Daniel expressed that hope clearly (Dn 12:1-2). So although the ancient Hebrews never looked forward to death in the same way that the apostle Paul could in the NT (2 Cor 5:1-8; Phil 1:21-23), nevertheless they did come to understand that death was not a hopeless state.<\/p>\nIn the Intertestamental Writings<\/p>\nBetween the exile and the beginning of the NT period (586 BC<\/span>–AD<\/span> 30, overlapping with the end of the OT), contact with the religions of Persia and Greece stimulated the Jews to clarify their ideas about life after death. When the OT was translated into Greek, the Greek name for the underworld, “hades,” was used to translate the Hebrew “Sheol.” In the NT, hades was carried over to become the common name for the abode of the dead.<\/p>\nAlong with new names came new ideas. Many different notions circulated about the place of the dead. A common one appears in the pseudepigraphal 1 Enoch 22, where the dead are said to be kept in hollow places in a great mountain waiting for the final judgment. One relatively pleasant section was reserved for the righteous and one full of torments for the wicked. Other writers continued the OT concept of hades or Sheol as a place of separation from God and from happiness (Ecclus 14:12, 16; 17:27-28).<\/p>\nDuring that period, the Jews also began to use a new term, “Gehenna” (Hebrew “Hinnom”), the name of a valley south of Jerusalem. The valley was noted in the OT period for the abomination of child sacrifices (2 Kgs 16:3; 21:6; 23:10) and in the NT period for its smoldering garbage. Gehenna became a designation for the final place of the wicked dead, a place of fiery torment (1 Enoch 90:20-27; 2 Esd 7:70). Over against that place of punishment stood “paradise” (a Persian name for a pleasure garden), a place where the righteous would enjoy blessedness.<\/p>\nAll those concepts—hades, Gehenna, paradise—were molded by NT writers into forms most appropriate to the revelation of Christ.<\/p>\nIn the New Testament<\/p>\nAlthough the NT uses a variety of terms for the abode of the dead, it contains surprisingly few references to it—about 35 verses in all. Those passages are concentrated in the Gospels and the book of Revelation. The apostle Paul said a lot about heaven, but only Jesus and John said much about hell.<\/p>\nThe word “hades” is attributed to Jesus only once, in the parable of the rich man and Lazarus (Lk 16:23). In that parable hades is a place of torment where the wicked go at death. The torment is described as a “flame” that afflicts a person physically despite bodily death. All comfort is refused to those in agony.<\/p>\nAlthough the wicked go to hades as soon as they die, their ultimate destination is Gehenna, a place of fire and worms, both indicating corruption (Mt 5:22, 29-30; 18:9; Mk 9:48, quoting from Is 66:24). Jesus also referred to Gehenna as “the outer darkness” where there will be “weeping and gnashing of teeth” (Mt 8:12; 22:13; 25:30). Evidently, after the final judgment, the wicked are sent there at the command of Christ (Jn 5:22, 27; Acts 10:42; 17:31; 2 Tm 4:1). That place of torment picks up the negative side of the OT concept of Sheol as a place of separation from God.<\/p>\nAs a preacher of repentance, Jesus stressed the danger of Gehenna. He had much less to say about the place of the righteous when they die. Ultimately, though, the righteous would enter into “the kingdom,” instead of Gehenna, after the last judgment (Mt 25:34). Jesus twice indicated that the righteous enter a blessed state immediately at death. Luke 16:22 refers to the dead Lazarus as being in “Abraham’s bosom,” a place of comfort and peace. Luke 23:43 calls the same place paradise in a promise that the dying thief would join Jesus there at death. Paul’s wording about paradise seems to align it with heaven (2 Cor 12:2-3), and John associates paradise with the new heaven and new earth (Rv 2:7; 21:1-2; 22:1-2).<\/p>\nPaul and other writers of the NT epistles had little to say about the abode of the wicked dead. Paul spoke only in passing of “the abyss”—his term for the pit of Sheol (Rom 10:7). His reference to Christ’s descent to the “lower parts of the earth” (Eph 4:9) is probably only his way of saying that Christ, having died, went to the place of the dead. (“The lowest earth” was a term used by Jewish rabbis for Sheol\/hades\/Gehenna.) Peter spoke of Christ’s going in “spirit” after his death to some “prison” where he “preached to the spirits” (1 Pt 3:18-20). Interpretations of that passage differ. Some think that Christ entered hades and preached to the fallen angels of Noah’s day (“sons of God,” Gn 6:1-4), not that he preached to imprisoned human spirits. In 2 Peter 2:4 the prison for spirits (usually translated “hell”) comes from “Tartarus,” another Greek name for the underworld.<\/p>\nPaul had much to say about the abode of the righteous dead. In his earliest letters he never mentioned their location, only that they would be resurrected (1 Cor 15; 1 Thes 4:13-17). After facing almost certain death himself (2 Cor 1:8-11), he began to discuss where the dead “went.” To die means to be with Christ, Paul said, and thus is better than life (Phil 1:23). To be “away from the body” is to be “at home with the Lord” (2 Cor 5:8). Paul probably meant that the righteous dead went directly to paradise to be with Jesus (cf. 2 Cor 12:2-4, where Paul called paradise “the third heaven”). Death has absolutely no power to separate Christians from Christ (Rom 8:38-39). Instead, it brings them into the presence of God.<\/p>\nThe book of Revelation contains much about the abode of the dead, especially the wicked dead. It uses two names for that place: “the abyss,” the home or prison of all evil spirits; and “hades,” the name for the place of the human dead. From the abyss (or bottomless pit) come the demonic forms that torment humanity (Rv 9:1-11) and the satanic “beast,” who kills the two witnesses and carries the “great prostitute” on its back (11:7; 17). There Satan himself will be imprisoned (20:2-3). Jesus described it as a place prepared for the devil and his angels (cf. Mt 25:41). The good news for Christians is that the abyss, or hades, is not an autonomous realm. The book of Revelation begins with Jesus’ announcement that he has the keys to hades (Rv 1:18), and in the end he will force it to give up its dead (20:13). Until then, the key to the abyss is not in the hand of Satan, but hangs on a heavenly key ring to be distributed only to the messengers of God (9:1; 20:1). In the end, hades, death, and the wicked will be cast into the lake of fire (Gehenna), where they will suffer eternal torment (19:20; 20:10, 14-15; 21:8).<\/p>\nJohn, the writer of the Revelation, agreed with Paul that the righteous will not share the fate of the wicked at death. Instead of going to hades, they go to heaven. The martyrs appear under the altar, calling to God to avenge them (Rv 6:9-11). In another image innumerable Christians appear before the throne of God, praising him (7:9-17). Those believers, shepherded by Christ himself, suffer no hunger, thirst, discomfort, or sorrow.<\/p>\nConclusion<\/p>\nIn summary, the place of the dead began in the OT as an undifferentiated, hazy idea of a place of separation from life and God. Later writers came to see that instead of one place for all (Sheol), there must be two. According to Christian teaching, the wicked enter the underworld, hades, a place of torment, where they suffer until the time of judgment; ultimately they will be cast into Gehenna, the lake of fire. Christ—not the devil—is in control of hades, as he is of the rest of creation. The righteous do not go to hades, but go directly to paradise (“Abraham’s bosom” or heaven). There they are with Christ; faith has become sight, suffering has become blessedness, and prayer has become praise. Christians believe that death, although fearful as the “last enemy,” has no torment for them. It has no power to separate them from their Lord. Rather, it brings them face-to-face with the One they love.<\/p>\nThis meeting may occur as soon as one dies or as soon as one is resurrected—the intervening time is of no consequence, because it is nothing more than just a time of sleep. In other words, the very next experience after death for the believer will be that of meeting Christ.<\/p>\nBoth Old and New Testaments speak of death as sleep. Commonly in the OT, when a person dies, he is said to go to sleep with his fathers (e.g., Dt 31:16; 2 Sm 7:12). Jesus himself spoke of death as sleep (Mt 9:24; Jn 11:11). So did the apostle Paul (1 Cor 11:30; 15:20, 51; 1 Thes 4:14). At least in some of these references it would seem that it is the temporary nature of death that is the reason why it is spoken of as sleep. Even in the OT passage Daniel 12:2, it is said that death is a sleep, until the dead rise up—some to everlasting life and some to shame and everlasting contempt.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Gehenna; Hades; Heaven; Hell; Intermediate State; Paradise; Sheol.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>DEAD, Place of the<\/h3>\nTerm covering a number of descriptive biblical images of the whereabouts of those who have died. Those images include Sheol and “the pit” in the OT, plus hades, Gehenna, paradise, and “Abraham’s bosom” in the NT. As their understanding advanced, the Hebrews’ idea of what happens at death changed from rather hazy beginnings to a developed concept found in the NT.<\/p>\nIn the Old Testament<\/p>\nThe OT contains meager information about the dead. At death, according to some OT passages, one descends to Sheol (often translated as “grave,” “hell,” “pit,” or simply “the dead”), which at times means merely that one is laid in a grave (Nm 16:30, 33), but more often indicates an underworld. The abode of the dead is pictured as a place beneath the earth to which one “goes down” (Gn 42:38; Prv 15:24; Ez 26:20) and as a place of gloomy darkness (Jb 10:21-22), silence (Pss 94:17; 115:17), and forgetfulness (Ps 88:12). God is not remembered there and his praises are never sung (Pss 6:5; 30:9; 115:17). Even God himself, it was believed, does not remember those who are there (Ps 88:5, 11; Is 38:18). The dead were seen as permanently cut off from contact with the Lord and from participating in his activity in history. Even though the border between life and death was considered fluid (as shown by a resurrection in 2 Kgs 4:32-37 and by Samuel’s ghost in 1 Sm 28:7-25), communication with the dead was forbidden to the Jews (Dt 18:11). (Worshiping the dead was a common practice in the nations surrounding Israel.)<\/p>\nAlthough one’s fate in the underworld could not properly be called life, it was a kind of existence, perhaps even in the company of one’s countrymen and ancestors (Gn 25:8; Ez 32:17-30). The realm of the dead was not beyond the reach of God’s power (Ps 139:8; Am 9:2; Jon 2:2). Although Sheol was pictured as a hungry monster wolfing down the living (Prv 27:20; 30:16), God’s power could save one from its grasp (Pss 49:15; 86:13). By the end of the OT period, there was even hope that one would finally be delivered from Sheol (Jb 14:13-22; 19:25-27; Pss 49:15; 73:23-28), although only Daniel expressed that hope clearly (Dn 12:1-2). So although the ancient Hebrews never looked forward to death in the same way that the apostle Paul could in the NT (2 Cor 5:1-8; Phil 1:21-23), nevertheless they did come to understand that death was not a hopeless state.<\/p>\nIn the Intertestamental Writings<\/p>\nBetween the exile and the beginning of the NT period (586 BC<\/span>–AD<\/span> 30, overlapping with the end of the OT), contact with the religions of Persia and Greece stimulated the Jews to clarify their ideas about life after death. When the OT was translated into Greek, the Greek name for the underworld, “hades,” was used to translate the Hebrew “Sheol.” In the NT, hades was carried over to become the common name for the abode of the dead.<\/p>\nAlong with new names came new ideas. Many different notions circulated about the place of the dead. A common one appears in the pseudepigraphal 1 Enoch 22, where the dead are said to be kept in hollow places in a great mountain waiting for the final judgment. One relatively pleasant section was reserved for the righteous and one full of torments for the wicked. Other writers continued the OT concept of hades or Sheol as a place of separation from God and from happiness (Ecclus 14:12, 16; 17:27-28).<\/p>\nDuring that period, the Jews also began to use a new term, “Gehenna” (Hebrew “Hinnom”), the name of a valley south of Jerusalem. The valley was noted in the OT period for the abomination of child sacrifices (2 Kgs 16:3; 21:6; 23:10) and in the NT period for its smoldering garbage. Gehenna became a designation for the final place of the wicked dead, a place of fiery torment (1 Enoch 90:20-27; 2 Esd 7:70). Over against that place of punishment stood “paradise” (a Persian name for a pleasure garden), a place where the righteous would enjoy blessedness.<\/p>\nAll those concepts—hades, Gehenna, paradise—were molded by NT writers into forms most appropriate to the revelation of Christ.<\/p>\nIn the New Testament<\/p>\nAlthough the NT uses a variety of terms for the abode of the dead, it contains surprisingly few references to it—about 35 verses in all. Those passages are concentrated in the Gospels and the book of Revelation. The apostle Paul said a lot about heaven, but only Jesus and John said much about hell.<\/p>\nThe word “hades” is attributed to Jesus only once, in the parable of the rich man and Lazarus (Lk 16:23). In that parable hades is a place of torment where the wicked go at death. The torment is described as a “flame” that afflicts a person physically despite bodily death. All comfort is refused to those in agony.<\/p>\nAlthough the wicked go to hades as soon as they die, their ultimate destination is Gehenna, a place of fire and worms, both indicating corruption (Mt 5:22, 29-30; 18:9; Mk 9:48, quoting from Is 66:24). Jesus also referred to Gehenna as “the outer darkness” where there will be “weeping and gnashing of teeth” (Mt 8:12; 22:13; 25:30). Evidently, after the final judgment, the wicked are sent there at the command of Christ (Jn 5:22, 27; Acts 10:42; 17:31; 2 Tm 4:1). That place of torment picks up the negative side of the OT concept of Sheol as a place of separation from God.<\/p>\nAs a preacher of repentance, Jesus stressed the danger of Gehenna. He had much less to say about the place of the righteous when they die. Ultimately, though, the righteous would enter into “the kingdom,” instead of Gehenna, after the last judgment (Mt 25:34). Jesus twice indicated that the righteous enter a blessed state immediately at death. Luke 16:22 refers to the dead Lazarus as being in “Abraham’s bosom,” a place of comfort and peace. Luke 23:43 calls the same place paradise in a promise that the dying thief would join Jesus there at death. Paul’s wording about paradise seems to align it with heaven (2 Cor 12:2-3), and John associates paradise with the new heaven and new earth (Rv 2:7; 21:1-2; 22:1-2).<\/p>\nPaul and other writers of the NT epistles had little to say about the abode of the wicked dead. Paul spoke only in passing of “the abyss”—his term for the pit of Sheol (Rom 10:7). His reference to Christ’s descent to the “lower parts of the earth” (Eph 4:9) is probably only his way of saying that Christ, having died, went to the place of the dead. (“The lowest earth” was a term used by Jewish rabbis for Sheol\/hades\/Gehenna.) Peter spoke of Christ’s going in “spirit” after his death to some “prison” where he “preached to the spirits” (1 Pt 3:18-20). Interpretations of that passage differ. Some think that Christ entered hades and preached to the fallen angels of Noah’s day (“sons of God,” Gn 6:1-4), not that he preached to imprisoned human spirits. In 2 Peter 2:4 the prison for spirits (usually translated “hell”) comes from “Tartarus,” another Greek name for the underworld.<\/p>\nPaul had much to say about the abode of the righteous dead. In his earliest letters he never mentioned their location, only that they would be resurrected (1 Cor 15; 1 Thes 4:13-17). After facing almost certain death himself (2 Cor 1:8-11), he began to discuss where the dead “went.” To die means to be with Christ, Paul said, and thus is better than life (Phil 1:23). To be “away from the body” is to be “at home with the Lord” (2 Cor 5:8). Paul probably meant that the righteous dead went directly to paradise to be with Jesus (cf. 2 Cor 12:2-4, where Paul called paradise “the third heaven”). Death has absolutely no power to separate Christians from Christ (Rom 8:38-39). Instead, it brings them into the presence of God.<\/p>\nThe book of Revelation contains much about the abode of the dead, especially the wicked dead. It uses two names for that place: “the abyss,” the home or prison of all evil spirits; and “hades,” the name for the place of the human dead. From the abyss (or bottomless pit) come the demonic forms that torment humanity (Rv 9:1-11) and the satanic “beast,” who kills the two witnesses and carries the “great prostitute” on its back (11:7; 17). There Satan himself will be imprisoned (20:2-3). Jesus described it as a place prepared for the devil and his angels (cf. Mt 25:41). The good news for Christians is that the abyss, or hades, is not an autonomous realm. The book of Revelation begins with Jesus’ announcement that he has the keys to hades (Rv 1:18), and in the end he will force it to give up its dead (20:13). Until then, the key to the abyss is not in the hand of Satan, but hangs on a heavenly key ring to be distributed only to the messengers of God (9:1; 20:1). In the end, hades, death, and the wicked will be cast into the lake of fire (Gehenna), where they will suffer eternal torment (19:20; 20:10, 14-15; 21:8).<\/p>\nJohn, the writer of the Revelation, agreed with Paul that the righteous will not share the fate of the wicked at death. Instead of going to hades, they go to heaven. The martyrs appear under the altar, calling to God to avenge them (Rv 6:9-11). In another image innumerable Christians appear before the throne of God, praising him (7:9-17). Those believers, shepherded by Christ himself, suffer no hunger, thirst, discomfort, or sorrow.<\/p>\nConclusion<\/p>\nIn summary, the place of the dead began in the OT as an undifferentiated, hazy idea of a place of separation from life and God. Later writers came to see that instead of one place for all (Sheol), there must be two. According to Christian teaching, the wicked enter the underworld, hades, a place of torment, where they suffer until the time of judgment; ultimately they will be cast into Gehenna, the lake of fire. Christ—not the devil—is in control of hades, as he is of the rest of creation. The righteous do not go to hades, but go directly to paradise (“Abraham’s bosom” or heaven). There they are with Christ; faith has become sight, suffering has become blessedness, and prayer has become praise. Christians believe that death, although fearful as the “last enemy,” has no torment for them. It has no power to separate them from their Lord. Rather, it brings them face-to-face with the One they love.<\/p>\nThis meeting may occur as soon as one dies or as soon as one is resurrected—the intervening time is of no consequence, because it is nothing more than just a time of sleep. In other words, the very next experience after death for the believer will be that of meeting Christ.<\/p>\nBoth Old and New Testaments speak of death as sleep. Commonly in the OT, when a person dies, he is said to go to sleep with his fathers (e.g., Dt 31:16; 2 Sm 7:12). Jesus himself spoke of death as sleep (Mt 9:24; Jn 11:11). So did the apostle Paul (1 Cor 11:30; 15:20, 51; 1 Thes 4:14). At least in some of these references it would seem that it is the temporary nature of death that is the reason why it is spoken of as sleep. Even in the OT passage Daniel 12:2, it is said that death is a sleep, until the dead rise up—some to everlasting life and some to shame and everlasting contempt.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Gehenna; Hades; Heaven; Hell; Intermediate State; Paradise; Sheol.<\/p>","summary_ro":"DEAD, Place of the Term covering a number of descriptive biblical images of the whereabouts of those who have died. Those images include Sheol and “the pit” in the OT, plus hades, Gehenna, paradise, and “Abraham’s bosom” in the NT. As their understanding advanced, the Hebrews’ idea of what happens at death changed from rather hazy beginnings to a developed concept found in the NT. In the Old Testament The OT contains meager information about the dead. At death, according to some OT passages, ...","summary_en":"DEAD, Place of the Term covering a number of descriptive biblical images of the whereabouts of those who have died. Those images include Sheol and “the pit” in the OT, plus hades, Gehenna, paradise, and “Abraham’s bosom” in the NT. As their understanding advanced, the Hebrews’ idea of what happens at death changed from rather hazy beginnings to a developed concept found in the NT. In the Old Testament The OT contains meager information about the dead. At death, according to some OT passages, ...","source":"Articles\/D.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"6":[{"id":49701,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Psalmi 88:6","title_en":"Study Note: Psalmi 88:6","content_ro":"88:6-7<\/strong> In his first charge, the psalmist blames the Lord for his demise. God’s overpowering anger did not make sense. • The phrase the darkest depths<\/em> implies the place of the dead (143:3; see Lam 3:6) or the depths of the sea (Pss 68:22; 69:1-2).<\/p>","content_en":"88:6-7<\/strong> In his first charge, the psalmist blames the Lord for his demise. God’s overpowering anger did not make sense. • The phrase the darkest depths<\/em> implies the place of the dead (143:3; see Lam 3:6) or the depths of the sea (Pss 68:22; 69:1-2).<\/p>","summary_ro":"88:6-7 In his first charge, the psalmist blames the Lord for his demise. God’s overpowering anger did not make sense. • The phrase the darkest depths implies the place of the dead (143:3; see Lam 3:6) or the depths of the sea (Pss 68:22; 69:1-2).","summary_en":"88:6-7 In his first charge, the psalmist blames the Lord for his demise. God’s overpowering anger did not make sense. • The phrase the darkest depths implies the place of the dead (143:3; see Lam 3:6) or the depths of the sea (Pss 68:22; 69:1-2).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":77327,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Psalmi 88:6","title_en":"Study Note: Psalmi 88:6","content_ro":"88:6-7<\/strong> In his first charge, the psalmist blames the Lord for his demise. God’s overpowering anger did not make sense. • The phrase the darkest depths<\/em> implies the place of the dead (143:3; see Lam 3:6) or the depths of the sea (Pss 68:22; 69:1-2).<\/p>","content_en":"88:6-7<\/strong> In his first charge, the psalmist blames the Lord for his demise. God’s overpowering anger did not make sense. • The phrase the darkest depths<\/em> implies the place of the dead (143:3; see Lam 3:6) or the depths of the sea (Pss 68:22; 69:1-2).<\/p>","summary_ro":"88:6-7 In his first charge, the psalmist blames the Lord for his demise. God’s overpowering anger did not make sense. • The phrase the darkest depths implies the place of the dead (143:3; see Lam 3:6) or the depths of the sea (Pss 68:22; 69:1-2).","summary_en":"88:6-7 In his first charge, the psalmist blames the Lord for his demise. God’s overpowering anger did not make sense. • The phrase the darkest depths implies the place of the dead (143:3; see Lam 3:6) or the depths of the sea (Pss 68:22; 69:1-2).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":104953,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Psalmi 88:6","title_en":"Study Note: Psalmi 88:6","content_ro":"88:6-7<\/strong> In his first charge, the psalmist blames the Lord for his demise. God’s overpowering anger did not make sense. • The phrase the darkest depths<\/em> implies the place of the dead (143:3; see Lam 3:6) or the depths of the sea (Pss 68:22; 69:1-2).<\/p>","content_en":"88:6-7<\/strong> In his first charge, the psalmist blames the Lord for his demise. God’s overpowering anger did not make sense. • The phrase the darkest depths<\/em> implies the place of the dead (143:3; see Lam 3:6) or the depths of the sea (Pss 68:22; 69:1-2).<\/p>","summary_ro":"88:6-7 In his first charge, the psalmist blames the Lord for his demise. God’s overpowering anger did not make sense. • The phrase the darkest depths implies the place of the dead (143:3; see Lam 3:6) or the depths of the sea (Pss 68:22; 69:1-2).","summary_en":"88:6-7 In his first charge, the psalmist blames the Lord for his demise. God’s overpowering anger did not make sense. • The phrase the darkest depths implies the place of the dead (143:3; see Lam 3:6) or the depths of the sea (Pss 68:22; 69:1-2).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":132579,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Psalmi 88:6","title_en":"Study Note: Psalmi 88:6","content_ro":"88:6-7<\/strong> In his first charge, the psalmist blames the Lord for his demise. God’s overpowering anger did not make sense. • The phrase the darkest depths<\/em> implies the place of the dead (143:3; see Lam 3:6) or the depths of the sea (Pss 68:22; 69:1-2).<\/p>","content_en":"88:6-7<\/strong> In his first charge, the psalmist blames the Lord for his demise. God’s overpowering anger did not make sense. • The phrase the darkest depths<\/em> implies the place of the dead (143:3; see Lam 3:6) or the depths of the sea (Pss 68:22; 69:1-2).<\/p>","summary_ro":"88:6-7 In his first charge, the psalmist blames the Lord for his demise. God’s overpowering anger did not make sense. • The phrase the darkest depths implies the place of the dead (143:3; see Lam 3:6) or the depths of the sea (Pss 68:22; 69:1-2).","summary_en":"88:6-7 In his first charge, the psalmist blames the Lord for his demise. God’s overpowering anger did not make sense. • The phrase the darkest depths implies the place of the dead (143:3; see Lam 3:6) or the depths of the sea (Pss 68:22; 69:1-2).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"8":[{"id":49702,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Psalmi 88:8","title_en":"Study Note: Psalmi 88:8","content_ro":"88:8-12<\/strong> In his second charge, the psalmist claims that God has isolated him and caused his loneliness (cp. 31:11; 38:11). Loneliness was a curse in a culture where relationships were more important than personal achievement.<\/p>","content_en":"88:8-12<\/strong> In his second charge, the psalmist claims that God has isolated him and caused his loneliness (cp. 31:11; 38:11). Loneliness was a curse in a culture where relationships were more important than personal achievement.<\/p>","summary_ro":"88:8-12 In his second charge, the psalmist claims that God has isolated him and caused his loneliness (cp. 31:11; 38:11). Loneliness was a curse in a culture where relationships were more important than personal achievement.","summary_en":"88:8-12 In his second charge, the psalmist claims that God has isolated him and caused his loneliness (cp. 31:11; 38:11). Loneliness was a curse in a culture where relationships were more important than personal achievement.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":77328,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Psalmi 88:8","title_en":"Study Note: Psalmi 88:8","content_ro":"88:8-12<\/strong> In his second charge, the psalmist claims that God has isolated him and caused his loneliness (cp. 31:11; 38:11). Loneliness was a curse in a culture where relationships were more important than personal achievement.<\/p>","content_en":"88:8-12<\/strong> In his second charge, the psalmist claims that God has isolated him and caused his loneliness (cp. 31:11; 38:11). Loneliness was a curse in a culture where relationships were more important than personal achievement.<\/p>","summary_ro":"88:8-12 In his second charge, the psalmist claims that God has isolated him and caused his loneliness (cp. 31:11; 38:11). Loneliness was a curse in a culture where relationships were more important than personal achievement.","summary_en":"88:8-12 In his second charge, the psalmist claims that God has isolated him and caused his loneliness (cp. 31:11; 38:11). Loneliness was a curse in a culture where relationships were more important than personal achievement.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":104954,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Psalmi 88:8","title_en":"Study Note: Psalmi 88:8","content_ro":"88:8-12<\/strong> In his second charge, the psalmist claims that God has isolated him and caused his loneliness (cp. 31:11; 38:11). Loneliness was a curse in a culture where relationships were more important than personal achievement.<\/p>","content_en":"88:8-12<\/strong> In his second charge, the psalmist claims that God has isolated him and caused his loneliness (cp. 31:11; 38:11). Loneliness was a curse in a culture where relationships were more important than personal achievement.<\/p>","summary_ro":"88:8-12 In his second charge, the psalmist claims that God has isolated him and caused his loneliness (cp. 31:11; 38:11). Loneliness was a curse in a culture where relationships were more important than personal achievement.","summary_en":"88:8-12 In his second charge, the psalmist claims that God has isolated him and caused his loneliness (cp. 31:11; 38:11). Loneliness was a curse in a culture where relationships were more important than personal achievement.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":132580,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Psalmi 88:8","title_en":"Study Note: Psalmi 88:8","content_ro":"88:8-12<\/strong> In his second charge, the psalmist claims that God has isolated him and caused his loneliness (cp. 31:11; 38:11). Loneliness was a curse in a culture where relationships were more important than personal achievement.<\/p>","content_en":"88:8-12<\/strong> In his second charge, the psalmist claims that God has isolated him and caused his loneliness (cp. 31:11; 38:11). Loneliness was a curse in a culture where relationships were more important than personal achievement.<\/p>","summary_ro":"88:8-12 In his second charge, the psalmist claims that God has isolated him and caused his loneliness (cp. 31:11; 38:11). Loneliness was a curse in a culture where relationships were more important than personal achievement.","summary_en":"88:8-12 In his second charge, the psalmist claims that God has isolated him and caused his loneliness (cp. 31:11; 38:11). Loneliness was a curse in a culture where relationships were more important than personal achievement.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"10":[{"id":32029,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Book of Psalms","title_en":"Book of Psalms","content_ro":"<h3>PSALMS, Book of<\/h3>\nPoems sung to musical accompaniment, originally the harp. The alternative title, the Psalter, refers to a collection of songs sung to harp accompaniment. The English title, therefore, broadly defines the form employed, whereas the Hebrew title of the book, “Praises,” or “Book of Praises,” suggests the content.<\/p>\nPreview<\/p>\n• Authors<\/p>\n• Date<\/p>\n• Background<\/p>\n• Structure<\/p>\n• Canonicity<\/p>\n• Purpose and Theology<\/p>\n• Content<\/p>\nAuthors<\/p>\n<h5>The Evidence of the Titles<\/h5>\nThe Hebrew Bible credits David with 73 psalms, compared with 84 in the Septuagint and 85 in the Latin Vulgate. Korah and Asaph, the leaders of the Levitical singing groups, are connected with 11 and 12 psalms, respectively (although Ps 43 is almost certainly to be attributed to Korah also). Two psalms are ascribed to Solomon (Pss 72; 127), one to Moses (Ps 90), and one to Ethan (Ps 89), while Heman shares the credit for one psalm with the sons of Korah (Ps 88). The remainder are sometimes called “orphan psalms” because of their anonymity.<\/p>\nThe preposition “of” found in the titles (for example, “A Psalm of David”) usually indicates authorship. But in the case of groups, such as the sons of Asaph or Korah, it may simply indicate that the psalms were included in their repertoire. Less plausible is the idea that it may also be rendered “for the use of.” For example, some of the “Psalms of David” might be “for the use of” the Davidic king on some occasion.<\/p>\n<h5>Historical Allusions in the Titles<\/h5>\nMany of the titles refer to specific events in the life of David (e.g., Pss 3; 7; 18; 30; 34; 51). There is evidence that the titles were added at an early date. When the psalms were translated into Greek, there appears to have been some difficulty in translating the titles, possibly because of their antiquity. If the historical references were added at a late date, there is no reason why plausible backgrounds could not have been supplied for all the Davidic psalms, instead of only a few. Moreover, the apparent disparity between the title and the actual content of some psalms (e.g., Ps 30) indicates that the titles were supplied by those who knew about a connection unknown to a later editor. Admittedly, there are minor discrepancies between the titles and the references in the historical books. For example, in Psalm 34 David acts the madman before Abimelech, whereas in 1 Samuel it is before Achish. But probably Abimelech was the general name (like Pharaoh for the kings of Egypt) for all the Philistine kings (e.g., Gn 21:32; 26:26).<\/p>\nEvidence of authorship and historical background in the titles, therefore, may be taken as a reasonably reliable guide. But the internal difficulties, together with the freedom exercised by successive translators into Greek, Syriac, and Latin, indicates that they were not regarded as inspired.<\/p>\n<h5>The Case for Davidic Authorship<\/h5>\nFive points can be offered to support David’s authorship of several psalms:<\/p>\n1. The authenticity of David’s lament over Saul and Jonathan (2 Sm 1:19-27) is generally accepted. This indicates a deeply poetic spirit and a generous temperament that prepares us to accept those psalms ascribed to David that evidence similar characteristics. “The last words of David” is another Davidic poem in the historical books (2 Sm 23:1-7).<\/p>\n<li>2. David had a reputation as a skillful musician at Saul’s court (1 Sm 16:16-18). Amos comments on his inventiveness as a musician (Am 6:5), while the Chronicler repeatedly stresses his contribution to the musical aspect of temple worship (e.g., 1 Chr 6:31; 16:7; Ezr 3:10). The Jewish historian Josephus said that David composed songs and hymns to God in varied meters. The probability is that David, as well as amassing materials and preparing the plans for Solomon’s temple, also gave attention to the temple worship. This is his place in Jewish tradition.<\/li>\n<li>3. The early monarchy, with a freshly secured independence, national prestige, and a new prosperity, would most likely be a time of artistic creativity. David was at the heart of this movement.<\/li>\n<li>4. There is a close correspondence between David’s life as described in the historical books and certain psalms, for example, his sin concerning Bathsheba and Uriah (2 Sm 11:2–12:25) and Psalm 51, as witnessed in the title. David’s lapses and genuine repentance, as well as the varied aspects of his career—shepherd, fugitive, warrior, and so on—find expression in many of the psalms attributed to him. The correspondence between the David of the psalms and the David of the historical books is close, especially in the display of strong faith in God.<\/li>\n<li>5. Although some scholars believe that when “David” is mentioned in the NT, it is simply a reference to the book of Psalms and not an ascription of authorship, a straightforward interpretation of the NT text strengthens the case for Davidic authorship. David is specifically named as the author of various psalms in Matthew 22:41-45; Acts 1:16; 2:25, 34; Romans 4:6; 11:9.<\/li>\nIn conclusion, there is strong support for the view that the substantial nucleus of the Psalter is Davidic. Moreover, it is probable that some of the anonymous psalms were the work of the “sweet psalmist of Israel” (2 Sm 23:1). Hebrews 4:7 refers one of these, Psalm 95, to David (see also Acts 4:25 and Ps 2).<\/p>\nDate<\/p>\nOnce David’s authorship of several psalms is established, then it must follow that these psalms are dated during David’s life. Thus, most of the psalms formed the hymnbook of Israel in the period of the monarchy. Other psalms were written later. For example, Psalm 137 is clearly exilic, and Psalms 107:2-3 and 126:1 allude to the return from captivity. Psalms 44 and 79 are probably, but not conclusively, postexilic.<\/p>\nThe book of Psalms was probably the product of a considerable period of growth. The incidence of Davidic psalms in the first section indicates that it was completed early, possibly toward the end of David’s reign. The remainder of the process of compilation is difficult to reconstruct, but the fact that the titles, with their allusions to authors, events, and musical directions, become less frequent in the two final collections (Pss 90–150) lends support to the probability that the collections were combined chronologically in the sequence in which they are found today. Ezra is traditionally credited with the final grouping and editing of the psalms, a hypothesis that appears reasonable in light of his vital contribution to the systematic reshaping of the national religious life. In any case, the process was completed before the translation of the Psalter into Greek (the Septuagint) at the end of the third century BC<\/span>, since the traditional order is found there. General, but not complete, support comes also from the evidence of the Dead Sea Scrolls. At some point minor dislocations occurred. Psalms 9 and 10 may have originally formed one psalm (as in the Septuagint), and there is a strong case for combining Psalms 42 and 43.<\/p>\nBackground<\/p>\nAs the book of Psalms lies before us, its connection with temple worship is apparent. Fifty-five psalms are addressed to the choirmaster, and as we have noted, 23 or 24 are linked with the two main guilds of Levitical singers, Asaph and Korah. The musical instruments, such as stringed instruments (Ps 55 title) and flutes (Ps 5 title) are noted. Probably other terms concern musical directions: Selah<\/span>,<\/em> which occurs 71 times, may indicate a pause or crescendo; Higgaion<\/span> (Ps 9:16) may recommend a meditative attitude. Seemingly obscure references like “The Hind of the Dawn” (Ps 22 title), “Lilies” (Pss 45 title; 80 title) and “The Dove on Far-off Terebinths” (Ps 56 title) may indicate the tunes to which the psalms were to be sung. The precise meaning of other terms, such as Shiggaion<\/span> (Ps 7 title) or Alamoth<\/span> (conjecturally a choir of ladies, Ps 46 title), may also be in the realm of musical directions.<\/p>\nStructure<\/p>\nThe Psalter, possibly in conscious imitation of the five books of Moses in the Law, is divided into five sections (Pss 1–41; 42–72; 73–89; 90–106; 107–150), separated by four doxologies (41:13; 72:18-19; 89:52; 106:48). While the editorial comment in Psalm 72:20 notes that the psalms of David were ended, Davidic psalms are found later in the book (Pss 86; 101; 103), suggesting that at least some of these sections circulated independently until their inclusion in the final collection. Such independence is further indicated by the duplications in the various sections (e.g., Pss 14 and 53; 40:13-17 and 70) and by the use of different names for God, who is usually referred to as “Lord” in the first collection and as “God” in the second.<\/p>\nCanonicity<\/p>\nIn the various recensions of the third section of the Hebrew canon, the Writings or Holy Books, the book of Psalms is almost invariably placed first. It was clearly regarded as the most important book in this section, and in Luke 24:44, “Psalms” is synonymous with “Writings” as its title. While the canonicity of all the contents of the Writings was not finalized until the end of the first century AD<\/span>, it is likely that the book of Psalms was accepted as inspired long before this, probably by 300 BC<\/span>.<\/p>\nIt must not be inferred that all the psalms had their origin in the cultic life of the community, but the sanctuary was the focal point of Israel’s worship for the greater part of the OT period. Prayer was possible elsewhere, but whenever practicable, it was customary for the worshiper to present his petitions at the main sanctuary. And thanksgiving in ancient Israel was almost invariably connected with a thank offering, vow offering, or freewill offering. The psalms could have been composed by individuals, like David, who had the requisite technical ability. And it must be appreciated that poetry, an unfamiliar medium to most Western civilizations, was the natural way for the ancient Easterner to express his emotions. Or the individual could have engaged a member of the Levitical guilds of musicians to frame either his supplication or his thanksgiving. Gradually, a comprehensive collection of psalms would be available for the use of individuals, the congregation, and even the entire nation in any conceivable situation. Once finalized, this collection served not only the subsequent needs of Israel but the devotional requirements of successive generations of Christians as well. Whatever the origin of an individual psalm, each has finally been incorporated in a cultic setting, and it may be assumed that the best of Israel’s psalmody has thus been preserved.<\/p>\nPurpose and Theology<\/p>\n<h5>The Doctrine of God<\/h5>\nIn both adversity and prosperity, the psalmists indicate a strong faith in God and a clear conception of his attributes. Understandably, anthropomorphisms (ascribing human characteristics to nonhuman things) abound, with references to God’s voice, words, ears, eyes, face, or hands and fingers. No exception needs to be taken to this. Anthropomorphisms of this kind are, in fact, widely used by present-day Christians. Their great value is that they make God real to the worshiper. How else could humans describe God, except in terms of their own understanding?<\/p>\nThe monotheism of the psalms emerges clearly in Psalms 115:3-8; 135:15-18; 139. God is viewed as the Creator (Pss 8:3; 89:11; 95:3-5), with references to the creation mythology of surrounding nations (e.g., Ps 89:10) serving merely as illustrations of his almighty creative power. He is proclaimed as the Lord of history (Pss 44, 78, 80, 81, 105, 106) and as the sovereign controller of nature (Pss 18:7; 19:1-6; 65:8-13; 105:26-42; 135:5-7). The psalmists never tired of celebrating God’s absolute greatness.<\/p>\n<h5>The Human Perspective<\/h5>\nThe Psalter is a God-centered book, but humanity has a worthy place, in spite of the vast gulf between them and their Creator (Pss 8:3-4; 145:3-4) and the limitations of their earthly life (Ps 90:9-10). By the will of God, humans occupy a responsible, mediating position between God and all other created beings (Ps 8:5-8). The relationship with a righteous God is endangered by sin (Ps 106), but God is gracious and long-suffering (Ps 103), faithful and forgiving (Ps 130). While references to the sacrificial system are not lacking (Pss 20:3; 50:8-9), the emphasis is upon a personal piety that demands obedience and a surrendered heart (Ps 40:6-8). Psalm 51 indicates a depth of sin with which the sacrificial system was totally inadequate to cope; the psalmist could only cast himself, in total penitence, upon God’s mercy. Man’s moral obligations (Pss 15; 24:3-5) and loyalty to the law (Pss 19:7-11; 119) are fully accepted. Throughout, there is the revelation of a strong personal relationship that encourages prayer and praise and invites trust.<\/p>\n<h5>The Afterlife<\/h5>\nThe Psalms maintain the traditional Hebrew view of Sheol as the abode of the departed, without distinction between the good and evil, where all but mere existence has perished. The chief complaint of the devout man was that, in Sheol, all meaningful relationship with God ceased (Pss 6:5; 88:10-12). However, it was recognized that, since God was almighty, even Sheol was not exempt from his reach (Ps 139:8). Added to this was the preciousness and strength of fellowship with God, which could not be terminated even by death. Psalms 16:9-11, 49:15, and 73:23-26 well illustrate this insight. The Psalter, therefore, witnesses to an important transitional phase in Israel’s belief.<\/p>\n<h5>Universal Recognition of God<\/h5>\nPassages like Psalms 9:11; 47:1-2, 7-9; 66:8; 67; and 117:1 call upon all nations to acknowledge and praise God and show an awareness of his sovereignty over all nations. But this universalism does not appear to involve any desire to convert the heathen nations and, indeed, it is balanced by strong particularistic elements. God’s covenant relationship with his people and his mighty deeds on their behalf are the chief items for which the praise of all nations is summoned (Pss 47:3-4; 66:8-9; 126:2). As elsewhere in the OT, the role of Israel is passive; her continued existence witnesses to God’s faithfulness and brings glory to him.<\/p>\n<h5>Lasting Value<\/h5>\nWhatever the emotion of the psalmists, be it bitter complaint, anguished lament, or joyous exultation, all the psalms reflect one or other of the many aspects of communion with God. The reader may look “into the heart of all the saints” (so said Luther) as they faced life’s experiences in the awareness of a God who was all-seeing, all-knowing, and all-powerful. The strength of that personal relationship with God that typified OT worship at its best is exemplified here, and the many echoes of the psalms elsewhere in Israel’s literature show the powerful influence of these testimonies on the faithful. The fact that, almost invariably, little specific detail is given of the psalmists’ actual conditions has made it easier for the Psalter to become the universal hymnbook and devotional treasury of God’s people, in both public and private worship, until and including the present day. Modern life, materially, is vastly different from that of ancient Israel, but God remains unchanged and so do the basic needs of the human heart. The Holy Spirit, therefore, can still use this spiritual treasury as a means of revelation and communication between God and man. Few books in the Bible have exercised so profound an influence or been so widely used.<\/p>\nContent<\/p>\n<h5>Introduction<\/h5>\nIt is more helpful to describe the psalms in categories than to explain them one by one in canonical order. The psalms can be categorized as follows:<\/p>\nPsalms of praise<\/p>\nRoyal, messianic psalms<\/p>\nPassion psalms<\/p>\nPsalms about Zion<\/p>\nLaments<\/p>\nImprecatory psalms<\/p>\nPenitential psalms<\/p>\nWisdom psalms and historical psalms<\/p>\nPsalms of trust<\/p>\n<h5>Psalms of Praise<\/h5>\nThe Hebrew title, “Praises,” defines accurately a large part of the contents of the book. Each of the first four sections concludes with a doxology, while the fifth section concludes with five psalms, each of which begins and ends with one or two “Hallelujahs.” The last of these, Psalm 150, sounds the call to total praise. God is to be praised for his being, for his great acts in creation, nature, and history on both the individual and the communal level.<\/p>\n1. Individual praise. In comparison with the number of individual laments, there are relatively few psalms in this category. Those normally included are Psalms 9, 18, 32, 34, 116, and 138. This may, in part, be due to the universal tendency to complain rather than to express thanks. But a number of the laments do, in fact, include the note of thanksgiving for the anticipated deliverance, and the normal round of congregational thanksgiving would allow the individual to express his personal praise. However, it was customary in temple worship to give a verbal act of thanksgiving before the whole assembly whenever a vow offering or a thank offering was made. Such public testimony, and the communal meal associated with this type of sacrifice, is indicated in Psalms 22:22-26; 66:13-20; 116:17-19. The inclusion of such opportunities for personal praise and testimony must have added warmth and significance to worship. Each act of deliverance and every experience of God’s mercy became part of salvation history, which was a cumulative, ongoing concept, not simply a recital of God’s deeds in earlier centuries.<\/p>\n<li>2. General communal praise. This is sometimes entitled “hymns” or “descriptive praise,” its main feature being linked to a particular act of deliverance. God is usually referred to in the third person, not directly. Psalm 103 may be taken as representative of this group. It begins and ends with individual references (vv 1-5, 22b), but the central section (esp. vv 6-14) shows that the psalmist was part of a worshiping community. There is first of all the imperative call to praise God for the full range of his mercy to each individual, including physical and spiritual deliverance and his sustaining and satisfying grace. Then the focus changes to his great works in history (vv 6-7). This forms a natural basis for the recital of those gracious qualities revealed so consistently during the course of the national history, especially his tender, fatherly care (vv 8-14). The frailty of humanity contrasts with God’s constancy (vv 15-18), and his rule, being universal and absolute (v 19), merits the praise of all things, living and inanimate, in heaven and on earth (vv 19-22). There is, however, a great number of possible variations in the way in which God is celebrated, as Psalms 113 and 136, which come within this class, illustrate.<\/li>\n<li>3. Specific communal praise. Occasionally termed “declarative praise,” this type of psalm connects with a particular outstanding evidence of God’s mercy and would most naturally follow soon after the event itself. Deliverance from an enemy provides the occasion for most of the psalms in this category (e.g., Pss 124, 129). Psalm 66:8-12, now the nucleus of an expanded recital of God’s goodness, was possibly once complete in itself. Psalms 46–48 may form a trilogy connected with the remarkable deliverance of Jerusalem from Sennacherib’s Assyrians in 701 BC<\/span> (2 Kgs 18:17–19:37). Psalm 67 was probably composed in gratitude for a particular harvest. It is easy to see how psalms of this type could, in the process of time, acquire a more general usage.<\/li>\n<li>4. Praise for the God of nature. The first part of Psalm 19 pictures the praise of God sounding from the heavens; Psalm 29 celebrates him as the God of the thunderstorm, which, sweeping in from the Mediterranean near Lebanon, pursues its awe-inspiring path southward into the wilderness of Kadesh, with the result that “in his temple” (the created world?) all are praising, “Glory, glory to the Lord<\/span>” (v 9). His sovereignty and self-sufficiency in this world are celebrated in Psalm 50:10-12; he is the God of growth and harvest (Ps 65:9-13); in Psalm 104, often called the “Hymn of Creation,” he sustains and supplies everything on the earth and in the seas and is the absolute Lord of all life (vv 29-30). There is no confusion between God and his creation; even the seemingly permanent heaven and earth will perish, but “you go on forever” (Ps 102:25-27). Nature’s role is to proclaim the glory of God (Ps 19:1) and to praise him (Ps 148). People see themselves as insignificant when set against those forces of nature, which are themselves dwarfed by God—hence, the awareness of the immeasurable gulf between God and people that God has bridged by his grace (Ps 8).<\/li>\n<li>5. Praise for God’s kingship. A relatively small group of psalms (Pss 47, 93, 96–99) celebrate the kingship of God in a way that goes beyond the ascription of praise noted in the foregoing groups. They are marked by acclamation, by both shouting and clapping when God “ascends.” Presumably, the reference is to his throne (Ps 47:1-5; cf. 99:1-2). “The Lord<\/span> reigns” (Pss 93:1; 97:1; 99:1) is the frequent cry, and the nature of his reign is extolled (Ps 99:4-5).<\/li>\n<h5>Royal, Messianic Psalms<\/h5>\nPsalms 2, 18, 20, 21, 45, 61, 72, 89, 101, 110, 132, and 144 are usually included as the royal psalms. They do not form a literary category, since psalms of various types are included, but they all have some reference to the king, the nature of his rule, and his relationship to God. Since the Davidic monarchy was terminated in 586 BC<\/span>, these psalms, almost certainly, were composed before that date. The language in these psalms often shows the king as being God’s vice-regent. For example, Psalm 45, a royal marriage psalm, contains the assertion “Your throne, O God, endures for ever and ever” (45:6). But this is best understood in terms of the throne being regarded as the Lord’s, occupied by the king as his representative. Similarly, the wording in Psalm 110:1, “Sit at my right hand,” indicates the privileges and prerogatives that the king enjoys as God’s vice-regent. The balance of the OT evidence concerning the king shows that the monarchy in Israel was qualified by the nature of God’s covenantal relationship with his people; the king did not enjoy the absolutism claimed by most of the rulers of surrounding kingdoms.<\/p>\nMost of the royal psalms can also be called messianic psalms. They were interpreted as such in the early Christian church, as witnessed in Jesus Christ’s general statement that the psalmists wrote of him (Lk 24:44) and by particular NT quotations. The main psalms concerned, and the NT references, are the following:<\/p>\n1. Psalm 2 (Acts 13:33; Heb 1:5; 5:5), while linked with the Davidic king, nevertheless speaks of a universal vindication and rule, which far transcended even David’s rule. Further, the picture of the Davidic king, anointed to rule on the earth as the representative of God, who is enthroned in heaven, strongly suggests Christ’s mediating, incarnate ministry.<\/p>\n<li>2. Psalm 45 (Heb 1:8-9), a marriage psalm for one of the Davidic kings, possibly Solomon, speaks not only of love and marriage but also a permanence and quality of rule. In the most obvious translation of verse 6, the writer addresses God, “Your divine throne endures for ever and ever.” The writer to the Hebrews clearly accepted this interpretation (Heb 1:8-9) and used it in contrast to the exalted status of even the angels, reinforcing it with two other quotations from the psalms that originally applied to God (Ps 97:7; 102:25-27; cf. Heb 1:6, 10-12).<\/li>\n<li>3. Psalm 110 is the most frequently quoted messianic psalm (Mt 22:43-45; Acts 2:34-35; Heb 1:13; 5:5-10; 6:20; 7:21). The language, speaking of the privileges, universal victory and continuing priesthood of David and his successors, would be considered hyperbolic and possibly misleading except for its fulfillment in “great David’s greater Son.” In contrast to the angels, who are privileged to stand in God’s presence (Lk 1:19), Christ the Son sits in the place of power and authority (Heb 1:13).<\/li>\nOther psalms that could also be designated messianic but are not specifically included among the royal psalms are Psalm 8 (1 Cor 15:27); Psalm 40 (Heb 10:5-10); Psalm 72, with its idealized picture of the nature, consequences, and extent of the rule of God’s representative; Psalm 118:22-23; and Psalm 132 (Acts 2:30).<\/p>\n\n<h5>Passion Psalms<\/h5>\nThe four psalms in this group (Pss 16; 22; 40; 69; some scholars would also include Pss 102; 109) may also be regarded as messianic. They connect with that line of OT prophecy that interprets the Messiah’s ministry in terms of the Suffering Servant who features prominently in Isaiah (e.g., Is 42:1-9; 52:13–53:12). Of these four, Psalm 22 is the most remarkable. Jesus recited part of it when he was on the cross (Ps 22:1; cf. Mt 27:46), and other connections with the crucifixion scene are noteworthy (e.g., Ps 22:6-8, 14-18). Some further considerations are even more significant: there is no suggestion of any awareness of sin; the suffering of the psalmist appears completely unjustified; there is no imprecatory element, even in the face of bitter persecution. This connects with the sinless Christ (2 Cor 5:21), who could even pray for his executioners (Lk 23:34). Psalm 16:10 anticipates the triumph of the incorruptible Christ over the grave (cf. Acts 2:24-31). Psalm 40:6-8 foreshadows the Incarnation and self-giving redemptive work of Christ (Heb 10:5-10). Psalm 69 refers to the isolation resulting from a commitment to God’s cause (Ps 69:8-9) and anticipates the part played by Judas in what was fundamentally God’s work in Christ (Ps 69:25-26; cf. Ps 109:8; Is 53:10; Acts 1:20).<\/p>\n<h5>Psalms about Zion<\/h5>\nThis group could have been classified as a subsection of communal praise, but due to the close historical connection between God’s choice of the house of David and Jerusalem (Pss 78:68-72; 132:11-13), and their subsequent interrelated fortunes, we consider them at this point. There was a biting satire in the request of the Babylonians to the refugees of a shattered city to “Sing us one of the songs of Zion!” (Ps 137:3, niv<\/span>), but it witnesses to the existence of such a collection. Praise of Zion was, in fact, almost synonymous with the praise of the Lord who dwelt there. Jerusalem’s continued survival, in spite of its difficulties, was ample demonstration of God’s enduring greatness (Ps 48:11-14) and peculiar affection for the city that housed his temple (Ps 87:1-3). Psalms 48, 76, 84, 87 and 122 are the main psalms in this category, but the theme itself appears widely throughout the psalms (e.g., 102:16; 125:1; 126:1-3; 133:3; 147:2). The basis of the NT concept of a heavenly Jerusalem, the spiritual home of the regenerate of all nations, finds its origin in this concept, especially in Psalm 87.<\/p>\n<h5>Laments<\/h5>\nThese are associated with specific occasions of distress and are of two types:<\/p>\n1. National. The prophetic and historical books give several examples of the kind of occasion, such as drought, locust infestation, or enemy attack, that could prompt national laments, and also the inward and outward attitudes that accompanied them (e.g., Jgs 20:23, 26; Jer 14:1-12; 36:9; Jl 1:13-14; 2:12-17; Jon 3:5). There is a regular structure in the psalms of this class: the distressing situation is first described; God is petitioned to come to the aid of his people, often with the reminder of his past mercies for Israel; finally, there is often an expression of confidence that God would heed their cry. Israel’s adversaries are clearly in mind in Psalms 14, 44, 60, 74, 80, and 83, while Psalms 58, 106, and 125 reflect situations less critical.<\/p>\n<li>2. Individual. There are so many of this type (approximately 50) that it is frequently described as the backbone of the Psalter. Their most obvious features are the sharpness of complaint and the bitterness of attack upon those responsible. As in the national laments, there is often complaint against God, especially for his lack of attention or his tardiness in intervening. The basic components of this type are almost identical to the national laments, except that they often conclude with the avowal to praise God in anticipation of deliverance (e.g., Ps 13:5-6). Frequently, the lament is accompanied by thanksgiving for the deliverance sought and experienced, as illustrated in the two sections of Psalms 22:1-21 and 28:1-9.<\/li>\n<h5>Imprecatory Psalms<\/h5>\nApproximately 20 psalms contain passionate pleas for the overthrow of the wicked, in language that is often shocking. Any instant condemnation of this attitude must, however, be tempered by certain relevant considerations:<\/p>\nThe cry for vengeance was not purely personal; it was firmly believed that God’s honor was at stake (e.g., Ps 109:21). In an age where there was a less developed view of an afterlife, it was axiomatic that rewards and punishments resulting from obedience or disobedience to God, must be observable within this lifetime. Whenever this was not apparent, it would seem that no righteous God existed, and the name of God was dishonored (e.g., Ps 74:10). This burning desire for the eradication of evil and evil men sprang from a consciousness of a moral God and virtually demanded the triumph of truth.<\/p>\nThe poetic language is also prone to hyperbole—a feature not confined to the psalms (e.g., Neh 4:4-5; Jer 20:14-18; Am 7:17). Such language is startling; indeed, part of its function was probably to startle—to express and promote a sense of outrage.<\/p>\nIn the pre-Christian period, therefore, such outbursts were not completely unjustifiable. But in the light of the fuller revelation in the NT, such an attitude cannot be condoned. The Christian is to love as Christ loved (Jn 13:34), to pray for his enemies and to forgive them (Mt 5:38-48; Col 3:13). The theme of judgment continues into the NT and is indeed heightened there, since Christ’s coming has left people without excuse to live in sin (Jn 16:8-11), but there can be no place for purely private vengeance.<\/p>\n<h5>Penitential Psalms<\/h5>\nPsalms 32, 38, 51, and 130 are the clearest examples of penitential psalms, although traditionally the church has also included Psalms 6, 102, 143, where there is no explicit confession of sin. In an age when adversity in its various forms was seen as God’s judgment for wrongdoing, the admission of distress was tantamount to a confession of guilt. In the four main examples there is an intensity of feeling and a deep sense of the enormity of sin in God’s sight, although, as elsewhere, there is no indication of specific sin, even in Psalm 51, which is surely to be connected with David’s sin against Bathsheba (2 Sm 11–12). Significantly, David bypasses the sacrificial system, which was totally inefficacious in his case, casting himself entirely on the mercy of God (Ps 51:1, 16). The burden of unconfessed sin is clearly revealed in Psalm 32, and sin’s searing and corrupting effect in Psalm 38.<\/p>\n<h5>Wisdom Psalms and Historical Psalms<\/h5>\nWhile it is accepted that prophets, priests, and wise men all functioned at the major sanctuaries, some overlap in their modes of expression is to be expected. Proverbial forms are not infrequently found in the psalms (Pss 37:5, 8, 16, 21-22; 111:10; 127:1-5). Psalm 1, probably an introduction to the whole Psalter, contrasts the diverging paths of the righteous and ungodly (cf. Ps 112), while Psalms 127 and 128 concentrate on the blessings given to the godly. Psalm 133 is written in praise of unity. The problem of explaining the sufferings of a righteous person and the apparent prosperity of evil people, dealt with in the Wisdom Literature in the book of Job and in the prophets also (e.g., Jer 12:1-4), is taken up in Psalms 37, 49, and 73.<\/p>\nThe historical psalms should be included in this category, since they underscore the lessons arising from the favored nation’s often bitter experience. It is apparent that Israel delighted in the recital of salvation history. The main psalms, and the periods covered are Psalm 78, from the exodus to the establishment of the Davidic monarchy (note the declared intention to teach in vv 1-4); Psalm 105, from Abraham to the conquest of Canaan; Psalm 106, from Egypt to the judges; and Psalm 136, from the Creation to the Promised Land.<\/p>\n<h5>Psalms of Trust<\/h5>\nWhile some of these may also be classified as laments, the dominant feature of this group is the serene trust in God revealed, which makes them particularly suitable for devotional use. Many of these psalms begin with an affirmation of gratitude to and affection for God. Psalms 23 and 27 are the outstanding examples of this type, which could also include Psalms 11, 16, 62, 116, 131, and 138.<\/p>\nConclusion<\/p>\nThe difficulties in any precise categorization of psalms are obvious; many do not neatly fall into one group—hence, the occasional overlap. What is clearly evident is a pulsating, vital devotional life that has found its clearest expression in the book of Psalms. To say that it expresses the worship and devotion of the ordinary person is a simplification; kings and priests, wise men and prophets all contributed to this remarkable collection. Yet there remains the truth that, in God’s sight, all people, regardless of human achievement or privilege, are “ordinary,” for all are sinners in need of God’s grace and goodness. So the worshiping community of ancient Israel, and the saints of every succeeding generation, in the vastness of their diversity, have found the expression of their own hearts’ condition, desires, and devotion in this unique treasury—the Psalms.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> David; Messiah; Music; Poetry, Biblical; Singers in the Temple; Tabernacle; Temple; Wisdom; Wisdom Literature.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>PSALMS, Book of<\/h3>\nPoems sung to musical accompaniment, originally the harp. The alternative title, the Psalter, refers to a collection of songs sung to harp accompaniment. The English title, therefore, broadly defines the form employed, whereas the Hebrew title of the book, “Praises,” or “Book of Praises,” suggests the content.<\/p>\nPreview<\/p>\n• Authors<\/p>\n• Date<\/p>\n• Background<\/p>\n• Structure<\/p>\n• Canonicity<\/p>\n• Purpose and Theology<\/p>\n• Content<\/p>\nAuthors<\/p>\n<h5>The Evidence of the Titles<\/h5>\nThe Hebrew Bible credits David with 73 psalms, compared with 84 in the Septuagint and 85 in the Latin Vulgate. Korah and Asaph, the leaders of the Levitical singing groups, are connected with 11 and 12 psalms, respectively (although Ps 43 is almost certainly to be attributed to Korah also). Two psalms are ascribed to Solomon (Pss 72; 127), one to Moses (Ps 90), and one to Ethan (Ps 89), while Heman shares the credit for one psalm with the sons of Korah (Ps 88). The remainder are sometimes called “orphan psalms” because of their anonymity.<\/p>\nThe preposition “of” found in the titles (for example, “A Psalm of David”) usually indicates authorship. But in the case of groups, such as the sons of Asaph or Korah, it may simply indicate that the psalms were included in their repertoire. Less plausible is the idea that it may also be rendered “for the use of.” For example, some of the “Psalms of David” might be “for the use of” the Davidic king on some occasion.<\/p>\n<h5>Historical Allusions in the Titles<\/h5>\nMany of the titles refer to specific events in the life of David (e.g., Pss 3; 7; 18; 30; 34; 51). There is evidence that the titles were added at an early date. When the psalms were translated into Greek, there appears to have been some difficulty in translating the titles, possibly because of their antiquity. If the historical references were added at a late date, there is no reason why plausible backgrounds could not have been supplied for all the Davidic psalms, instead of only a few. Moreover, the apparent disparity between the title and the actual content of some psalms (e.g., Ps 30) indicates that the titles were supplied by those who knew about a connection unknown to a later editor. Admittedly, there are minor discrepancies between the titles and the references in the historical books. For example, in Psalm 34 David acts the madman before Abimelech, whereas in 1 Samuel it is before Achish. But probably Abimelech was the general name (like Pharaoh for the kings of Egypt) for all the Philistine kings (e.g., Gn 21:32; 26:26).<\/p>\nEvidence of authorship and historical background in the titles, therefore, may be taken as a reasonably reliable guide. But the internal difficulties, together with the freedom exercised by successive translators into Greek, Syriac, and Latin, indicates that they were not regarded as inspired.<\/p>\n<h5>The Case for Davidic Authorship<\/h5>\nFive points can be offered to support David’s authorship of several psalms:<\/p>\n1. The authenticity of David’s lament over Saul and Jonathan (2 Sm 1:19-27) is generally accepted. This indicates a deeply poetic spirit and a generous temperament that prepares us to accept those psalms ascribed to David that evidence similar characteristics. “The last words of David” is another Davidic poem in the historical books (2 Sm 23:1-7).<\/p>\n<li>2. David had a reputation as a skillful musician at Saul’s court (1 Sm 16:16-18). Amos comments on his inventiveness as a musician (Am 6:5), while the Chronicler repeatedly stresses his contribution to the musical aspect of temple worship (e.g., 1 Chr 6:31; 16:7; Ezr 3:10). The Jewish historian Josephus said that David composed songs and hymns to God in varied meters. The probability is that David, as well as amassing materials and preparing the plans for Solomon’s temple, also gave attention to the temple worship. This is his place in Jewish tradition.<\/li>\n<li>3. The early monarchy, with a freshly secured independence, national prestige, and a new prosperity, would most likely be a time of artistic creativity. David was at the heart of this movement.<\/li>\n<li>4. There is a close correspondence between David’s life as described in the historical books and certain psalms, for example, his sin concerning Bathsheba and Uriah (2 Sm 11:2–12:25) and Psalm 51, as witnessed in the title. David’s lapses and genuine repentance, as well as the varied aspects of his career—shepherd, fugitive, warrior, and so on—find expression in many of the psalms attributed to him. The correspondence between the David of the psalms and the David of the historical books is close, especially in the display of strong faith in God.<\/li>\n<li>5. Although some scholars believe that when “David” is mentioned in the NT, it is simply a reference to the book of Psalms and not an ascription of authorship, a straightforward interpretation of the NT text strengthens the case for Davidic authorship. David is specifically named as the author of various psalms in Matthew 22:41-45; Acts 1:16; 2:25, 34; Romans 4:6; 11:9.<\/li>\nIn conclusion, there is strong support for the view that the substantial nucleus of the Psalter is Davidic. Moreover, it is probable that some of the anonymous psalms were the work of the “sweet psalmist of Israel” (2 Sm 23:1). Hebrews 4:7 refers one of these, Psalm 95, to David (see also Acts 4:25 and Ps 2).<\/p>\nDate<\/p>\nOnce David’s authorship of several psalms is established, then it must follow that these psalms are dated during David’s life. Thus, most of the psalms formed the hymnbook of Israel in the period of the monarchy. Other psalms were written later. For example, Psalm 137 is clearly exilic, and Psalms 107:2-3 and 126:1 allude to the return from captivity. Psalms 44 and 79 are probably, but not conclusively, postexilic.<\/p>\nThe book of Psalms was probably the product of a considerable period of growth. The incidence of Davidic psalms in the first section indicates that it was completed early, possibly toward the end of David’s reign. The remainder of the process of compilation is difficult to reconstruct, but the fact that the titles, with their allusions to authors, events, and musical directions, become less frequent in the two final collections (Pss 90–150) lends support to the probability that the collections were combined chronologically in the sequence in which they are found today. Ezra is traditionally credited with the final grouping and editing of the psalms, a hypothesis that appears reasonable in light of his vital contribution to the systematic reshaping of the national religious life. In any case, the process was completed before the translation of the Psalter into Greek (the Septuagint) at the end of the third century BC<\/span>, since the traditional order is found there. General, but not complete, support comes also from the evidence of the Dead Sea Scrolls. At some point minor dislocations occurred. Psalms 9 and 10 may have originally formed one psalm (as in the Septuagint), and there is a strong case for combining Psalms 42 and 43.<\/p>\nBackground<\/p>\nAs the book of Psalms lies before us, its connection with temple worship is apparent. Fifty-five psalms are addressed to the choirmaster, and as we have noted, 23 or 24 are linked with the two main guilds of Levitical singers, Asaph and Korah. The musical instruments, such as stringed instruments (Ps 55 title) and flutes (Ps 5 title) are noted. Probably other terms concern musical directions: Selah<\/span>,<\/em> which occurs 71 times, may indicate a pause or crescendo; Higgaion<\/span> (Ps 9:16) may recommend a meditative attitude. Seemingly obscure references like “The Hind of the Dawn” (Ps 22 title), “Lilies” (Pss 45 title; 80 title) and “The Dove on Far-off Terebinths” (Ps 56 title) may indicate the tunes to which the psalms were to be sung. The precise meaning of other terms, such as Shiggaion<\/span> (Ps 7 title) or Alamoth<\/span> (conjecturally a choir of ladies, Ps 46 title), may also be in the realm of musical directions.<\/p>\nStructure<\/p>\nThe Psalter, possibly in conscious imitation of the five books of Moses in the Law, is divided into five sections (Pss 1–41; 42–72; 73–89; 90–106; 107–150), separated by four doxologies (41:13; 72:18-19; 89:52; 106:48). While the editorial comment in Psalm 72:20 notes that the psalms of David were ended, Davidic psalms are found later in the book (Pss 86; 101; 103), suggesting that at least some of these sections circulated independently until their inclusion in the final collection. Such independence is further indicated by the duplications in the various sections (e.g., Pss 14 and 53; 40:13-17 and 70) and by the use of different names for God, who is usually referred to as “Lord” in the first collection and as “God” in the second.<\/p>\nCanonicity<\/p>\nIn the various recensions of the third section of the Hebrew canon, the Writings or Holy Books, the book of Psalms is almost invariably placed first. It was clearly regarded as the most important book in this section, and in Luke 24:44, “Psalms” is synonymous with “Writings” as its title. While the canonicity of all the contents of the Writings was not finalized until the end of the first century AD<\/span>, it is likely that the book of Psalms was accepted as inspired long before this, probably by 300 BC<\/span>.<\/p>\nIt must not be inferred that all the psalms had their origin in the cultic life of the community, but the sanctuary was the focal point of Israel’s worship for the greater part of the OT period. Prayer was possible elsewhere, but whenever practicable, it was customary for the worshiper to present his petitions at the main sanctuary. And thanksgiving in ancient Israel was almost invariably connected with a thank offering, vow offering, or freewill offering. The psalms could have been composed by individuals, like David, who had the requisite technical ability. And it must be appreciated that poetry, an unfamiliar medium to most Western civilizations, was the natural way for the ancient Easterner to express his emotions. Or the individual could have engaged a member of the Levitical guilds of musicians to frame either his supplication or his thanksgiving. Gradually, a comprehensive collection of psalms would be available for the use of individuals, the congregation, and even the entire nation in any conceivable situation. Once finalized, this collection served not only the subsequent needs of Israel but the devotional requirements of successive generations of Christians as well. Whatever the origin of an individual psalm, each has finally been incorporated in a cultic setting, and it may be assumed that the best of Israel’s psalmody has thus been preserved.<\/p>\nPurpose and Theology<\/p>\n<h5>The Doctrine of God<\/h5>\nIn both adversity and prosperity, the psalmists indicate a strong faith in God and a clear conception of his attributes. Understandably, anthropomorphisms (ascribing human characteristics to nonhuman things) abound, with references to God’s voice, words, ears, eyes, face, or hands and fingers. No exception needs to be taken to this. Anthropomorphisms of this kind are, in fact, widely used by present-day Christians. Their great value is that they make God real to the worshiper. How else could humans describe God, except in terms of their own understanding?<\/p>\nThe monotheism of the psalms emerges clearly in Psalms 115:3-8; 135:15-18; 139. God is viewed as the Creator (Pss 8:3; 89:11; 95:3-5), with references to the creation mythology of surrounding nations (e.g., Ps 89:10) serving merely as illustrations of his almighty creative power. He is proclaimed as the Lord of history (Pss 44, 78, 80, 81, 105, 106) and as the sovereign controller of nature (Pss 18:7; 19:1-6; 65:8-13; 105:26-42; 135:5-7). The psalmists never tired of celebrating God’s absolute greatness.<\/p>\n<h5>The Human Perspective<\/h5>\nThe Psalter is a God-centered book, but humanity has a worthy place, in spite of the vast gulf between them and their Creator (Pss 8:3-4; 145:3-4) and the limitations of their earthly life (Ps 90:9-10). By the will of God, humans occupy a responsible, mediating position between God and all other created beings (Ps 8:5-8). The relationship with a righteous God is endangered by sin (Ps 106), but God is gracious and long-suffering (Ps 103), faithful and forgiving (Ps 130). While references to the sacrificial system are not lacking (Pss 20:3; 50:8-9), the emphasis is upon a personal piety that demands obedience and a surrendered heart (Ps 40:6-8). Psalm 51 indicates a depth of sin with which the sacrificial system was totally inadequate to cope; the psalmist could only cast himself, in total penitence, upon God’s mercy. Man’s moral obligations (Pss 15; 24:3-5) and loyalty to the law (Pss 19:7-11; 119) are fully accepted. Throughout, there is the revelation of a strong personal relationship that encourages prayer and praise and invites trust.<\/p>\n<h5>The Afterlife<\/h5>\nThe Psalms maintain the traditional Hebrew view of Sheol as the abode of the departed, without distinction between the good and evil, where all but mere existence has perished. The chief complaint of the devout man was that, in Sheol, all meaningful relationship with God ceased (Pss 6:5; 88:10-12). However, it was recognized that, since God was almighty, even Sheol was not exempt from his reach (Ps 139:8). Added to this was the preciousness and strength of fellowship with God, which could not be terminated even by death. Psalms 16:9-11, 49:15, and 73:23-26 well illustrate this insight. The Psalter, therefore, witnesses to an important transitional phase in Israel’s belief.<\/p>\n<h5>Universal Recognition of God<\/h5>\nPassages like Psalms 9:11; 47:1-2, 7-9; 66:8; 67; and 117:1 call upon all nations to acknowledge and praise God and show an awareness of his sovereignty over all nations. But this universalism does not appear to involve any desire to convert the heathen nations and, indeed, it is balanced by strong particularistic elements. God’s covenant relationship with his people and his mighty deeds on their behalf are the chief items for which the praise of all nations is summoned (Pss 47:3-4; 66:8-9; 126:2). As elsewhere in the OT, the role of Israel is passive; her continued existence witnesses to God’s faithfulness and brings glory to him.<\/p>\n<h5>Lasting Value<\/h5>\nWhatever the emotion of the psalmists, be it bitter complaint, anguished lament, or joyous exultation, all the psalms reflect one or other of the many aspects of communion with God. The reader may look “into the heart of all the saints” (so said Luther) as they faced life’s experiences in the awareness of a God who was all-seeing, all-knowing, and all-powerful. The strength of that personal relationship with God that typified OT worship at its best is exemplified here, and the many echoes of the psalms elsewhere in Israel’s literature show the powerful influence of these testimonies on the faithful. The fact that, almost invariably, little specific detail is given of the psalmists’ actual conditions has made it easier for the Psalter to become the universal hymnbook and devotional treasury of God’s people, in both public and private worship, until and including the present day. Modern life, materially, is vastly different from that of ancient Israel, but God remains unchanged and so do the basic needs of the human heart. The Holy Spirit, therefore, can still use this spiritual treasury as a means of revelation and communication between God and man. Few books in the Bible have exercised so profound an influence or been so widely used.<\/p>\nContent<\/p>\n<h5>Introduction<\/h5>\nIt is more helpful to describe the psalms in categories than to explain them one by one in canonical order. The psalms can be categorized as follows:<\/p>\nPsalms of praise<\/p>\nRoyal, messianic psalms<\/p>\nPassion psalms<\/p>\nPsalms about Zion<\/p>\nLaments<\/p>\nImprecatory psalms<\/p>\nPenitential psalms<\/p>\nWisdom psalms and historical psalms<\/p>\nPsalms of trust<\/p>\n<h5>Psalms of Praise<\/h5>\nThe Hebrew title, “Praises,” defines accurately a large part of the contents of the book. Each of the first four sections concludes with a doxology, while the fifth section concludes with five psalms, each of which begins and ends with one or two “Hallelujahs.” The last of these, Psalm 150, sounds the call to total praise. God is to be praised for his being, for his great acts in creation, nature, and history on both the individual and the communal level.<\/p>\n1. Individual praise. In comparison with the number of individual laments, there are relatively few psalms in this category. Those normally included are Psalms 9, 18, 32, 34, 116, and 138. This may, in part, be due to the universal tendency to complain rather than to express thanks. But a number of the laments do, in fact, include the note of thanksgiving for the anticipated deliverance, and the normal round of congregational thanksgiving would allow the individual to express his personal praise. However, it was customary in temple worship to give a verbal act of thanksgiving before the whole assembly whenever a vow offering or a thank offering was made. Such public testimony, and the communal meal associated with this type of sacrifice, is indicated in Psalms 22:22-26; 66:13-20; 116:17-19. The inclusion of such opportunities for personal praise and testimony must have added warmth and significance to worship. Each act of deliverance and every experience of God’s mercy became part of salvation history, which was a cumulative, ongoing concept, not simply a recital of God’s deeds in earlier centuries.<\/p>\n<li>2. General communal praise. This is sometimes entitled “hymns” or “descriptive praise,” its main feature being linked to a particular act of deliverance. God is usually referred to in the third person, not directly. Psalm 103 may be taken as representative of this group. It begins and ends with individual references (vv 1-5, 22b), but the central section (esp. vv 6-14) shows that the psalmist was part of a worshiping community. There is first of all the imperative call to praise God for the full range of his mercy to each individual, including physical and spiritual deliverance and his sustaining and satisfying grace. Then the focus changes to his great works in history (vv 6-7). This forms a natural basis for the recital of those gracious qualities revealed so consistently during the course of the national history, especially his tender, fatherly care (vv 8-14). The frailty of humanity contrasts with God’s constancy (vv 15-18), and his rule, being universal and absolute (v 19), merits the praise of all things, living and inanimate, in heaven and on earth (vv 19-22). There is, however, a great number of possible variations in the way in which God is celebrated, as Psalms 113 and 136, which come within this class, illustrate.<\/li>\n<li>3. Specific communal praise. Occasionally termed “declarative praise,” this type of psalm connects with a particular outstanding evidence of God’s mercy and would most naturally follow soon after the event itself. Deliverance from an enemy provides the occasion for most of the psalms in this category (e.g., Pss 124, 129). Psalm 66:8-12, now the nucleus of an expanded recital of God’s goodness, was possibly once complete in itself. Psalms 46–48 may form a trilogy connected with the remarkable deliverance of Jerusalem from Sennacherib’s Assyrians in 701 BC<\/span> (2 Kgs 18:17–19:37). Psalm 67 was probably composed in gratitude for a particular harvest. It is easy to see how psalms of this type could, in the process of time, acquire a more general usage.<\/li>\n<li>4. Praise for the God of nature. The first part of Psalm 19 pictures the praise of God sounding from the heavens; Psalm 29 celebrates him as the God of the thunderstorm, which, sweeping in from the Mediterranean near Lebanon, pursues its awe-inspiring path southward into the wilderness of Kadesh, with the result that “in his temple” (the created world?) all are praising, “Glory, glory to the Lord<\/span>” (v 9). His sovereignty and self-sufficiency in this world are celebrated in Psalm 50:10-12; he is the God of growth and harvest (Ps 65:9-13); in Psalm 104, often called the “Hymn of Creation,” he sustains and supplies everything on the earth and in the seas and is the absolute Lord of all life (vv 29-30). There is no confusion between God and his creation; even the seemingly permanent heaven and earth will perish, but “you go on forever” (Ps 102:25-27). Nature’s role is to proclaim the glory of God (Ps 19:1) and to praise him (Ps 148). People see themselves as insignificant when set against those forces of nature, which are themselves dwarfed by God—hence, the awareness of the immeasurable gulf between God and people that God has bridged by his grace (Ps 8).<\/li>\n<li>5. Praise for God’s kingship. A relatively small group of psalms (Pss 47, 93, 96–99) celebrate the kingship of God in a way that goes beyond the ascription of praise noted in the foregoing groups. They are marked by acclamation, by both shouting and clapping when God “ascends.” Presumably, the reference is to his throne (Ps 47:1-5; cf. 99:1-2). “The Lord<\/span> reigns” (Pss 93:1; 97:1; 99:1) is the frequent cry, and the nature of his reign is extolled (Ps 99:4-5).<\/li>\n<h5>Royal, Messianic Psalms<\/h5>\nPsalms 2, 18, 20, 21, 45, 61, 72, 89, 101, 110, 132, and 144 are usually included as the royal psalms. They do not form a literary category, since psalms of various types are included, but they all have some reference to the king, the nature of his rule, and his relationship to God. Since the Davidic monarchy was terminated in 586 BC<\/span>, these psalms, almost certainly, were composed before that date. The language in these psalms often shows the king as being God’s vice-regent. For example, Psalm 45, a royal marriage psalm, contains the assertion “Your throne, O God, endures for ever and ever” (45:6). But this is best understood in terms of the throne being regarded as the Lord’s, occupied by the king as his representative. Similarly, the wording in Psalm 110:1, “Sit at my right hand,” indicates the privileges and prerogatives that the king enjoys as God’s vice-regent. The balance of the OT evidence concerning the king shows that the monarchy in Israel was qualified by the nature of God’s covenantal relationship with his people; the king did not enjoy the absolutism claimed by most of the rulers of surrounding kingdoms.<\/p>\nMost of the royal psalms can also be called messianic psalms. They were interpreted as such in the early Christian church, as witnessed in Jesus Christ’s general statement that the psalmists wrote of him (Lk 24:44) and by particular NT quotations. The main psalms concerned, and the NT references, are the following:<\/p>\n1. Psalm 2 (Acts 13:33; Heb 1:5; 5:5), while linked with the Davidic king, nevertheless speaks of a universal vindication and rule, which far transcended even David’s rule. Further, the picture of the Davidic king, anointed to rule on the earth as the representative of God, who is enthroned in heaven, strongly suggests Christ’s mediating, incarnate ministry.<\/p>\n<li>2. Psalm 45 (Heb 1:8-9), a marriage psalm for one of the Davidic kings, possibly Solomon, speaks not only of love and marriage but also a permanence and quality of rule. In the most obvious translation of verse 6, the writer addresses God, “Your divine throne endures for ever and ever.” The writer to the Hebrews clearly accepted this interpretation (Heb 1:8-9) and used it in contrast to the exalted status of even the angels, reinforcing it with two other quotations from the psalms that originally applied to God (Ps 97:7; 102:25-27; cf. Heb 1:6, 10-12).<\/li>\n<li>3. Psalm 110 is the most frequently quoted messianic psalm (Mt 22:43-45; Acts 2:34-35; Heb 1:13; 5:5-10; 6:20; 7:21). The language, speaking of the privileges, universal victory and continuing priesthood of David and his successors, would be considered hyperbolic and possibly misleading except for its fulfillment in “great David’s greater Son.” In contrast to the angels, who are privileged to stand in God’s presence (Lk 1:19), Christ the Son sits in the place of power and authority (Heb 1:13).<\/li>\nOther psalms that could also be designated messianic but are not specifically included among the royal psalms are Psalm 8 (1 Cor 15:27); Psalm 40 (Heb 10:5-10); Psalm 72, with its idealized picture of the nature, consequences, and extent of the rule of God’s representative; Psalm 118:22-23; and Psalm 132 (Acts 2:30).<\/p>\n\n<h5>Passion Psalms<\/h5>\nThe four psalms in this group (Pss 16; 22; 40; 69; some scholars would also include Pss 102; 109) may also be regarded as messianic. They connect with that line of OT prophecy that interprets the Messiah’s ministry in terms of the Suffering Servant who features prominently in Isaiah (e.g., Is 42:1-9; 52:13–53:12). Of these four, Psalm 22 is the most remarkable. Jesus recited part of it when he was on the cross (Ps 22:1; cf. Mt 27:46), and other connections with the crucifixion scene are noteworthy (e.g., Ps 22:6-8, 14-18). Some further considerations are even more significant: there is no suggestion of any awareness of sin; the suffering of the psalmist appears completely unjustified; there is no imprecatory element, even in the face of bitter persecution. This connects with the sinless Christ (2 Cor 5:21), who could even pray for his executioners (Lk 23:34). Psalm 16:10 anticipates the triumph of the incorruptible Christ over the grave (cf. Acts 2:24-31). Psalm 40:6-8 foreshadows the Incarnation and self-giving redemptive work of Christ (Heb 10:5-10). Psalm 69 refers to the isolation resulting from a commitment to God’s cause (Ps 69:8-9) and anticipates the part played by Judas in what was fundamentally God’s work in Christ (Ps 69:25-26; cf. Ps 109:8; Is 53:10; Acts 1:20).<\/p>\n<h5>Psalms about Zion<\/h5>\nThis group could have been classified as a subsection of communal praise, but due to the close historical connection between God’s choice of the house of David and Jerusalem (Pss 78:68-72; 132:11-13), and their subsequent interrelated fortunes, we consider them at this point. There was a biting satire in the request of the Babylonians to the refugees of a shattered city to “Sing us one of the songs of Zion!” (Ps 137:3, niv<\/span>), but it witnesses to the existence of such a collection. Praise of Zion was, in fact, almost synonymous with the praise of the Lord who dwelt there. Jerusalem’s continued survival, in spite of its difficulties, was ample demonstration of God’s enduring greatness (Ps 48:11-14) and peculiar affection for the city that housed his temple (Ps 87:1-3). Psalms 48, 76, 84, 87 and 122 are the main psalms in this category, but the theme itself appears widely throughout the psalms (e.g., 102:16; 125:1; 126:1-3; 133:3; 147:2). The basis of the NT concept of a heavenly Jerusalem, the spiritual home of the regenerate of all nations, finds its origin in this concept, especially in Psalm 87.<\/p>\n<h5>Laments<\/h5>\nThese are associated with specific occasions of distress and are of two types:<\/p>\n1. National. The prophetic and historical books give several examples of the kind of occasion, such as drought, locust infestation, or enemy attack, that could prompt national laments, and also the inward and outward attitudes that accompanied them (e.g., Jgs 20:23, 26; Jer 14:1-12; 36:9; Jl 1:13-14; 2:12-17; Jon 3:5). There is a regular structure in the psalms of this class: the distressing situation is first described; God is petitioned to come to the aid of his people, often with the reminder of his past mercies for Israel; finally, there is often an expression of confidence that God would heed their cry. Israel’s adversaries are clearly in mind in Psalms 14, 44, 60, 74, 80, and 83, while Psalms 58, 106, and 125 reflect situations less critical.<\/p>\n<li>2. Individual. There are so many of this type (approximately 50) that it is frequently described as the backbone of the Psalter. Their most obvious features are the sharpness of complaint and the bitterness of attack upon those responsible. As in the national laments, there is often complaint against God, especially for his lack of attention or his tardiness in intervening. The basic components of this type are almost identical to the national laments, except that they often conclude with the avowal to praise God in anticipation of deliverance (e.g., Ps 13:5-6). Frequently, the lament is accompanied by thanksgiving for the deliverance sought and experienced, as illustrated in the two sections of Psalms 22:1-21 and 28:1-9.<\/li>\n<h5>Imprecatory Psalms<\/h5>\nApproximately 20 psalms contain passionate pleas for the overthrow of the wicked, in language that is often shocking. Any instant condemnation of this attitude must, however, be tempered by certain relevant considerations:<\/p>\nThe cry for vengeance was not purely personal; it was firmly believed that God’s honor was at stake (e.g., Ps 109:21). In an age where there was a less developed view of an afterlife, it was axiomatic that rewards and punishments resulting from obedience or disobedience to God, must be observable within this lifetime. Whenever this was not apparent, it would seem that no righteous God existed, and the name of God was dishonored (e.g., Ps 74:10). This burning desire for the eradication of evil and evil men sprang from a consciousness of a moral God and virtually demanded the triumph of truth.<\/p>\nThe poetic language is also prone to hyperbole—a feature not confined to the psalms (e.g., Neh 4:4-5; Jer 20:14-18; Am 7:17). Such language is startling; indeed, part of its function was probably to startle—to express and promote a sense of outrage.<\/p>\nIn the pre-Christian period, therefore, such outbursts were not completely unjustifiable. But in the light of the fuller revelation in the NT, such an attitude cannot be condoned. The Christian is to love as Christ loved (Jn 13:34), to pray for his enemies and to forgive them (Mt 5:38-48; Col 3:13). The theme of judgment continues into the NT and is indeed heightened there, since Christ’s coming has left people without excuse to live in sin (Jn 16:8-11), but there can be no place for purely private vengeance.<\/p>\n<h5>Penitential Psalms<\/h5>\nPsalms 32, 38, 51, and 130 are the clearest examples of penitential psalms, although traditionally the church has also included Psalms 6, 102, 143, where there is no explicit confession of sin. In an age when adversity in its various forms was seen as God’s judgment for wrongdoing, the admission of distress was tantamount to a confession of guilt. In the four main examples there is an intensity of feeling and a deep sense of the enormity of sin in God’s sight, although, as elsewhere, there is no indication of specific sin, even in Psalm 51, which is surely to be connected with David’s sin against Bathsheba (2 Sm 11–12). Significantly, David bypasses the sacrificial system, which was totally inefficacious in his case, casting himself entirely on the mercy of God (Ps 51:1, 16). The burden of unconfessed sin is clearly revealed in Psalm 32, and sin’s searing and corrupting effect in Psalm 38.<\/p>\n<h5>Wisdom Psalms and Historical Psalms<\/h5>\nWhile it is accepted that prophets, priests, and wise men all functioned at the major sanctuaries, some overlap in their modes of expression is to be expected. Proverbial forms are not infrequently found in the psalms (Pss 37:5, 8, 16, 21-22; 111:10; 127:1-5). Psalm 1, probably an introduction to the whole Psalter, contrasts the diverging paths of the righteous and ungodly (cf. Ps 112), while Psalms 127 and 128 concentrate on the blessings given to the godly. Psalm 133 is written in praise of unity. The problem of explaining the sufferings of a righteous person and the apparent prosperity of evil people, dealt with in the Wisdom Literature in the book of Job and in the prophets also (e.g., Jer 12:1-4), is taken up in Psalms 37, 49, and 73.<\/p>\nThe historical psalms should be included in this category, since they underscore the lessons arising from the favored nation’s often bitter experience. It is apparent that Israel delighted in the recital of salvation history. The main psalms, and the periods covered are Psalm 78, from the exodus to the establishment of the Davidic monarchy (note the declared intention to teach in vv 1-4); Psalm 105, from Abraham to the conquest of Canaan; Psalm 106, from Egypt to the judges; and Psalm 136, from the Creation to the Promised Land.<\/p>\n<h5>Psalms of Trust<\/h5>\nWhile some of these may also be classified as laments, the dominant feature of this group is the serene trust in God revealed, which makes them particularly suitable for devotional use. Many of these psalms begin with an affirmation of gratitude to and affection for God. Psalms 23 and 27 are the outstanding examples of this type, which could also include Psalms 11, 16, 62, 116, 131, and 138.<\/p>\nConclusion<\/p>\nThe difficulties in any precise categorization of psalms are obvious; many do not neatly fall into one group—hence, the occasional overlap. What is clearly evident is a pulsating, vital devotional life that has found its clearest expression in the book of Psalms. To say that it expresses the worship and devotion of the ordinary person is a simplification; kings and priests, wise men and prophets all contributed to this remarkable collection. Yet there remains the truth that, in God’s sight, all people, regardless of human achievement or privilege, are “ordinary,” for all are sinners in need of God’s grace and goodness. So the worshiping community of ancient Israel, and the saints of every succeeding generation, in the vastness of their diversity, have found the expression of their own hearts’ condition, desires, and devotion in this unique treasury—the Psalms.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> David; Messiah; Music; Poetry, Biblical; Singers in the Temple; Tabernacle; Temple; Wisdom; Wisdom Literature.<\/p>","summary_ro":"PSALMS, Book of Poems sung to musical accompaniment, originally the harp. The alternative title, the Psalter, refers to a collection of songs sung to harp accompaniment. The English title, therefore, broadly defines the form employed, whereas the Hebrew title of the book, “Praises,” or “Book of Praises,” suggests the content. Preview • Authors • Date • Background • Structure • Canonicity • Purpose and Theology • Content Authors The Evidence of the Titles The Hebrew Bible credits David with 73...","summary_en":"PSALMS, Book of Poems sung to musical accompaniment, originally the harp. The alternative title, the Psalter, refers to a collection of songs sung to harp accompaniment. The English title, therefore, broadly defines the form employed, whereas the Hebrew title of the book, “Praises,” or “Book of Praises,” suggests the content. Preview • Authors • Date • Background • Structure • Canonicity • Purpose and Theology • Content Authors The Evidence of the Titles The Hebrew Bible credits David with 73...","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":32743,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Rephaim*","title_en":"Rephaim*","content_ro":"<h3>REPHAIM*<\/h3>\n<li>1. A Hebrew word referring to shades or departed spirits whose dwelling place was the habitation of Sheol (Prv 2:18; 9:18; 21:16). The rephaim<\/span> of the underworld suffered anguish (Jb 26:5) and were separated from God (Ps 88:10-12) and all living people (Is 26:14). Their immaterial being bore a weakened shadowlike resemblance to their former corporeality (Is 14:9).<\/li>\n<li>2. A mighty people tall in stature living in Palestine during the days of Abraham. The Rephaim, along with the Zuzim, Emim, and Horite peoples, were defeated by Kedorlaomer and his allied armies (Gn 14:5). They were one of nine nations living in Palestine at the time when the Lord promised to give the land to Abraham’s descendants (15:20). The ancient Rephaim were called the Emim by the Moabites and the Zamzummin by the Ammonites; they were comparable in size and number to the giant Anakim (Dt 2:11, 20). Og, king of Bashan, represented the last of the Rephaim. He was later killed and his kingdom dispossessed by the Israelites under Moses (Dt 3:11; Jos 12:4; 13:12). Perhaps the giants among the Philistines were descendants of the Rephaim (2 Sm 21; 1 Chr 20).<\/li>\n<li>See also<\/em> Giants.<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>REPHAIM*<\/h3>\n<li>1. A Hebrew word referring to shades or departed spirits whose dwelling place was the habitation of Sheol (Prv 2:18; 9:18; 21:16). The rephaim<\/span> of the underworld suffered anguish (Jb 26:5) and were separated from God (Ps 88:10-12) and all living people (Is 26:14). Their immaterial being bore a weakened shadowlike resemblance to their former corporeality (Is 14:9).<\/li>\n<li>2. A mighty people tall in stature living in Palestine during the days of Abraham. The Rephaim, along with the Zuzim, Emim, and Horite peoples, were defeated by Kedorlaomer and his allied armies (Gn 14:5). They were one of nine nations living in Palestine at the time when the Lord promised to give the land to Abraham’s descendants (15:20). The ancient Rephaim were called the Emim by the Moabites and the Zamzummin by the Ammonites; they were comparable in size and number to the giant Anakim (Dt 2:11, 20). Og, king of Bashan, represented the last of the Rephaim. He was later killed and his kingdom dispossessed by the Israelites under Moses (Dt 3:11; Jos 12:4; 13:12). Perhaps the giants among the Philistines were descendants of the Rephaim (2 Sm 21; 1 Chr 20).<\/li>\n<li>See also<\/em> Giants.<\/li>","summary_ro":"REPHAIM* 1. A Hebrew word referring to shades or departed spirits whose dwelling place was the habitation of Sheol (Prv 2:18; 9:18; 21:16). The rephaim of the underworld suffered anguish (Jb 26:5) and were separated from God (Ps 88:10-12) and all living people (Is 26:14). Their immaterial being bore a weakened shadowlike resemblance to their former corporeality (Is 14:9). 2. A mighty people tall in stature living in Palestine during the days of Abraham. The Rephaim, along with the Zuzim, Emim...","summary_en":"REPHAIM* 1. A Hebrew word referring to shades or departed spirits whose dwelling place was the habitation of Sheol (Prv 2:18; 9:18; 21:16). The rephaim of the underworld suffered anguish (Jb 26:5) and were separated from God (Ps 88:10-12) and all living people (Is 26:14). Their immaterial being bore a weakened shadowlike resemblance to their former corporeality (Is 14:9). 2. A mighty people tall in stature living in Palestine during the days of Abraham. The Rephaim, along with the Zuzim, Emim...","source":"Articles\/R.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":32798,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Resurrection","title_en":"Resurrection","content_ro":"<h3>RESURRECTION<\/h3>\nAct of being raised from the dead, used in the Bible in three different contexts: (1) It refers to miraculous raising of the dead back to earthly life, such as when Elijah raised a boy (1 Kgs 17:8-24), Elisha raised the Shunammite’s son (2 Kgs 4:18-37), Jesus raised both Jairus’s daughter (Mk 5:35-43) and Lazarus (Jn 11:17-44), Peter raised Dorcas (Acts 9:36-42), and Paul raised Eutychus (20:9-12). There is no hint that these resuscitations would prevent future death. (2) It refers most frequently to the resurrection of Jesus Christ. (3) It also refers to the eschatological resurrection of mankind at the end of time for punishment or reward (Jn 5:29; cf. Rv 20:5-6).<\/p>\nPreview<\/p>\n• Resurrection in the Old Testament and Judaism<\/p>\n• The Resurrection of Jesus Christ<\/p>\n• The Resurrection Accounts<\/p>\n• The Significance of Christ’s Resurrection<\/p>\n• Resurrection in General<\/p>\n• Resurrection and Gnosticism<\/p>\nResurrection in the Old Testament and Judaism<\/p>\nThe concept of resurrection to eternal life developed slowly in Israel. Life and death were limited to physical existence in this world. Death meant leaving this world and entering a shadowy existence known as Sheol, the place of the rephaim<\/span>,<\/em> or shades (Is 14:9), a place of hopelessness (2 Sm 12:23; Jb 7:9-10). The tragedy of Sheol was that a person was cut off from fellowship with God. At that stage of Israel’s thought, there seemed little hope for resurrection (Pss 6:4-5; 88:10-12).<\/p>\nBut in the midst of hopelessness concerning a personal future, Israel developed a sense of faithfulness to God. In spite of the fact that the future was not clear, Job cried helplessly, “If a man dies, will he live again?” (Jb 14:14). As Job sought for the seemingly impossible, the difficult passage in Job 19:25-26 suggests the reality of resurrection by a living redeemer (go’el<\/span>).<\/p>\nWhile some would argue that Hosea 6:1-3 suggests a resurrection, it is more likely that Israel considered it to be a promise of God’s continuing care, even when it experienced defeat at the hands of its enemies. Whether Paul saw in the third-day statement of Hosea a reference to Jesus is difficult to assess. This passage, along with texts like the dry bones of Ezekiel (ch 37), focus primarily on giving Israel hope in spite of defeat. But they may have become part of a developing sense in Israel that after death there should be something more.<\/p>\nIn Daniel 12:2, however, there is a sure reference to the resurrection of the dead. Indeed, the text announced a twofold resurrection of Jews: some to eternal life and some to eternal contempt. But there was no general resurrection of all people suggested by this text.<\/p>\nIn the intertestamental period, views began to solidify. The theologically conservative Sadducees would have nothing to do with the new ideas of resurrection and the afterlife. They continued to argue that there was no mention of resurrection in the writings of Moses, that life pertained to this earthly realm, and that the future hope was experienced through one’s children (Ecclus 46:12). Sheol, the place of the dead, was devoid of relationship with God and was a place of hapless existence. The Sadducean opinion of the resurrection is generally well known to Christians because of the encounter between Jesus and the Sadducees when they sought to ensnare him concerning the wife of seven brothers. Jesus rejected their views of the resurrection, of God, and of the Scriptures (Mk 12:18-27).<\/p>\nThe Pharisees, along with the Essenes and those at Qumran, believed in resurrection. A twofold pattern of resurrection was suggested by the famous eschatological passages of 2 Esdras 7 and the Apocalypse of Baruch 50–51. Both texts may be as late as the first century AD<\/span>. In the Similitudes of 1 Enoch, the righteous Jews could generally expect resurrection, but not the wicked (1 Enoch 1:46, 51, 62). But elsewhere in Enoch there is a hint that some wicked may be raised for judgment (vv 22, 67, 90). The resurrection of the righteous in these texts would generally be linked to a spiritual type of body, yet in 2 Maccabees 7:14ff., the view seems less developed and more physical. The ascetics at Qumran expected a resurrection in the great Day of the Lord.<\/p>\nWhile in Judaism there was a growing sense of an eschatological day of resurrection and reckoning, there was no hint anywhere of a resurrection of the Messiah. Such an idea had to await the historical reality of Jesus.<\/p>\nThe Resurrection of Jesus Christ<\/p>\nThe resurrection of Christ is the central point of Christianity. So important was the resurrection for Paul that he hinged both preaching and faith upon its validity. He considered that a Christianity without the resurrection would be empty and meaningless (1 Cor 15:12-19). Indeed, the resurrection for him was the unveiling of God’s power in Jesus (Rom 1:4).<\/p>\nThe resurrection of Christ is the presupposition behind other texts of the NT as well. Rebirth to a living hope is based upon the resurrection (1 Pt 1:3). It is the foundation for witness and fellowship with God, because the living Lord has been seen and touched (1 Jn 1:1-4). It is the bedrock thesis for ministry and apostleship (Acts 1:21-25). The Gospels likewise would hardly have been good news if they did not conclude with Christ’s resurrection. Christ’s resurrection is the prototype for all the believers, who will experience resurrection when Christ returns.<\/p>\nThe Resurrection Accounts<\/p>\nWhile the resurrection of Jesus Christ is the very essence of Christianity, it has been the subject of considerable debate. Scholars have frequently noted the variations that are present in the accounts. How many and who were the women at the tomb? Was there one (Mt; Mk) or were there two (Lk; Jn) angels at the tomb? Did the women come to anoint the body (Mk; Lk) or to see the tomb (Mt)? Did the women say nothing to anyone because of fear (Mk), or did they report to the disciples (Mt)? What was the order of the appearances, and did they take place in Jerusalem (Lk; Jn 20) or in Galilee (Mt; Jn 21) or in both places? Can the appearances be harmonized? What kind of body did Jesus possess? These and many other questions have been the watershed for a great deal of contemporary scholarly debate.<\/p>\nMany of these questions were not first discovered by recent scholars. Tatian in the second century sought to remove the questions by composing his Diatessaron<\/em> (harmony) in hopes that Christians would accept his work as a variant-free substitute for the Gospels. Although Christians liked the harmony, they continued to faithfully transmit the Gospels, because they believed that in them, by divine inspiration, God had provided a powerful witness concerning his Son. Many today still try the way of harmonization in an effort to deal with the minutia of historical questions, but they usually miss the uniqueness of each testimony. Others emphasize the differences and speculate on the Gospel constructs, but the fact of the resurrection usually becomes lost in the details of these human constructs. Both are attempts at protecting the essence of faith and reason in different ways.<\/p>\n<h5>The Empty Tomb<\/h5>\nMany explanations have been given concerning the empty tomb. Some said the body was stolen by the disciples (already suggested by Mt 28:13), but then one needs to explain the church on the basis of fraud. Others have said that the Jews could have stolen the body, or the disciples could have mistaken the tomb, but then the body would soon have been produced by the enemies. Others have said that Jesus could have lapsed into a swoon, reviving later in the cold tomb, but then the result would hardly have inspired the power of the Christian church. These explanations are all rationalistic attempts based upon a preconception that an actual resurrection of Jesus could not have happened.<\/p>\nIn spite of the material differences, and while the Gospel writers have used a great deal of common material in their tomb stories, they themselves refrain from employing the tomb as a basis for resurrection faith. With the exception of John 20:8, the empty tomb engendered surprise and fear. Indeed, it seemed to be an idle tale (Lk 24:11). It is not the tomb stories but the appearances of Jesus after his resurrection that gave rise to faith.<\/p>\n<h5>The Appearances<\/h5>\nUnlike the tomb stories, there is little commonality of material in the appearances. Yet the appearances are the basis for faith that the unbelievable happened. An enemy like Paul was converted into a zealous apostle (Acts 9:1-22; 1 Cor 15:8). A fearful fisherman like Peter abandoned his nets (Jn 21). A doubter like Thomas uttered early Christianity’s greatest confession, calling Jesus “my Lord and my God” (20:24-28). And two weary travelers to Emmaus found new zeal to return quickly to Jerusalem and share the news about their encounter with the risen Jesus (Lk 24:13-35).<\/p>\nScholars have debated the nature of these appearances. Starting from Paul’s list of appearances (1 Cor 15:5-8), some have argued that all appearances are of the same nature, and since the Damascus-road appearance to Paul recorded in Acts seems to have been of a spiritual nature (Acts 9:1-9; cf. 22:6-11; 26:12-19), then all the appearances must have been similar. Statements that the risen Jesus was touchable (Lk 24:41-43) are rejected as later accretions to an earlier vision-type tradition. This type of argument is based on presuppositions of the impossibility of a bodily resurrection.<\/p>\nAnother theory was based on the division between the Jesus of history and the Christ of faith. According to this view, the resurrection was not to be regarded as a fact of history but as an experience of the faith of the disciples. The issue, however, is that the eyewitnesses of Jesus’ resurrection proclaimed the event as a historical, palpable reality.<\/p>\nThe Significance of Christ’s Resurrection<\/p>\nSeveral people were raised from the dead, as recorded in the Bible. A widow’s son was raised by Elijah, another widow’s son was raised by Jesus, and Lazarus was raised by Jesus. However, their revitalization (or resuscitation) is not the same as Christ’s resurrection. They arose only to die again; he arose to live forevermore. They arose still doomed by corruptibility; he arose incorruptible. They arose with no change to their constitution; he arose in a significantly different form.<\/p>\nWhen the Lord arose, three significant things happened to him. He was glorified, he was transfigured, and he became spirit. All three happened simultaneously. When he was resurrected, he was glorified (see Lk 24:26). At the same time, his body was transfigured into a glorious one (Phil 3:21). Equally so—and quite mysteriously—he became life-giving spirit (1 Cor 15:45).<\/p>\nPrior to the Lord’s crucifixion and resurrection, he declared, “The hour has come for the Son of Man to be glorified. Truly, truly, I say unto you, unless a grain of wheat falls into the ground and dies, it abides alone; but if it dies, it brings forth many grains” (Jn 12:23-24; literal). This declaration provides the best picture of resurrection. Paul also used this illustration. He likened the resurrection glory to a grain being sown in death and then coming forth in life. Actually, Paul used this illustration when answering two questions the Corinthians posed about resurrection: (1) How are the dead raised? and (2) With what sort of body do they come? (1 Cor 15:35).<\/p>\nTo the first question Paul responded, “Foolish man, what you sow is not made alive unless it dies” (1 Cor 15:36). This follows perfectly the Lord’s saying in John 12:24, and the two explain each other. The grain must die before it can be quickened. Paul devotes more explanation to the second question; and the Spirit inspired his sublime utterance to unfold this mystery. Using the same natural example of the grain of wheat, Paul revealed that the body that comes forth in resurrection is altogether different in form from that which had been sown. Through an organic process, the single bare grain is transformed into a stalk of wheat. In essence, the grain and the stalk are one and the same—the latter simply being the living growth and expressed expansion of the former. In short, the stalk is the glory of the grain, or the glorified grain. This illustration shows that Jesus’ resurrected body was altogether different from the one that was buried. In death, he had been sown in corruption, dishonor, and weakness; in resurrection, he came forth in incorruption, glory, and power. The natural body that Jesus possessed as a man became a spiritual body, and at the same time Christ became “life-giving spirit.”<\/p>\nWith this new spiritual existence, Christ, as spirit and through the Holy Spirit, could indwell millions of believers simultaneously. Before the resurrection, Jesus was limited by his mortal body; after his resurrection, Jesus could be experienced illimitably by all his believers. Before his resurrection, Christ could dwell only among his believers; after his resurrection, he could dwell in his believers. Because Christ became spirit through resurrection, he can be experienced by those he indwells. The Spirit of Christ now makes Christ very real and experiential to us.<\/p>\nThe Lord Jesus entered into a new kind of existence when he was raised from the dead because he was glorified and simultaneously became spirit—or, to coin a term, he was “pneumafied” (from the Greek word for “spirit,” pneuma<\/span>). It appears that when he arose the indwelling Spirit penetrated and saturated his body so as to constitute his entire being with spirit. Recent studies in the area of pneumatology (the study of the Spirit) point out that the risen Christ and the Spirit were united via Christ’s resurrection.<\/p>\nWilliam Milligan, the author of the best English classic on the subject of the resurrection, said that the risen Christ is spirit. In that classic, called The Resurrection of Our Lord<\/em>, he wrote the following:<\/p>\nThe condition of our Lord after His Resurrection was viewed by the sacred writers as essentially a state of pneuma<\/span> (spirit). Not indeed that our Lord had then no body, for it is the constant lesson of Scripture that a body was possessed by him; but that the deepest, the fundamental characteristic of His state, interpenetrating even the body, and moulding it into a complete adaptation to and harmony with His spirit, was pneuma<\/span>.<\/em> In other words, it is proposed to inquire whether the word pneuma<\/span> in the New Testament is not used as a short description of what our Lord was after His Resurrection, in contrast with what He was during the days of His humiliation upon earth.<\/p>\nMilligan went on from there to show that several Scriptures affirm that the resurrected Christ is spirit. He cited 1 Corinthians 6:17 to show that the believer who is joined with the risen Lord must be joined to him as spirit, because he who is joined to the Lord is said to be “one spirit” with him. He used 2 Corinthians 3:17-18 to demonstrate that the Lord who is the Spirit is none other than the risen Christ. He also employed 1 Timothy 3:16, Romans 1:3-4, and Hebrews 9:14 to prove that the risen Lord is spirit.<\/p>\nWhen we read the last chapters of the Gospels, we realize that a great change had transpired in our Lord after the resurrection. By entering into glory, he had entered into a new sphere of existence. At one moment he was visible; in another he became invisible (Lk 24:31). He was defying the limitations of space and perhaps even time. In the early morning of the day of resurrection, he appeared to Mary Magdalene in the garden (Jn 20:11-17), then to some of the other women (Mt 28:9). After this, he ascended to his Father (Jn 20:17). Then he returned to appear to Peter, who had gone home (Jn 20:10; Lk 24:34). On the same day, in the late afternoon, he took a seven-mile (11.3-kilometer) walk with two disciples on their way to Emmaus (Lk 24:13-33), following which he appeared to the disciples as they were assembled in a closed room somewhere in Jerusalem (Lk 24:33-48; Jn 20:19-23). It is nearly impossible to follow a sequential, chronological order of all these happenings. What Jesus did was humanly impossible. How could he make all of these appearances on the same day? All we can say is that resurrection greatly changed his sphere of existence. As spirit, and yet with a body—a glorified one—he was no longer limited by time and space.<\/p>\n Through resurrection, Jesus had acquired a different form (see Mk 16:12). As to his person, he was still the same; the Jesus who walked in Galilee and was crucified at Calvary is the same Jesus who arose. His person had not changed, nor will it ever; it is immutable. But his form did change; he is now life-giving spirit. As such, Christ is able to indwell all of his believers.<\/p>\nResurrection and regeneration are closely linked in the Scriptures—in the same way that crucifixion and redemption form an inseparable unity. As redemption was not possible without Christ’s crucifixion, so regeneration is not possible without Christ’s resurrection. The Scripture plainly says that we have been born again through the resurrection of Christ (1 Pt 1:23).<\/p>\nAfter Christ was raised from the dead, he called the disciples his brothers (Mt 28:10; Jn 20:19), and he declared that his God was now their God, and his Father their Father. Through resurrection, the disciples had become the brothers of Jesus, possessing the same divine life and the same Father. As the firstborn from among the dead (Col 1:18; Rv 1:18), Jesus Christ became the firstborn among many brothers (Rom 8:29).<\/p>\nResurrection in General<\/p>\nPaul looked for the Day of the Lord when the dead in Christ would be raised and those who were still alive would join the dead in final victory (1 Thes 4:15-18). There was no doubt in his mind that this resurrection was a glorious expectation, that it involved some type of a personalized body, and that this body would not be physical but spiritual (1 Cor 15:35-44). Paul did not speak of two resurrections, as do the Johannine texts (e.g., Jn 5:29), but merely of the resurrection to life. Perhaps the Revelation of John provides the best clue in understanding NT thought on this issue because it refers to the blessing of being part of the first resurrection (Rv 20:5-6). Although in Revelation the term “resurrection” is not used in connection with judgment, the appearance at the judgment seat and the verdict of the second death in the lake of fire indicate that a resurrection to judgment will hardly be of the same essence as resurrection to life.<\/p>\n\nResurrection and Gnosticism<\/p>\nGnostic eschatology is indebted to the Greek view of immortality and involves the shedding of the bodily husk in the spiritual ascent of the devotee to the Pleroma, or Gnostic heaven. Because of the way Gnostics used words, the Gospel of Philip is a helpful window for understanding the Gnostic twisting of ideas. There it is argued that “those who say that the Lord died first and [then] arose are in error; because he first arose and [then] died. If anyone does not attain the resurrection first, will he not die?” (Philip 56:15-19). The concept of resurrection is de-eschatologized and defined not in terms of a truly future expectation of resurrection but in terms of a realized spiritual awakening in this world. The Gospel of Philip is also useful in perceiving why in 2 Timothy 2:17-19 the criticism was so severe against Hymenaeus and Philetus for holding that the resurrection was past. Clearly, realized eschatology was rejected in the Pauline community and by the church when it appeared in Gnosticism. And it should continue to be rejected by the church in the present day.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Dead, Place of the; Eschatology; Second Coming of Christ; Spirit.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>RESURRECTION<\/h3>\nAct of being raised from the dead, used in the Bible in three different contexts: (1) It refers to miraculous raising of the dead back to earthly life, such as when Elijah raised a boy (1 Kgs 17:8-24), Elisha raised the Shunammite’s son (2 Kgs 4:18-37), Jesus raised both Jairus’s daughter (Mk 5:35-43) and Lazarus (Jn 11:17-44), Peter raised Dorcas (Acts 9:36-42), and Paul raised Eutychus (20:9-12). There is no hint that these resuscitations would prevent future death. (2) It refers most frequently to the resurrection of Jesus Christ. (3) It also refers to the eschatological resurrection of mankind at the end of time for punishment or reward (Jn 5:29; cf. Rv 20:5-6).<\/p>\nPreview<\/p>\n• Resurrection in the Old Testament and Judaism<\/p>\n• The Resurrection of Jesus Christ<\/p>\n• The Resurrection Accounts<\/p>\n• The Significance of Christ’s Resurrection<\/p>\n• Resurrection in General<\/p>\n• Resurrection and Gnosticism<\/p>\nResurrection in the Old Testament and Judaism<\/p>\nThe concept of resurrection to eternal life developed slowly in Israel. Life and death were limited to physical existence in this world. Death meant leaving this world and entering a shadowy existence known as Sheol, the place of the rephaim<\/span>,<\/em> or shades (Is 14:9), a place of hopelessness (2 Sm 12:23; Jb 7:9-10). The tragedy of Sheol was that a person was cut off from fellowship with God. At that stage of Israel’s thought, there seemed little hope for resurrection (Pss 6:4-5; 88:10-12).<\/p>\nBut in the midst of hopelessness concerning a personal future, Israel developed a sense of faithfulness to God. In spite of the fact that the future was not clear, Job cried helplessly, “If a man dies, will he live again?” (Jb 14:14). As Job sought for the seemingly impossible, the difficult passage in Job 19:25-26 suggests the reality of resurrection by a living redeemer (go’el<\/span>).<\/p>\nWhile some would argue that Hosea 6:1-3 suggests a resurrection, it is more likely that Israel considered it to be a promise of God’s continuing care, even when it experienced defeat at the hands of its enemies. Whether Paul saw in the third-day statement of Hosea a reference to Jesus is difficult to assess. This passage, along with texts like the dry bones of Ezekiel (ch 37), focus primarily on giving Israel hope in spite of defeat. But they may have become part of a developing sense in Israel that after death there should be something more.<\/p>\nIn Daniel 12:2, however, there is a sure reference to the resurrection of the dead. Indeed, the text announced a twofold resurrection of Jews: some to eternal life and some to eternal contempt. But there was no general resurrection of all people suggested by this text.<\/p>\nIn the intertestamental period, views began to solidify. The theologically conservative Sadducees would have nothing to do with the new ideas of resurrection and the afterlife. They continued to argue that there was no mention of resurrection in the writings of Moses, that life pertained to this earthly realm, and that the future hope was experienced through one’s children (Ecclus 46:12). Sheol, the place of the dead, was devoid of relationship with God and was a place of hapless existence. The Sadducean opinion of the resurrection is generally well known to Christians because of the encounter between Jesus and the Sadducees when they sought to ensnare him concerning the wife of seven brothers. Jesus rejected their views of the resurrection, of God, and of the Scriptures (Mk 12:18-27).<\/p>\nThe Pharisees, along with the Essenes and those at Qumran, believed in resurrection. A twofold pattern of resurrection was suggested by the famous eschatological passages of 2 Esdras 7 and the Apocalypse of Baruch 50–51. Both texts may be as late as the first century AD<\/span>. In the Similitudes of 1 Enoch, the righteous Jews could generally expect resurrection, but not the wicked (1 Enoch 1:46, 51, 62). But elsewhere in Enoch there is a hint that some wicked may be raised for judgment (vv 22, 67, 90). The resurrection of the righteous in these texts would generally be linked to a spiritual type of body, yet in 2 Maccabees 7:14ff., the view seems less developed and more physical. The ascetics at Qumran expected a resurrection in the great Day of the Lord.<\/p>\nWhile in Judaism there was a growing sense of an eschatological day of resurrection and reckoning, there was no hint anywhere of a resurrection of the Messiah. Such an idea had to await the historical reality of Jesus.<\/p>\nThe Resurrection of Jesus Christ<\/p>\nThe resurrection of Christ is the central point of Christianity. So important was the resurrection for Paul that he hinged both preaching and faith upon its validity. He considered that a Christianity without the resurrection would be empty and meaningless (1 Cor 15:12-19). Indeed, the resurrection for him was the unveiling of God’s power in Jesus (Rom 1:4).<\/p>\nThe resurrection of Christ is the presupposition behind other texts of the NT as well. Rebirth to a living hope is based upon the resurrection (1 Pt 1:3). It is the foundation for witness and fellowship with God, because the living Lord has been seen and touched (1 Jn 1:1-4). It is the bedrock thesis for ministry and apostleship (Acts 1:21-25). The Gospels likewise would hardly have been good news if they did not conclude with Christ’s resurrection. Christ’s resurrection is the prototype for all the believers, who will experience resurrection when Christ returns.<\/p>\nThe Resurrection Accounts<\/p>\nWhile the resurrection of Jesus Christ is the very essence of Christianity, it has been the subject of considerable debate. Scholars have frequently noted the variations that are present in the accounts. How many and who were the women at the tomb? Was there one (Mt; Mk) or were there two (Lk; Jn) angels at the tomb? Did the women come to anoint the body (Mk; Lk) or to see the tomb (Mt)? Did the women say nothing to anyone because of fear (Mk), or did they report to the disciples (Mt)? What was the order of the appearances, and did they take place in Jerusalem (Lk; Jn 20) or in Galilee (Mt; Jn 21) or in both places? Can the appearances be harmonized? What kind of body did Jesus possess? These and many other questions have been the watershed for a great deal of contemporary scholarly debate.<\/p>\nMany of these questions were not first discovered by recent scholars. Tatian in the second century sought to remove the questions by composing his Diatessaron<\/em> (harmony) in hopes that Christians would accept his work as a variant-free substitute for the Gospels. Although Christians liked the harmony, they continued to faithfully transmit the Gospels, because they believed that in them, by divine inspiration, God had provided a powerful witness concerning his Son. Many today still try the way of harmonization in an effort to deal with the minutia of historical questions, but they usually miss the uniqueness of each testimony. Others emphasize the differences and speculate on the Gospel constructs, but the fact of the resurrection usually becomes lost in the details of these human constructs. Both are attempts at protecting the essence of faith and reason in different ways.<\/p>\n<h5>The Empty Tomb<\/h5>\nMany explanations have been given concerning the empty tomb. Some said the body was stolen by the disciples (already suggested by Mt 28:13), but then one needs to explain the church on the basis of fraud. Others have said that the Jews could have stolen the body, or the disciples could have mistaken the tomb, but then the body would soon have been produced by the enemies. Others have said that Jesus could have lapsed into a swoon, reviving later in the cold tomb, but then the result would hardly have inspired the power of the Christian church. These explanations are all rationalistic attempts based upon a preconception that an actual resurrection of Jesus could not have happened.<\/p>\nIn spite of the material differences, and while the Gospel writers have used a great deal of common material in their tomb stories, they themselves refrain from employing the tomb as a basis for resurrection faith. With the exception of John 20:8, the empty tomb engendered surprise and fear. Indeed, it seemed to be an idle tale (Lk 24:11). It is not the tomb stories but the appearances of Jesus after his resurrection that gave rise to faith.<\/p>\n<h5>The Appearances<\/h5>\nUnlike the tomb stories, there is little commonality of material in the appearances. Yet the appearances are the basis for faith that the unbelievable happened. An enemy like Paul was converted into a zealous apostle (Acts 9:1-22; 1 Cor 15:8). A fearful fisherman like Peter abandoned his nets (Jn 21). A doubter like Thomas uttered early Christianity’s greatest confession, calling Jesus “my Lord and my God” (20:24-28). And two weary travelers to Emmaus found new zeal to return quickly to Jerusalem and share the news about their encounter with the risen Jesus (Lk 24:13-35).<\/p>\nScholars have debated the nature of these appearances. Starting from Paul’s list of appearances (1 Cor 15:5-8), some have argued that all appearances are of the same nature, and since the Damascus-road appearance to Paul recorded in Acts seems to have been of a spiritual nature (Acts 9:1-9; cf. 22:6-11; 26:12-19), then all the appearances must have been similar. Statements that the risen Jesus was touchable (Lk 24:41-43) are rejected as later accretions to an earlier vision-type tradition. This type of argument is based on presuppositions of the impossibility of a bodily resurrection.<\/p>\nAnother theory was based on the division between the Jesus of history and the Christ of faith. According to this view, the resurrection was not to be regarded as a fact of history but as an experience of the faith of the disciples. The issue, however, is that the eyewitnesses of Jesus’ resurrection proclaimed the event as a historical, palpable reality.<\/p>\nThe Significance of Christ’s Resurrection<\/p>\nSeveral people were raised from the dead, as recorded in the Bible. A widow’s son was raised by Elijah, another widow’s son was raised by Jesus, and Lazarus was raised by Jesus. However, their revitalization (or resuscitation) is not the same as Christ’s resurrection. They arose only to die again; he arose to live forevermore. They arose still doomed by corruptibility; he arose incorruptible. They arose with no change to their constitution; he arose in a significantly different form.<\/p>\nWhen the Lord arose, three significant things happened to him. He was glorified, he was transfigured, and he became spirit. All three happened simultaneously. When he was resurrected, he was glorified (see Lk 24:26). At the same time, his body was transfigured into a glorious one (Phil 3:21). Equally so—and quite mysteriously—he became life-giving spirit (1 Cor 15:45).<\/p>\nPrior to the Lord’s crucifixion and resurrection, he declared, “The hour has come for the Son of Man to be glorified. Truly, truly, I say unto you, unless a grain of wheat falls into the ground and dies, it abides alone; but if it dies, it brings forth many grains” (Jn 12:23-24; literal). This declaration provides the best picture of resurrection. Paul also used this illustration. He likened the resurrection glory to a grain being sown in death and then coming forth in life. Actually, Paul used this illustration when answering two questions the Corinthians posed about resurrection: (1) How are the dead raised? and (2) With what sort of body do they come? (1 Cor 15:35).<\/p>\nTo the first question Paul responded, “Foolish man, what you sow is not made alive unless it dies” (1 Cor 15:36). This follows perfectly the Lord’s saying in John 12:24, and the two explain each other. The grain must die before it can be quickened. Paul devotes more explanation to the second question; and the Spirit inspired his sublime utterance to unfold this mystery. Using the same natural example of the grain of wheat, Paul revealed that the body that comes forth in resurrection is altogether different in form from that which had been sown. Through an organic process, the single bare grain is transformed into a stalk of wheat. In essence, the grain and the stalk are one and the same—the latter simply being the living growth and expressed expansion of the former. In short, the stalk is the glory of the grain, or the glorified grain. This illustration shows that Jesus’ resurrected body was altogether different from the one that was buried. In death, he had been sown in corruption, dishonor, and weakness; in resurrection, he came forth in incorruption, glory, and power. The natural body that Jesus possessed as a man became a spiritual body, and at the same time Christ became “life-giving spirit.”<\/p>\nWith this new spiritual existence, Christ, as spirit and through the Holy Spirit, could indwell millions of believers simultaneously. Before the resurrection, Jesus was limited by his mortal body; after his resurrection, Jesus could be experienced illimitably by all his believers. Before his resurrection, Christ could dwell only among his believers; after his resurrection, he could dwell in his believers. Because Christ became spirit through resurrection, he can be experienced by those he indwells. The Spirit of Christ now makes Christ very real and experiential to us.<\/p>\nThe Lord Jesus entered into a new kind of existence when he was raised from the dead because he was glorified and simultaneously became spirit—or, to coin a term, he was “pneumafied” (from the Greek word for “spirit,” pneuma<\/span>). It appears that when he arose the indwelling Spirit penetrated and saturated his body so as to constitute his entire being with spirit. Recent studies in the area of pneumatology (the study of the Spirit) point out that the risen Christ and the Spirit were united via Christ’s resurrection.<\/p>\nWilliam Milligan, the author of the best English classic on the subject of the resurrection, said that the risen Christ is spirit. In that classic, called The Resurrection of Our Lord<\/em>, he wrote the following:<\/p>\nThe condition of our Lord after His Resurrection was viewed by the sacred writers as essentially a state of pneuma<\/span> (spirit). Not indeed that our Lord had then no body, for it is the constant lesson of Scripture that a body was possessed by him; but that the deepest, the fundamental characteristic of His state, interpenetrating even the body, and moulding it into a complete adaptation to and harmony with His spirit, was pneuma<\/span>.<\/em> In other words, it is proposed to inquire whether the word pneuma<\/span> in the New Testament is not used as a short description of what our Lord was after His Resurrection, in contrast with what He was during the days of His humiliation upon earth.<\/p>\nMilligan went on from there to show that several Scriptures affirm that the resurrected Christ is spirit. He cited 1 Corinthians 6:17 to show that the believer who is joined with the risen Lord must be joined to him as spirit, because he who is joined to the Lord is said to be “one spirit” with him. He used 2 Corinthians 3:17-18 to demonstrate that the Lord who is the Spirit is none other than the risen Christ. He also employed 1 Timothy 3:16, Romans 1:3-4, and Hebrews 9:14 to prove that the risen Lord is spirit.<\/p>\nWhen we read the last chapters of the Gospels, we realize that a great change had transpired in our Lord after the resurrection. By entering into glory, he had entered into a new sphere of existence. At one moment he was visible; in another he became invisible (Lk 24:31). He was defying the limitations of space and perhaps even time. In the early morning of the day of resurrection, he appeared to Mary Magdalene in the garden (Jn 20:11-17), then to some of the other women (Mt 28:9). After this, he ascended to his Father (Jn 20:17). Then he returned to appear to Peter, who had gone home (Jn 20:10; Lk 24:34). On the same day, in the late afternoon, he took a seven-mile (11.3-kilometer) walk with two disciples on their way to Emmaus (Lk 24:13-33), following which he appeared to the disciples as they were assembled in a closed room somewhere in Jerusalem (Lk 24:33-48; Jn 20:19-23). It is nearly impossible to follow a sequential, chronological order of all these happenings. What Jesus did was humanly impossible. How could he make all of these appearances on the same day? All we can say is that resurrection greatly changed his sphere of existence. As spirit, and yet with a body—a glorified one—he was no longer limited by time and space.<\/p>\n Through resurrection, Jesus had acquired a different form (see Mk 16:12). As to his person, he was still the same; the Jesus who walked in Galilee and was crucified at Calvary is the same Jesus who arose. His person had not changed, nor will it ever; it is immutable. But his form did change; he is now life-giving spirit. As such, Christ is able to indwell all of his believers.<\/p>\nResurrection and regeneration are closely linked in the Scriptures—in the same way that crucifixion and redemption form an inseparable unity. As redemption was not possible without Christ’s crucifixion, so regeneration is not possible without Christ’s resurrection. The Scripture plainly says that we have been born again through the resurrection of Christ (1 Pt 1:23).<\/p>\nAfter Christ was raised from the dead, he called the disciples his brothers (Mt 28:10; Jn 20:19), and he declared that his God was now their God, and his Father their Father. Through resurrection, the disciples had become the brothers of Jesus, possessing the same divine life and the same Father. As the firstborn from among the dead (Col 1:18; Rv 1:18), Jesus Christ became the firstborn among many brothers (Rom 8:29).<\/p>\nResurrection in General<\/p>\nPaul looked for the Day of the Lord when the dead in Christ would be raised and those who were still alive would join the dead in final victory (1 Thes 4:15-18). There was no doubt in his mind that this resurrection was a glorious expectation, that it involved some type of a personalized body, and that this body would not be physical but spiritual (1 Cor 15:35-44). Paul did not speak of two resurrections, as do the Johannine texts (e.g., Jn 5:29), but merely of the resurrection to life. Perhaps the Revelation of John provides the best clue in understanding NT thought on this issue because it refers to the blessing of being part of the first resurrection (Rv 20:5-6). Although in Revelation the term “resurrection” is not used in connection with judgment, the appearance at the judgment seat and the verdict of the second death in the lake of fire indicate that a resurrection to judgment will hardly be of the same essence as resurrection to life.<\/p>\n\nResurrection and Gnosticism<\/p>\nGnostic eschatology is indebted to the Greek view of immortality and involves the shedding of the bodily husk in the spiritual ascent of the devotee to the Pleroma, or Gnostic heaven. Because of the way Gnostics used words, the Gospel of Philip is a helpful window for understanding the Gnostic twisting of ideas. There it is argued that “those who say that the Lord died first and [then] arose are in error; because he first arose and [then] died. If anyone does not attain the resurrection first, will he not die?” (Philip 56:15-19). The concept of resurrection is de-eschatologized and defined not in terms of a truly future expectation of resurrection but in terms of a realized spiritual awakening in this world. The Gospel of Philip is also useful in perceiving why in 2 Timothy 2:17-19 the criticism was so severe against Hymenaeus and Philetus for holding that the resurrection was past. Clearly, realized eschatology was rejected in the Pauline community and by the church when it appeared in Gnosticism. And it should continue to be rejected by the church in the present day.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Dead, Place of the; Eschatology; Second Coming of Christ; Spirit.<\/p>","summary_ro":"RESURRECTION Act of being raised from the dead, used in the Bible in three different contexts: (1) It refers to miraculous raising of the dead back to earthly life, such as when Elijah raised a boy (1 Kgs 17:8-24), Elisha raised the Shunammite’s son (2 Kgs 4:18-37), Jesus raised both Jairus’s daughter (Mk 5:35-43) and Lazarus (Jn 11:17-44), Peter raised Dorcas (Acts 9:36-42), and Paul raised Eutychus (20:9-12). There is no hint that these resuscitations would prevent future death. (2) It refe...","summary_en":"RESURRECTION Act of being raised from the dead, used in the Bible in three different contexts: (1) It refers to miraculous raising of the dead back to earthly life, such as when Elijah raised a boy (1 Kgs 17:8-24), Elisha raised the Shunammite’s son (2 Kgs 4:18-37), Jesus raised both Jairus’s daughter (Mk 5:35-43) and Lazarus (Jn 11:17-44), Peter raised Dorcas (Acts 9:36-42), and Paul raised Eutychus (20:9-12). There is no hint that these resuscitations would prevent future death. (2) It refe...","source":"Articles\/R.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":34937,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Sheol*","title_en":"Sheol*","content_ro":"<h3>SHEOL*<\/h3>\nHebrew term for the place of the dead. In ordinary usage it means “ravine,” “chasm,” “underworld,” or “world of the dead.” In the OT it is the place where the dead have their abode, a hollow space underneath the earth where the dead are gathered in. Synonyms for Sheol are “pit,” “death,” and “destruction” (Abaddon). Sheol is a place of shadows and utter silence. Here all existence is in suspense, yet it is not a nonplace, but rather a place where life is no more. It is described as the Land of Forgetfulness. Those who dwell there cannot praise God (Ps 88:10-12). In Revelation it is called the “bottomless pit” presided over by Abaddon, the prince of the pit (Rv 9:11).<\/p>\nIt is not, however, a place where God is entirely absent; there can be no escape from God even in Sheol (Ps 139:8). This omnipresence of God is graphically described in Job: “Sheol is naked before God, and Abaddon has no covering” (Jb 26:6, rsv<\/span>). A similar thought is expressed in Proverbs: “Sheol and Abaddon lie open before the Lord<\/span>, how much more the hearts of men!” (Prv 15:11, rsv<\/span>). In both texts Sheol and Abaddon are used interchangeably. Abaddon means literally “destruction,” but in Revelation it is used as a personal name.<\/p>\nIn the Bible, death is not a natural occurrence. It violates the principle of life, which is a gift from God. Sheol is therefore not only a place of rest but also of punishment. Korah and his associates who instigated rebellion against Moses were swallowed up by the open pit and perished in Sheol (Nm 16:30-33). Fear of death is natural to man; Sheol therefore serves as a symbol of the journey without return (Ps 39:12-13). King Hezekiah of Judah laments on his sickbed: “In the noontide of my days I must depart; I am consigned to the gates of Sheol for the rest of my years” (Is 38:10, rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\nSheol, as conceived in the OT, differs from the later doctrine of hell or Hades in that it is the place where all the dead are gathered indiscriminately, both the good and the bad, the saints and the sinners. To die means to be joined to those who have gone before. When a Jew dies, he is “gathered unto his people” (cf. Gn 25:8, 17; 35:29; 49:29). Beyond Sheol there seemed to be no hope (cf. Eccl 9:10). The utter despondency of death is expressed pathetically in the book of Job: “I go whence I shall not return, to the land of gloom and deep darkness, the land of gloom and chaos, where light is as darkness” (Jb 10:21-22, rsv<\/span>). Yet this is not Job’s last word. He also knows of the power of God, which reaches beyond the grave: “For I know that my Redeemer lives . . . ; and after my skin has been thus destroyed, then from my flesh I shall see God” (19:25-26, rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\nThe idea that the dead abide in the underworld persists in the OT. The incident in the case of Saul with the medium of Endor (1 Sm 28:11) is a good illustration. Samuel is brought “up out of the earth” to be consulted by the king at a time of crisis. Such necromancy was strictly prohibited both by the law of Moses (Dt 18:9-11) and by the king himself (cf. 1 Sm 28:3, 9). Apparently, those in the underworld, though separated from the living, were thought to be familiar with the affairs of men.<\/p>\nSheol is roughly equivalent to the Greek word often found in the NT, hades<\/span>,<\/em> as that which also describes the place of the dead.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Dead, Place of the; Death; Hades; Hell; Intermediate State.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>SHEOL*<\/h3>\nHebrew term for the place of the dead. In ordinary usage it means “ravine,” “chasm,” “underworld,” or “world of the dead.” In the OT it is the place where the dead have their abode, a hollow space underneath the earth where the dead are gathered in. Synonyms for Sheol are “pit,” “death,” and “destruction” (Abaddon). Sheol is a place of shadows and utter silence. Here all existence is in suspense, yet it is not a nonplace, but rather a place where life is no more. It is described as the Land of Forgetfulness. Those who dwell there cannot praise God (Ps 88:10-12). In Revelation it is called the “bottomless pit” presided over by Abaddon, the prince of the pit (Rv 9:11).<\/p>\nIt is not, however, a place where God is entirely absent; there can be no escape from God even in Sheol (Ps 139:8). This omnipresence of God is graphically described in Job: “Sheol is naked before God, and Abaddon has no covering” (Jb 26:6, rsv<\/span>). A similar thought is expressed in Proverbs: “Sheol and Abaddon lie open before the Lord<\/span>, how much more the hearts of men!” (Prv 15:11, rsv<\/span>). In both texts Sheol and Abaddon are used interchangeably. Abaddon means literally “destruction,” but in Revelation it is used as a personal name.<\/p>\nIn the Bible, death is not a natural occurrence. It violates the principle of life, which is a gift from God. Sheol is therefore not only a place of rest but also of punishment. Korah and his associates who instigated rebellion against Moses were swallowed up by the open pit and perished in Sheol (Nm 16:30-33). Fear of death is natural to man; Sheol therefore serves as a symbol of the journey without return (Ps 39:12-13). King Hezekiah of Judah laments on his sickbed: “In the noontide of my days I must depart; I am consigned to the gates of Sheol for the rest of my years” (Is 38:10, rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\nSheol, as conceived in the OT, differs from the later doctrine of hell or Hades in that it is the place where all the dead are gathered indiscriminately, both the good and the bad, the saints and the sinners. To die means to be joined to those who have gone before. When a Jew dies, he is “gathered unto his people” (cf. Gn 25:8, 17; 35:29; 49:29). Beyond Sheol there seemed to be no hope (cf. Eccl 9:10). The utter despondency of death is expressed pathetically in the book of Job: “I go whence I shall not return, to the land of gloom and deep darkness, the land of gloom and chaos, where light is as darkness” (Jb 10:21-22, rsv<\/span>). Yet this is not Job’s last word. He also knows of the power of God, which reaches beyond the grave: “For I know that my Redeemer lives . . . ; and after my skin has been thus destroyed, then from my flesh I shall see God” (19:25-26, rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\nThe idea that the dead abide in the underworld persists in the OT. The incident in the case of Saul with the medium of Endor (1 Sm 28:11) is a good illustration. Samuel is brought “up out of the earth” to be consulted by the king at a time of crisis. Such necromancy was strictly prohibited both by the law of Moses (Dt 18:9-11) and by the king himself (cf. 1 Sm 28:3, 9). Apparently, those in the underworld, though separated from the living, were thought to be familiar with the affairs of men.<\/p>\nSheol is roughly equivalent to the Greek word often found in the NT, hades<\/span>,<\/em> as that which also describes the place of the dead.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Dead, Place of the; Death; Hades; Hell; Intermediate State.<\/p>","summary_ro":"SHEOL* Hebrew term for the place of the dead. In ordinary usage it means “ravine,” “chasm,” “underworld,” or “world of the dead.” In the OT it is the place where the dead have their abode, a hollow space underneath the earth where the dead are gathered in. Synonyms for Sheol are “pit,” “death,” and “destruction” (Abaddon). Sheol is a place of shadows and utter silence. Here all existence is in suspense, yet it is not a nonplace, but rather a place where life is no more. It is described as the...","summary_en":"SHEOL* Hebrew term for the place of the dead. In ordinary usage it means “ravine,” “chasm,” “underworld,” or “world of the dead.” In the OT it is the place where the dead have their abode, a hollow space underneath the earth where the dead are gathered in. Synonyms for Sheol are “pit,” “death,” and “destruction” (Abaddon). Sheol is a place of shadows and utter silence. Here all existence is in suspense, yet it is not a nonplace, but rather a place where life is no more. It is described as the...","source":"Articles\/S.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":61245,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Calling up the Dead","title_en":"Calling up the Dead","content_ro":"<h3>Calling up the Dead<\/h3>\nThe Old Testament forbids occult practices, such as spiritism, divination, and necromancy, in which someone attempts to contact the dead, usually to seek guidance about the future (see Deut 18:9-12). Practicing necromancy and consulting a necromancer were capital offenses (Lev 20:6, 27; cp. 1 Sam 28:9). God’s people were instead to rely on God for divine guidance.<\/p>\nGod buried Moses in an unmarked grave (Deut 34:6), possibly because he did not want the Israelites to make Moses’ grave a shrine, present offerings to his spirit, worship him, or attempt to consult his spirit. They may have been prone to these sorts of practices because of their time in Egypt and because of Moses’ stature and his role in mediating Israel’s covenant with God.<\/p>\nThe Old Testament makes it plain that the dead cannot be contacted (cp. 2 Sam 12:23; Job 14:10-12; Pss 88:10; 115:17). Samuel is the only known exception; God apparently commanded him to return and speak (see 1 Sam 28:12-19). Saul’s sin in consulting a medium was so severe that the Chronicler singles out this failure in commenting on Saul’s downfall (see 1 Chr 10:13-14). There is never any justification for seeking advice from the dead when we have the living word of God to guide us (2 Tim 3:15-17; Heb 4:12-13).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nLev 19:31; 20:6-8, 27; Deut 18:9-12; 1 Sam 28:1-25; 2 Kgs 21:6; 23:24; 1 Chr 10:13-14; Job 14:10-12; Isa 3:1-3; 8:19-22<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Calling up the Dead<\/h3>\nThe Old Testament forbids occult practices, such as spiritism, divination, and necromancy, in which someone attempts to contact the dead, usually to seek guidance about the future (see Deut 18:9-12). Practicing necromancy and consulting a necromancer were capital offenses (Lev 20:6, 27; cp. 1 Sam 28:9). God’s people were instead to rely on God for divine guidance.<\/p>\nGod buried Moses in an unmarked grave (Deut 34:6), possibly because he did not want the Israelites to make Moses’ grave a shrine, present offerings to his spirit, worship him, or attempt to consult his spirit. They may have been prone to these sorts of practices because of their time in Egypt and because of Moses’ stature and his role in mediating Israel’s covenant with God.<\/p>\nThe Old Testament makes it plain that the dead cannot be contacted (cp. 2 Sam 12:23; Job 14:10-12; Pss 88:10; 115:17). Samuel is the only known exception; God apparently commanded him to return and speak (see 1 Sam 28:12-19). Saul’s sin in consulting a medium was so severe that the Chronicler singles out this failure in commenting on Saul’s downfall (see 1 Chr 10:13-14). There is never any justification for seeking advice from the dead when we have the living word of God to guide us (2 Tim 3:15-17; Heb 4:12-13).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nLev 19:31; 20:6-8, 27; Deut 18:9-12; 1 Sam 28:1-25; 2 Kgs 21:6; 23:24; 1 Chr 10:13-14; Job 14:10-12; Isa 3:1-3; 8:19-22<\/p>","summary_ro":"Calling up the Dead The Old Testament forbids occult practices, such as spiritism, divination, and necromancy, in which someone attempts to contact the dead, usually to seek guidance about the future (see Deut 18:9-12). Practicing necromancy and consulting a necromancer were capital offenses (Lev 20:6, 27; cp. 1 Sam 28:9). God’s people were instead to rely on God for divine guidance. God buried Moses in an unmarked grave (Deut 34:6), possibly because he did not want the Israelites to make Mos...","summary_en":"Calling up the Dead The Old Testament forbids occult practices, such as spiritism, divination, and necromancy, in which someone attempts to contact the dead, usually to seek guidance about the future (see Deut 18:9-12). Practicing necromancy and consulting a necromancer were capital offenses (Lev 20:6, 27; cp. 1 Sam 28:9). God’s people were instead to rely on God for divine guidance. God buried Moses in an unmarked grave (Deut 34:6), possibly because he did not want the Israelites to make Mos...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":88871,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Calling up the Dead","title_en":"Calling up the Dead","content_ro":"<h3>Calling up the Dead<\/h3>\nThe Old Testament forbids occult practices, such as spiritism, divination, and necromancy, in which someone attempts to contact the dead, usually to seek guidance about the future (see Deut 18:9-12). Practicing necromancy and consulting a necromancer were capital offenses (Lev 20:6, 27; cp. 1 Sam 28:9). God’s people were instead to rely on God for divine guidance.<\/p>\nGod buried Moses in an unmarked grave (Deut 34:6), possibly because he did not want the Israelites to make Moses’ grave a shrine, present offerings to his spirit, worship him, or attempt to consult his spirit. They may have been prone to these sorts of practices because of their time in Egypt and because of Moses’ stature and his role in mediating Israel’s covenant with God.<\/p>\nThe Old Testament makes it plain that the dead cannot be contacted (cp. 2 Sam 12:23; Job 14:10-12; Pss 88:10; 115:17). Samuel is the only known exception; God apparently commanded him to return and speak (see 1 Sam 28:12-19). Saul’s sin in consulting a medium was so severe that the Chronicler singles out this failure in commenting on Saul’s downfall (see 1 Chr 10:13-14). There is never any justification for seeking advice from the dead when we have the living word of God to guide us (2 Tim 3:15-17; Heb 4:12-13).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nLev 19:31; 20:6-8, 27; Deut 18:9-12; 1 Sam 28:1-25; 2 Kgs 21:6; 23:24; 1 Chr 10:13-14; Job 14:10-12; Isa 3:1-3; 8:19-22<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Calling up the Dead<\/h3>\nThe Old Testament forbids occult practices, such as spiritism, divination, and necromancy, in which someone attempts to contact the dead, usually to seek guidance about the future (see Deut 18:9-12). Practicing necromancy and consulting a necromancer were capital offenses (Lev 20:6, 27; cp. 1 Sam 28:9). God’s people were instead to rely on God for divine guidance.<\/p>\nGod buried Moses in an unmarked grave (Deut 34:6), possibly because he did not want the Israelites to make Moses’ grave a shrine, present offerings to his spirit, worship him, or attempt to consult his spirit. They may have been prone to these sorts of practices because of their time in Egypt and because of Moses’ stature and his role in mediating Israel’s covenant with God.<\/p>\nThe Old Testament makes it plain that the dead cannot be contacted (cp. 2 Sam 12:23; Job 14:10-12; Pss 88:10; 115:17). Samuel is the only known exception; God apparently commanded him to return and speak (see 1 Sam 28:12-19). Saul’s sin in consulting a medium was so severe that the Chronicler singles out this failure in commenting on Saul’s downfall (see 1 Chr 10:13-14). There is never any justification for seeking advice from the dead when we have the living word of God to guide us (2 Tim 3:15-17; Heb 4:12-13).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nLev 19:31; 20:6-8, 27; Deut 18:9-12; 1 Sam 28:1-25; 2 Kgs 21:6; 23:24; 1 Chr 10:13-14; Job 14:10-12; Isa 3:1-3; 8:19-22<\/p>","summary_ro":"Calling up the Dead The Old Testament forbids occult practices, such as spiritism, divination, and necromancy, in which someone attempts to contact the dead, usually to seek guidance about the future (see Deut 18:9-12). Practicing necromancy and consulting a necromancer were capital offenses (Lev 20:6, 27; cp. 1 Sam 28:9). God’s people were instead to rely on God for divine guidance. God buried Moses in an unmarked grave (Deut 34:6), possibly because he did not want the Israelites to make Mos...","summary_en":"Calling up the Dead The Old Testament forbids occult practices, such as spiritism, divination, and necromancy, in which someone attempts to contact the dead, usually to seek guidance about the future (see Deut 18:9-12). Practicing necromancy and consulting a necromancer were capital offenses (Lev 20:6, 27; cp. 1 Sam 28:9). God’s people were instead to rely on God for divine guidance. God buried Moses in an unmarked grave (Deut 34:6), possibly because he did not want the Israelites to make Mos...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":116497,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Calling up the Dead","title_en":"Calling up the Dead","content_ro":"<h3>Calling up the Dead<\/h3>\nThe Old Testament forbids occult practices, such as spiritism, divination, and necromancy, in which someone attempts to contact the dead, usually to seek guidance about the future (see Deut 18:9-12). Practicing necromancy and consulting a necromancer were capital offenses (Lev 20:6, 27; cp. 1 Sam 28:9). God’s people were instead to rely on God for divine guidance.<\/p>\nGod buried Moses in an unmarked grave (Deut 34:6), possibly because he did not want the Israelites to make Moses’ grave a shrine, present offerings to his spirit, worship him, or attempt to consult his spirit. They may have been prone to these sorts of practices because of their time in Egypt and because of Moses’ stature and his role in mediating Israel’s covenant with God.<\/p>\nThe Old Testament makes it plain that the dead cannot be contacted (cp. 2 Sam 12:23; Job 14:10-12; Pss 88:10; 115:17). Samuel is the only known exception; God apparently commanded him to return and speak (see 1 Sam 28:12-19). Saul’s sin in consulting a medium was so severe that the Chronicler singles out this failure in commenting on Saul’s downfall (see 1 Chr 10:13-14). There is never any justification for seeking advice from the dead when we have the living word of God to guide us (2 Tim 3:15-17; Heb 4:12-13).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nLev 19:31; 20:6-8, 27; Deut 18:9-12; 1 Sam 28:1-25; 2 Kgs 21:6; 23:24; 1 Chr 10:13-14; Job 14:10-12; Isa 3:1-3; 8:19-22<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Calling up the Dead<\/h3>\nThe Old Testament forbids occult practices, such as spiritism, divination, and necromancy, in which someone attempts to contact the dead, usually to seek guidance about the future (see Deut 18:9-12). Practicing necromancy and consulting a necromancer were capital offenses (Lev 20:6, 27; cp. 1 Sam 28:9). God’s people were instead to rely on God for divine guidance.<\/p>\nGod buried Moses in an unmarked grave (Deut 34:6), possibly because he did not want the Israelites to make Moses’ grave a shrine, present offerings to his spirit, worship him, or attempt to consult his spirit. They may have been prone to these sorts of practices because of their time in Egypt and because of Moses’ stature and his role in mediating Israel’s covenant with God.<\/p>\nThe Old Testament makes it plain that the dead cannot be contacted (cp. 2 Sam 12:23; Job 14:10-12; Pss 88:10; 115:17). Samuel is the only known exception; God apparently commanded him to return and speak (see 1 Sam 28:12-19). Saul’s sin in consulting a medium was so severe that the Chronicler singles out this failure in commenting on Saul’s downfall (see 1 Chr 10:13-14). There is never any justification for seeking advice from the dead when we have the living word of God to guide us (2 Tim 3:15-17; Heb 4:12-13).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nLev 19:31; 20:6-8, 27; Deut 18:9-12; 1 Sam 28:1-25; 2 Kgs 21:6; 23:24; 1 Chr 10:13-14; Job 14:10-12; Isa 3:1-3; 8:19-22<\/p>","summary_ro":"Calling up the Dead The Old Testament forbids occult practices, such as spiritism, divination, and necromancy, in which someone attempts to contact the dead, usually to seek guidance about the future (see Deut 18:9-12). Practicing necromancy and consulting a necromancer were capital offenses (Lev 20:6, 27; cp. 1 Sam 28:9). God’s people were instead to rely on God for divine guidance. God buried Moses in an unmarked grave (Deut 34:6), possibly because he did not want the Israelites to make Mos...","summary_en":"Calling up the Dead The Old Testament forbids occult practices, such as spiritism, divination, and necromancy, in which someone attempts to contact the dead, usually to seek guidance about the future (see Deut 18:9-12). Practicing necromancy and consulting a necromancer were capital offenses (Lev 20:6, 27; cp. 1 Sam 28:9). God’s people were instead to rely on God for divine guidance. God buried Moses in an unmarked grave (Deut 34:6), possibly because he did not want the Israelites to make Mos...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":144123,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Calling up the Dead","title_en":"Calling up the Dead","content_ro":"<h3>Calling up the Dead<\/h3>\nThe Old Testament forbids occult practices, such as spiritism, divination, and necromancy, in which someone attempts to contact the dead, usually to seek guidance about the future (see Deut 18:9-12). Practicing necromancy and consulting a necromancer were capital offenses (Lev 20:6, 27; cp. 1 Sam 28:9). God’s people were instead to rely on God for divine guidance.<\/p>\nGod buried Moses in an unmarked grave (Deut 34:6), possibly because he did not want the Israelites to make Moses’ grave a shrine, present offerings to his spirit, worship him, or attempt to consult his spirit. They may have been prone to these sorts of practices because of their time in Egypt and because of Moses’ stature and his role in mediating Israel’s covenant with God.<\/p>\nThe Old Testament makes it plain that the dead cannot be contacted (cp. 2 Sam 12:23; Job 14:10-12; Pss 88:10; 115:17). Samuel is the only known exception; God apparently commanded him to return and speak (see 1 Sam 28:12-19). Saul’s sin in consulting a medium was so severe that the Chronicler singles out this failure in commenting on Saul’s downfall (see 1 Chr 10:13-14). There is never any justification for seeking advice from the dead when we have the living word of God to guide us (2 Tim 3:15-17; Heb 4:12-13).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nLev 19:31; 20:6-8, 27; Deut 18:9-12; 1 Sam 28:1-25; 2 Kgs 21:6; 23:24; 1 Chr 10:13-14; Job 14:10-12; Isa 3:1-3; 8:19-22<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Calling up the Dead<\/h3>\nThe Old Testament forbids occult practices, such as spiritism, divination, and necromancy, in which someone attempts to contact the dead, usually to seek guidance about the future (see Deut 18:9-12). Practicing necromancy and consulting a necromancer were capital offenses (Lev 20:6, 27; cp. 1 Sam 28:9). God’s people were instead to rely on God for divine guidance.<\/p>\nGod buried Moses in an unmarked grave (Deut 34:6), possibly because he did not want the Israelites to make Moses’ grave a shrine, present offerings to his spirit, worship him, or attempt to consult his spirit. They may have been prone to these sorts of practices because of their time in Egypt and because of Moses’ stature and his role in mediating Israel’s covenant with God.<\/p>\nThe Old Testament makes it plain that the dead cannot be contacted (cp. 2 Sam 12:23; Job 14:10-12; Pss 88:10; 115:17). Samuel is the only known exception; God apparently commanded him to return and speak (see 1 Sam 28:12-19). Saul’s sin in consulting a medium was so severe that the Chronicler singles out this failure in commenting on Saul’s downfall (see 1 Chr 10:13-14). There is never any justification for seeking advice from the dead when we have the living word of God to guide us (2 Tim 3:15-17; Heb 4:12-13).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nLev 19:31; 20:6-8, 27; Deut 18:9-12; 1 Sam 28:1-25; 2 Kgs 21:6; 23:24; 1 Chr 10:13-14; Job 14:10-12; Isa 3:1-3; 8:19-22<\/p>","summary_ro":"Calling up the Dead The Old Testament forbids occult practices, such as spiritism, divination, and necromancy, in which someone attempts to contact the dead, usually to seek guidance about the future (see Deut 18:9-12). Practicing necromancy and consulting a necromancer were capital offenses (Lev 20:6, 27; cp. 1 Sam 28:9). God’s people were instead to rely on God for divine guidance. God buried Moses in an unmarked grave (Deut 34:6), possibly because he did not want the Israelites to make Mos...","summary_en":"Calling up the Dead The Old Testament forbids occult practices, such as spiritism, divination, and necromancy, in which someone attempts to contact the dead, usually to seek guidance about the future (see Deut 18:9-12). Practicing necromancy and consulting a necromancer were capital offenses (Lev 20:6, 27; cp. 1 Sam 28:9). God’s people were instead to rely on God for divine guidance. God buried Moses in an unmarked grave (Deut 34:6), possibly because he did not want the Israelites to make Mos...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"11":[{"id":56,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Abaddon","title_en":"Abaddon","content_ro":"<h3>ABADDON<\/h3>\nHebrew word that means “place of destruction.” The word occurs six times in the OT, generally referring to the place of the dead (Jb 26:6; 28:22; 31:12; Ps 88:11; Prv 15:11; 27:20). It serves as a synonym for Sheol and is variously translated “hell,” “death,” “the grave,” or “destruction.” The same Hebrew word occurs once in the NT in its Greek equivalent, Apollyon (Rv 9:11). Here the idea of destruction is personified as the “angel from the bottomless pit,” so the word is often translated “destroyer.” Abaddon (or Apollyon) was the angel reigning over the realm of the dead, who appeared after the fifth trumpet in John’s vision (Rv 9:1).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Sheol.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ABADDON<\/h3>\nHebrew word that means “place of destruction.” The word occurs six times in the OT, generally referring to the place of the dead (Jb 26:6; 28:22; 31:12; Ps 88:11; Prv 15:11; 27:20). It serves as a synonym for Sheol and is variously translated “hell,” “death,” “the grave,” or “destruction.” The same Hebrew word occurs once in the NT in its Greek equivalent, Apollyon (Rv 9:11). Here the idea of destruction is personified as the “angel from the bottomless pit,” so the word is often translated “destroyer.” Abaddon (or Apollyon) was the angel reigning over the realm of the dead, who appeared after the fifth trumpet in John’s vision (Rv 9:1).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Sheol.<\/p>","summary_ro":"ABADDON Hebrew word that means “place of destruction.” The word occurs six times in the OT, generally referring to the place of the dead (Jb 26:6; 28:22; 31:12; Ps 88:11; Prv 15:11; 27:20). It serves as a synonym for Sheol and is variously translated “hell,” “death,” “the grave,” or “destruction.” The same Hebrew word occurs once in the NT in its Greek equivalent, Apollyon (Rv 9:11). Here the idea of destruction is personified as the “angel from the bottomless pit,” so the word is often trans...","summary_en":"ABADDON Hebrew word that means “place of destruction.” The word occurs six times in the OT, generally referring to the place of the dead (Jb 26:6; 28:22; 31:12; Ps 88:11; Prv 15:11; 27:20). It serves as a synonym for Sheol and is variously translated “hell,” “death,” “the grave,” or “destruction.” The same Hebrew word occurs once in the NT in its Greek equivalent, Apollyon (Rv 9:11). Here the idea of destruction is personified as the “angel from the bottomless pit,” so the word is often trans...","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":62506,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Afterlife","title_en":"The Afterlife","content_ro":"<h3>The Afterlife<\/h3>\nWriters in the Old Testament describe the realm of the dead as a place beneath the earth’s surface to which people descend (Ezek 26:20). Sometimes they are swallowed alive (Num 16:31-33; Ps 55:15), but generally they are dragged down by the cords of death (Ps 18:4-5) to be consumed (Num 16:30; Job 24:19; Pss 49:14; Isa 5:14; 14:11). In the Old Testament, the afterlife is generally regarded as a gloomy, hopeless place of no return (Job 7:9; Isa 38:18).<\/p>\nIn Job, the key images of the realm of the dead are dark and dusty Sheol (Job 11:8; 14:13; 17:13, 16; 24:19; 26:6), a pit fouled with the filth of decomposition (Hebrew shakhat<\/span>;<\/em> see 9:31; 17:14; 33:18, 22, 24, 28, 30), and the grave (Hebrew qeber<\/span>;<\/em> see 3:22; 5:26; 10:19; 17:1; 21:32).<\/p>\nThe Old Testament does give occasional hints of deliverance from the grave (see 1 Sam 2:6; Pss 16:10-11; 30:3; 49:15; 56:13; 73:24-26; 86:13; 139:7-10; Isa 26:19). Job hopes that Sheol might relieve him of his troubles (Job 3:13-22; 14:13-17) and that a redeemer might justify him even after death (19:25-26). But only the New Testament gives the full promise of redemption from death (1 Cor 15:50-58).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n1 Sam 2:6; 28:11-15; 1 Kgs 17:20-22; 2 Kgs 4:32-35; Job 3:13-22; 7:9; 14:13-17; 17:13-16; 19:25-27; Pss 6:5; 16:10-11; 17:15; 49:15; 86:13; 88:11; 139:8; 141:7; Prov 1:12; 15:11; Isa 26:19; 38:18; Ezek 26:20; Matt 22:31-32; Rom 8:23; 1 Cor 15:50-58; Phil 3:21<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Afterlife<\/h3>\nWriters in the Old Testament describe the realm of the dead as a place beneath the earth’s surface to which people descend (Ezek 26:20). Sometimes they are swallowed alive (Num 16:31-33; Ps 55:15), but generally they are dragged down by the cords of death (Ps 18:4-5) to be consumed (Num 16:30; Job 24:19; Pss 49:14; Isa 5:14; 14:11). In the Old Testament, the afterlife is generally regarded as a gloomy, hopeless place of no return (Job 7:9; Isa 38:18).<\/p>\nIn Job, the key images of the realm of the dead are dark and dusty Sheol (Job 11:8; 14:13; 17:13, 16; 24:19; 26:6), a pit fouled with the filth of decomposition (Hebrew shakhat<\/span>;<\/em> see 9:31; 17:14; 33:18, 22, 24, 28, 30), and the grave (Hebrew qeber<\/span>;<\/em> see 3:22; 5:26; 10:19; 17:1; 21:32).<\/p>\nThe Old Testament does give occasional hints of deliverance from the grave (see 1 Sam 2:6; Pss 16:10-11; 30:3; 49:15; 56:13; 73:24-26; 86:13; 139:7-10; Isa 26:19). Job hopes that Sheol might relieve him of his troubles (Job 3:13-22; 14:13-17) and that a redeemer might justify him even after death (19:25-26). But only the New Testament gives the full promise of redemption from death (1 Cor 15:50-58).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n1 Sam 2:6; 28:11-15; 1 Kgs 17:20-22; 2 Kgs 4:32-35; Job 3:13-22; 7:9; 14:13-17; 17:13-16; 19:25-27; Pss 6:5; 16:10-11; 17:15; 49:15; 86:13; 88:11; 139:8; 141:7; Prov 1:12; 15:11; Isa 26:19; 38:18; Ezek 26:20; Matt 22:31-32; Rom 8:23; 1 Cor 15:50-58; Phil 3:21<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Afterlife Writers in the Old Testament describe the realm of the dead as a place beneath the earth’s surface to which people descend (Ezek 26:20). Sometimes they are swallowed alive (Num 16:31-33; Ps 55:15), but generally they are dragged down by the cords of death (Ps 18:4-5) to be consumed (Num 16:30; Job 24:19; Pss 49:14; Isa 5:14; 14:11). In the Old Testament, the afterlife is generally regarded as a gloomy, hopeless place of no return (Job 7:9; Isa 38:18). In Job, the key images of t...","summary_en":"The Afterlife Writers in the Old Testament describe the realm of the dead as a place beneath the earth’s surface to which people descend (Ezek 26:20). Sometimes they are swallowed alive (Num 16:31-33; Ps 55:15), but generally they are dragged down by the cords of death (Ps 18:4-5) to be consumed (Num 16:30; Job 24:19; Pss 49:14; Isa 5:14; 14:11). In the Old Testament, the afterlife is generally regarded as a gloomy, hopeless place of no return (Job 7:9; Isa 38:18). In Job, the key images of t...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":90132,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Afterlife","title_en":"The Afterlife","content_ro":"<h3>The Afterlife<\/h3>\nWriters in the Old Testament describe the realm of the dead as a place beneath the earth’s surface to which people descend (Ezek 26:20). Sometimes they are swallowed alive (Num 16:31-33; Ps 55:15), but generally they are dragged down by the cords of death (Ps 18:4-5) to be consumed (Num 16:30; Job 24:19; Pss 49:14; Isa 5:14; 14:11). In the Old Testament, the afterlife is generally regarded as a gloomy, hopeless place of no return (Job 7:9; Isa 38:18).<\/p>\nIn Job, the key images of the realm of the dead are dark and dusty Sheol (Job 11:8; 14:13; 17:13, 16; 24:19; 26:6), a pit fouled with the filth of decomposition (Hebrew shakhat<\/span>;<\/em> see 9:31; 17:14; 33:18, 22, 24, 28, 30), and the grave (Hebrew qeber<\/span>;<\/em> see 3:22; 5:26; 10:19; 17:1; 21:32).<\/p>\nThe Old Testament does give occasional hints of deliverance from the grave (see 1 Sam 2:6; Pss 16:10-11; 30:3; 49:15; 56:13; 73:24-26; 86:13; 139:7-10; Isa 26:19). Job hopes that Sheol might relieve him of his troubles (Job 3:13-22; 14:13-17) and that a redeemer might justify him even after death (19:25-26). But only the New Testament gives the full promise of redemption from death (1 Cor 15:50-58).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n1 Sam 2:6; 28:11-15; 1 Kgs 17:20-22; 2 Kgs 4:32-35; Job 3:13-22; 7:9; 14:13-17; 17:13-16; 19:25-27; Pss 6:5; 16:10-11; 17:15; 49:15; 86:13; 88:11; 139:8; 141:7; Prov 1:12; 15:11; Isa 26:19; 38:18; Ezek 26:20; Matt 22:31-32; Rom 8:23; 1 Cor 15:50-58; Phil 3:21<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Afterlife<\/h3>\nWriters in the Old Testament describe the realm of the dead as a place beneath the earth’s surface to which people descend (Ezek 26:20). Sometimes they are swallowed alive (Num 16:31-33; Ps 55:15), but generally they are dragged down by the cords of death (Ps 18:4-5) to be consumed (Num 16:30; Job 24:19; Pss 49:14; Isa 5:14; 14:11). In the Old Testament, the afterlife is generally regarded as a gloomy, hopeless place of no return (Job 7:9; Isa 38:18).<\/p>\nIn Job, the key images of the realm of the dead are dark and dusty Sheol (Job 11:8; 14:13; 17:13, 16; 24:19; 26:6), a pit fouled with the filth of decomposition (Hebrew shakhat<\/span>;<\/em> see 9:31; 17:14; 33:18, 22, 24, 28, 30), and the grave (Hebrew qeber<\/span>;<\/em> see 3:22; 5:26; 10:19; 17:1; 21:32).<\/p>\nThe Old Testament does give occasional hints of deliverance from the grave (see 1 Sam 2:6; Pss 16:10-11; 30:3; 49:15; 56:13; 73:24-26; 86:13; 139:7-10; Isa 26:19). Job hopes that Sheol might relieve him of his troubles (Job 3:13-22; 14:13-17) and that a redeemer might justify him even after death (19:25-26). But only the New Testament gives the full promise of redemption from death (1 Cor 15:50-58).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n1 Sam 2:6; 28:11-15; 1 Kgs 17:20-22; 2 Kgs 4:32-35; Job 3:13-22; 7:9; 14:13-17; 17:13-16; 19:25-27; Pss 6:5; 16:10-11; 17:15; 49:15; 86:13; 88:11; 139:8; 141:7; Prov 1:12; 15:11; Isa 26:19; 38:18; Ezek 26:20; Matt 22:31-32; Rom 8:23; 1 Cor 15:50-58; Phil 3:21<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Afterlife Writers in the Old Testament describe the realm of the dead as a place beneath the earth’s surface to which people descend (Ezek 26:20). Sometimes they are swallowed alive (Num 16:31-33; Ps 55:15), but generally they are dragged down by the cords of death (Ps 18:4-5) to be consumed (Num 16:30; Job 24:19; Pss 49:14; Isa 5:14; 14:11). In the Old Testament, the afterlife is generally regarded as a gloomy, hopeless place of no return (Job 7:9; Isa 38:18). In Job, the key images of t...","summary_en":"The Afterlife Writers in the Old Testament describe the realm of the dead as a place beneath the earth’s surface to which people descend (Ezek 26:20). Sometimes they are swallowed alive (Num 16:31-33; Ps 55:15), but generally they are dragged down by the cords of death (Ps 18:4-5) to be consumed (Num 16:30; Job 24:19; Pss 49:14; Isa 5:14; 14:11). In the Old Testament, the afterlife is generally regarded as a gloomy, hopeless place of no return (Job 7:9; Isa 38:18). In Job, the key images of t...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":117758,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Afterlife","title_en":"The Afterlife","content_ro":"<h3>The Afterlife<\/h3>\nWriters in the Old Testament describe the realm of the dead as a place beneath the earth’s surface to which people descend (Ezek 26:20). Sometimes they are swallowed alive (Num 16:31-33; Ps 55:15), but generally they are dragged down by the cords of death (Ps 18:4-5) to be consumed (Num 16:30; Job 24:19; Pss 49:14; Isa 5:14; 14:11). In the Old Testament, the afterlife is generally regarded as a gloomy, hopeless place of no return (Job 7:9; Isa 38:18).<\/p>\nIn Job, the key images of the realm of the dead are dark and dusty Sheol (Job 11:8; 14:13; 17:13, 16; 24:19; 26:6), a pit fouled with the filth of decomposition (Hebrew shakhat<\/span>;<\/em> see 9:31; 17:14; 33:18, 22, 24, 28, 30), and the grave (Hebrew qeber<\/span>;<\/em> see 3:22; 5:26; 10:19; 17:1; 21:32).<\/p>\nThe Old Testament does give occasional hints of deliverance from the grave (see 1 Sam 2:6; Pss 16:10-11; 30:3; 49:15; 56:13; 73:24-26; 86:13; 139:7-10; Isa 26:19). Job hopes that Sheol might relieve him of his troubles (Job 3:13-22; 14:13-17) and that a redeemer might justify him even after death (19:25-26). But only the New Testament gives the full promise of redemption from death (1 Cor 15:50-58).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n1 Sam 2:6; 28:11-15; 1 Kgs 17:20-22; 2 Kgs 4:32-35; Job 3:13-22; 7:9; 14:13-17; 17:13-16; 19:25-27; Pss 6:5; 16:10-11; 17:15; 49:15; 86:13; 88:11; 139:8; 141:7; Prov 1:12; 15:11; Isa 26:19; 38:18; Ezek 26:20; Matt 22:31-32; Rom 8:23; 1 Cor 15:50-58; Phil 3:21<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Afterlife<\/h3>\nWriters in the Old Testament describe the realm of the dead as a place beneath the earth’s surface to which people descend (Ezek 26:20). Sometimes they are swallowed alive (Num 16:31-33; Ps 55:15), but generally they are dragged down by the cords of death (Ps 18:4-5) to be consumed (Num 16:30; Job 24:19; Pss 49:14; Isa 5:14; 14:11). In the Old Testament, the afterlife is generally regarded as a gloomy, hopeless place of no return (Job 7:9; Isa 38:18).<\/p>\nIn Job, the key images of the realm of the dead are dark and dusty Sheol (Job 11:8; 14:13; 17:13, 16; 24:19; 26:6), a pit fouled with the filth of decomposition (Hebrew shakhat<\/span>;<\/em> see 9:31; 17:14; 33:18, 22, 24, 28, 30), and the grave (Hebrew qeber<\/span>;<\/em> see 3:22; 5:26; 10:19; 17:1; 21:32).<\/p>\nThe Old Testament does give occasional hints of deliverance from the grave (see 1 Sam 2:6; Pss 16:10-11; 30:3; 49:15; 56:13; 73:24-26; 86:13; 139:7-10; Isa 26:19). Job hopes that Sheol might relieve him of his troubles (Job 3:13-22; 14:13-17) and that a redeemer might justify him even after death (19:25-26). But only the New Testament gives the full promise of redemption from death (1 Cor 15:50-58).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n1 Sam 2:6; 28:11-15; 1 Kgs 17:20-22; 2 Kgs 4:32-35; Job 3:13-22; 7:9; 14:13-17; 17:13-16; 19:25-27; Pss 6:5; 16:10-11; 17:15; 49:15; 86:13; 88:11; 139:8; 141:7; Prov 1:12; 15:11; Isa 26:19; 38:18; Ezek 26:20; Matt 22:31-32; Rom 8:23; 1 Cor 15:50-58; Phil 3:21<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Afterlife Writers in the Old Testament describe the realm of the dead as a place beneath the earth’s surface to which people descend (Ezek 26:20). Sometimes they are swallowed alive (Num 16:31-33; Ps 55:15), but generally they are dragged down by the cords of death (Ps 18:4-5) to be consumed (Num 16:30; Job 24:19; Pss 49:14; Isa 5:14; 14:11). In the Old Testament, the afterlife is generally regarded as a gloomy, hopeless place of no return (Job 7:9; Isa 38:18). In Job, the key images of t...","summary_en":"The Afterlife Writers in the Old Testament describe the realm of the dead as a place beneath the earth’s surface to which people descend (Ezek 26:20). Sometimes they are swallowed alive (Num 16:31-33; Ps 55:15), but generally they are dragged down by the cords of death (Ps 18:4-5) to be consumed (Num 16:30; Job 24:19; Pss 49:14; Isa 5:14; 14:11). In the Old Testament, the afterlife is generally regarded as a gloomy, hopeless place of no return (Job 7:9; Isa 38:18). In Job, the key images of t...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":145384,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Afterlife","title_en":"The Afterlife","content_ro":"<h3>The Afterlife<\/h3>\nWriters in the Old Testament describe the realm of the dead as a place beneath the earth’s surface to which people descend (Ezek 26:20). Sometimes they are swallowed alive (Num 16:31-33; Ps 55:15), but generally they are dragged down by the cords of death (Ps 18:4-5) to be consumed (Num 16:30; Job 24:19; Pss 49:14; Isa 5:14; 14:11). In the Old Testament, the afterlife is generally regarded as a gloomy, hopeless place of no return (Job 7:9; Isa 38:18).<\/p>\nIn Job, the key images of the realm of the dead are dark and dusty Sheol (Job 11:8; 14:13; 17:13, 16; 24:19; 26:6), a pit fouled with the filth of decomposition (Hebrew shakhat<\/span>;<\/em> see 9:31; 17:14; 33:18, 22, 24, 28, 30), and the grave (Hebrew qeber<\/span>;<\/em> see 3:22; 5:26; 10:19; 17:1; 21:32).<\/p>\nThe Old Testament does give occasional hints of deliverance from the grave (see 1 Sam 2:6; Pss 16:10-11; 30:3; 49:15; 56:13; 73:24-26; 86:13; 139:7-10; Isa 26:19). Job hopes that Sheol might relieve him of his troubles (Job 3:13-22; 14:13-17) and that a redeemer might justify him even after death (19:25-26). But only the New Testament gives the full promise of redemption from death (1 Cor 15:50-58).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n1 Sam 2:6; 28:11-15; 1 Kgs 17:20-22; 2 Kgs 4:32-35; Job 3:13-22; 7:9; 14:13-17; 17:13-16; 19:25-27; Pss 6:5; 16:10-11; 17:15; 49:15; 86:13; 88:11; 139:8; 141:7; Prov 1:12; 15:11; Isa 26:19; 38:18; Ezek 26:20; Matt 22:31-32; Rom 8:23; 1 Cor 15:50-58; Phil 3:21<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Afterlife<\/h3>\nWriters in the Old Testament describe the realm of the dead as a place beneath the earth’s surface to which people descend (Ezek 26:20). Sometimes they are swallowed alive (Num 16:31-33; Ps 55:15), but generally they are dragged down by the cords of death (Ps 18:4-5) to be consumed (Num 16:30; Job 24:19; Pss 49:14; Isa 5:14; 14:11). In the Old Testament, the afterlife is generally regarded as a gloomy, hopeless place of no return (Job 7:9; Isa 38:18).<\/p>\nIn Job, the key images of the realm of the dead are dark and dusty Sheol (Job 11:8; 14:13; 17:13, 16; 24:19; 26:6), a pit fouled with the filth of decomposition (Hebrew shakhat<\/span>;<\/em> see 9:31; 17:14; 33:18, 22, 24, 28, 30), and the grave (Hebrew qeber<\/span>;<\/em> see 3:22; 5:26; 10:19; 17:1; 21:32).<\/p>\nThe Old Testament does give occasional hints of deliverance from the grave (see 1 Sam 2:6; Pss 16:10-11; 30:3; 49:15; 56:13; 73:24-26; 86:13; 139:7-10; Isa 26:19). Job hopes that Sheol might relieve him of his troubles (Job 3:13-22; 14:13-17) and that a redeemer might justify him even after death (19:25-26). But only the New Testament gives the full promise of redemption from death (1 Cor 15:50-58).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n1 Sam 2:6; 28:11-15; 1 Kgs 17:20-22; 2 Kgs 4:32-35; Job 3:13-22; 7:9; 14:13-17; 17:13-16; 19:25-27; Pss 6:5; 16:10-11; 17:15; 49:15; 86:13; 88:11; 139:8; 141:7; Prov 1:12; 15:11; Isa 26:19; 38:18; Ezek 26:20; Matt 22:31-32; Rom 8:23; 1 Cor 15:50-58; Phil 3:21<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Afterlife Writers in the Old Testament describe the realm of the dead as a place beneath the earth’s surface to which people descend (Ezek 26:20). Sometimes they are swallowed alive (Num 16:31-33; Ps 55:15), but generally they are dragged down by the cords of death (Ps 18:4-5) to be consumed (Num 16:30; Job 24:19; Pss 49:14; Isa 5:14; 14:11). In the Old Testament, the afterlife is generally regarded as a gloomy, hopeless place of no return (Job 7:9; Isa 38:18). In Job, the key images of t...","summary_en":"The Afterlife Writers in the Old Testament describe the realm of the dead as a place beneath the earth’s surface to which people descend (Ezek 26:20). Sometimes they are swallowed alive (Num 16:31-33; Ps 55:15), but generally they are dragged down by the cords of death (Ps 18:4-5) to be consumed (Num 16:30; Job 24:19; Pss 49:14; Isa 5:14; 14:11). In the Old Testament, the afterlife is generally regarded as a gloomy, hopeless place of no return (Job 7:9; Isa 38:18). In Job, the key images of t...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"12":[{"id":8929,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Place of the Dead","title_en":"Place of the Dead","content_ro":"<h3>DEAD, Place of the<\/h3>\nTerm covering a number of descriptive biblical images of the whereabouts of those who have died. Those images include Sheol and “the pit” in the OT, plus hades, Gehenna, paradise, and “Abraham’s bosom” in the NT. As their understanding advanced, the Hebrews’ idea of what happens at death changed from rather hazy beginnings to a developed concept found in the NT.<\/p>\nIn the Old Testament<\/p>\nThe OT contains meager information about the dead. At death, according to some OT passages, one descends to Sheol (often translated as “grave,” “hell,” “pit,” or simply “the dead”), which at times means merely that one is laid in a grave (Nm 16:30, 33), but more often indicates an underworld. The abode of the dead is pictured as a place beneath the earth to which one “goes down” (Gn 42:38; Prv 15:24; Ez 26:20) and as a place of gloomy darkness (Jb 10:21-22), silence (Pss 94:17; 115:17), and forgetfulness (Ps 88:12). God is not remembered there and his praises are never sung (Pss 6:5; 30:9; 115:17). Even God himself, it was believed, does not remember those who are there (Ps 88:5, 11; Is 38:18). The dead were seen as permanently cut off from contact with the Lord and from participating in his activity in history. Even though the border between life and death was considered fluid (as shown by a resurrection in 2 Kgs 4:32-37 and by Samuel’s ghost in 1 Sm 28:7-25), communication with the dead was forbidden to the Jews (Dt 18:11). (Worshiping the dead was a common practice in the nations surrounding Israel.)<\/p>\nAlthough one’s fate in the underworld could not properly be called life, it was a kind of existence, perhaps even in the company of one’s countrymen and ancestors (Gn 25:8; Ez 32:17-30). The realm of the dead was not beyond the reach of God’s power (Ps 139:8; Am 9:2; Jon 2:2). Although Sheol was pictured as a hungry monster wolfing down the living (Prv 27:20; 30:16), God’s power could save one from its grasp (Pss 49:15; 86:13). By the end of the OT period, there was even hope that one would finally be delivered from Sheol (Jb 14:13-22; 19:25-27; Pss 49:15; 73:23-28), although only Daniel expressed that hope clearly (Dn 12:1-2). So although the ancient Hebrews never looked forward to death in the same way that the apostle Paul could in the NT (2 Cor 5:1-8; Phil 1:21-23), nevertheless they did come to understand that death was not a hopeless state.<\/p>\nIn the Intertestamental Writings<\/p>\nBetween the exile and the beginning of the NT period (586 BC<\/span>–AD<\/span> 30, overlapping with the end of the OT), contact with the religions of Persia and Greece stimulated the Jews to clarify their ideas about life after death. When the OT was translated into Greek, the Greek name for the underworld, “hades,” was used to translate the Hebrew “Sheol.” In the NT, hades was carried over to become the common name for the abode of the dead.<\/p>\nAlong with new names came new ideas. Many different notions circulated about the place of the dead. A common one appears in the pseudepigraphal 1 Enoch 22, where the dead are said to be kept in hollow places in a great mountain waiting for the final judgment. One relatively pleasant section was reserved for the righteous and one full of torments for the wicked. Other writers continued the OT concept of hades or Sheol as a place of separation from God and from happiness (Ecclus 14:12, 16; 17:27-28).<\/p>\nDuring that period, the Jews also began to use a new term, “Gehenna” (Hebrew “Hinnom”), the name of a valley south of Jerusalem. The valley was noted in the OT period for the abomination of child sacrifices (2 Kgs 16:3; 21:6; 23:10) and in the NT period for its smoldering garbage. Gehenna became a designation for the final place of the wicked dead, a place of fiery torment (1 Enoch 90:20-27; 2 Esd 7:70). Over against that place of punishment stood “paradise” (a Persian name for a pleasure garden), a place where the righteous would enjoy blessedness.<\/p>\nAll those concepts—hades, Gehenna, paradise—were molded by NT writers into forms most appropriate to the revelation of Christ.<\/p>\nIn the New Testament<\/p>\nAlthough the NT uses a variety of terms for the abode of the dead, it contains surprisingly few references to it—about 35 verses in all. Those passages are concentrated in the Gospels and the book of Revelation. The apostle Paul said a lot about heaven, but only Jesus and John said much about hell.<\/p>\nThe word “hades” is attributed to Jesus only once, in the parable of the rich man and Lazarus (Lk 16:23). In that parable hades is a place of torment where the wicked go at death. The torment is described as a “flame” that afflicts a person physically despite bodily death. All comfort is refused to those in agony.<\/p>\nAlthough the wicked go to hades as soon as they die, their ultimate destination is Gehenna, a place of fire and worms, both indicating corruption (Mt 5:22, 29-30; 18:9; Mk 9:48, quoting from Is 66:24). Jesus also referred to Gehenna as “the outer darkness” where there will be “weeping and gnashing of teeth” (Mt 8:12; 22:13; 25:30). Evidently, after the final judgment, the wicked are sent there at the command of Christ (Jn 5:22, 27; Acts 10:42; 17:31; 2 Tm 4:1). That place of torment picks up the negative side of the OT concept of Sheol as a place of separation from God.<\/p>\nAs a preacher of repentance, Jesus stressed the danger of Gehenna. He had much less to say about the place of the righteous when they die. Ultimately, though, the righteous would enter into “the kingdom,” instead of Gehenna, after the last judgment (Mt 25:34). Jesus twice indicated that the righteous enter a blessed state immediately at death. Luke 16:22 refers to the dead Lazarus as being in “Abraham’s bosom,” a place of comfort and peace. Luke 23:43 calls the same place paradise in a promise that the dying thief would join Jesus there at death. Paul’s wording about paradise seems to align it with heaven (2 Cor 12:2-3), and John associates paradise with the new heaven and new earth (Rv 2:7; 21:1-2; 22:1-2).<\/p>\nPaul and other writers of the NT epistles had little to say about the abode of the wicked dead. Paul spoke only in passing of “the abyss”—his term for the pit of Sheol (Rom 10:7). His reference to Christ’s descent to the “lower parts of the earth” (Eph 4:9) is probably only his way of saying that Christ, having died, went to the place of the dead. (“The lowest earth” was a term used by Jewish rabbis for Sheol\/hades\/Gehenna.) Peter spoke of Christ’s going in “spirit” after his death to some “prison” where he “preached to the spirits” (1 Pt 3:18-20). Interpretations of that passage differ. Some think that Christ entered hades and preached to the fallen angels of Noah’s day (“sons of God,” Gn 6:1-4), not that he preached to imprisoned human spirits. In 2 Peter 2:4 the prison for spirits (usually translated “hell”) comes from “Tartarus,” another Greek name for the underworld.<\/p>\nPaul had much to say about the abode of the righteous dead. In his earliest letters he never mentioned their location, only that they would be resurrected (1 Cor 15; 1 Thes 4:13-17). After facing almost certain death himself (2 Cor 1:8-11), he began to discuss where the dead “went.” To die means to be with Christ, Paul said, and thus is better than life (Phil 1:23). To be “away from the body” is to be “at home with the Lord” (2 Cor 5:8). Paul probably meant that the righteous dead went directly to paradise to be with Jesus (cf. 2 Cor 12:2-4, where Paul called paradise “the third heaven”). Death has absolutely no power to separate Christians from Christ (Rom 8:38-39). Instead, it brings them into the presence of God.<\/p>\nThe book of Revelation contains much about the abode of the dead, especially the wicked dead. It uses two names for that place: “the abyss,” the home or prison of all evil spirits; and “hades,” the name for the place of the human dead. From the abyss (or bottomless pit) come the demonic forms that torment humanity (Rv 9:1-11) and the satanic “beast,” who kills the two witnesses and carries the “great prostitute” on its back (11:7; 17). There Satan himself will be imprisoned (20:2-3). Jesus described it as a place prepared for the devil and his angels (cf. Mt 25:41). The good news for Christians is that the abyss, or hades, is not an autonomous realm. The book of Revelation begins with Jesus’ announcement that he has the keys to hades (Rv 1:18), and in the end he will force it to give up its dead (20:13). Until then, the key to the abyss is not in the hand of Satan, but hangs on a heavenly key ring to be distributed only to the messengers of God (9:1; 20:1). In the end, hades, death, and the wicked will be cast into the lake of fire (Gehenna), where they will suffer eternal torment (19:20; 20:10, 14-15; 21:8).<\/p>\nJohn, the writer of the Revelation, agreed with Paul that the righteous will not share the fate of the wicked at death. Instead of going to hades, they go to heaven. The martyrs appear under the altar, calling to God to avenge them (Rv 6:9-11). In another image innumerable Christians appear before the throne of God, praising him (7:9-17). Those believers, shepherded by Christ himself, suffer no hunger, thirst, discomfort, or sorrow.<\/p>\nConclusion<\/p>\nIn summary, the place of the dead began in the OT as an undifferentiated, hazy idea of a place of separation from life and God. Later writers came to see that instead of one place for all (Sheol), there must be two. According to Christian teaching, the wicked enter the underworld, hades, a place of torment, where they suffer until the time of judgment; ultimately they will be cast into Gehenna, the lake of fire. Christ—not the devil—is in control of hades, as he is of the rest of creation. The righteous do not go to hades, but go directly to paradise (“Abraham’s bosom” or heaven). There they are with Christ; faith has become sight, suffering has become blessedness, and prayer has become praise. Christians believe that death, although fearful as the “last enemy,” has no torment for them. It has no power to separate them from their Lord. Rather, it brings them face-to-face with the One they love.<\/p>\nThis meeting may occur as soon as one dies or as soon as one is resurrected—the intervening time is of no consequence, because it is nothing more than just a time of sleep. In other words, the very next experience after death for the believer will be that of meeting Christ.<\/p>\nBoth Old and New Testaments speak of death as sleep. Commonly in the OT, when a person dies, he is said to go to sleep with his fathers (e.g., Dt 31:16; 2 Sm 7:12). Jesus himself spoke of death as sleep (Mt 9:24; Jn 11:11). So did the apostle Paul (1 Cor 11:30; 15:20, 51; 1 Thes 4:14). At least in some of these references it would seem that it is the temporary nature of death that is the reason why it is spoken of as sleep. Even in the OT passage Daniel 12:2, it is said that death is a sleep, until the dead rise up—some to everlasting life and some to shame and everlasting contempt.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Gehenna; Hades; Heaven; Hell; Intermediate State; Paradise; Sheol.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>DEAD, Place of the<\/h3>\nTerm covering a number of descriptive biblical images of the whereabouts of those who have died. Those images include Sheol and “the pit” in the OT, plus hades, Gehenna, paradise, and “Abraham’s bosom” in the NT. As their understanding advanced, the Hebrews’ idea of what happens at death changed from rather hazy beginnings to a developed concept found in the NT.<\/p>\nIn the Old Testament<\/p>\nThe OT contains meager information about the dead. At death, according to some OT passages, one descends to Sheol (often translated as “grave,” “hell,” “pit,” or simply “the dead”), which at times means merely that one is laid in a grave (Nm 16:30, 33), but more often indicates an underworld. The abode of the dead is pictured as a place beneath the earth to which one “goes down” (Gn 42:38; Prv 15:24; Ez 26:20) and as a place of gloomy darkness (Jb 10:21-22), silence (Pss 94:17; 115:17), and forgetfulness (Ps 88:12). God is not remembered there and his praises are never sung (Pss 6:5; 30:9; 115:17). Even God himself, it was believed, does not remember those who are there (Ps 88:5, 11; Is 38:18). The dead were seen as permanently cut off from contact with the Lord and from participating in his activity in history. Even though the border between life and death was considered fluid (as shown by a resurrection in 2 Kgs 4:32-37 and by Samuel’s ghost in 1 Sm 28:7-25), communication with the dead was forbidden to the Jews (Dt 18:11). (Worshiping the dead was a common practice in the nations surrounding Israel.)<\/p>\nAlthough one’s fate in the underworld could not properly be called life, it was a kind of existence, perhaps even in the company of one’s countrymen and ancestors (Gn 25:8; Ez 32:17-30). The realm of the dead was not beyond the reach of God’s power (Ps 139:8; Am 9:2; Jon 2:2). Although Sheol was pictured as a hungry monster wolfing down the living (Prv 27:20; 30:16), God’s power could save one from its grasp (Pss 49:15; 86:13). By the end of the OT period, there was even hope that one would finally be delivered from Sheol (Jb 14:13-22; 19:25-27; Pss 49:15; 73:23-28), although only Daniel expressed that hope clearly (Dn 12:1-2). So although the ancient Hebrews never looked forward to death in the same way that the apostle Paul could in the NT (2 Cor 5:1-8; Phil 1:21-23), nevertheless they did come to understand that death was not a hopeless state.<\/p>\nIn the Intertestamental Writings<\/p>\nBetween the exile and the beginning of the NT period (586 BC<\/span>–AD<\/span> 30, overlapping with the end of the OT), contact with the religions of Persia and Greece stimulated the Jews to clarify their ideas about life after death. When the OT was translated into Greek, the Greek name for the underworld, “hades,” was used to translate the Hebrew “Sheol.” In the NT, hades was carried over to become the common name for the abode of the dead.<\/p>\nAlong with new names came new ideas. Many different notions circulated about the place of the dead. A common one appears in the pseudepigraphal 1 Enoch 22, where the dead are said to be kept in hollow places in a great mountain waiting for the final judgment. One relatively pleasant section was reserved for the righteous and one full of torments for the wicked. Other writers continued the OT concept of hades or Sheol as a place of separation from God and from happiness (Ecclus 14:12, 16; 17:27-28).<\/p>\nDuring that period, the Jews also began to use a new term, “Gehenna” (Hebrew “Hinnom”), the name of a valley south of Jerusalem. The valley was noted in the OT period for the abomination of child sacrifices (2 Kgs 16:3; 21:6; 23:10) and in the NT period for its smoldering garbage. Gehenna became a designation for the final place of the wicked dead, a place of fiery torment (1 Enoch 90:20-27; 2 Esd 7:70). Over against that place of punishment stood “paradise” (a Persian name for a pleasure garden), a place where the righteous would enjoy blessedness.<\/p>\nAll those concepts—hades, Gehenna, paradise—were molded by NT writers into forms most appropriate to the revelation of Christ.<\/p>\nIn the New Testament<\/p>\nAlthough the NT uses a variety of terms for the abode of the dead, it contains surprisingly few references to it—about 35 verses in all. Those passages are concentrated in the Gospels and the book of Revelation. The apostle Paul said a lot about heaven, but only Jesus and John said much about hell.<\/p>\nThe word “hades” is attributed to Jesus only once, in the parable of the rich man and Lazarus (Lk 16:23). In that parable hades is a place of torment where the wicked go at death. The torment is described as a “flame” that afflicts a person physically despite bodily death. All comfort is refused to those in agony.<\/p>\nAlthough the wicked go to hades as soon as they die, their ultimate destination is Gehenna, a place of fire and worms, both indicating corruption (Mt 5:22, 29-30; 18:9; Mk 9:48, quoting from Is 66:24). Jesus also referred to Gehenna as “the outer darkness” where there will be “weeping and gnashing of teeth” (Mt 8:12; 22:13; 25:30). Evidently, after the final judgment, the wicked are sent there at the command of Christ (Jn 5:22, 27; Acts 10:42; 17:31; 2 Tm 4:1). That place of torment picks up the negative side of the OT concept of Sheol as a place of separation from God.<\/p>\nAs a preacher of repentance, Jesus stressed the danger of Gehenna. He had much less to say about the place of the righteous when they die. Ultimately, though, the righteous would enter into “the kingdom,” instead of Gehenna, after the last judgment (Mt 25:34). Jesus twice indicated that the righteous enter a blessed state immediately at death. Luke 16:22 refers to the dead Lazarus as being in “Abraham’s bosom,” a place of comfort and peace. Luke 23:43 calls the same place paradise in a promise that the dying thief would join Jesus there at death. Paul’s wording about paradise seems to align it with heaven (2 Cor 12:2-3), and John associates paradise with the new heaven and new earth (Rv 2:7; 21:1-2; 22:1-2).<\/p>\nPaul and other writers of the NT epistles had little to say about the abode of the wicked dead. Paul spoke only in passing of “the abyss”—his term for the pit of Sheol (Rom 10:7). His reference to Christ’s descent to the “lower parts of the earth” (Eph 4:9) is probably only his way of saying that Christ, having died, went to the place of the dead. (“The lowest earth” was a term used by Jewish rabbis for Sheol\/hades\/Gehenna.) Peter spoke of Christ’s going in “spirit” after his death to some “prison” where he “preached to the spirits” (1 Pt 3:18-20). Interpretations of that passage differ. Some think that Christ entered hades and preached to the fallen angels of Noah’s day (“sons of God,” Gn 6:1-4), not that he preached to imprisoned human spirits. In 2 Peter 2:4 the prison for spirits (usually translated “hell”) comes from “Tartarus,” another Greek name for the underworld.<\/p>\nPaul had much to say about the abode of the righteous dead. In his earliest letters he never mentioned their location, only that they would be resurrected (1 Cor 15; 1 Thes 4:13-17). After facing almost certain death himself (2 Cor 1:8-11), he began to discuss where the dead “went.” To die means to be with Christ, Paul said, and thus is better than life (Phil 1:23). To be “away from the body” is to be “at home with the Lord” (2 Cor 5:8). Paul probably meant that the righteous dead went directly to paradise to be with Jesus (cf. 2 Cor 12:2-4, where Paul called paradise “the third heaven”). Death has absolutely no power to separate Christians from Christ (Rom 8:38-39). Instead, it brings them into the presence of God.<\/p>\nThe book of Revelation contains much about the abode of the dead, especially the wicked dead. It uses two names for that place: “the abyss,” the home or prison of all evil spirits; and “hades,” the name for the place of the human dead. From the abyss (or bottomless pit) come the demonic forms that torment humanity (Rv 9:1-11) and the satanic “beast,” who kills the two witnesses and carries the “great prostitute” on its back (11:7; 17). There Satan himself will be imprisoned (20:2-3). Jesus described it as a place prepared for the devil and his angels (cf. Mt 25:41). The good news for Christians is that the abyss, or hades, is not an autonomous realm. The book of Revelation begins with Jesus’ announcement that he has the keys to hades (Rv 1:18), and in the end he will force it to give up its dead (20:13). Until then, the key to the abyss is not in the hand of Satan, but hangs on a heavenly key ring to be distributed only to the messengers of God (9:1; 20:1). In the end, hades, death, and the wicked will be cast into the lake of fire (Gehenna), where they will suffer eternal torment (19:20; 20:10, 14-15; 21:8).<\/p>\nJohn, the writer of the Revelation, agreed with Paul that the righteous will not share the fate of the wicked at death. Instead of going to hades, they go to heaven. The martyrs appear under the altar, calling to God to avenge them (Rv 6:9-11). In another image innumerable Christians appear before the throne of God, praising him (7:9-17). Those believers, shepherded by Christ himself, suffer no hunger, thirst, discomfort, or sorrow.<\/p>\nConclusion<\/p>\nIn summary, the place of the dead began in the OT as an undifferentiated, hazy idea of a place of separation from life and God. Later writers came to see that instead of one place for all (Sheol), there must be two. According to Christian teaching, the wicked enter the underworld, hades, a place of torment, where they suffer until the time of judgment; ultimately they will be cast into Gehenna, the lake of fire. Christ—not the devil—is in control of hades, as he is of the rest of creation. The righteous do not go to hades, but go directly to paradise (“Abraham’s bosom” or heaven). There they are with Christ; faith has become sight, suffering has become blessedness, and prayer has become praise. Christians believe that death, although fearful as the “last enemy,” has no torment for them. It has no power to separate them from their Lord. Rather, it brings them face-to-face with the One they love.<\/p>\nThis meeting may occur as soon as one dies or as soon as one is resurrected—the intervening time is of no consequence, because it is nothing more than just a time of sleep. In other words, the very next experience after death for the believer will be that of meeting Christ.<\/p>\nBoth Old and New Testaments speak of death as sleep. Commonly in the OT, when a person dies, he is said to go to sleep with his fathers (e.g., Dt 31:16; 2 Sm 7:12). Jesus himself spoke of death as sleep (Mt 9:24; Jn 11:11). So did the apostle Paul (1 Cor 11:30; 15:20, 51; 1 Thes 4:14). At least in some of these references it would seem that it is the temporary nature of death that is the reason why it is spoken of as sleep. Even in the OT passage Daniel 12:2, it is said that death is a sleep, until the dead rise up—some to everlasting life and some to shame and everlasting contempt.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Gehenna; Hades; Heaven; Hell; Intermediate State; Paradise; Sheol.<\/p>","summary_ro":"DEAD, Place of the Term covering a number of descriptive biblical images of the whereabouts of those who have died. Those images include Sheol and “the pit” in the OT, plus hades, Gehenna, paradise, and “Abraham’s bosom” in the NT. As their understanding advanced, the Hebrews’ idea of what happens at death changed from rather hazy beginnings to a developed concept found in the NT. In the Old Testament The OT contains meager information about the dead. At death, according to some OT passages, ...","summary_en":"DEAD, Place of the Term covering a number of descriptive biblical images of the whereabouts of those who have died. Those images include Sheol and “the pit” in the OT, plus hades, Gehenna, paradise, and “Abraham’s bosom” in the NT. As their understanding advanced, the Hebrews’ idea of what happens at death changed from rather hazy beginnings to a developed concept found in the NT. In the Old Testament The OT contains meager information about the dead. At death, according to some OT passages, ...","source":"Articles\/D.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":12707,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Land of Forgetfulness","title_en":"Land of Forgetfulness","content_ro":"<h3>FORGETFULNESS, Land of<\/h3>\nEuphemism for the abode of the dead. Once in the land of forgetfulness, the dead are thought to be forgotten by God (Ps 88:12) and people (Eccl 9:5-6) alike. Job 14:21-22, suggests, however, that the deceased retain some self-consciousness in Sheol.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Sheol.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>FORGETFULNESS, Land of<\/h3>\nEuphemism for the abode of the dead. Once in the land of forgetfulness, the dead are thought to be forgotten by God (Ps 88:12) and people (Eccl 9:5-6) alike. Job 14:21-22, suggests, however, that the deceased retain some self-consciousness in Sheol.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Sheol.<\/p>","summary_ro":"FORGETFULNESS, Land of Euphemism for the abode of the dead. Once in the land of forgetfulness, the dead are thought to be forgotten by God (Ps 88:12) and people (Eccl 9:5-6) alike. Job 14:21-22, suggests, however, that the deceased retain some self-consciousness in Sheol. See also Sheol.","summary_en":"FORGETFULNESS, Land of Euphemism for the abode of the dead. Once in the land of forgetfulness, the dead are thought to be forgotten by God (Ps 88:12) and people (Eccl 9:5-6) alike. Job 14:21-22, suggests, however, that the deceased retain some self-consciousness in Sheol. See also Sheol.","source":"Articles\/F.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"13":[{"id":49703,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Psalmi 88:13","title_en":"Study Note: Psalmi 88:13","content_ro":"88:13-17<\/strong> In his third charge, the psalmist accuses the Lord of rejecting him. The force and apparent cruelty of the psalmist’s suffering overwhelm him.<\/p>","content_en":"88:13-17<\/strong> In his third charge, the psalmist accuses the Lord of rejecting him. The force and apparent cruelty of the psalmist’s suffering overwhelm him.<\/p>","summary_ro":"88:13-17 In his third charge, the psalmist accuses the Lord of rejecting him. The force and apparent cruelty of the psalmist’s suffering overwhelm him.","summary_en":"88:13-17 In his third charge, the psalmist accuses the Lord of rejecting him. The force and apparent cruelty of the psalmist’s suffering overwhelm him.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":77329,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Psalmi 88:13","title_en":"Study Note: Psalmi 88:13","content_ro":"88:13-17<\/strong> In his third charge, the psalmist accuses the Lord of rejecting him. The force and apparent cruelty of the psalmist’s suffering overwhelm him.<\/p>","content_en":"88:13-17<\/strong> In his third charge, the psalmist accuses the Lord of rejecting him. The force and apparent cruelty of the psalmist’s suffering overwhelm him.<\/p>","summary_ro":"88:13-17 In his third charge, the psalmist accuses the Lord of rejecting him. The force and apparent cruelty of the psalmist’s suffering overwhelm him.","summary_en":"88:13-17 In his third charge, the psalmist accuses the Lord of rejecting him. The force and apparent cruelty of the psalmist’s suffering overwhelm him.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":104955,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Psalmi 88:13","title_en":"Study Note: Psalmi 88:13","content_ro":"88:13-17<\/strong> In his third charge, the psalmist accuses the Lord of rejecting him. The force and apparent cruelty of the psalmist’s suffering overwhelm him.<\/p>","content_en":"88:13-17<\/strong> In his third charge, the psalmist accuses the Lord of rejecting him. The force and apparent cruelty of the psalmist’s suffering overwhelm him.<\/p>","summary_ro":"88:13-17 In his third charge, the psalmist accuses the Lord of rejecting him. The force and apparent cruelty of the psalmist’s suffering overwhelm him.","summary_en":"88:13-17 In his third charge, the psalmist accuses the Lord of rejecting him. The force and apparent cruelty of the psalmist’s suffering overwhelm him.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":132581,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Psalmi 88:13","title_en":"Study Note: Psalmi 88:13","content_ro":"88:13-17<\/strong> In his third charge, the psalmist accuses the Lord of rejecting him. The force and apparent cruelty of the psalmist’s suffering overwhelm him.<\/p>","content_en":"88:13-17<\/strong> In his third charge, the psalmist accuses the Lord of rejecting him. The force and apparent cruelty of the psalmist’s suffering overwhelm him.<\/p>","summary_ro":"88:13-17 In his third charge, the psalmist accuses the Lord of rejecting him. The force and apparent cruelty of the psalmist’s suffering overwhelm him.","summary_en":"88:13-17 In his third charge, the psalmist accuses the Lord of rejecting him. The force and apparent cruelty of the psalmist’s suffering overwhelm him.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"14":[{"id":62770,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God’s Presence in the Psalms","title_en":"God’s Presence in the Psalms","content_ro":"<h3>God’s Presence in the Psalms<\/h3>\nScripture writers often express the desire to experience God’s presence. In the intimate experience of his presence, God’s rich goodness and love are all that people need (see Ps 21:6). By the same token, the absence of God’s presence is distressing and damaging.<\/p>\nThe poets of Israel often spoke of God’s face as a way of expressing his presence or absence. So they sought his face (24:6; 105:4). When his face shone or was turned toward his people, they experienced his presence in blessing, provision, and protection (67:1; 80:3-19). God’s hiding his face from his people was a picture of divine abandonment (13:1; 27:9; 44:24; 69:17; 88:14; 89:46; 102:2; 104:29; 143:7), as if God were not seeing or hearing them (10:11; 42:3). The absence of God creates dismay, shame, and chaos, and may even lead to death (30:7; 44:24; 104:29).<\/p>\nThe psalmists prayed for God’s presence as they requested a change in their circumstances (31:15-16; 67:1; 69:17; 80:3, 7, 19), and they acknowledged the role of his presence in giving them aid (see 44:3). The godly long to be invited into God’s presence (11:7; 16:9-11; 17:15). His presence alone satisfies their deepest longing (17:15) and gives them lasting pleasure (37:4; 43:4; 73:25). Everything about God delights them.<\/p>\nGod’s favor and goodness are realized in his presence (23:6), as demonstrated in his people’s experiences of blessing, abundant crops, and prosperity (21:3; 65:11; 68:10; 85:12; 106:5; 128:2). Thus God’s goodness and the Temple—the place where his presence is especially manifest—are closely linked (65:4). God’s presence leads to health and vitality among his people, and he satisfies his people who are in need (107:9). For the psalmists, God’s presence was essential for flourishing.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nPss 4:6; 13:1; 21:6; 24:3-6; 27:9; 44:3, 24; 67:1; 69:17; 88:14; 89:46; 102:2; 104:29; 143:7<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God’s Presence in the Psalms<\/h3>\nScripture writers often express the desire to experience God’s presence. In the intimate experience of his presence, God’s rich goodness and love are all that people need (see Ps 21:6). By the same token, the absence of God’s presence is distressing and damaging.<\/p>\nThe poets of Israel often spoke of God’s face as a way of expressing his presence or absence. So they sought his face (24:6; 105:4). When his face shone or was turned toward his people, they experienced his presence in blessing, provision, and protection (67:1; 80:3-19). God’s hiding his face from his people was a picture of divine abandonment (13:1; 27:9; 44:24; 69:17; 88:14; 89:46; 102:2; 104:29; 143:7), as if God were not seeing or hearing them (10:11; 42:3). The absence of God creates dismay, shame, and chaos, and may even lead to death (30:7; 44:24; 104:29).<\/p>\nThe psalmists prayed for God’s presence as they requested a change in their circumstances (31:15-16; 67:1; 69:17; 80:3, 7, 19), and they acknowledged the role of his presence in giving them aid (see 44:3). The godly long to be invited into God’s presence (11:7; 16:9-11; 17:15). His presence alone satisfies their deepest longing (17:15) and gives them lasting pleasure (37:4; 43:4; 73:25). Everything about God delights them.<\/p>\nGod’s favor and goodness are realized in his presence (23:6), as demonstrated in his people’s experiences of blessing, abundant crops, and prosperity (21:3; 65:11; 68:10; 85:12; 106:5; 128:2). Thus God’s goodness and the Temple—the place where his presence is especially manifest—are closely linked (65:4). God’s presence leads to health and vitality among his people, and he satisfies his people who are in need (107:9). For the psalmists, God’s presence was essential for flourishing.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nPss 4:6; 13:1; 21:6; 24:3-6; 27:9; 44:3, 24; 67:1; 69:17; 88:14; 89:46; 102:2; 104:29; 143:7<\/p>","summary_ro":"God’s Presence in the Psalms Scripture writers often express the desire to experience God’s presence. In the intimate experience of his presence, God’s rich goodness and love are all that people need (see Ps 21:6). By the same token, the absence of God’s presence is distressing and damaging. The poets of Israel often spoke of God’s face as a way of expressing his presence or absence. So they sought his face (24:6; 105:4). When his face shone or was turned toward his people, they experienced h...","summary_en":"God’s Presence in the Psalms Scripture writers often express the desire to experience God’s presence. In the intimate experience of his presence, God’s rich goodness and love are all that people need (see Ps 21:6). By the same token, the absence of God’s presence is distressing and damaging. The poets of Israel often spoke of God’s face as a way of expressing his presence or absence. So they sought his face (24:6; 105:4). When his face shone or was turned toward his people, they experienced h...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":62882,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Questions and Doubt","title_en":"Questions and Doubt","content_ro":"<h3>Questions and Doubt<\/h3>\nThe psalmists are not afraid to ask questions and express doubts. The number of questions in a psalm indicates the intensity of the mood or the significance of the issue at hand. The psalms with the greatest number of questions raise the important issues of God’s perceived abandonment (Ps 13; Pss 42–43; 74; 89) and the prosperity of the wicked (Ps 73).<\/p>\nThe psalmists’ questions clarify life issues. Some questions ask whether the Lord is the true God (94:9-10) and why he seems to have abandoned the godly (77:7). Other questions call attention to the success of the wicked (10:13), the impotence of the godly (11:3), the election of Zion (68:16), the power of God (114:5-6; 147:17), the folly of the nations (2:1), and the issue of injustice (82:2). The psalmists question, examine, challenge, doubt, and occasionally despair over God’s seeming lack of concern.<\/p>\nThe psalmists’ questions may also lead to praise and worship: “Who can list the glorious miracles of the Lord<\/span>? Who can ever praise him enough?” (106:2). The question, “Who will come from Mount Zion to rescue Israel?” (53:6) calls attention to the answer: The Lord rescues his people. For many questions, the implied answer brings praise to the Lord: “Whom have I in heaven but you? I desire you more than anything on earth” (73:25; see also 89:8). Questions may also express wonder at God’s grace (8:4; 130:3; 144:3).<\/p>\nAsking good questions can be the beginning of a dialogue with the Lord that leads us along the path of wisdom and results in worship and praise.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nPss 2:1; 4:2; 6:3; 10:1; 11:3; 13:1-6; 22:1; 35:17; 42:1-11; 43:1-5; 44:23-24; 53:6; 60:9-10; 68:16; 73:1–74:23; 77:8-9; 79:5; 80:4, 12; 82:2; 83:2; 85:5-6; 88:14; 89:1-52; 90:11, 13; 94:3-4, 16, 20; 101:2; 108:10-11; 114:5-6; 119:82, 84; 137:4; 147:17<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Questions and Doubt<\/h3>\nThe psalmists are not afraid to ask questions and express doubts. The number of questions in a psalm indicates the intensity of the mood or the significance of the issue at hand. The psalms with the greatest number of questions raise the important issues of God’s perceived abandonment (Ps 13; Pss 42–43; 74; 89) and the prosperity of the wicked (Ps 73).<\/p>\nThe psalmists’ questions clarify life issues. Some questions ask whether the Lord is the true God (94:9-10) and why he seems to have abandoned the godly (77:7). Other questions call attention to the success of the wicked (10:13), the impotence of the godly (11:3), the election of Zion (68:16), the power of God (114:5-6; 147:17), the folly of the nations (2:1), and the issue of injustice (82:2). The psalmists question, examine, challenge, doubt, and occasionally despair over God’s seeming lack of concern.<\/p>\nThe psalmists’ questions may also lead to praise and worship: “Who can list the glorious miracles of the Lord<\/span>? Who can ever praise him enough?” (106:2). The question, “Who will come from Mount Zion to rescue Israel?” (53:6) calls attention to the answer: The Lord rescues his people. For many questions, the implied answer brings praise to the Lord: “Whom have I in heaven but you? I desire you more than anything on earth” (73:25; see also 89:8). Questions may also express wonder at God’s grace (8:4; 130:3; 144:3).<\/p>\nAsking good questions can be the beginning of a dialogue with the Lord that leads us along the path of wisdom and results in worship and praise.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nPss 2:1; 4:2; 6:3; 10:1; 11:3; 13:1-6; 22:1; 35:17; 42:1-11; 43:1-5; 44:23-24; 53:6; 60:9-10; 68:16; 73:1–74:23; 77:8-9; 79:5; 80:4, 12; 82:2; 83:2; 85:5-6; 88:14; 89:1-52; 90:11, 13; 94:3-4, 16, 20; 101:2; 108:10-11; 114:5-6; 119:82, 84; 137:4; 147:17<\/p>","summary_ro":"Questions and Doubt The psalmists are not afraid to ask questions and express doubts. The number of questions in a psalm indicates the intensity of the mood or the significance of the issue at hand. The psalms with the greatest number of questions raise the important issues of God’s perceived abandonment (Ps 13; Pss 42–43; 74; 89) and the prosperity of the wicked (Ps 73). The psalmists’ questions clarify life issues. Some questions ask whether the Lord is the true God (94:9-10) and why he see...","summary_en":"Questions and Doubt The psalmists are not afraid to ask questions and express doubts. The number of questions in a psalm indicates the intensity of the mood or the significance of the issue at hand. The psalms with the greatest number of questions raise the important issues of God’s perceived abandonment (Ps 13; Pss 42–43; 74; 89) and the prosperity of the wicked (Ps 73). The psalmists’ questions clarify life issues. Some questions ask whether the Lord is the true God (94:9-10) and why he see...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":90396,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God’s Presence in the Psalms","title_en":"God’s Presence in the Psalms","content_ro":"<h3>God’s Presence in the Psalms<\/h3>\nScripture writers often express the desire to experience God’s presence. In the intimate experience of his presence, God’s rich goodness and love are all that people need (see Ps 21:6). By the same token, the absence of God’s presence is distressing and damaging.<\/p>\nThe poets of Israel often spoke of God’s face as a way of expressing his presence or absence. So they sought his face (24:6; 105:4). When his face shone or was turned toward his people, they experienced his presence in blessing, provision, and protection (67:1; 80:3-19). God’s hiding his face from his people was a picture of divine abandonment (13:1; 27:9; 44:24; 69:17; 88:14; 89:46; 102:2; 104:29; 143:7), as if God were not seeing or hearing them (10:11; 42:3). The absence of God creates dismay, shame, and chaos, and may even lead to death (30:7; 44:24; 104:29).<\/p>\nThe psalmists prayed for God’s presence as they requested a change in their circumstances (31:15-16; 67:1; 69:17; 80:3, 7, 19), and they acknowledged the role of his presence in giving them aid (see 44:3). The godly long to be invited into God’s presence (11:7; 16:9-11; 17:15). His presence alone satisfies their deepest longing (17:15) and gives them lasting pleasure (37:4; 43:4; 73:25). Everything about God delights them.<\/p>\nGod’s favor and goodness are realized in his presence (23:6), as demonstrated in his people’s experiences of blessing, abundant crops, and prosperity (21:3; 65:11; 68:10; 85:12; 106:5; 128:2). Thus God’s goodness and the Temple—the place where his presence is especially manifest—are closely linked (65:4). God’s presence leads to health and vitality among his people, and he satisfies his people who are in need (107:9). For the psalmists, God’s presence was essential for flourishing.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nPss 4:6; 13:1; 21:6; 24:3-6; 27:9; 44:3, 24; 67:1; 69:17; 88:14; 89:46; 102:2; 104:29; 143:7<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God’s Presence in the Psalms<\/h3>\nScripture writers often express the desire to experience God’s presence. In the intimate experience of his presence, God’s rich goodness and love are all that people need (see Ps 21:6). By the same token, the absence of God’s presence is distressing and damaging.<\/p>\nThe poets of Israel often spoke of God’s face as a way of expressing his presence or absence. So they sought his face (24:6; 105:4). When his face shone or was turned toward his people, they experienced his presence in blessing, provision, and protection (67:1; 80:3-19). God’s hiding his face from his people was a picture of divine abandonment (13:1; 27:9; 44:24; 69:17; 88:14; 89:46; 102:2; 104:29; 143:7), as if God were not seeing or hearing them (10:11; 42:3). The absence of God creates dismay, shame, and chaos, and may even lead to death (30:7; 44:24; 104:29).<\/p>\nThe psalmists prayed for God’s presence as they requested a change in their circumstances (31:15-16; 67:1; 69:17; 80:3, 7, 19), and they acknowledged the role of his presence in giving them aid (see 44:3). The godly long to be invited into God’s presence (11:7; 16:9-11; 17:15). His presence alone satisfies their deepest longing (17:15) and gives them lasting pleasure (37:4; 43:4; 73:25). Everything about God delights them.<\/p>\nGod’s favor and goodness are realized in his presence (23:6), as demonstrated in his people’s experiences of blessing, abundant crops, and prosperity (21:3; 65:11; 68:10; 85:12; 106:5; 128:2). Thus God’s goodness and the Temple—the place where his presence is especially manifest—are closely linked (65:4). God’s presence leads to health and vitality among his people, and he satisfies his people who are in need (107:9). For the psalmists, God’s presence was essential for flourishing.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nPss 4:6; 13:1; 21:6; 24:3-6; 27:9; 44:3, 24; 67:1; 69:17; 88:14; 89:46; 102:2; 104:29; 143:7<\/p>","summary_ro":"God’s Presence in the Psalms Scripture writers often express the desire to experience God’s presence. In the intimate experience of his presence, God’s rich goodness and love are all that people need (see Ps 21:6). By the same token, the absence of God’s presence is distressing and damaging. The poets of Israel often spoke of God’s face as a way of expressing his presence or absence. So they sought his face (24:6; 105:4). When his face shone or was turned toward his people, they experienced h...","summary_en":"God’s Presence in the Psalms Scripture writers often express the desire to experience God’s presence. In the intimate experience of his presence, God’s rich goodness and love are all that people need (see Ps 21:6). By the same token, the absence of God’s presence is distressing and damaging. The poets of Israel often spoke of God’s face as a way of expressing his presence or absence. So they sought his face (24:6; 105:4). When his face shone or was turned toward his people, they experienced h...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":90508,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Questions and Doubt","title_en":"Questions and Doubt","content_ro":"<h3>Questions and Doubt<\/h3>\nThe psalmists are not afraid to ask questions and express doubts. The number of questions in a psalm indicates the intensity of the mood or the significance of the issue at hand. The psalms with the greatest number of questions raise the important issues of God’s perceived abandonment (Ps 13; Pss 42–43; 74; 89) and the prosperity of the wicked (Ps 73).<\/p>\nThe psalmists’ questions clarify life issues. Some questions ask whether the Lord is the true God (94:9-10) and why he seems to have abandoned the godly (77:7). Other questions call attention to the success of the wicked (10:13), the impotence of the godly (11:3), the election of Zion (68:16), the power of God (114:5-6; 147:17), the folly of the nations (2:1), and the issue of injustice (82:2). The psalmists question, examine, challenge, doubt, and occasionally despair over God’s seeming lack of concern.<\/p>\nThe psalmists’ questions may also lead to praise and worship: “Who can list the glorious miracles of the Lord<\/span>? Who can ever praise him enough?” (106:2). The question, “Who will come from Mount Zion to rescue Israel?” (53:6) calls attention to the answer: The Lord rescues his people. For many questions, the implied answer brings praise to the Lord: “Whom have I in heaven but you? I desire you more than anything on earth” (73:25; see also 89:8). Questions may also express wonder at God’s grace (8:4; 130:3; 144:3).<\/p>\nAsking good questions can be the beginning of a dialogue with the Lord that leads us along the path of wisdom and results in worship and praise.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nPss 2:1; 4:2; 6:3; 10:1; 11:3; 13:1-6; 22:1; 35:17; 42:1-11; 43:1-5; 44:23-24; 53:6; 60:9-10; 68:16; 73:1–74:23; 77:8-9; 79:5; 80:4, 12; 82:2; 83:2; 85:5-6; 88:14; 89:1-52; 90:11, 13; 94:3-4, 16, 20; 101:2; 108:10-11; 114:5-6; 119:82, 84; 137:4; 147:17<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Questions and Doubt<\/h3>\nThe psalmists are not afraid to ask questions and express doubts. The number of questions in a psalm indicates the intensity of the mood or the significance of the issue at hand. The psalms with the greatest number of questions raise the important issues of God’s perceived abandonment (Ps 13; Pss 42–43; 74; 89) and the prosperity of the wicked (Ps 73).<\/p>\nThe psalmists’ questions clarify life issues. Some questions ask whether the Lord is the true God (94:9-10) and why he seems to have abandoned the godly (77:7). Other questions call attention to the success of the wicked (10:13), the impotence of the godly (11:3), the election of Zion (68:16), the power of God (114:5-6; 147:17), the folly of the nations (2:1), and the issue of injustice (82:2). The psalmists question, examine, challenge, doubt, and occasionally despair over God’s seeming lack of concern.<\/p>\nThe psalmists’ questions may also lead to praise and worship: “Who can list the glorious miracles of the Lord<\/span>? Who can ever praise him enough?” (106:2). The question, “Who will come from Mount Zion to rescue Israel?” (53:6) calls attention to the answer: The Lord rescues his people. For many questions, the implied answer brings praise to the Lord: “Whom have I in heaven but you? I desire you more than anything on earth” (73:25; see also 89:8). Questions may also express wonder at God’s grace (8:4; 130:3; 144:3).<\/p>\nAsking good questions can be the beginning of a dialogue with the Lord that leads us along the path of wisdom and results in worship and praise.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nPss 2:1; 4:2; 6:3; 10:1; 11:3; 13:1-6; 22:1; 35:17; 42:1-11; 43:1-5; 44:23-24; 53:6; 60:9-10; 68:16; 73:1–74:23; 77:8-9; 79:5; 80:4, 12; 82:2; 83:2; 85:5-6; 88:14; 89:1-52; 90:11, 13; 94:3-4, 16, 20; 101:2; 108:10-11; 114:5-6; 119:82, 84; 137:4; 147:17<\/p>","summary_ro":"Questions and Doubt The psalmists are not afraid to ask questions and express doubts. The number of questions in a psalm indicates the intensity of the mood or the significance of the issue at hand. The psalms with the greatest number of questions raise the important issues of God’s perceived abandonment (Ps 13; Pss 42–43; 74; 89) and the prosperity of the wicked (Ps 73). The psalmists’ questions clarify life issues. Some questions ask whether the Lord is the true God (94:9-10) and why he see...","summary_en":"Questions and Doubt The psalmists are not afraid to ask questions and express doubts. The number of questions in a psalm indicates the intensity of the mood or the significance of the issue at hand. The psalms with the greatest number of questions raise the important issues of God’s perceived abandonment (Ps 13; Pss 42–43; 74; 89) and the prosperity of the wicked (Ps 73). The psalmists’ questions clarify life issues. Some questions ask whether the Lord is the true God (94:9-10) and why he see...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":118022,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God’s Presence in the Psalms","title_en":"God’s Presence in the Psalms","content_ro":"<h3>God’s Presence in the Psalms<\/h3>\nScripture writers often express the desire to experience God’s presence. In the intimate experience of his presence, God’s rich goodness and love are all that people need (see Ps 21:6). By the same token, the absence of God’s presence is distressing and damaging.<\/p>\nThe poets of Israel often spoke of God’s face as a way of expressing his presence or absence. So they sought his face (24:6; 105:4). When his face shone or was turned toward his people, they experienced his presence in blessing, provision, and protection (67:1; 80:3-19). God’s hiding his face from his people was a picture of divine abandonment (13:1; 27:9; 44:24; 69:17; 88:14; 89:46; 102:2; 104:29; 143:7), as if God were not seeing or hearing them (10:11; 42:3). The absence of God creates dismay, shame, and chaos, and may even lead to death (30:7; 44:24; 104:29).<\/p>\nThe psalmists prayed for God’s presence as they requested a change in their circumstances (31:15-16; 67:1; 69:17; 80:3, 7, 19), and they acknowledged the role of his presence in giving them aid (see 44:3). The godly long to be invited into God’s presence (11:7; 16:9-11; 17:15). His presence alone satisfies their deepest longing (17:15) and gives them lasting pleasure (37:4; 43:4; 73:25). Everything about God delights them.<\/p>\nGod’s favor and goodness are realized in his presence (23:6), as demonstrated in his people’s experiences of blessing, abundant crops, and prosperity (21:3; 65:11; 68:10; 85:12; 106:5; 128:2). Thus God’s goodness and the Temple—the place where his presence is especially manifest—are closely linked (65:4). God’s presence leads to health and vitality among his people, and he satisfies his people who are in need (107:9). For the psalmists, God’s presence was essential for flourishing.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nPss 4:6; 13:1; 21:6; 24:3-6; 27:9; 44:3, 24; 67:1; 69:17; 88:14; 89:46; 102:2; 104:29; 143:7<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God’s Presence in the Psalms<\/h3>\nScripture writers often express the desire to experience God’s presence. In the intimate experience of his presence, God’s rich goodness and love are all that people need (see Ps 21:6). By the same token, the absence of God’s presence is distressing and damaging.<\/p>\nThe poets of Israel often spoke of God’s face as a way of expressing his presence or absence. So they sought his face (24:6; 105:4). When his face shone or was turned toward his people, they experienced his presence in blessing, provision, and protection (67:1; 80:3-19). God’s hiding his face from his people was a picture of divine abandonment (13:1; 27:9; 44:24; 69:17; 88:14; 89:46; 102:2; 104:29; 143:7), as if God were not seeing or hearing them (10:11; 42:3). The absence of God creates dismay, shame, and chaos, and may even lead to death (30:7; 44:24; 104:29).<\/p>\nThe psalmists prayed for God’s presence as they requested a change in their circumstances (31:15-16; 67:1; 69:17; 80:3, 7, 19), and they acknowledged the role of his presence in giving them aid (see 44:3). The godly long to be invited into God’s presence (11:7; 16:9-11; 17:15). His presence alone satisfies their deepest longing (17:15) and gives them lasting pleasure (37:4; 43:4; 73:25). Everything about God delights them.<\/p>\nGod’s favor and goodness are realized in his presence (23:6), as demonstrated in his people’s experiences of blessing, abundant crops, and prosperity (21:3; 65:11; 68:10; 85:12; 106:5; 128:2). Thus God’s goodness and the Temple—the place where his presence is especially manifest—are closely linked (65:4). God’s presence leads to health and vitality among his people, and he satisfies his people who are in need (107:9). For the psalmists, God’s presence was essential for flourishing.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nPss 4:6; 13:1; 21:6; 24:3-6; 27:9; 44:3, 24; 67:1; 69:17; 88:14; 89:46; 102:2; 104:29; 143:7<\/p>","summary_ro":"God’s Presence in the Psalms Scripture writers often express the desire to experience God’s presence. In the intimate experience of his presence, God’s rich goodness and love are all that people need (see Ps 21:6). By the same token, the absence of God’s presence is distressing and damaging. The poets of Israel often spoke of God’s face as a way of expressing his presence or absence. So they sought his face (24:6; 105:4). When his face shone or was turned toward his people, they experienced h...","summary_en":"God’s Presence in the Psalms Scripture writers often express the desire to experience God’s presence. In the intimate experience of his presence, God’s rich goodness and love are all that people need (see Ps 21:6). By the same token, the absence of God’s presence is distressing and damaging. The poets of Israel often spoke of God’s face as a way of expressing his presence or absence. So they sought his face (24:6; 105:4). When his face shone or was turned toward his people, they experienced h...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":118134,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Questions and Doubt","title_en":"Questions and Doubt","content_ro":"<h3>Questions and Doubt<\/h3>\nThe psalmists are not afraid to ask questions and express doubts. The number of questions in a psalm indicates the intensity of the mood or the significance of the issue at hand. The psalms with the greatest number of questions raise the important issues of God’s perceived abandonment (Ps 13; Pss 42–43; 74; 89) and the prosperity of the wicked (Ps 73).<\/p>\nThe psalmists’ questions clarify life issues. Some questions ask whether the Lord is the true God (94:9-10) and why he seems to have abandoned the godly (77:7). Other questions call attention to the success of the wicked (10:13), the impotence of the godly (11:3), the election of Zion (68:16), the power of God (114:5-6; 147:17), the folly of the nations (2:1), and the issue of injustice (82:2). The psalmists question, examine, challenge, doubt, and occasionally despair over God’s seeming lack of concern.<\/p>\nThe psalmists’ questions may also lead to praise and worship: “Who can list the glorious miracles of the Lord<\/span>? Who can ever praise him enough?” (106:2). The question, “Who will come from Mount Zion to rescue Israel?” (53:6) calls attention to the answer: The Lord rescues his people. For many questions, the implied answer brings praise to the Lord: “Whom have I in heaven but you? I desire you more than anything on earth” (73:25; see also 89:8). Questions may also express wonder at God’s grace (8:4; 130:3; 144:3).<\/p>\nAsking good questions can be the beginning of a dialogue with the Lord that leads us along the path of wisdom and results in worship and praise.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nPss 2:1; 4:2; 6:3; 10:1; 11:3; 13:1-6; 22:1; 35:17; 42:1-11; 43:1-5; 44:23-24; 53:6; 60:9-10; 68:16; 73:1–74:23; 77:8-9; 79:5; 80:4, 12; 82:2; 83:2; 85:5-6; 88:14; 89:1-52; 90:11, 13; 94:3-4, 16, 20; 101:2; 108:10-11; 114:5-6; 119:82, 84; 137:4; 147:17<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Questions and Doubt<\/h3>\nThe psalmists are not afraid to ask questions and express doubts. The number of questions in a psalm indicates the intensity of the mood or the significance of the issue at hand. The psalms with the greatest number of questions raise the important issues of God’s perceived abandonment (Ps 13; Pss 42–43; 74; 89) and the prosperity of the wicked (Ps 73).<\/p>\nThe psalmists’ questions clarify life issues. Some questions ask whether the Lord is the true God (94:9-10) and why he seems to have abandoned the godly (77:7). Other questions call attention to the success of the wicked (10:13), the impotence of the godly (11:3), the election of Zion (68:16), the power of God (114:5-6; 147:17), the folly of the nations (2:1), and the issue of injustice (82:2). The psalmists question, examine, challenge, doubt, and occasionally despair over God’s seeming lack of concern.<\/p>\nThe psalmists’ questions may also lead to praise and worship: “Who can list the glorious miracles of the Lord<\/span>? Who can ever praise him enough?” (106:2). The question, “Who will come from Mount Zion to rescue Israel?” (53:6) calls attention to the answer: The Lord rescues his people. For many questions, the implied answer brings praise to the Lord: “Whom have I in heaven but you? I desire you more than anything on earth” (73:25; see also 89:8). Questions may also express wonder at God’s grace (8:4; 130:3; 144:3).<\/p>\nAsking good questions can be the beginning of a dialogue with the Lord that leads us along the path of wisdom and results in worship and praise.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nPss 2:1; 4:2; 6:3; 10:1; 11:3; 13:1-6; 22:1; 35:17; 42:1-11; 43:1-5; 44:23-24; 53:6; 60:9-10; 68:16; 73:1–74:23; 77:8-9; 79:5; 80:4, 12; 82:2; 83:2; 85:5-6; 88:14; 89:1-52; 90:11, 13; 94:3-4, 16, 20; 101:2; 108:10-11; 114:5-6; 119:82, 84; 137:4; 147:17<\/p>","summary_ro":"Questions and Doubt The psalmists are not afraid to ask questions and express doubts. The number of questions in a psalm indicates the intensity of the mood or the significance of the issue at hand. The psalms with the greatest number of questions raise the important issues of God’s perceived abandonment (Ps 13; Pss 42–43; 74; 89) and the prosperity of the wicked (Ps 73). The psalmists’ questions clarify life issues. Some questions ask whether the Lord is the true God (94:9-10) and why he see...","summary_en":"Questions and Doubt The psalmists are not afraid to ask questions and express doubts. The number of questions in a psalm indicates the intensity of the mood or the significance of the issue at hand. The psalms with the greatest number of questions raise the important issues of God’s perceived abandonment (Ps 13; Pss 42–43; 74; 89) and the prosperity of the wicked (Ps 73). The psalmists’ questions clarify life issues. Some questions ask whether the Lord is the true God (94:9-10) and why he see...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":145648,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God’s Presence in the Psalms","title_en":"God’s Presence in the Psalms","content_ro":"<h3>God’s Presence in the Psalms<\/h3>\nScripture writers often express the desire to experience God’s presence. In the intimate experience of his presence, God’s rich goodness and love are all that people need (see Ps 21:6). By the same token, the absence of God’s presence is distressing and damaging.<\/p>\nThe poets of Israel often spoke of God’s face as a way of expressing his presence or absence. So they sought his face (24:6; 105:4). When his face shone or was turned toward his people, they experienced his presence in blessing, provision, and protection (67:1; 80:3-19). God’s hiding his face from his people was a picture of divine abandonment (13:1; 27:9; 44:24; 69:17; 88:14; 89:46; 102:2; 104:29; 143:7), as if God were not seeing or hearing them (10:11; 42:3). The absence of God creates dismay, shame, and chaos, and may even lead to death (30:7; 44:24; 104:29).<\/p>\nThe psalmists prayed for God’s presence as they requested a change in their circumstances (31:15-16; 67:1; 69:17; 80:3, 7, 19), and they acknowledged the role of his presence in giving them aid (see 44:3). The godly long to be invited into God’s presence (11:7; 16:9-11; 17:15). His presence alone satisfies their deepest longing (17:15) and gives them lasting pleasure (37:4; 43:4; 73:25). Everything about God delights them.<\/p>\nGod’s favor and goodness are realized in his presence (23:6), as demonstrated in his people’s experiences of blessing, abundant crops, and prosperity (21:3; 65:11; 68:10; 85:12; 106:5; 128:2). Thus God’s goodness and the Temple—the place where his presence is especially manifest—are closely linked (65:4). God’s presence leads to health and vitality among his people, and he satisfies his people who are in need (107:9). For the psalmists, God’s presence was essential for flourishing.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nPss 4:6; 13:1; 21:6; 24:3-6; 27:9; 44:3, 24; 67:1; 69:17; 88:14; 89:46; 102:2; 104:29; 143:7<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God’s Presence in the Psalms<\/h3>\nScripture writers often express the desire to experience God’s presence. In the intimate experience of his presence, God’s rich goodness and love are all that people need (see Ps 21:6). By the same token, the absence of God’s presence is distressing and damaging.<\/p>\nThe poets of Israel often spoke of God’s face as a way of expressing his presence or absence. So they sought his face (24:6; 105:4). When his face shone or was turned toward his people, they experienced his presence in blessing, provision, and protection (67:1; 80:3-19). God’s hiding his face from his people was a picture of divine abandonment (13:1; 27:9; 44:24; 69:17; 88:14; 89:46; 102:2; 104:29; 143:7), as if God were not seeing or hearing them (10:11; 42:3). The absence of God creates dismay, shame, and chaos, and may even lead to death (30:7; 44:24; 104:29).<\/p>\nThe psalmists prayed for God’s presence as they requested a change in their circumstances (31:15-16; 67:1; 69:17; 80:3, 7, 19), and they acknowledged the role of his presence in giving them aid (see 44:3). The godly long to be invited into God’s presence (11:7; 16:9-11; 17:15). His presence alone satisfies their deepest longing (17:15) and gives them lasting pleasure (37:4; 43:4; 73:25). Everything about God delights them.<\/p>\nGod’s favor and goodness are realized in his presence (23:6), as demonstrated in his people’s experiences of blessing, abundant crops, and prosperity (21:3; 65:11; 68:10; 85:12; 106:5; 128:2). Thus God’s goodness and the Temple—the place where his presence is especially manifest—are closely linked (65:4). God’s presence leads to health and vitality among his people, and he satisfies his people who are in need (107:9). For the psalmists, God’s presence was essential for flourishing.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nPss 4:6; 13:1; 21:6; 24:3-6; 27:9; 44:3, 24; 67:1; 69:17; 88:14; 89:46; 102:2; 104:29; 143:7<\/p>","summary_ro":"God’s Presence in the Psalms Scripture writers often express the desire to experience God’s presence. In the intimate experience of his presence, God’s rich goodness and love are all that people need (see Ps 21:6). By the same token, the absence of God’s presence is distressing and damaging. The poets of Israel often spoke of God’s face as a way of expressing his presence or absence. So they sought his face (24:6; 105:4). When his face shone or was turned toward his people, they experienced h...","summary_en":"God’s Presence in the Psalms Scripture writers often express the desire to experience God’s presence. In the intimate experience of his presence, God’s rich goodness and love are all that people need (see Ps 21:6). By the same token, the absence of God’s presence is distressing and damaging. The poets of Israel often spoke of God’s face as a way of expressing his presence or absence. So they sought his face (24:6; 105:4). When his face shone or was turned toward his people, they experienced h...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":145760,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Questions and Doubt","title_en":"Questions and Doubt","content_ro":"<h3>Questions and Doubt<\/h3>\nThe psalmists are not afraid to ask questions and express doubts. The number of questions in a psalm indicates the intensity of the mood or the significance of the issue at hand. The psalms with the greatest number of questions raise the important issues of God’s perceived abandonment (Ps 13; Pss 42–43; 74; 89) and the prosperity of the wicked (Ps 73).<\/p>\nThe psalmists’ questions clarify life issues. Some questions ask whether the Lord is the true God (94:9-10) and why he seems to have abandoned the godly (77:7). Other questions call attention to the success of the wicked (10:13), the impotence of the godly (11:3), the election of Zion (68:16), the power of God (114:5-6; 147:17), the folly of the nations (2:1), and the issue of injustice (82:2). The psalmists question, examine, challenge, doubt, and occasionally despair over God’s seeming lack of concern.<\/p>\nThe psalmists’ questions may also lead to praise and worship: “Who can list the glorious miracles of the Lord<\/span>? Who can ever praise him enough?” (106:2). The question, “Who will come from Mount Zion to rescue Israel?” (53:6) calls attention to the answer: The Lord rescues his people. For many questions, the implied answer brings praise to the Lord: “Whom have I in heaven but you? I desire you more than anything on earth” (73:25; see also 89:8). Questions may also express wonder at God’s grace (8:4; 130:3; 144:3).<\/p>\nAsking good questions can be the beginning of a dialogue with the Lord that leads us along the path of wisdom and results in worship and praise.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nPss 2:1; 4:2; 6:3; 10:1; 11:3; 13:1-6; 22:1; 35:17; 42:1-11; 43:1-5; 44:23-24; 53:6; 60:9-10; 68:16; 73:1–74:23; 77:8-9; 79:5; 80:4, 12; 82:2; 83:2; 85:5-6; 88:14; 89:1-52; 90:11, 13; 94:3-4, 16, 20; 101:2; 108:10-11; 114:5-6; 119:82, 84; 137:4; 147:17<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Questions and Doubt<\/h3>\nThe psalmists are not afraid to ask questions and express doubts. The number of questions in a psalm indicates the intensity of the mood or the significance of the issue at hand. The psalms with the greatest number of questions raise the important issues of God’s perceived abandonment (Ps 13; Pss 42–43; 74; 89) and the prosperity of the wicked (Ps 73).<\/p>\nThe psalmists’ questions clarify life issues. Some questions ask whether the Lord is the true God (94:9-10) and why he seems to have abandoned the godly (77:7). Other questions call attention to the success of the wicked (10:13), the impotence of the godly (11:3), the election of Zion (68:16), the power of God (114:5-6; 147:17), the folly of the nations (2:1), and the issue of injustice (82:2). The psalmists question, examine, challenge, doubt, and occasionally despair over God’s seeming lack of concern.<\/p>\nThe psalmists’ questions may also lead to praise and worship: “Who can list the glorious miracles of the Lord<\/span>? Who can ever praise him enough?” (106:2). The question, “Who will come from Mount Zion to rescue Israel?” (53:6) calls attention to the answer: The Lord rescues his people. For many questions, the implied answer brings praise to the Lord: “Whom have I in heaven but you? I desire you more than anything on earth” (73:25; see also 89:8). Questions may also express wonder at God’s grace (8:4; 130:3; 144:3).<\/p>\nAsking good questions can be the beginning of a dialogue with the Lord that leads us along the path of wisdom and results in worship and praise.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nPss 2:1; 4:2; 6:3; 10:1; 11:3; 13:1-6; 22:1; 35:17; 42:1-11; 43:1-5; 44:23-24; 53:6; 60:9-10; 68:16; 73:1–74:23; 77:8-9; 79:5; 80:4, 12; 82:2; 83:2; 85:5-6; 88:14; 89:1-52; 90:11, 13; 94:3-4, 16, 20; 101:2; 108:10-11; 114:5-6; 119:82, 84; 137:4; 147:17<\/p>","summary_ro":"Questions and Doubt The psalmists are not afraid to ask questions and express doubts. The number of questions in a psalm indicates the intensity of the mood or the significance of the issue at hand. The psalms with the greatest number of questions raise the important issues of God’s perceived abandonment (Ps 13; Pss 42–43; 74; 89) and the prosperity of the wicked (Ps 73). The psalmists’ questions clarify life issues. Some questions ask whether the Lord is the true God (94:9-10) and why he see...","summary_en":"Questions and Doubt The psalmists are not afraid to ask questions and express doubts. The number of questions in a psalm indicates the intensity of the mood or the significance of the issue at hand. The psalms with the greatest number of questions raise the important issues of God’s perceived abandonment (Ps 13; Pss 42–43; 74; 89) and the prosperity of the wicked (Ps 73). The psalmists’ questions clarify life issues. Some questions ask whether the Lord is the true God (94:9-10) and why he see...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"15":[{"id":62597,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Poor and Needy in the Psalms","title_en":"The Poor and Needy in the Psalms","content_ro":"<h3>The Poor and Needy in the Psalms<\/h3>\nThroughout Scripture, God advocates for the poor and needy, who often experience oppression and persecution at the hands of societal structures or the rapacious people around them. The book of Psalms makes numerous references both to the plights of the oppressed and to God’s concern for those experiencing oppression. In their distress, the poor and needy can take refuge in the Lord (see Ps 76:9; 107:4-9) and cry out to him (see 25:16-18; 70:1-5; 74:19), for he has promised to care for them. They can have faith in him and wait hopefully for him to appear and bring justice (18:1-50; 70:5).<\/p>\nMuch of life might be lived in anguish (88:13-15; 90:15; see 102:1-28). And affliction might be a form of discipline that gives training in righteousness (119:71, 75). Regardless of the duration, severity, and cause of the suffering, the Lord hears the cry of the poor, as many psalms testify (10:17-18; 12:5; 22:24; 35:10; 109:31; 113:5-7; 140:12). In the end, the poor will be satisfied (see 22:26; 132:15) and the godly will rejoice (see 34:1-2; 69:32).<\/p>\nWhile the Davidic kings were to bring justice to God’s afflicted people (72:2, 4, 12), they ultimately failed to do so. The messianic king, Jesus, who has identified with our human situation (Isa 53:4, 7), has come bringing relief to the poor and downtrodden (Luke 4:17-21; see Isa 61:1-3). He is the hope of those who recognize their need for him and who hunger and thirst for righteousness (see Matt 5:3-12).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nPss 9:18; 10:1-18; 12:5; 22:1-31; 34:1-22; 35:10; 37:14; 40:17; 41:1; 49:2; 68:10; 69:33; 70:5; 72:2-4, 12-13; 74:21; 82:3-4; 107:41; 109:16, 22, 31; 132:15; 140:12<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Poor and Needy in the Psalms<\/h3>\nThroughout Scripture, God advocates for the poor and needy, who often experience oppression and persecution at the hands of societal structures or the rapacious people around them. The book of Psalms makes numerous references both to the plights of the oppressed and to God’s concern for those experiencing oppression. In their distress, the poor and needy can take refuge in the Lord (see Ps 76:9; 107:4-9) and cry out to him (see 25:16-18; 70:1-5; 74:19), for he has promised to care for them. They can have faith in him and wait hopefully for him to appear and bring justice (18:1-50; 70:5).<\/p>\nMuch of life might be lived in anguish (88:13-15; 90:15; see 102:1-28). And affliction might be a form of discipline that gives training in righteousness (119:71, 75). Regardless of the duration, severity, and cause of the suffering, the Lord hears the cry of the poor, as many psalms testify (10:17-18; 12:5; 22:24; 35:10; 109:31; 113:5-7; 140:12). In the end, the poor will be satisfied (see 22:26; 132:15) and the godly will rejoice (see 34:1-2; 69:32).<\/p>\nWhile the Davidic kings were to bring justice to God’s afflicted people (72:2, 4, 12), they ultimately failed to do so. The messianic king, Jesus, who has identified with our human situation (Isa 53:4, 7), has come bringing relief to the poor and downtrodden (Luke 4:17-21; see Isa 61:1-3). He is the hope of those who recognize their need for him and who hunger and thirst for righteousness (see Matt 5:3-12).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nPss 9:18; 10:1-18; 12:5; 22:1-31; 34:1-22; 35:10; 37:14; 40:17; 41:1; 49:2; 68:10; 69:33; 70:5; 72:2-4, 12-13; 74:21; 82:3-4; 107:41; 109:16, 22, 31; 132:15; 140:12<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Poor and Needy in the Psalms Throughout Scripture, God advocates for the poor and needy, who often experience oppression and persecution at the hands of societal structures or the rapacious people around them. The book of Psalms makes numerous references both to the plights of the oppressed and to God’s concern for those experiencing oppression. In their distress, the poor and needy can take refuge in the Lord (see Ps 76:9; 107:4-9) and cry out to him (see 25:16-18; 70:1-5; 74:19), for he...","summary_en":"The Poor and Needy in the Psalms Throughout Scripture, God advocates for the poor and needy, who often experience oppression and persecution at the hands of societal structures or the rapacious people around them. The book of Psalms makes numerous references both to the plights of the oppressed and to God’s concern for those experiencing oppression. In their distress, the poor and needy can take refuge in the Lord (see Ps 76:9; 107:4-9) and cry out to him (see 25:16-18; 70:1-5; 74:19), for he...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":90223,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Poor and Needy in the Psalms","title_en":"The Poor and Needy in the Psalms","content_ro":"<h3>The Poor and Needy in the Psalms<\/h3>\nThroughout Scripture, God advocates for the poor and needy, who often experience oppression and persecution at the hands of societal structures or the rapacious people around them. The book of Psalms makes numerous references both to the plights of the oppressed and to God’s concern for those experiencing oppression. In their distress, the poor and needy can take refuge in the Lord (see Ps 76:9; 107:4-9) and cry out to him (see 25:16-18; 70:1-5; 74:19), for he has promised to care for them. They can have faith in him and wait hopefully for him to appear and bring justice (18:1-50; 70:5).<\/p>\nMuch of life might be lived in anguish (88:13-15; 90:15; see 102:1-28). And affliction might be a form of discipline that gives training in righteousness (119:71, 75). Regardless of the duration, severity, and cause of the suffering, the Lord hears the cry of the poor, as many psalms testify (10:17-18; 12:5; 22:24; 35:10; 109:31; 113:5-7; 140:12). In the end, the poor will be satisfied (see 22:26; 132:15) and the godly will rejoice (see 34:1-2; 69:32).<\/p>\nWhile the Davidic kings were to bring justice to God’s afflicted people (72:2, 4, 12), they ultimately failed to do so. The messianic king, Jesus, who has identified with our human situation (Isa 53:4, 7), has come bringing relief to the poor and downtrodden (Luke 4:17-21; see Isa 61:1-3). He is the hope of those who recognize their need for him and who hunger and thirst for righteousness (see Matt 5:3-12).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nPss 9:18; 10:1-18; 12:5; 22:1-31; 34:1-22; 35:10; 37:14; 40:17; 41:1; 49:2; 68:10; 69:33; 70:5; 72:2-4, 12-13; 74:21; 82:3-4; 107:41; 109:16, 22, 31; 132:15; 140:12<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Poor and Needy in the Psalms<\/h3>\nThroughout Scripture, God advocates for the poor and needy, who often experience oppression and persecution at the hands of societal structures or the rapacious people around them. The book of Psalms makes numerous references both to the plights of the oppressed and to God’s concern for those experiencing oppression. In their distress, the poor and needy can take refuge in the Lord (see Ps 76:9; 107:4-9) and cry out to him (see 25:16-18; 70:1-5; 74:19), for he has promised to care for them. They can have faith in him and wait hopefully for him to appear and bring justice (18:1-50; 70:5).<\/p>\nMuch of life might be lived in anguish (88:13-15; 90:15; see 102:1-28). And affliction might be a form of discipline that gives training in righteousness (119:71, 75). Regardless of the duration, severity, and cause of the suffering, the Lord hears the cry of the poor, as many psalms testify (10:17-18; 12:5; 22:24; 35:10; 109:31; 113:5-7; 140:12). In the end, the poor will be satisfied (see 22:26; 132:15) and the godly will rejoice (see 34:1-2; 69:32).<\/p>\nWhile the Davidic kings were to bring justice to God’s afflicted people (72:2, 4, 12), they ultimately failed to do so. The messianic king, Jesus, who has identified with our human situation (Isa 53:4, 7), has come bringing relief to the poor and downtrodden (Luke 4:17-21; see Isa 61:1-3). He is the hope of those who recognize their need for him and who hunger and thirst for righteousness (see Matt 5:3-12).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nPss 9:18; 10:1-18; 12:5; 22:1-31; 34:1-22; 35:10; 37:14; 40:17; 41:1; 49:2; 68:10; 69:33; 70:5; 72:2-4, 12-13; 74:21; 82:3-4; 107:41; 109:16, 22, 31; 132:15; 140:12<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Poor and Needy in the Psalms Throughout Scripture, God advocates for the poor and needy, who often experience oppression and persecution at the hands of societal structures or the rapacious people around them. The book of Psalms makes numerous references both to the plights of the oppressed and to God’s concern for those experiencing oppression. In their distress, the poor and needy can take refuge in the Lord (see Ps 76:9; 107:4-9) and cry out to him (see 25:16-18; 70:1-5; 74:19), for he...","summary_en":"The Poor and Needy in the Psalms Throughout Scripture, God advocates for the poor and needy, who often experience oppression and persecution at the hands of societal structures or the rapacious people around them. The book of Psalms makes numerous references both to the plights of the oppressed and to God’s concern for those experiencing oppression. In their distress, the poor and needy can take refuge in the Lord (see Ps 76:9; 107:4-9) and cry out to him (see 25:16-18; 70:1-5; 74:19), for he...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":117849,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Poor and Needy in the Psalms","title_en":"The Poor and Needy in the Psalms","content_ro":"<h3>The Poor and Needy in the Psalms<\/h3>\nThroughout Scripture, God advocates for the poor and needy, who often experience oppression and persecution at the hands of societal structures or the rapacious people around them. The book of Psalms makes numerous references both to the plights of the oppressed and to God’s concern for those experiencing oppression. In their distress, the poor and needy can take refuge in the Lord (see Ps 76:9; 107:4-9) and cry out to him (see 25:16-18; 70:1-5; 74:19), for he has promised to care for them. They can have faith in him and wait hopefully for him to appear and bring justice (18:1-50; 70:5).<\/p>\nMuch of life might be lived in anguish (88:13-15; 90:15; see 102:1-28). And affliction might be a form of discipline that gives training in righteousness (119:71, 75). Regardless of the duration, severity, and cause of the suffering, the Lord hears the cry of the poor, as many psalms testify (10:17-18; 12:5; 22:24; 35:10; 109:31; 113:5-7; 140:12). In the end, the poor will be satisfied (see 22:26; 132:15) and the godly will rejoice (see 34:1-2; 69:32).<\/p>\nWhile the Davidic kings were to bring justice to God’s afflicted people (72:2, 4, 12), they ultimately failed to do so. The messianic king, Jesus, who has identified with our human situation (Isa 53:4, 7), has come bringing relief to the poor and downtrodden (Luke 4:17-21; see Isa 61:1-3). He is the hope of those who recognize their need for him and who hunger and thirst for righteousness (see Matt 5:3-12).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nPss 9:18; 10:1-18; 12:5; 22:1-31; 34:1-22; 35:10; 37:14; 40:17; 41:1; 49:2; 68:10; 69:33; 70:5; 72:2-4, 12-13; 74:21; 82:3-4; 107:41; 109:16, 22, 31; 132:15; 140:12<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Poor and Needy in the Psalms<\/h3>\nThroughout Scripture, God advocates for the poor and needy, who often experience oppression and persecution at the hands of societal structures or the rapacious people around them. The book of Psalms makes numerous references both to the plights of the oppressed and to God’s concern for those experiencing oppression. In their distress, the poor and needy can take refuge in the Lord (see Ps 76:9; 107:4-9) and cry out to him (see 25:16-18; 70:1-5; 74:19), for he has promised to care for them. They can have faith in him and wait hopefully for him to appear and bring justice (18:1-50; 70:5).<\/p>\nMuch of life might be lived in anguish (88:13-15; 90:15; see 102:1-28). And affliction might be a form of discipline that gives training in righteousness (119:71, 75). Regardless of the duration, severity, and cause of the suffering, the Lord hears the cry of the poor, as many psalms testify (10:17-18; 12:5; 22:24; 35:10; 109:31; 113:5-7; 140:12). In the end, the poor will be satisfied (see 22:26; 132:15) and the godly will rejoice (see 34:1-2; 69:32).<\/p>\nWhile the Davidic kings were to bring justice to God’s afflicted people (72:2, 4, 12), they ultimately failed to do so. The messianic king, Jesus, who has identified with our human situation (Isa 53:4, 7), has come bringing relief to the poor and downtrodden (Luke 4:17-21; see Isa 61:1-3). He is the hope of those who recognize their need for him and who hunger and thirst for righteousness (see Matt 5:3-12).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nPss 9:18; 10:1-18; 12:5; 22:1-31; 34:1-22; 35:10; 37:14; 40:17; 41:1; 49:2; 68:10; 69:33; 70:5; 72:2-4, 12-13; 74:21; 82:3-4; 107:41; 109:16, 22, 31; 132:15; 140:12<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Poor and Needy in the Psalms Throughout Scripture, God advocates for the poor and needy, who often experience oppression and persecution at the hands of societal structures or the rapacious people around them. The book of Psalms makes numerous references both to the plights of the oppressed and to God’s concern for those experiencing oppression. In their distress, the poor and needy can take refuge in the Lord (see Ps 76:9; 107:4-9) and cry out to him (see 25:16-18; 70:1-5; 74:19), for he...","summary_en":"The Poor and Needy in the Psalms Throughout Scripture, God advocates for the poor and needy, who often experience oppression and persecution at the hands of societal structures or the rapacious people around them. The book of Psalms makes numerous references both to the plights of the oppressed and to God’s concern for those experiencing oppression. In their distress, the poor and needy can take refuge in the Lord (see Ps 76:9; 107:4-9) and cry out to him (see 25:16-18; 70:1-5; 74:19), for he...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":145475,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Poor and Needy in the Psalms","title_en":"The Poor and Needy in the Psalms","content_ro":"<h3>The Poor and Needy in the Psalms<\/h3>\nThroughout Scripture, God advocates for the poor and needy, who often experience oppression and persecution at the hands of societal structures or the rapacious people around them. The book of Psalms makes numerous references both to the plights of the oppressed and to God’s concern for those experiencing oppression. In their distress, the poor and needy can take refuge in the Lord (see Ps 76:9; 107:4-9) and cry out to him (see 25:16-18; 70:1-5; 74:19), for he has promised to care for them. They can have faith in him and wait hopefully for him to appear and bring justice (18:1-50; 70:5).<\/p>\nMuch of life might be lived in anguish (88:13-15; 90:15; see 102:1-28). And affliction might be a form of discipline that gives training in righteousness (119:71, 75). Regardless of the duration, severity, and cause of the suffering, the Lord hears the cry of the poor, as many psalms testify (10:17-18; 12:5; 22:24; 35:10; 109:31; 113:5-7; 140:12). In the end, the poor will be satisfied (see 22:26; 132:15) and the godly will rejoice (see 34:1-2; 69:32).<\/p>\nWhile the Davidic kings were to bring justice to God’s afflicted people (72:2, 4, 12), they ultimately failed to do so. The messianic king, Jesus, who has identified with our human situation (Isa 53:4, 7), has come bringing relief to the poor and downtrodden (Luke 4:17-21; see Isa 61:1-3). He is the hope of those who recognize their need for him and who hunger and thirst for righteousness (see Matt 5:3-12).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nPss 9:18; 10:1-18; 12:5; 22:1-31; 34:1-22; 35:10; 37:14; 40:17; 41:1; 49:2; 68:10; 69:33; 70:5; 72:2-4, 12-13; 74:21; 82:3-4; 107:41; 109:16, 22, 31; 132:15; 140:12<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Poor and Needy in the Psalms<\/h3>\nThroughout Scripture, God advocates for the poor and needy, who often experience oppression and persecution at the hands of societal structures or the rapacious people around them. The book of Psalms makes numerous references both to the plights of the oppressed and to God’s concern for those experiencing oppression. In their distress, the poor and needy can take refuge in the Lord (see Ps 76:9; 107:4-9) and cry out to him (see 25:16-18; 70:1-5; 74:19), for he has promised to care for them. They can have faith in him and wait hopefully for him to appear and bring justice (18:1-50; 70:5).<\/p>\nMuch of life might be lived in anguish (88:13-15; 90:15; see 102:1-28). And affliction might be a form of discipline that gives training in righteousness (119:71, 75). Regardless of the duration, severity, and cause of the suffering, the Lord hears the cry of the poor, as many psalms testify (10:17-18; 12:5; 22:24; 35:10; 109:31; 113:5-7; 140:12). In the end, the poor will be satisfied (see 22:26; 132:15) and the godly will rejoice (see 34:1-2; 69:32).<\/p>\nWhile the Davidic kings were to bring justice to God’s afflicted people (72:2, 4, 12), they ultimately failed to do so. The messianic king, Jesus, who has identified with our human situation (Isa 53:4, 7), has come bringing relief to the poor and downtrodden (Luke 4:17-21; see Isa 61:1-3). He is the hope of those who recognize their need for him and who hunger and thirst for righteousness (see Matt 5:3-12).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nPss 9:18; 10:1-18; 12:5; 22:1-31; 34:1-22; 35:10; 37:14; 40:17; 41:1; 49:2; 68:10; 69:33; 70:5; 72:2-4, 12-13; 74:21; 82:3-4; 107:41; 109:16, 22, 31; 132:15; 140:12<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Poor and Needy in the Psalms Throughout Scripture, God advocates for the poor and needy, who often experience oppression and persecution at the hands of societal structures or the rapacious people around them. The book of Psalms makes numerous references both to the plights of the oppressed and to God’s concern for those experiencing oppression. In their distress, the poor and needy can take refuge in the Lord (see Ps 76:9; 107:4-9) and cry out to him (see 25:16-18; 70:1-5; 74:19), for he...","summary_en":"The Poor and Needy in the Psalms Throughout Scripture, God advocates for the poor and needy, who often experience oppression and persecution at the hands of societal structures or the rapacious people around them. The book of Psalms makes numerous references both to the plights of the oppressed and to God’s concern for those experiencing oppression. In their distress, the poor and needy can take refuge in the Lord (see Ps 76:9; 107:4-9) and cry out to him (see 25:16-18; 70:1-5; 74:19), for he...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"18":[{"id":49704,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Psalmi 88:18","title_en":"Study Note: Psalmi 88:18","content_ro":"88:18<\/strong> The psalmist restates his second and first charges.<\/p>","content_en":"88:18<\/strong> The psalmist restates his second and first charges.<\/p>","summary_ro":"88:18 The psalmist restates his second and first charges.","summary_en":"88:18 The psalmist restates his second and first charges.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":77330,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Psalmi 88:18","title_en":"Study Note: Psalmi 88:18","content_ro":"88:18<\/strong> The psalmist restates his second and first charges.<\/p>","content_en":"88:18<\/strong> The psalmist restates his second and first charges.<\/p>","summary_ro":"88:18 The psalmist restates his second and first charges.","summary_en":"88:18 The psalmist restates his second and first charges.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":104956,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Psalmi 88:18","title_en":"Study Note: Psalmi 88:18","content_ro":"88:18<\/strong> The psalmist restates his second and first charges.<\/p>","content_en":"88:18<\/strong> The psalmist restates his second and first charges.<\/p>","summary_ro":"88:18 The psalmist restates his second and first charges.","summary_en":"88:18 The psalmist restates his second and first charges.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":132582,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Psalmi 88:18","title_en":"Study Note: Psalmi 88:18","content_ro":"88:18<\/strong> The psalmist restates his second and first charges.<\/p>","content_en":"88:18<\/strong> The psalmist restates his second and first charges.<\/p>","summary_ro":"88:18 The psalmist restates his second and first charges.","summary_en":"88:18 The psalmist restates his second and first charges.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}]},"labels":{"article":"Articol","map":"Hartă","chart":"Diagramă","textbox":"Notă explicativă","picture":"Imagine","profile":"Profil","study_note":"Notă de studiu","theme_note":"Temă biblică"},"icons":{"article":"📖","map":"🗺️","chart":"📊","textbox":"💡","picture":"🖼️","profile":"👤","study_note":"📝","theme_note":"🎯"},"typeColors":{"article":"#d4af37","map":"#2d7d46","chart":"#3b82f6","textbox":"#8b5cf6","picture":"#ec4899","profile":"#f59e0b","study_note":"#06b6d4","theme_note":"#ef4444"}}

Psalmi 88

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Psalmi 88

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