Citește Biblia

{"verseMap":{"1":[{"id":42636,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Paul (Saul)","title_en":"Paul (Saul)","content_ro":"<h3>Paul (Saul)<\/h3>\n<p>Paul was a leading persecutor of the early Christians who later became an apostle of Jesus Christ, the most illustrious of the early Christian missionaries, and the great apostle to the Gentiles. He has done more to shape Christianity than any other individual except Christ himself. We know about him from Luke’s account of his conversion and ministry in Acts and from the thirteen letters bearing his name in the New Testament.<\/p>\n<p>Paul was born in Tarsus to Jewish parents who were Roman citizens (which enabled him to also acquire Roman citizenship) and grew up in a traditional Jewish home. A tentmaker (or leatherworker) by trade, he was educated as a Pharisee by the well-known rabbi Gamaliel in Jerusalem. He became active in the violent persecution of Christians as a young man (Acts 22:3-5). But through a life-changing, personal revelation of the resurrected Jesus (9:3-6; 22:6-10), he was radically converted. He then dedicated the rest of his life to proclaiming Jesus as Savior and Lord throughout the Mediterranean world (see Gal 1:11-16). His dedication and hard work, especially among Gentiles (to whom he was specifically called), resulted in the founding of scores of churches during the first century. Most of his letters were written to these churches.<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s belief in Jesus as the Jewish Messiah set him apart from his Jewish contemporaries. His vision of Jesus brought him to the realization that Jesus’ death and resurrection bring righteousness and life-transforming power to those who believe in him. Paul no longer understood righteousness in terms of the careful observance of the law of Moses, but as a gift from God to those who put their trust in Christ, the Savior who died for their sins (Rom 4:1-8). And he was convinced that this gift is for Gentiles as well as Jews.<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s thirteen letters deal with a wide range of issues, such as salvation and what Christians believe about Christ (Romans, Galatians, Ephesians, Colossians), specific problems in the church (1 Corinthians), the nature of Christian life and community (Ephesians, Colossians), and questions about Paul’s own authority as an apostle (2 Corinthians, Galatians). Some of his letters are intended to encourage young believers who are suffering for their faith (Philippians, 1 Thessalonians) or to correct false teachings (Galatians, Colossians, 2 Thessalonians). Still others are written to individuals, giving specific advice related to their life and ministry (1–2 Timothy, Titus, Philemon). Together, these thirteen letters reveal much about the life of the earliest Christians and the problems they faced, and about Paul’s own grace-centered understanding of the Christian faith and life.<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s letters, with their strong focus on Christ, reflect his all-consuming passion for Christ and his twin convictions that (1) salvation is given only to those who put their faith in Christ as Savior (Gal 2:16), and (2) every part of a believer’s life is to be devoted to serving Christ as Lord (Rom 14:7-9; 2 Cor 5:15). Of all the New Testament writers, it is Paul who spells out most clearly what salvation is (Rom 1–8) and gives us the fullest picture of the Christian life and Christian community. Paul’s letters also highlight the power of the Holy Spirit in believers’ lives (Rom 8:9-13; Gal 5:16-25; cp. Gal 2:20; Col 1:27). He encourages believers to pursue the high standard of a life that is truly like Christ (Rom 8:30; Eph 4:13, 15; 5:1-2). Believers are to live a life of love (1 Cor 13:1-13; Eph 5:2) and fully submit to Christ. Paul, more than any other New Testament writer, shows us how and why Christians must always find their deepest roots and motivation in the grace of Christ (Rom 12:1-2). For Paul, the whole of a believer’s life—and indeed, the entire universe—is centered in Christ and Christ alone; everything finds its true meaning only in relation to him (Col 1:15-20; 2:6–3:4).<\/p>\n<p>Luke’s account of Paul’s missionary life, which spans a period of perhaps thirty years, begins with Paul’s preaching in Damascus shortly after his conversion (around <span>AD<\/span> 32–35) and ends with his imprisonment in Rome (<span>AD<\/span> 60–62). But the Pastoral Letters (1 Timothy—Titus) appear to be dated to a later time, and reliable later traditions affirm that Paul was released from prison (around <span>AD<\/span> 62) and continued his missionary activity. He was later rearrested, and after a lifetime of suffering as an evangelist for Christ, he was finally killed in Nero’s persecution of Christians around <span>AD<\/span> 64–67. Paul’s desire, not only to suffer as Christ suffered but also to die as Christ died, was thus fulfilled—with the sure hope of one day being resurrected, just as Christ was resurrected (Phil 3:10-11).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Acts 7:58–8:3; 9:1-31; 11:25-30; 12:25–28:31; Rom 1:1–16:27; 1 Cor 1:1–16:24; 2 Cor 1:1–13:14; Gal 1:1–6:18; Eph 1:1–6:24; Phil 1:1–4:23; Col 1:1–4:18; 1 Thes 1:1–5:28; 2 Thes 1:1–3:18; 1 Tim 1:1–6:21; 2 Tim 1:1–4:22; Titus 1:1–3:15; Phlm 1:1-25; 2 Pet 3:15-16<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Paul (Saul)<\/h3>\n<p>Paul was a leading persecutor of the early Christians who later became an apostle of Jesus Christ, the most illustrious of the early Christian missionaries, and the great apostle to the Gentiles. He has done more to shape Christianity than any other individual except Christ himself. We know about him from Luke’s account of his conversion and ministry in Acts and from the thirteen letters bearing his name in the New Testament.<\/p>\n<p>Paul was born in Tarsus to Jewish parents who were Roman citizens (which enabled him to also acquire Roman citizenship) and grew up in a traditional Jewish home. A tentmaker (or leatherworker) by trade, he was educated as a Pharisee by the well-known rabbi Gamaliel in Jerusalem. He became active in the violent persecution of Christians as a young man (Acts 22:3-5). But through a life-changing, personal revelation of the resurrected Jesus (9:3-6; 22:6-10), he was radically converted. He then dedicated the rest of his life to proclaiming Jesus as Savior and Lord throughout the Mediterranean world (see Gal 1:11-16). His dedication and hard work, especially among Gentiles (to whom he was specifically called), resulted in the founding of scores of churches during the first century. Most of his letters were written to these churches.<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s belief in Jesus as the Jewish Messiah set him apart from his Jewish contemporaries. His vision of Jesus brought him to the realization that Jesus’ death and resurrection bring righteousness and life-transforming power to those who believe in him. Paul no longer understood righteousness in terms of the careful observance of the law of Moses, but as a gift from God to those who put their trust in Christ, the Savior who died for their sins (Rom 4:1-8). And he was convinced that this gift is for Gentiles as well as Jews.<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s thirteen letters deal with a wide range of issues, such as salvation and what Christians believe about Christ (Romans, Galatians, Ephesians, Colossians), specific problems in the church (1 Corinthians), the nature of Christian life and community (Ephesians, Colossians), and questions about Paul’s own authority as an apostle (2 Corinthians, Galatians). Some of his letters are intended to encourage young believers who are suffering for their faith (Philippians, 1 Thessalonians) or to correct false teachings (Galatians, Colossians, 2 Thessalonians). Still others are written to individuals, giving specific advice related to their life and ministry (1–2 Timothy, Titus, Philemon). Together, these thirteen letters reveal much about the life of the earliest Christians and the problems they faced, and about Paul’s own grace-centered understanding of the Christian faith and life.<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s letters, with their strong focus on Christ, reflect his all-consuming passion for Christ and his twin convictions that (1) salvation is given only to those who put their faith in Christ as Savior (Gal 2:16), and (2) every part of a believer’s life is to be devoted to serving Christ as Lord (Rom 14:7-9; 2 Cor 5:15). Of all the New Testament writers, it is Paul who spells out most clearly what salvation is (Rom 1–8) and gives us the fullest picture of the Christian life and Christian community. Paul’s letters also highlight the power of the Holy Spirit in believers’ lives (Rom 8:9-13; Gal 5:16-25; cp. Gal 2:20; Col 1:27). He encourages believers to pursue the high standard of a life that is truly like Christ (Rom 8:30; Eph 4:13, 15; 5:1-2). Believers are to live a life of love (1 Cor 13:1-13; Eph 5:2) and fully submit to Christ. Paul, more than any other New Testament writer, shows us how and why Christians must always find their deepest roots and motivation in the grace of Christ (Rom 12:1-2). For Paul, the whole of a believer’s life—and indeed, the entire universe—is centered in Christ and Christ alone; everything finds its true meaning only in relation to him (Col 1:15-20; 2:6–3:4).<\/p>\n<p>Luke’s account of Paul’s missionary life, which spans a period of perhaps thirty years, begins with Paul’s preaching in Damascus shortly after his conversion (around <span>AD<\/span> 32–35) and ends with his imprisonment in Rome (<span>AD<\/span> 60–62). But the Pastoral Letters (1 Timothy—Titus) appear to be dated to a later time, and reliable later traditions affirm that Paul was released from prison (around <span>AD<\/span> 62) and continued his missionary activity. He was later rearrested, and after a lifetime of suffering as an evangelist for Christ, he was finally killed in Nero’s persecution of Christians around <span>AD<\/span> 64–67. Paul’s desire, not only to suffer as Christ suffered but also to die as Christ died, was thus fulfilled—with the sure hope of one day being resurrected, just as Christ was resurrected (Phil 3:10-11).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Acts 7:58–8:3; 9:1-31; 11:25-30; 12:25–28:31; Rom 1:1–16:27; 1 Cor 1:1–16:24; 2 Cor 1:1–13:14; Gal 1:1–6:18; Eph 1:1–6:24; Phil 1:1–4:23; Col 1:1–4:18; 1 Thes 1:1–5:28; 2 Thes 1:1–3:18; 1 Tim 1:1–6:21; 2 Tim 1:1–4:22; Titus 1:1–3:15; Phlm 1:1-25; 2 Pet 3:15-16<\/p>","summary_ro":"Paul (Saul) Paul was a leading persecutor of the early Christians who later became an apostle of Jesus Christ, the most illustrious of the early Christian missionaries, and the great apostle to the Gentiles. He has done more to shape Christianity than any other individual except Christ himself. We know about him from Luke’s account of his conversion and ministry in Acts and from the thirteen letters bearing his name in the New Testament. Paul was born in Tarsus to Jewish parents who were Roma...","summary_en":"Paul (Saul) Paul was a leading persecutor of the early Christians who later became an apostle of Jesus Christ, the most illustrious of the early Christian missionaries, and the great apostle to the Gentiles. He has done more to shape Christianity than any other individual except Christ himself. We know about him from Luke’s account of his conversion and ministry in Acts and from the thirteen letters bearing his name in the New Testament. Paul was born in Tarsus to Jewish parents who were Roma...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":70262,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Paul (Saul)","title_en":"Paul (Saul)","content_ro":"<h3>Paul (Saul)<\/h3>\n<p>Paul was a leading persecutor of the early Christians who later became an apostle of Jesus Christ, the most illustrious of the early Christian missionaries, and the great apostle to the Gentiles. He has done more to shape Christianity than any other individual except Christ himself. We know about him from Luke’s account of his conversion and ministry in Acts and from the thirteen letters bearing his name in the New Testament.<\/p>\n<p>Paul was born in Tarsus to Jewish parents who were Roman citizens (which enabled him to also acquire Roman citizenship) and grew up in a traditional Jewish home. A tentmaker (or leatherworker) by trade, he was educated as a Pharisee by the well-known rabbi Gamaliel in Jerusalem. He became active in the violent persecution of Christians as a young man (Acts 22:3-5). But through a life-changing, personal revelation of the resurrected Jesus (9:3-6; 22:6-10), he was radically converted. He then dedicated the rest of his life to proclaiming Jesus as Savior and Lord throughout the Mediterranean world (see Gal 1:11-16). His dedication and hard work, especially among Gentiles (to whom he was specifically called), resulted in the founding of scores of churches during the first century. Most of his letters were written to these churches.<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s belief in Jesus as the Jewish Messiah set him apart from his Jewish contemporaries. His vision of Jesus brought him to the realization that Jesus’ death and resurrection bring righteousness and life-transforming power to those who believe in him. Paul no longer understood righteousness in terms of the careful observance of the law of Moses, but as a gift from God to those who put their trust in Christ, the Savior who died for their sins (Rom 4:1-8). And he was convinced that this gift is for Gentiles as well as Jews.<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s thirteen letters deal with a wide range of issues, such as salvation and what Christians believe about Christ (Romans, Galatians, Ephesians, Colossians), specific problems in the church (1 Corinthians), the nature of Christian life and community (Ephesians, Colossians), and questions about Paul’s own authority as an apostle (2 Corinthians, Galatians). Some of his letters are intended to encourage young believers who are suffering for their faith (Philippians, 1 Thessalonians) or to correct false teachings (Galatians, Colossians, 2 Thessalonians). Still others are written to individuals, giving specific advice related to their life and ministry (1–2 Timothy, Titus, Philemon). Together, these thirteen letters reveal much about the life of the earliest Christians and the problems they faced, and about Paul’s own grace-centered understanding of the Christian faith and life.<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s letters, with their strong focus on Christ, reflect his all-consuming passion for Christ and his twin convictions that (1) salvation is given only to those who put their faith in Christ as Savior (Gal 2:16), and (2) every part of a believer’s life is to be devoted to serving Christ as Lord (Rom 14:7-9; 2 Cor 5:15). Of all the New Testament writers, it is Paul who spells out most clearly what salvation is (Rom 1–8) and gives us the fullest picture of the Christian life and Christian community. Paul’s letters also highlight the power of the Holy Spirit in believers’ lives (Rom 8:9-13; Gal 5:16-25; cp. Gal 2:20; Col 1:27). He encourages believers to pursue the high standard of a life that is truly like Christ (Rom 8:30; Eph 4:13, 15; 5:1-2). Believers are to live a life of love (1 Cor 13:1-13; Eph 5:2) and fully submit to Christ. Paul, more than any other New Testament writer, shows us how and why Christians must always find their deepest roots and motivation in the grace of Christ (Rom 12:1-2). For Paul, the whole of a believer’s life—and indeed, the entire universe—is centered in Christ and Christ alone; everything finds its true meaning only in relation to him (Col 1:15-20; 2:6–3:4).<\/p>\n<p>Luke’s account of Paul’s missionary life, which spans a period of perhaps thirty years, begins with Paul’s preaching in Damascus shortly after his conversion (around <span>AD<\/span> 32–35) and ends with his imprisonment in Rome (<span>AD<\/span> 60–62). But the Pastoral Letters (1 Timothy—Titus) appear to be dated to a later time, and reliable later traditions affirm that Paul was released from prison (around <span>AD<\/span> 62) and continued his missionary activity. He was later rearrested, and after a lifetime of suffering as an evangelist for Christ, he was finally killed in Nero’s persecution of Christians around <span>AD<\/span> 64–67. Paul’s desire, not only to suffer as Christ suffered but also to die as Christ died, was thus fulfilled—with the sure hope of one day being resurrected, just as Christ was resurrected (Phil 3:10-11).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Acts 7:58–8:3; 9:1-31; 11:25-30; 12:25–28:31; Rom 1:1–16:27; 1 Cor 1:1–16:24; 2 Cor 1:1–13:14; Gal 1:1–6:18; Eph 1:1–6:24; Phil 1:1–4:23; Col 1:1–4:18; 1 Thes 1:1–5:28; 2 Thes 1:1–3:18; 1 Tim 1:1–6:21; 2 Tim 1:1–4:22; Titus 1:1–3:15; Phlm 1:1-25; 2 Pet 3:15-16<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Paul (Saul)<\/h3>\n<p>Paul was a leading persecutor of the early Christians who later became an apostle of Jesus Christ, the most illustrious of the early Christian missionaries, and the great apostle to the Gentiles. He has done more to shape Christianity than any other individual except Christ himself. We know about him from Luke’s account of his conversion and ministry in Acts and from the thirteen letters bearing his name in the New Testament.<\/p>\n<p>Paul was born in Tarsus to Jewish parents who were Roman citizens (which enabled him to also acquire Roman citizenship) and grew up in a traditional Jewish home. A tentmaker (or leatherworker) by trade, he was educated as a Pharisee by the well-known rabbi Gamaliel in Jerusalem. He became active in the violent persecution of Christians as a young man (Acts 22:3-5). But through a life-changing, personal revelation of the resurrected Jesus (9:3-6; 22:6-10), he was radically converted. He then dedicated the rest of his life to proclaiming Jesus as Savior and Lord throughout the Mediterranean world (see Gal 1:11-16). His dedication and hard work, especially among Gentiles (to whom he was specifically called), resulted in the founding of scores of churches during the first century. Most of his letters were written to these churches.<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s belief in Jesus as the Jewish Messiah set him apart from his Jewish contemporaries. His vision of Jesus brought him to the realization that Jesus’ death and resurrection bring righteousness and life-transforming power to those who believe in him. Paul no longer understood righteousness in terms of the careful observance of the law of Moses, but as a gift from God to those who put their trust in Christ, the Savior who died for their sins (Rom 4:1-8). And he was convinced that this gift is for Gentiles as well as Jews.<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s thirteen letters deal with a wide range of issues, such as salvation and what Christians believe about Christ (Romans, Galatians, Ephesians, Colossians), specific problems in the church (1 Corinthians), the nature of Christian life and community (Ephesians, Colossians), and questions about Paul’s own authority as an apostle (2 Corinthians, Galatians). Some of his letters are intended to encourage young believers who are suffering for their faith (Philippians, 1 Thessalonians) or to correct false teachings (Galatians, Colossians, 2 Thessalonians). Still others are written to individuals, giving specific advice related to their life and ministry (1–2 Timothy, Titus, Philemon). Together, these thirteen letters reveal much about the life of the earliest Christians and the problems they faced, and about Paul’s own grace-centered understanding of the Christian faith and life.<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s letters, with their strong focus on Christ, reflect his all-consuming passion for Christ and his twin convictions that (1) salvation is given only to those who put their faith in Christ as Savior (Gal 2:16), and (2) every part of a believer’s life is to be devoted to serving Christ as Lord (Rom 14:7-9; 2 Cor 5:15). Of all the New Testament writers, it is Paul who spells out most clearly what salvation is (Rom 1–8) and gives us the fullest picture of the Christian life and Christian community. Paul’s letters also highlight the power of the Holy Spirit in believers’ lives (Rom 8:9-13; Gal 5:16-25; cp. Gal 2:20; Col 1:27). He encourages believers to pursue the high standard of a life that is truly like Christ (Rom 8:30; Eph 4:13, 15; 5:1-2). Believers are to live a life of love (1 Cor 13:1-13; Eph 5:2) and fully submit to Christ. Paul, more than any other New Testament writer, shows us how and why Christians must always find their deepest roots and motivation in the grace of Christ (Rom 12:1-2). For Paul, the whole of a believer’s life—and indeed, the entire universe—is centered in Christ and Christ alone; everything finds its true meaning only in relation to him (Col 1:15-20; 2:6–3:4).<\/p>\n<p>Luke’s account of Paul’s missionary life, which spans a period of perhaps thirty years, begins with Paul’s preaching in Damascus shortly after his conversion (around <span>AD<\/span> 32–35) and ends with his imprisonment in Rome (<span>AD<\/span> 60–62). But the Pastoral Letters (1 Timothy—Titus) appear to be dated to a later time, and reliable later traditions affirm that Paul was released from prison (around <span>AD<\/span> 62) and continued his missionary activity. He was later rearrested, and after a lifetime of suffering as an evangelist for Christ, he was finally killed in Nero’s persecution of Christians around <span>AD<\/span> 64–67. Paul’s desire, not only to suffer as Christ suffered but also to die as Christ died, was thus fulfilled—with the sure hope of one day being resurrected, just as Christ was resurrected (Phil 3:10-11).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Acts 7:58–8:3; 9:1-31; 11:25-30; 12:25–28:31; Rom 1:1–16:27; 1 Cor 1:1–16:24; 2 Cor 1:1–13:14; Gal 1:1–6:18; Eph 1:1–6:24; Phil 1:1–4:23; Col 1:1–4:18; 1 Thes 1:1–5:28; 2 Thes 1:1–3:18; 1 Tim 1:1–6:21; 2 Tim 1:1–4:22; Titus 1:1–3:15; Phlm 1:1-25; 2 Pet 3:15-16<\/p>","summary_ro":"Paul (Saul) Paul was a leading persecutor of the early Christians who later became an apostle of Jesus Christ, the most illustrious of the early Christian missionaries, and the great apostle to the Gentiles. He has done more to shape Christianity than any other individual except Christ himself. We know about him from Luke’s account of his conversion and ministry in Acts and from the thirteen letters bearing his name in the New Testament. Paul was born in Tarsus to Jewish parents who were Roma...","summary_en":"Paul (Saul) Paul was a leading persecutor of the early Christians who later became an apostle of Jesus Christ, the most illustrious of the early Christian missionaries, and the great apostle to the Gentiles. He has done more to shape Christianity than any other individual except Christ himself. We know about him from Luke’s account of his conversion and ministry in Acts and from the thirteen letters bearing his name in the New Testament. Paul was born in Tarsus to Jewish parents who were Roma...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":97888,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Paul (Saul)","title_en":"Paul (Saul)","content_ro":"<h3>Paul (Saul)<\/h3>\n<p>Paul was a leading persecutor of the early Christians who later became an apostle of Jesus Christ, the most illustrious of the early Christian missionaries, and the great apostle to the Gentiles. He has done more to shape Christianity than any other individual except Christ himself. We know about him from Luke’s account of his conversion and ministry in Acts and from the thirteen letters bearing his name in the New Testament.<\/p>\n<p>Paul was born in Tarsus to Jewish parents who were Roman citizens (which enabled him to also acquire Roman citizenship) and grew up in a traditional Jewish home. A tentmaker (or leatherworker) by trade, he was educated as a Pharisee by the well-known rabbi Gamaliel in Jerusalem. He became active in the violent persecution of Christians as a young man (Acts 22:3-5). But through a life-changing, personal revelation of the resurrected Jesus (9:3-6; 22:6-10), he was radically converted. He then dedicated the rest of his life to proclaiming Jesus as Savior and Lord throughout the Mediterranean world (see Gal 1:11-16). His dedication and hard work, especially among Gentiles (to whom he was specifically called), resulted in the founding of scores of churches during the first century. Most of his letters were written to these churches.<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s belief in Jesus as the Jewish Messiah set him apart from his Jewish contemporaries. His vision of Jesus brought him to the realization that Jesus’ death and resurrection bring righteousness and life-transforming power to those who believe in him. Paul no longer understood righteousness in terms of the careful observance of the law of Moses, but as a gift from God to those who put their trust in Christ, the Savior who died for their sins (Rom 4:1-8). And he was convinced that this gift is for Gentiles as well as Jews.<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s thirteen letters deal with a wide range of issues, such as salvation and what Christians believe about Christ (Romans, Galatians, Ephesians, Colossians), specific problems in the church (1 Corinthians), the nature of Christian life and community (Ephesians, Colossians), and questions about Paul’s own authority as an apostle (2 Corinthians, Galatians). Some of his letters are intended to encourage young believers who are suffering for their faith (Philippians, 1 Thessalonians) or to correct false teachings (Galatians, Colossians, 2 Thessalonians). Still others are written to individuals, giving specific advice related to their life and ministry (1–2 Timothy, Titus, Philemon). Together, these thirteen letters reveal much about the life of the earliest Christians and the problems they faced, and about Paul’s own grace-centered understanding of the Christian faith and life.<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s letters, with their strong focus on Christ, reflect his all-consuming passion for Christ and his twin convictions that (1) salvation is given only to those who put their faith in Christ as Savior (Gal 2:16), and (2) every part of a believer’s life is to be devoted to serving Christ as Lord (Rom 14:7-9; 2 Cor 5:15). Of all the New Testament writers, it is Paul who spells out most clearly what salvation is (Rom 1–8) and gives us the fullest picture of the Christian life and Christian community. Paul’s letters also highlight the power of the Holy Spirit in believers’ lives (Rom 8:9-13; Gal 5:16-25; cp. Gal 2:20; Col 1:27). He encourages believers to pursue the high standard of a life that is truly like Christ (Rom 8:30; Eph 4:13, 15; 5:1-2). Believers are to live a life of love (1 Cor 13:1-13; Eph 5:2) and fully submit to Christ. Paul, more than any other New Testament writer, shows us how and why Christians must always find their deepest roots and motivation in the grace of Christ (Rom 12:1-2). For Paul, the whole of a believer’s life—and indeed, the entire universe—is centered in Christ and Christ alone; everything finds its true meaning only in relation to him (Col 1:15-20; 2:6–3:4).<\/p>\n<p>Luke’s account of Paul’s missionary life, which spans a period of perhaps thirty years, begins with Paul’s preaching in Damascus shortly after his conversion (around <span>AD<\/span> 32–35) and ends with his imprisonment in Rome (<span>AD<\/span> 60–62). But the Pastoral Letters (1 Timothy—Titus) appear to be dated to a later time, and reliable later traditions affirm that Paul was released from prison (around <span>AD<\/span> 62) and continued his missionary activity. He was later rearrested, and after a lifetime of suffering as an evangelist for Christ, he was finally killed in Nero’s persecution of Christians around <span>AD<\/span> 64–67. Paul’s desire, not only to suffer as Christ suffered but also to die as Christ died, was thus fulfilled—with the sure hope of one day being resurrected, just as Christ was resurrected (Phil 3:10-11).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Acts 7:58–8:3; 9:1-31; 11:25-30; 12:25–28:31; Rom 1:1–16:27; 1 Cor 1:1–16:24; 2 Cor 1:1–13:14; Gal 1:1–6:18; Eph 1:1–6:24; Phil 1:1–4:23; Col 1:1–4:18; 1 Thes 1:1–5:28; 2 Thes 1:1–3:18; 1 Tim 1:1–6:21; 2 Tim 1:1–4:22; Titus 1:1–3:15; Phlm 1:1-25; 2 Pet 3:15-16<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Paul (Saul)<\/h3>\n<p>Paul was a leading persecutor of the early Christians who later became an apostle of Jesus Christ, the most illustrious of the early Christian missionaries, and the great apostle to the Gentiles. He has done more to shape Christianity than any other individual except Christ himself. We know about him from Luke’s account of his conversion and ministry in Acts and from the thirteen letters bearing his name in the New Testament.<\/p>\n<p>Paul was born in Tarsus to Jewish parents who were Roman citizens (which enabled him to also acquire Roman citizenship) and grew up in a traditional Jewish home. A tentmaker (or leatherworker) by trade, he was educated as a Pharisee by the well-known rabbi Gamaliel in Jerusalem. He became active in the violent persecution of Christians as a young man (Acts 22:3-5). But through a life-changing, personal revelation of the resurrected Jesus (9:3-6; 22:6-10), he was radically converted. He then dedicated the rest of his life to proclaiming Jesus as Savior and Lord throughout the Mediterranean world (see Gal 1:11-16). His dedication and hard work, especially among Gentiles (to whom he was specifically called), resulted in the founding of scores of churches during the first century. Most of his letters were written to these churches.<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s belief in Jesus as the Jewish Messiah set him apart from his Jewish contemporaries. His vision of Jesus brought him to the realization that Jesus’ death and resurrection bring righteousness and life-transforming power to those who believe in him. Paul no longer understood righteousness in terms of the careful observance of the law of Moses, but as a gift from God to those who put their trust in Christ, the Savior who died for their sins (Rom 4:1-8). And he was convinced that this gift is for Gentiles as well as Jews.<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s thirteen letters deal with a wide range of issues, such as salvation and what Christians believe about Christ (Romans, Galatians, Ephesians, Colossians), specific problems in the church (1 Corinthians), the nature of Christian life and community (Ephesians, Colossians), and questions about Paul’s own authority as an apostle (2 Corinthians, Galatians). Some of his letters are intended to encourage young believers who are suffering for their faith (Philippians, 1 Thessalonians) or to correct false teachings (Galatians, Colossians, 2 Thessalonians). Still others are written to individuals, giving specific advice related to their life and ministry (1–2 Timothy, Titus, Philemon). Together, these thirteen letters reveal much about the life of the earliest Christians and the problems they faced, and about Paul’s own grace-centered understanding of the Christian faith and life.<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s letters, with their strong focus on Christ, reflect his all-consuming passion for Christ and his twin convictions that (1) salvation is given only to those who put their faith in Christ as Savior (Gal 2:16), and (2) every part of a believer’s life is to be devoted to serving Christ as Lord (Rom 14:7-9; 2 Cor 5:15). Of all the New Testament writers, it is Paul who spells out most clearly what salvation is (Rom 1–8) and gives us the fullest picture of the Christian life and Christian community. Paul’s letters also highlight the power of the Holy Spirit in believers’ lives (Rom 8:9-13; Gal 5:16-25; cp. Gal 2:20; Col 1:27). He encourages believers to pursue the high standard of a life that is truly like Christ (Rom 8:30; Eph 4:13, 15; 5:1-2). Believers are to live a life of love (1 Cor 13:1-13; Eph 5:2) and fully submit to Christ. Paul, more than any other New Testament writer, shows us how and why Christians must always find their deepest roots and motivation in the grace of Christ (Rom 12:1-2). For Paul, the whole of a believer’s life—and indeed, the entire universe—is centered in Christ and Christ alone; everything finds its true meaning only in relation to him (Col 1:15-20; 2:6–3:4).<\/p>\n<p>Luke’s account of Paul’s missionary life, which spans a period of perhaps thirty years, begins with Paul’s preaching in Damascus shortly after his conversion (around <span>AD<\/span> 32–35) and ends with his imprisonment in Rome (<span>AD<\/span> 60–62). But the Pastoral Letters (1 Timothy—Titus) appear to be dated to a later time, and reliable later traditions affirm that Paul was released from prison (around <span>AD<\/span> 62) and continued his missionary activity. He was later rearrested, and after a lifetime of suffering as an evangelist for Christ, he was finally killed in Nero’s persecution of Christians around <span>AD<\/span> 64–67. Paul’s desire, not only to suffer as Christ suffered but also to die as Christ died, was thus fulfilled—with the sure hope of one day being resurrected, just as Christ was resurrected (Phil 3:10-11).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Acts 7:58–8:3; 9:1-31; 11:25-30; 12:25–28:31; Rom 1:1–16:27; 1 Cor 1:1–16:24; 2 Cor 1:1–13:14; Gal 1:1–6:18; Eph 1:1–6:24; Phil 1:1–4:23; Col 1:1–4:18; 1 Thes 1:1–5:28; 2 Thes 1:1–3:18; 1 Tim 1:1–6:21; 2 Tim 1:1–4:22; Titus 1:1–3:15; Phlm 1:1-25; 2 Pet 3:15-16<\/p>","summary_ro":"Paul (Saul) Paul was a leading persecutor of the early Christians who later became an apostle of Jesus Christ, the most illustrious of the early Christian missionaries, and the great apostle to the Gentiles. He has done more to shape Christianity than any other individual except Christ himself. We know about him from Luke’s account of his conversion and ministry in Acts and from the thirteen letters bearing his name in the New Testament. Paul was born in Tarsus to Jewish parents who were Roma...","summary_en":"Paul (Saul) Paul was a leading persecutor of the early Christians who later became an apostle of Jesus Christ, the most illustrious of the early Christian missionaries, and the great apostle to the Gentiles. He has done more to shape Christianity than any other individual except Christ himself. We know about him from Luke’s account of his conversion and ministry in Acts and from the thirteen letters bearing his name in the New Testament. Paul was born in Tarsus to Jewish parents who were Roma...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":125514,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Paul (Saul)","title_en":"Paul (Saul)","content_ro":"<h3>Paul (Saul)<\/h3>\n<p>Paul was a leading persecutor of the early Christians who later became an apostle of Jesus Christ, the most illustrious of the early Christian missionaries, and the great apostle to the Gentiles. He has done more to shape Christianity than any other individual except Christ himself. We know about him from Luke’s account of his conversion and ministry in Acts and from the thirteen letters bearing his name in the New Testament.<\/p>\n<p>Paul was born in Tarsus to Jewish parents who were Roman citizens (which enabled him to also acquire Roman citizenship) and grew up in a traditional Jewish home. A tentmaker (or leatherworker) by trade, he was educated as a Pharisee by the well-known rabbi Gamaliel in Jerusalem. He became active in the violent persecution of Christians as a young man (Acts 22:3-5). But through a life-changing, personal revelation of the resurrected Jesus (9:3-6; 22:6-10), he was radically converted. He then dedicated the rest of his life to proclaiming Jesus as Savior and Lord throughout the Mediterranean world (see Gal 1:11-16). His dedication and hard work, especially among Gentiles (to whom he was specifically called), resulted in the founding of scores of churches during the first century. Most of his letters were written to these churches.<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s belief in Jesus as the Jewish Messiah set him apart from his Jewish contemporaries. His vision of Jesus brought him to the realization that Jesus’ death and resurrection bring righteousness and life-transforming power to those who believe in him. Paul no longer understood righteousness in terms of the careful observance of the law of Moses, but as a gift from God to those who put their trust in Christ, the Savior who died for their sins (Rom 4:1-8). And he was convinced that this gift is for Gentiles as well as Jews.<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s thirteen letters deal with a wide range of issues, such as salvation and what Christians believe about Christ (Romans, Galatians, Ephesians, Colossians), specific problems in the church (1 Corinthians), the nature of Christian life and community (Ephesians, Colossians), and questions about Paul’s own authority as an apostle (2 Corinthians, Galatians). Some of his letters are intended to encourage young believers who are suffering for their faith (Philippians, 1 Thessalonians) or to correct false teachings (Galatians, Colossians, 2 Thessalonians). Still others are written to individuals, giving specific advice related to their life and ministry (1–2 Timothy, Titus, Philemon). Together, these thirteen letters reveal much about the life of the earliest Christians and the problems they faced, and about Paul’s own grace-centered understanding of the Christian faith and life.<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s letters, with their strong focus on Christ, reflect his all-consuming passion for Christ and his twin convictions that (1) salvation is given only to those who put their faith in Christ as Savior (Gal 2:16), and (2) every part of a believer’s life is to be devoted to serving Christ as Lord (Rom 14:7-9; 2 Cor 5:15). Of all the New Testament writers, it is Paul who spells out most clearly what salvation is (Rom 1–8) and gives us the fullest picture of the Christian life and Christian community. Paul’s letters also highlight the power of the Holy Spirit in believers’ lives (Rom 8:9-13; Gal 5:16-25; cp. Gal 2:20; Col 1:27). He encourages believers to pursue the high standard of a life that is truly like Christ (Rom 8:30; Eph 4:13, 15; 5:1-2). Believers are to live a life of love (1 Cor 13:1-13; Eph 5:2) and fully submit to Christ. Paul, more than any other New Testament writer, shows us how and why Christians must always find their deepest roots and motivation in the grace of Christ (Rom 12:1-2). For Paul, the whole of a believer’s life—and indeed, the entire universe—is centered in Christ and Christ alone; everything finds its true meaning only in relation to him (Col 1:15-20; 2:6–3:4).<\/p>\n<p>Luke’s account of Paul’s missionary life, which spans a period of perhaps thirty years, begins with Paul’s preaching in Damascus shortly after his conversion (around <span>AD<\/span> 32–35) and ends with his imprisonment in Rome (<span>AD<\/span> 60–62). But the Pastoral Letters (1 Timothy—Titus) appear to be dated to a later time, and reliable later traditions affirm that Paul was released from prison (around <span>AD<\/span> 62) and continued his missionary activity. He was later rearrested, and after a lifetime of suffering as an evangelist for Christ, he was finally killed in Nero’s persecution of Christians around <span>AD<\/span> 64–67. Paul’s desire, not only to suffer as Christ suffered but also to die as Christ died, was thus fulfilled—with the sure hope of one day being resurrected, just as Christ was resurrected (Phil 3:10-11).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Acts 7:58–8:3; 9:1-31; 11:25-30; 12:25–28:31; Rom 1:1–16:27; 1 Cor 1:1–16:24; 2 Cor 1:1–13:14; Gal 1:1–6:18; Eph 1:1–6:24; Phil 1:1–4:23; Col 1:1–4:18; 1 Thes 1:1–5:28; 2 Thes 1:1–3:18; 1 Tim 1:1–6:21; 2 Tim 1:1–4:22; Titus 1:1–3:15; Phlm 1:1-25; 2 Pet 3:15-16<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Paul (Saul)<\/h3>\n<p>Paul was a leading persecutor of the early Christians who later became an apostle of Jesus Christ, the most illustrious of the early Christian missionaries, and the great apostle to the Gentiles. He has done more to shape Christianity than any other individual except Christ himself. We know about him from Luke’s account of his conversion and ministry in Acts and from the thirteen letters bearing his name in the New Testament.<\/p>\n<p>Paul was born in Tarsus to Jewish parents who were Roman citizens (which enabled him to also acquire Roman citizenship) and grew up in a traditional Jewish home. A tentmaker (or leatherworker) by trade, he was educated as a Pharisee by the well-known rabbi Gamaliel in Jerusalem. He became active in the violent persecution of Christians as a young man (Acts 22:3-5). But through a life-changing, personal revelation of the resurrected Jesus (9:3-6; 22:6-10), he was radically converted. He then dedicated the rest of his life to proclaiming Jesus as Savior and Lord throughout the Mediterranean world (see Gal 1:11-16). His dedication and hard work, especially among Gentiles (to whom he was specifically called), resulted in the founding of scores of churches during the first century. Most of his letters were written to these churches.<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s belief in Jesus as the Jewish Messiah set him apart from his Jewish contemporaries. His vision of Jesus brought him to the realization that Jesus’ death and resurrection bring righteousness and life-transforming power to those who believe in him. Paul no longer understood righteousness in terms of the careful observance of the law of Moses, but as a gift from God to those who put their trust in Christ, the Savior who died for their sins (Rom 4:1-8). And he was convinced that this gift is for Gentiles as well as Jews.<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s thirteen letters deal with a wide range of issues, such as salvation and what Christians believe about Christ (Romans, Galatians, Ephesians, Colossians), specific problems in the church (1 Corinthians), the nature of Christian life and community (Ephesians, Colossians), and questions about Paul’s own authority as an apostle (2 Corinthians, Galatians). Some of his letters are intended to encourage young believers who are suffering for their faith (Philippians, 1 Thessalonians) or to correct false teachings (Galatians, Colossians, 2 Thessalonians). Still others are written to individuals, giving specific advice related to their life and ministry (1–2 Timothy, Titus, Philemon). Together, these thirteen letters reveal much about the life of the earliest Christians and the problems they faced, and about Paul’s own grace-centered understanding of the Christian faith and life.<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s letters, with their strong focus on Christ, reflect his all-consuming passion for Christ and his twin convictions that (1) salvation is given only to those who put their faith in Christ as Savior (Gal 2:16), and (2) every part of a believer’s life is to be devoted to serving Christ as Lord (Rom 14:7-9; 2 Cor 5:15). Of all the New Testament writers, it is Paul who spells out most clearly what salvation is (Rom 1–8) and gives us the fullest picture of the Christian life and Christian community. Paul’s letters also highlight the power of the Holy Spirit in believers’ lives (Rom 8:9-13; Gal 5:16-25; cp. Gal 2:20; Col 1:27). He encourages believers to pursue the high standard of a life that is truly like Christ (Rom 8:30; Eph 4:13, 15; 5:1-2). Believers are to live a life of love (1 Cor 13:1-13; Eph 5:2) and fully submit to Christ. Paul, more than any other New Testament writer, shows us how and why Christians must always find their deepest roots and motivation in the grace of Christ (Rom 12:1-2). For Paul, the whole of a believer’s life—and indeed, the entire universe—is centered in Christ and Christ alone; everything finds its true meaning only in relation to him (Col 1:15-20; 2:6–3:4).<\/p>\n<p>Luke’s account of Paul’s missionary life, which spans a period of perhaps thirty years, begins with Paul’s preaching in Damascus shortly after his conversion (around <span>AD<\/span> 32–35) and ends with his imprisonment in Rome (<span>AD<\/span> 60–62). But the Pastoral Letters (1 Timothy—Titus) appear to be dated to a later time, and reliable later traditions affirm that Paul was released from prison (around <span>AD<\/span> 62) and continued his missionary activity. He was later rearrested, and after a lifetime of suffering as an evangelist for Christ, he was finally killed in Nero’s persecution of Christians around <span>AD<\/span> 64–67. Paul’s desire, not only to suffer as Christ suffered but also to die as Christ died, was thus fulfilled—with the sure hope of one day being resurrected, just as Christ was resurrected (Phil 3:10-11).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Acts 7:58–8:3; 9:1-31; 11:25-30; 12:25–28:31; Rom 1:1–16:27; 1 Cor 1:1–16:24; 2 Cor 1:1–13:14; Gal 1:1–6:18; Eph 1:1–6:24; Phil 1:1–4:23; Col 1:1–4:18; 1 Thes 1:1–5:28; 2 Thes 1:1–3:18; 1 Tim 1:1–6:21; 2 Tim 1:1–4:22; Titus 1:1–3:15; Phlm 1:1-25; 2 Pet 3:15-16<\/p>","summary_ro":"Paul (Saul) Paul was a leading persecutor of the early Christians who later became an apostle of Jesus Christ, the most illustrious of the early Christian missionaries, and the great apostle to the Gentiles. He has done more to shape Christianity than any other individual except Christ himself. We know about him from Luke’s account of his conversion and ministry in Acts and from the thirteen letters bearing his name in the New Testament. Paul was born in Tarsus to Jewish parents who were Roma...","summary_en":"Paul (Saul) Paul was a leading persecutor of the early Christians who later became an apostle of Jesus Christ, the most illustrious of the early Christian missionaries, and the great apostle to the Gentiles. He has done more to shape Christianity than any other individual except Christ himself. We know about him from Luke’s account of his conversion and ministry in Acts and from the thirteen letters bearing his name in the New Testament. Paul was born in Tarsus to Jewish parents who were Roma...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":10398,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Election Elect","title_en":"Election Elect","content_ro":"<h3>ELECT, ELECTION<\/h3>\n<p>In modern English, terms referring to the selection of a leader or representative by a group of people. An element of choice is involved, since usually there are several candidates out of whom one must be chosen.<\/p>\n<p>When the verb “elect” is used theologically in the Bible, it usually has God as its subject. In the OT it is used for God’s choice of Israel to be his people (cf. Acts 13:17). Israel became God’s people, not because they decided to belong to him, but because he took the initiative and chose them. Nor did God’s choice rest on any particular virtues that his people exemplified, but rather on his promise to their forefather Abraham (Dt 7:7-8). God also chose their leaders, such as Saul and David (1 Sm 10:24; 2 Sm 6:21), apart from any popular vote by the people. The word thus indicates God’s prerogative in deciding what shall happen, independent of human choice.<\/p>\n\n<p>The same thoughts are found in the NT. God’s people are described as his “elect” or “chosen ones,” a term used by Jesus when speaking of the future time when the Son of Man will come and gather together God’s people (Mk 13:20, 27). He will vindicate them for their sufferings and for their patience in waiting for his coming (Lk 18:7). In 1 Peter 2:9, God’s people are called a “chosen [elect] nation.” This phrase was originally used of the people of Israel (Is 43:20), and it brings out the fact that the people of God in the OT and the Christian church in the NT stand in continuity with each other; the promises addressed to Israel now find fulfillment in the church.<\/p>\n<p>In Romans 9–11 Paul discusses the problem of why the people of Israel as a nation have rejected the gospel, while the Gentiles have accepted it. He states that in the present time there is a “remnant” of Israel as a result of God’s gracious choice of them. This group is “the elect.” They are the chosen people who have obtained what was meant for Israel as a whole, while the greater mass of the people have failed to obtain it because they were “hardened” as a result of their sin (Rom 11:5-7).<\/p>\n<p>Nevertheless, God’s choice of Israel to be his people has not been canceled. Most Jewish people have aligned themselves against the gospel, so that the Gentiles may come in and receive God’s blessings in their place; however, they still are loved by God, and God will not go back on his original calling of them (Rom 11:28). Consequently, Paul is confident that in due time there will be a general return to God by the people of Israel.<\/p>\n<p>The word translated “elect” is generally found in the plural and refers either to the members of God’s people as a whole or to those in a particular local church (Rom 8:33; Col 3:12; 1 Thes 1:4; 2 Tm 2:10; Ti 1:1; 1 Pt 1:1-2; 2 Pt 1:10; Rv 17:14; cf. Rom 16:13 and 2 Jn 1:13, which have the singular form). The use of the plural may partly be explained by the fact that most of the NT letters are addressed to groups of people rather than to individuals. More probably, however, the point is that God’s election is concerned with the creation of a collective people rather than the calling of isolated individuals.<\/p>\n<p>The word “election” emphasizes that membership of God’s people is due to God’s initiative, prior to all human response, made before time began (Eph 1:4; cf. Jn 15:16, 19). It is God who has called men and women to be his people, and those who respond are elect. God’s call does not depend on any virtues or merits of humankind. Indeed, he chooses the foolish things by worldly standards to shame the wise, the weak to confound the strong, and the lowly and insignificant to bring to nothing those who think that they are something (1 Cor 1:27-28). The effect of election is to leave no grounds whatever for human boasting in achievement and position. Whatever the elect are, they owe it entirely to God, and they cannot boast or compare themselves with other people.<\/p>\n<p>God’s elect are a privileged people. Since they now have God to uphold them, no one can bring any accusation against them that might lead to God’s condemnation (Rom 8:33). They constitute a royal priesthood; they are God’s servants with the right of access to him (1 Pt 2:9). It is for their sake that the apostles endured hardship and suffering, so that they might enjoy future salvation and eternal glory (2 Tm 2:10).<\/p>\n<p>The elect are distinguished by their faith in God (Ti 1:1), and they are called to show the character that befits God’s people (Col 3:12). They must make their calling and election sure; that is, they must show that they belong to God by the quality of their lives (2 Pt 1:10). They must continue being faithful to the One who called them (Rv 17:14).<\/p>\n<p>The relationship between God’s call and human response is explained in Matthew 22:14: “For many are called, but few are chosen.” Although God calls many through the gospel, only some of those respond to the call and become his elect people. The text sheds no light on the mystery of why only some become God’s people. Certainly, when a person does respond to God’s call, it is because the gospel comes to him or her “in power and in the Holy Spirit and with full conviction” (1 Thes 1:4-5). When men and women refuse the gospel, it is because they have become hardened as a result of sin and their trust in their own works. Scripture does not go beyond that point in explanation, and neither should Christians.<\/p>\n<p>“Election” can also be used of God’s choice of people to serve him. Jesus chose the 12 disciples out of the larger company of those who followed him (Lk 6:13; Acts 1:2). The same thought reappears in John’s Gospel; Jesus commented that although he chose the Twelve, one of them turned out to be a devil (Jn 6:70; 13:18). When a replacement was needed for Judas, the church prayed to Jesus and asked him to show them which of the two available candidates he would choose to fill the gap in the Twelve (Acts 1:24). Peter attributes his evangelism among the Gentiles to God’s election of him for that purpose (15:7). Similarly, Paul was an elected instrument for God’s mission to the Gentiles (9:15). The initiative in Christian mission rests with God, who elects people to serve him in particular ways.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Foreknowledge; Foreordination.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ELECT, ELECTION<\/h3>\n<p>In modern English, terms referring to the selection of a leader or representative by a group of people. An element of choice is involved, since usually there are several candidates out of whom one must be chosen.<\/p>\n<p>When the verb “elect” is used theologically in the Bible, it usually has God as its subject. In the OT it is used for God’s choice of Israel to be his people (cf. Acts 13:17). Israel became God’s people, not because they decided to belong to him, but because he took the initiative and chose them. Nor did God’s choice rest on any particular virtues that his people exemplified, but rather on his promise to their forefather Abraham (Dt 7:7-8). God also chose their leaders, such as Saul and David (1 Sm 10:24; 2 Sm 6:21), apart from any popular vote by the people. The word thus indicates God’s prerogative in deciding what shall happen, independent of human choice.<\/p>\n\n<p>The same thoughts are found in the NT. God’s people are described as his “elect” or “chosen ones,” a term used by Jesus when speaking of the future time when the Son of Man will come and gather together God’s people (Mk 13:20, 27). He will vindicate them for their sufferings and for their patience in waiting for his coming (Lk 18:7). In 1 Peter 2:9, God’s people are called a “chosen [elect] nation.” This phrase was originally used of the people of Israel (Is 43:20), and it brings out the fact that the people of God in the OT and the Christian church in the NT stand in continuity with each other; the promises addressed to Israel now find fulfillment in the church.<\/p>\n<p>In Romans 9–11 Paul discusses the problem of why the people of Israel as a nation have rejected the gospel, while the Gentiles have accepted it. He states that in the present time there is a “remnant” of Israel as a result of God’s gracious choice of them. This group is “the elect.” They are the chosen people who have obtained what was meant for Israel as a whole, while the greater mass of the people have failed to obtain it because they were “hardened” as a result of their sin (Rom 11:5-7).<\/p>\n<p>Nevertheless, God’s choice of Israel to be his people has not been canceled. Most Jewish people have aligned themselves against the gospel, so that the Gentiles may come in and receive God’s blessings in their place; however, they still are loved by God, and God will not go back on his original calling of them (Rom 11:28). Consequently, Paul is confident that in due time there will be a general return to God by the people of Israel.<\/p>\n<p>The word translated “elect” is generally found in the plural and refers either to the members of God’s people as a whole or to those in a particular local church (Rom 8:33; Col 3:12; 1 Thes 1:4; 2 Tm 2:10; Ti 1:1; 1 Pt 1:1-2; 2 Pt 1:10; Rv 17:14; cf. Rom 16:13 and 2 Jn 1:13, which have the singular form). The use of the plural may partly be explained by the fact that most of the NT letters are addressed to groups of people rather than to individuals. More probably, however, the point is that God’s election is concerned with the creation of a collective people rather than the calling of isolated individuals.<\/p>\n<p>The word “election” emphasizes that membership of God’s people is due to God’s initiative, prior to all human response, made before time began (Eph 1:4; cf. Jn 15:16, 19). It is God who has called men and women to be his people, and those who respond are elect. God’s call does not depend on any virtues or merits of humankind. Indeed, he chooses the foolish things by worldly standards to shame the wise, the weak to confound the strong, and the lowly and insignificant to bring to nothing those who think that they are something (1 Cor 1:27-28). The effect of election is to leave no grounds whatever for human boasting in achievement and position. Whatever the elect are, they owe it entirely to God, and they cannot boast or compare themselves with other people.<\/p>\n<p>God’s elect are a privileged people. Since they now have God to uphold them, no one can bring any accusation against them that might lead to God’s condemnation (Rom 8:33). They constitute a royal priesthood; they are God’s servants with the right of access to him (1 Pt 2:9). It is for their sake that the apostles endured hardship and suffering, so that they might enjoy future salvation and eternal glory (2 Tm 2:10).<\/p>\n<p>The elect are distinguished by their faith in God (Ti 1:1), and they are called to show the character that befits God’s people (Col 3:12). They must make their calling and election sure; that is, they must show that they belong to God by the quality of their lives (2 Pt 1:10). They must continue being faithful to the One who called them (Rv 17:14).<\/p>\n<p>The relationship between God’s call and human response is explained in Matthew 22:14: “For many are called, but few are chosen.” Although God calls many through the gospel, only some of those respond to the call and become his elect people. The text sheds no light on the mystery of why only some become God’s people. Certainly, when a person does respond to God’s call, it is because the gospel comes to him or her “in power and in the Holy Spirit and with full conviction” (1 Thes 1:4-5). When men and women refuse the gospel, it is because they have become hardened as a result of sin and their trust in their own works. Scripture does not go beyond that point in explanation, and neither should Christians.<\/p>\n<p>“Election” can also be used of God’s choice of people to serve him. Jesus chose the 12 disciples out of the larger company of those who followed him (Lk 6:13; Acts 1:2). The same thought reappears in John’s Gospel; Jesus commented that although he chose the Twelve, one of them turned out to be a devil (Jn 6:70; 13:18). When a replacement was needed for Judas, the church prayed to Jesus and asked him to show them which of the two available candidates he would choose to fill the gap in the Twelve (Acts 1:24). Peter attributes his evangelism among the Gentiles to God’s election of him for that purpose (15:7). Similarly, Paul was an elected instrument for God’s mission to the Gentiles (9:15). The initiative in Christian mission rests with God, who elects people to serve him in particular ways.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Foreknowledge; Foreordination.<\/p>","summary_ro":"ELECT, ELECTION In modern English, terms referring to the selection of a leader or representative by a group of people. An element of choice is involved, since usually there are several candidates out of whom one must be chosen. When the verb “elect” is used theologically in the Bible, it usually has God as its subject. In the OT it is used for God’s choice of Israel to be his people (cf. Acts 13:17). Israel became God’s people, not because they decided to belong to him, but because he took t...","summary_en":"ELECT, ELECTION In modern English, terms referring to the selection of a leader or representative by a group of people. An element of choice is involved, since usually there are several candidates out of whom one must be chosen. When the verb “elect” is used theologically in the Bible, it usually has God as its subject. In the OT it is used for God’s choice of Israel to be his people (cf. Acts 13:17). Israel became God’s people, not because they decided to belong to him, but because he took t...","source":"Articles\/E.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":37441,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Letter to Titus","title_en":"Letter to Titus","content_ro":"<h3>TITUS, Letter to<\/h3>\n<p>Paul’s epistle to his coworker, Titus.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Recipient<\/p>\n<p>• Date<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose and Teaching<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>Though this letter begins with the name and greeting of Paul (Ti 1:1-3), Paul’s authorship has been questioned by modern scholars on the grounds of its language and style, the church situation it presents, and the way that it sets forth Christian teaching. But Pauline authorship has been stoutly defended by eminent scholars and careful students who have argued that there is no reason for supposing that this epistle was written by someone else using Paul’s name, after the apostle himself had died. The differences in this epistle and Paul’s other letters are explained previously in the section on “Author” in the article “Timothy, First Letter to.”<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Recipient\">Recipient<\/p>\n<p>Titus appears to have been one of Paul’s most trusted and valuable coworkers. Paul speaks of him (2 Cor 8:23) as “my partner and coworker.” According to Titus 1:4, he owed his conversion to Paul. It is clear from Galatians 2:1-4 that he was a Gentile, as his was a test case whether gentile Christians should be compelled to be circumcised. At that time Titus was with Paul and Barnabas in Jerusalem. Much later, at the time of Paul’s third missionary journey, he had two delicate missions to carry out for Paul in Corinth: the first pertained to the strained relationship between the apostle and the Corinthian Christians; the second related to the gentile collection for the Jerusalem church (2 Cor 2:12-13; 7:5-16; 8:1-24). If 2 Timothy 4:9-18 was written at the end of Paul’s life, then Titus went to Dalmatia after the time of this letter.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Date\">Date<\/p>\n<p>To date this letter with precision is difficult. Titus was left by the apostle in Crete to continue his work (Ti 1:5). Paul was in Crete briefly on his voyage to Rome (Acts 27:7-13), but that could not have been the occasion referred to. In 3:12 Titus is called to come to Nicopolis (probably the Nicopolis in Epirus in Greece), as Paul had decided to winter there. Many have favored the view that after Paul’s first imprisonment in Rome (Acts 28:16-31) he was released, carried out further ministry in various places (including Spain, Crete, and Greece), and then was arrested, imprisoned a second time, and finally put to death. Those who do not accept Pauline authorship of Titus, date this letter, like 1 and 2 Timothy, in the generation that followed Paul’s death.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeandTeaching\">Purpose and Teaching<\/p>\n<p>Although this letter is addressed to an individual colleague of the apostle, it has a minimum of personal references and exhortations. The growing and developing churches in Crete were Paul’s main concern. They were being bothered by false teachings that appear to have had Jewish elements, ascetic emphases, and a great deal of speculative discussion (Ti 1:10, 14-15: 3:9). In short, it seems that they were dealing with an early Jewish form of Gnosticism. Its advocates promoted this teaching “for base gain” (1:11, <span>rsv<\/span>). Titus and those whom he would appoint as elders were called upon to refute the wrong teaching and to provide the believers with healthy teaching (v 9). Though this healthy teaching is not specified, it must have pertained to the saving grace of God in Christ, the renewing work of the Holy Spirit, and the future coming of the Lord Jesus (2:11-13; 3:4-7). In this letter there is constant emphasis on the lifestyle that bears out the truth of the gospel—with application to different groups in the Christian community: older men and women, young women, young men, and slaves.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Salutation (1:1-4)<\/h5>\n<p>Greetings come from Paul—whose apostleship is described as a stewardship of the gospel that promotes faith and strengthens the knowledge of the truth, hope of eternal life, and godliness of living—to Titus, spoken of as “my true son in our common faith.”<\/p>\n<h5>Titus’s Work in Crete (1:5-9)<\/h5>\n<p>Titus was left behind in Crete to continue Paul’s work and to appoint elders in every church (cf. Acts 14:23). These elders are also called bishops (cf. 20:17, 28)—that is, those with oversight of the church. The necessary qualities of life for these positions are described (cf. 1 Tm 3:2-7).<\/p>\n<h5>Dealing with False Teachings (1:10-16)<\/h5>\n<p>The closing words of the previous section speak about the responsibility of elders “to encourage others with right teaching and show those who oppose it where they are wrong” (<span>nlt<\/span>). The opposers were upsetting people, indeed “whole families,” by teaching what was not true. These false teachers were described by Paul in terms disparaging of Cretans, and as people whose lives do not demonstrate the knowledge of God that they professed to have.<\/p>\n<h5>Promoting Right Teaching (2:1-10)<\/h5>\n<p>Titus had a particular responsibility to “promote the kind of living that reflects right teaching.” He was charged to exhort the older men to exercise self-control (2:2), and he was supposed to teach the older women to live godly lives (v 3). In turn, these women were supposed to train the younger women to live pure and loving lives in their homes so that no one will malign the word of God (vv 4-5). Younger men were to show self-control (v 6), and Titus himself was to be an example in word and life so that the opponents would have nothing bad to say about the Christians (vv 7-8). Finally, in this section slaves are taught to submit to their masters, to give good and honest service with the motivation that “then they will make the teaching about God our Savior attractive in every way” (v 10, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<h5>God’s Grace (2:11-15)<\/h5>\n<p>What has been said leads now to a great statement of the purpose of the revelation of the grace of God in Jesus Christ: to bring salvation to all people, who will make a complete break with godless and sensual living so that they may live upright lives with the constant expectancy of the coming again of “our great God and Savior Jesus Christ.” Their lives will show them to be a people who are God’s very own, always eager to do what is right.<\/p>\n<h5>Doing What Is Good (3:1-8)<\/h5>\n<p>In this section, Paul encourages Titus to tell the Christians at Crete that it is their duty to submit to rulers (cf. Rom 13:1-7; 1 Pt 2:13-17) and to be available in the community for honest work. Again, the quality of lifestyle is emphasized—in particular, courtesy and the desire for peace in relationships with others. This lifestyle comes from spiritual transformation. The means of that transformation is the saving work of Christ—not merited, but entirely of his mercy. He has brought cleansing from sin, “rebirth and renewal by the Holy Spirit.”<\/p>\n<h5>Paul’s Final Remarks and Greetings (3:9-15)<\/h5>\n<p>In this final section, Paul encourages Titus to avoid those who like to debate about religion for the sake of debating. And he tells Titus how to deal with those who cause divisions.<\/p>\n<p>Following this, Paul tells Titus that he will send him Artemas (not mentioned otherwise in the NT) or Tychicus. Then he encourages Titus to take care of Apollos and Zenas if they pass by Crete. Titus himself is supposed to come to Paul in Nicopolis before winter.<\/p>\n<p>The epistle closes with a final exhortation to “good deeds” and to a spiritually fruitful life.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Paul, The Apostle; Timothy, First Letter to; Timothy, Second Letter to; Titus (Person) #1.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>TITUS, Letter to<\/h3>\n<p>Paul’s epistle to his coworker, Titus.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Recipient<\/p>\n<p>• Date<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose and Teaching<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>Though this letter begins with the name and greeting of Paul (Ti 1:1-3), Paul’s authorship has been questioned by modern scholars on the grounds of its language and style, the church situation it presents, and the way that it sets forth Christian teaching. But Pauline authorship has been stoutly defended by eminent scholars and careful students who have argued that there is no reason for supposing that this epistle was written by someone else using Paul’s name, after the apostle himself had died. The differences in this epistle and Paul’s other letters are explained previously in the section on “Author” in the article “Timothy, First Letter to.”<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Recipient\">Recipient<\/p>\n<p>Titus appears to have been one of Paul’s most trusted and valuable coworkers. Paul speaks of him (2 Cor 8:23) as “my partner and coworker.” According to Titus 1:4, he owed his conversion to Paul. It is clear from Galatians 2:1-4 that he was a Gentile, as his was a test case whether gentile Christians should be compelled to be circumcised. At that time Titus was with Paul and Barnabas in Jerusalem. Much later, at the time of Paul’s third missionary journey, he had two delicate missions to carry out for Paul in Corinth: the first pertained to the strained relationship between the apostle and the Corinthian Christians; the second related to the gentile collection for the Jerusalem church (2 Cor 2:12-13; 7:5-16; 8:1-24). If 2 Timothy 4:9-18 was written at the end of Paul’s life, then Titus went to Dalmatia after the time of this letter.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Date\">Date<\/p>\n<p>To date this letter with precision is difficult. Titus was left by the apostle in Crete to continue his work (Ti 1:5). Paul was in Crete briefly on his voyage to Rome (Acts 27:7-13), but that could not have been the occasion referred to. In 3:12 Titus is called to come to Nicopolis (probably the Nicopolis in Epirus in Greece), as Paul had decided to winter there. Many have favored the view that after Paul’s first imprisonment in Rome (Acts 28:16-31) he was released, carried out further ministry in various places (including Spain, Crete, and Greece), and then was arrested, imprisoned a second time, and finally put to death. Those who do not accept Pauline authorship of Titus, date this letter, like 1 and 2 Timothy, in the generation that followed Paul’s death.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeandTeaching\">Purpose and Teaching<\/p>\n<p>Although this letter is addressed to an individual colleague of the apostle, it has a minimum of personal references and exhortations. The growing and developing churches in Crete were Paul’s main concern. They were being bothered by false teachings that appear to have had Jewish elements, ascetic emphases, and a great deal of speculative discussion (Ti 1:10, 14-15: 3:9). In short, it seems that they were dealing with an early Jewish form of Gnosticism. Its advocates promoted this teaching “for base gain” (1:11, <span>rsv<\/span>). Titus and those whom he would appoint as elders were called upon to refute the wrong teaching and to provide the believers with healthy teaching (v 9). Though this healthy teaching is not specified, it must have pertained to the saving grace of God in Christ, the renewing work of the Holy Spirit, and the future coming of the Lord Jesus (2:11-13; 3:4-7). In this letter there is constant emphasis on the lifestyle that bears out the truth of the gospel—with application to different groups in the Christian community: older men and women, young women, young men, and slaves.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Salutation (1:1-4)<\/h5>\n<p>Greetings come from Paul—whose apostleship is described as a stewardship of the gospel that promotes faith and strengthens the knowledge of the truth, hope of eternal life, and godliness of living—to Titus, spoken of as “my true son in our common faith.”<\/p>\n<h5>Titus’s Work in Crete (1:5-9)<\/h5>\n<p>Titus was left behind in Crete to continue Paul’s work and to appoint elders in every church (cf. Acts 14:23). These elders are also called bishops (cf. 20:17, 28)—that is, those with oversight of the church. The necessary qualities of life for these positions are described (cf. 1 Tm 3:2-7).<\/p>\n<h5>Dealing with False Teachings (1:10-16)<\/h5>\n<p>The closing words of the previous section speak about the responsibility of elders “to encourage others with right teaching and show those who oppose it where they are wrong” (<span>nlt<\/span>). The opposers were upsetting people, indeed “whole families,” by teaching what was not true. These false teachers were described by Paul in terms disparaging of Cretans, and as people whose lives do not demonstrate the knowledge of God that they professed to have.<\/p>\n<h5>Promoting Right Teaching (2:1-10)<\/h5>\n<p>Titus had a particular responsibility to “promote the kind of living that reflects right teaching.” He was charged to exhort the older men to exercise self-control (2:2), and he was supposed to teach the older women to live godly lives (v 3). In turn, these women were supposed to train the younger women to live pure and loving lives in their homes so that no one will malign the word of God (vv 4-5). Younger men were to show self-control (v 6), and Titus himself was to be an example in word and life so that the opponents would have nothing bad to say about the Christians (vv 7-8). Finally, in this section slaves are taught to submit to their masters, to give good and honest service with the motivation that “then they will make the teaching about God our Savior attractive in every way” (v 10, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<h5>God’s Grace (2:11-15)<\/h5>\n<p>What has been said leads now to a great statement of the purpose of the revelation of the grace of God in Jesus Christ: to bring salvation to all people, who will make a complete break with godless and sensual living so that they may live upright lives with the constant expectancy of the coming again of “our great God and Savior Jesus Christ.” Their lives will show them to be a people who are God’s very own, always eager to do what is right.<\/p>\n<h5>Doing What Is Good (3:1-8)<\/h5>\n<p>In this section, Paul encourages Titus to tell the Christians at Crete that it is their duty to submit to rulers (cf. Rom 13:1-7; 1 Pt 2:13-17) and to be available in the community for honest work. Again, the quality of lifestyle is emphasized—in particular, courtesy and the desire for peace in relationships with others. This lifestyle comes from spiritual transformation. The means of that transformation is the saving work of Christ—not merited, but entirely of his mercy. He has brought cleansing from sin, “rebirth and renewal by the Holy Spirit.”<\/p>\n<h5>Paul’s Final Remarks and Greetings (3:9-15)<\/h5>\n<p>In this final section, Paul encourages Titus to avoid those who like to debate about religion for the sake of debating. And he tells Titus how to deal with those who cause divisions.<\/p>\n<p>Following this, Paul tells Titus that he will send him Artemas (not mentioned otherwise in the NT) or Tychicus. Then he encourages Titus to take care of Apollos and Zenas if they pass by Crete. Titus himself is supposed to come to Paul in Nicopolis before winter.<\/p>\n<p>The epistle closes with a final exhortation to “good deeds” and to a spiritually fruitful life.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Paul, The Apostle; Timothy, First Letter to; Timothy, Second Letter to; Titus (Person) #1.<\/p>","summary_ro":"TITUS, Letter to Paul’s epistle to his coworker, Titus. Preview • Author • Recipient • Date • Purpose and Teaching • Content Author Though this letter begins with the name and greeting of Paul (Ti 1:1-3), Paul’s authorship has been questioned by modern scholars on the grounds of its language and style, the church situation it presents, and the way that it sets forth Christian teaching. But Pauline authorship has been stoutly defended by eminent scholars and careful students who have argued th...","summary_en":"TITUS, Letter to Paul’s epistle to his coworker, Titus. Preview • Author • Recipient • Date • Purpose and Teaching • Content Author Though this letter begins with the name and greeting of Paul (Ti 1:1-3), Paul’s authorship has been questioned by modern scholars on the grounds of its language and style, the church situation it presents, and the way that it sets forth Christian teaching. But Pauline authorship has been stoutly defended by eminent scholars and careful students who have argued th...","source":"Articles\/T.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":40185,"type":"textbox","type_label":"Notă explicativă","type_icon":"💡","type_color":"#8b5cf6","title_ro":"Slave: A Name Adopted by Christian Servants","title_en":"Slave: A Name Adopted by Christian Servants","content_ro":"<h3>Slave: A Name Adopted by Christian Servants<\/h3>\n<blockquote><p>Five NT authors called themselves “a slave [or servant] of Jesus Christ”: Paul (Rom 1:1; Gal 1:10; Phil 1:1; Col 4:12; 2 Tm 2:24; Ti 1:1), James (Jas 1:1), Peter (2 Pt 1:1), Jude (Jude 1:1), and John (Rv 1:1). In many cases, the term is a synonym for “Christian.” Why would such a term become a name for Christians? In the OT, God was viewed as a great king; the subjects of kings were their slaves. The people of Israel saw themselves in the same relationship to God: they were his slaves.<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<p>Often the title “slave of the king” meant that the person was an officer in the king’s service; it was a title of honor. In Jewish literature Moses and others were called slaves of God (Nm 12:7-8; Rv 15:3). The term “slave” was thus a title both of honor and of subjugation; in the NT it is hard to know which sense is intended. Certainly subjection was often meant (1 Cor 7:22; Phil 2:7), but when applied to the apostolic writers, the term probably suggested their honored position in God’s household. At the same time, it indicated their obedience to Christ; he commanded and they obeyed. Since obedience was characteristic of all Christians, “slave of Christ” became a title for members of the young church.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Slave: A Name Adopted by Christian Servants<\/h3>\n<blockquote><p>Five NT authors called themselves “a slave [or servant] of Jesus Christ”: Paul (Rom 1:1; Gal 1:10; Phil 1:1; Col 4:12; 2 Tm 2:24; Ti 1:1), James (Jas 1:1), Peter (2 Pt 1:1), Jude (Jude 1:1), and John (Rv 1:1). In many cases, the term is a synonym for “Christian.” Why would such a term become a name for Christians? In the OT, God was viewed as a great king; the subjects of kings were their slaves. The people of Israel saw themselves in the same relationship to God: they were his slaves.<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<p>Often the title “slave of the king” meant that the person was an officer in the king’s service; it was a title of honor. In Jewish literature Moses and others were called slaves of God (Nm 12:7-8; Rv 15:3). The term “slave” was thus a title both of honor and of subjugation; in the NT it is hard to know which sense is intended. Certainly subjection was often meant (1 Cor 7:22; Phil 2:7), but when applied to the apostolic writers, the term probably suggested their honored position in God’s household. At the same time, it indicated their obedience to Christ; he commanded and they obeyed. Since obedience was characteristic of all Christians, “slave of Christ” became a title for members of the young church.<\/p>","summary_ro":"Slave: A Name Adopted by Christian Servants Five NT authors called themselves “a slave [or servant] of Jesus Christ”: Paul (Rom 1:1; Gal 1:10; Phil 1:1; Col 4:12; 2 Tm 2:24; Ti 1:1), James (Jas 1:1), Peter (2 Pt 1:1), Jude (Jude 1:1), and John (Rv 1:1). In many cases, the term is a synonym for “Christian.” Why would such a term become a name for Christians? In the OT, God was viewed as a great king; the subjects of kings were their slaves. The people of Israel saw themselves in the same relat...","summary_en":"Slave: A Name Adopted by Christian Servants Five NT authors called themselves “a slave [or servant] of Jesus Christ”: Paul (Rom 1:1; Gal 1:10; Phil 1:1; Col 4:12; 2 Tm 2:24; Ti 1:1), James (Jas 1:1), Peter (2 Pt 1:1), Jude (Jude 1:1), and John (Rv 1:1). In many cases, the term is a synonym for “Christian.” Why would such a term become a name for Christians? In the OT, God was viewed as a great king; the subjects of kings were their slaves. The people of Israel saw themselves in the same relat...","source":"Textboxes\/Textboxes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":58649,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Tit 1:1","title_en":"Study Note: Tit 1:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:1-4<\/strong> The opening of Titus, like that of 1 Timothy (1 Tim 1:1-2), establishes Paul’s authority for his delegate.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:1-4<\/strong> The opening of Titus, like that of 1 Timothy (1 Tim 1:1-2), establishes Paul’s authority for his delegate.<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:1-4 The opening of Titus, like that of 1 Timothy (1 Tim 1:1-2), establishes Paul’s authority for his delegate.","summary_en":"1:1-4 The opening of Titus, like that of 1 Timothy (1 Tim 1:1-2), establishes Paul’s authority for his delegate.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":58650,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Tit 1:1","title_en":"Study Note: Tit 1:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:1<\/strong> <em>and to teach . . . godly lives:<\/em> See 2:11-14; 1 Tim 6:3.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:1<\/strong> <em>and to teach . . . godly lives:<\/em> See 2:11-14; 1 Tim 6:3.<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:1 and to teach . . . godly lives: See 2:11-14; 1 Tim 6:3.","summary_en":"1:1 and to teach . . . godly lives: See 2:11-14; 1 Tim 6:3.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":86275,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Tit 1:1","title_en":"Study Note: Tit 1:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:1-4<\/strong> The opening of Titus, like that of 1 Timothy (1 Tim 1:1-2), establishes Paul’s authority for his delegate.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:1-4<\/strong> The opening of Titus, like that of 1 Timothy (1 Tim 1:1-2), establishes Paul’s authority for his delegate.<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:1-4 The opening of Titus, like that of 1 Timothy (1 Tim 1:1-2), establishes Paul’s authority for his delegate.","summary_en":"1:1-4 The opening of Titus, like that of 1 Timothy (1 Tim 1:1-2), establishes Paul’s authority for his delegate.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":86276,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Tit 1:1","title_en":"Study Note: Tit 1:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:1<\/strong> <em>and to teach . . . godly lives:<\/em> See 2:11-14; 1 Tim 6:3.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:1<\/strong> <em>and to teach . . . godly lives:<\/em> See 2:11-14; 1 Tim 6:3.<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:1 and to teach . . . godly lives: See 2:11-14; 1 Tim 6:3.","summary_en":"1:1 and to teach . . . godly lives: See 2:11-14; 1 Tim 6:3.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":113901,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Tit 1:1","title_en":"Study Note: Tit 1:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:1-4<\/strong> The opening of Titus, like that of 1 Timothy (1 Tim 1:1-2), establishes Paul’s authority for his delegate.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:1-4<\/strong> The opening of Titus, like that of 1 Timothy (1 Tim 1:1-2), establishes Paul’s authority for his delegate.<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:1-4 The opening of Titus, like that of 1 Timothy (1 Tim 1:1-2), establishes Paul’s authority for his delegate.","summary_en":"1:1-4 The opening of Titus, like that of 1 Timothy (1 Tim 1:1-2), establishes Paul’s authority for his delegate.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":113902,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Tit 1:1","title_en":"Study Note: Tit 1:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:1<\/strong> <em>and to teach . . . godly lives:<\/em> See 2:11-14; 1 Tim 6:3.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:1<\/strong> <em>and to teach . . . godly lives:<\/em> See 2:11-14; 1 Tim 6:3.<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:1 and to teach . . . godly lives: See 2:11-14; 1 Tim 6:3.","summary_en":"1:1 and to teach . . . godly lives: See 2:11-14; 1 Tim 6:3.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":141527,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Tit 1:1","title_en":"Study Note: Tit 1:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:1-4<\/strong> The opening of Titus, like that of 1 Timothy (1 Tim 1:1-2), establishes Paul’s authority for his delegate.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:1-4<\/strong> The opening of Titus, like that of 1 Timothy (1 Tim 1:1-2), establishes Paul’s authority for his delegate.<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:1-4 The opening of Titus, like that of 1 Timothy (1 Tim 1:1-2), establishes Paul’s authority for his delegate.","summary_en":"1:1-4 The opening of Titus, like that of 1 Timothy (1 Tim 1:1-2), establishes Paul’s authority for his delegate.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":141528,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Tit 1:1","title_en":"Study Note: Tit 1:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:1<\/strong> <em>and to teach . . . godly lives:<\/em> See 2:11-14; 1 Tim 6:3.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:1<\/strong> <em>and to teach . . . godly lives:<\/em> See 2:11-14; 1 Tim 6:3.<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:1 and to teach . . . godly lives: See 2:11-14; 1 Tim 6:3.","summary_en":"1:1 and to teach . . . godly lives: See 2:11-14; 1 Tim 6:3.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"2":[{"id":58651,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Tit 1:2","title_en":"Study Note: Tit 1:2","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:2<\/strong> The <em>confidence that they have eternal life<\/em> enables God’s people to live in the present in light of the future (see 2:11-14; 3:7-8). • <em>God—who does not lie:<\/em> The true God contrasts with popular Cretan conceptions (see study note on 1:12). This statement also underlines God’s plan of salvation as unchanging (1:1): God can be trusted to fulfill his promises (see Num 23:19; 1 Sam 15:29; Rom 3:3-4).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:2<\/strong> The <em>confidence that they have eternal life<\/em> enables God’s people to live in the present in light of the future (see 2:11-14; 3:7-8). • <em>God—who does not lie:<\/em> The true God contrasts with popular Cretan conceptions (see study note on 1:12). This statement also underlines God’s plan of salvation as unchanging (1:1): God can be trusted to fulfill his promises (see Num 23:19; 1 Sam 15:29; Rom 3:3-4).<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:2 The confidence that they have eternal life enables God’s people to live in the present in light of the future (see 2:11-14; 3:7-8). • God—who does not lie: The true God contrasts with popular Cretan conceptions (see study note on 1:12). This statement also underlines God’s plan of salvation as unchanging (1:1): God can be trusted to fulfill his promises (see Num 23:19; 1 Sam 15:29; Rom 3:3-4).","summary_en":"1:2 The confidence that they have eternal life enables God’s people to live in the present in light of the future (see 2:11-14; 3:7-8). • God—who does not lie: The true God contrasts with popular Cretan conceptions (see study note on 1:12). This statement also underlines God’s plan of salvation as unchanging (1:1): God can be trusted to fulfill his promises (see Num 23:19; 1 Sam 15:29; Rom 3:3-4).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":86277,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Tit 1:2","title_en":"Study Note: Tit 1:2","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:2<\/strong> The <em>confidence that they have eternal life<\/em> enables God’s people to live in the present in light of the future (see 2:11-14; 3:7-8). • <em>God—who does not lie:<\/em> The true God contrasts with popular Cretan conceptions (see study note on 1:12). This statement also underlines God’s plan of salvation as unchanging (1:1): God can be trusted to fulfill his promises (see Num 23:19; 1 Sam 15:29; Rom 3:3-4).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:2<\/strong> The <em>confidence that they have eternal life<\/em> enables God’s people to live in the present in light of the future (see 2:11-14; 3:7-8). • <em>God—who does not lie:<\/em> The true God contrasts with popular Cretan conceptions (see study note on 1:12). This statement also underlines God’s plan of salvation as unchanging (1:1): God can be trusted to fulfill his promises (see Num 23:19; 1 Sam 15:29; Rom 3:3-4).<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:2 The confidence that they have eternal life enables God’s people to live in the present in light of the future (see 2:11-14; 3:7-8). • God—who does not lie: The true God contrasts with popular Cretan conceptions (see study note on 1:12). This statement also underlines God’s plan of salvation as unchanging (1:1): God can be trusted to fulfill his promises (see Num 23:19; 1 Sam 15:29; Rom 3:3-4).","summary_en":"1:2 The confidence that they have eternal life enables God’s people to live in the present in light of the future (see 2:11-14; 3:7-8). • God—who does not lie: The true God contrasts with popular Cretan conceptions (see study note on 1:12). This statement also underlines God’s plan of salvation as unchanging (1:1): God can be trusted to fulfill his promises (see Num 23:19; 1 Sam 15:29; Rom 3:3-4).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":113903,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Tit 1:2","title_en":"Study Note: Tit 1:2","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:2<\/strong> The <em>confidence that they have eternal life<\/em> enables God’s people to live in the present in light of the future (see 2:11-14; 3:7-8). • <em>God—who does not lie:<\/em> The true God contrasts with popular Cretan conceptions (see study note on 1:12). This statement also underlines God’s plan of salvation as unchanging (1:1): God can be trusted to fulfill his promises (see Num 23:19; 1 Sam 15:29; Rom 3:3-4).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:2<\/strong> The <em>confidence that they have eternal life<\/em> enables God’s people to live in the present in light of the future (see 2:11-14; 3:7-8). • <em>God—who does not lie:<\/em> The true God contrasts with popular Cretan conceptions (see study note on 1:12). This statement also underlines God’s plan of salvation as unchanging (1:1): God can be trusted to fulfill his promises (see Num 23:19; 1 Sam 15:29; Rom 3:3-4).<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:2 The confidence that they have eternal life enables God’s people to live in the present in light of the future (see 2:11-14; 3:7-8). • God—who does not lie: The true God contrasts with popular Cretan conceptions (see study note on 1:12). This statement also underlines God’s plan of salvation as unchanging (1:1): God can be trusted to fulfill his promises (see Num 23:19; 1 Sam 15:29; Rom 3:3-4).","summary_en":"1:2 The confidence that they have eternal life enables God’s people to live in the present in light of the future (see 2:11-14; 3:7-8). • God—who does not lie: The true God contrasts with popular Cretan conceptions (see study note on 1:12). This statement also underlines God’s plan of salvation as unchanging (1:1): God can be trusted to fulfill his promises (see Num 23:19; 1 Sam 15:29; Rom 3:3-4).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":141529,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Tit 1:2","title_en":"Study Note: Tit 1:2","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:2<\/strong> The <em>confidence that they have eternal life<\/em> enables God’s people to live in the present in light of the future (see 2:11-14; 3:7-8). • <em>God—who does not lie:<\/em> The true God contrasts with popular Cretan conceptions (see study note on 1:12). This statement also underlines God’s plan of salvation as unchanging (1:1): God can be trusted to fulfill his promises (see Num 23:19; 1 Sam 15:29; Rom 3:3-4).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:2<\/strong> The <em>confidence that they have eternal life<\/em> enables God’s people to live in the present in light of the future (see 2:11-14; 3:7-8). • <em>God—who does not lie:<\/em> The true God contrasts with popular Cretan conceptions (see study note on 1:12). This statement also underlines God’s plan of salvation as unchanging (1:1): God can be trusted to fulfill his promises (see Num 23:19; 1 Sam 15:29; Rom 3:3-4).<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:2 The confidence that they have eternal life enables God’s people to live in the present in light of the future (see 2:11-14; 3:7-8). • God—who does not lie: The true God contrasts with popular Cretan conceptions (see study note on 1:12). This statement also underlines God’s plan of salvation as unchanging (1:1): God can be trusted to fulfill his promises (see Num 23:19; 1 Sam 15:29; Rom 3:3-4).","summary_en":"1:2 The confidence that they have eternal life enables God’s people to live in the present in light of the future (see 2:11-14; 3:7-8). • God—who does not lie: The true God contrasts with popular Cretan conceptions (see study note on 1:12). This statement also underlines God’s plan of salvation as unchanging (1:1): God can be trusted to fulfill his promises (see Num 23:19; 1 Sam 15:29; Rom 3:3-4).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":61655,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God’s Faithfulness to His People","title_en":"God’s Faithfulness to His People","content_ro":"<h3>God’s Faithfulness to His People<\/h3>\n<p>When God established the covenant with his people Israel, it included blessings for obedience and curses for disobedience (see Deut 28:1-68). Many years later, when Solomon had finished dedicating the Temple, the Lord appeared to him and reminded him that if the people were unfaithful to this covenant, sure judgment would follow (1 Kgs 9:6-9). Conversely, if they were faithful, God would dwell among them and never forsake them (6:12-13).<\/p>\n<p>God had called the nation Israel to be his covenant people (Exod 19:5-6; 1 Kgs 8:53). Despite this unique identity, the people of Israel were frequently rebellious toward God (see, e.g., Exod 32:1-6; Num 14:1-12; Judg 2:10-15). Even during the height of God’s blessing of Israel (Solomon’s reign) the people “sacrificed their offerings at local places of worship” (3:2), an expression of their ongoing commitment to pagan worship (see also 1 Kgs 11:4-13). Both the northern and southern kingdoms later fell into this sin (12:31-32; 13:2, 32-33; 14:22-24; 15:14; 22:43). Every ruler of the northern kingdom led the people into apostate religious practices, resulting in Israel being sent into exile in 722 <span>BC<\/span>. While the southern kingdom experienced occasional religious reform, such reform would only be temporary, and Judah would ultimately suffer a similar fate in being exiled by the Babylonians in 586 <span>BC<\/span>. Still, God retained a faithful remnant among his people (see, e.g., 1 Kgs 19:18; Isa 10:20-34) and had plans for their future well-being (see Isa 4:2-6; Isa 40:1-11; Jer 30:1-24). In spite of his people’s unfaithfulness, God maintained his love and faithfulness toward them and desired to restore them (Hos 2:1-23).<\/p>\n<p>God still has a people who are his own (1 Cor 1:2; 1 Pet 1:1). Those who follow Christ are his “chosen people” (1 Pet 2:9-10, who constitute the temple of God (2 Cor 6:14–7:1). They have God’s promise that he will never forsake them but will always be faithful to his promises to them (John 14:16; 2 Tim 2:13).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 32:10; Exod 3:13-17; 34:6; Deut 7:9; 31:6; Josh 1:5; 21:45; 2 Sam 7:16; 1 Kgs 6:12-13; 8:29-53; 9:3-9; Pss 31:1-5; 91:4; Isa 40:1-11; 54:8; Lam 3:22-24; Mic 7:18-20; John 14:16; Rom 3:3-4; 11:25-29; 1 Cor 10:13; 2 Cor 1:20; 2 Tim 2:13; Titus 1:2; Heb 10:23; 11:11; 1 Pet 4:19; Rev 1:4-5; 19:11<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God’s Faithfulness to His People<\/h3>\n<p>When God established the covenant with his people Israel, it included blessings for obedience and curses for disobedience (see Deut 28:1-68). Many years later, when Solomon had finished dedicating the Temple, the Lord appeared to him and reminded him that if the people were unfaithful to this covenant, sure judgment would follow (1 Kgs 9:6-9). Conversely, if they were faithful, God would dwell among them and never forsake them (6:12-13).<\/p>\n<p>God had called the nation Israel to be his covenant people (Exod 19:5-6; 1 Kgs 8:53). Despite this unique identity, the people of Israel were frequently rebellious toward God (see, e.g., Exod 32:1-6; Num 14:1-12; Judg 2:10-15). Even during the height of God’s blessing of Israel (Solomon’s reign) the people “sacrificed their offerings at local places of worship” (3:2), an expression of their ongoing commitment to pagan worship (see also 1 Kgs 11:4-13). Both the northern and southern kingdoms later fell into this sin (12:31-32; 13:2, 32-33; 14:22-24; 15:14; 22:43). Every ruler of the northern kingdom led the people into apostate religious practices, resulting in Israel being sent into exile in 722 <span>BC<\/span>. While the southern kingdom experienced occasional religious reform, such reform would only be temporary, and Judah would ultimately suffer a similar fate in being exiled by the Babylonians in 586 <span>BC<\/span>. Still, God retained a faithful remnant among his people (see, e.g., 1 Kgs 19:18; Isa 10:20-34) and had plans for their future well-being (see Isa 4:2-6; Isa 40:1-11; Jer 30:1-24). In spite of his people’s unfaithfulness, God maintained his love and faithfulness toward them and desired to restore them (Hos 2:1-23).<\/p>\n<p>God still has a people who are his own (1 Cor 1:2; 1 Pet 1:1). Those who follow Christ are his “chosen people” (1 Pet 2:9-10, who constitute the temple of God (2 Cor 6:14–7:1). They have God’s promise that he will never forsake them but will always be faithful to his promises to them (John 14:16; 2 Tim 2:13).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 32:10; Exod 3:13-17; 34:6; Deut 7:9; 31:6; Josh 1:5; 21:45; 2 Sam 7:16; 1 Kgs 6:12-13; 8:29-53; 9:3-9; Pss 31:1-5; 91:4; Isa 40:1-11; 54:8; Lam 3:22-24; Mic 7:18-20; John 14:16; Rom 3:3-4; 11:25-29; 1 Cor 10:13; 2 Cor 1:20; 2 Tim 2:13; Titus 1:2; Heb 10:23; 11:11; 1 Pet 4:19; Rev 1:4-5; 19:11<\/p>","summary_ro":"God’s Faithfulness to His People When God established the covenant with his people Israel, it included blessings for obedience and curses for disobedience (see Deut 28:1-68). Many years later, when Solomon had finished dedicating the Temple, the Lord appeared to him and reminded him that if the people were unfaithful to this covenant, sure judgment would follow (1 Kgs 9:6-9). Conversely, if they were faithful, God would dwell among them and never forsake them (6:12-13). God had called the nat...","summary_en":"God’s Faithfulness to His People When God established the covenant with his people Israel, it included blessings for obedience and curses for disobedience (see Deut 28:1-68). Many years later, when Solomon had finished dedicating the Temple, the Lord appeared to him and reminded him that if the people were unfaithful to this covenant, sure judgment would follow (1 Kgs 9:6-9). Conversely, if they were faithful, God would dwell among them and never forsake them (6:12-13). God had called the nat...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":64850,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God’s Commitment to His People","title_en":"God’s Commitment to His People","content_ro":"<h3>God’s Commitment to His People<\/h3>\n<p>Sometimes, from the perspective of God’s people, it seems that God is being slow to fulfill his promises. Abraham and Sarah had to wait twenty-five years from the time God first promised to make of them a great nation until their son Isaac was born. After God promised the kingship to David, David had to endure many trials under the reign of Saul before God finally established him as king. And though God had promised to bring a remnant back to the Promised Land after the Exile, the Jewish captives had to wait seventy years to return. Yet in each case, God indeed brought about the fulfillment of his promises.<\/p>\n<p>Zechariah prophesied around the time that the Temple was being rebuilt after the Exile. At one point during the reconstruction, God told Zechariah not to “despise these small beginnings” (Zech 4:10). God had acted in the past for the ultimate good of his people, even in the exile to Babylon (see 7:12-14). God would accomplish his purposes for Israel’s well-being in his own time and his own way. The people of Israel could take courage in the present and have hope for the future because God keeps his word and fulfills his promises (4:9).<\/p>\n<p>God wants patience and faith from his people, not a strident voice. God kept his word and fulfilled the promises he made indicating that his people would return to Jerusalem and that the Temple would be rebuilt. About five hundred years after Zechariah, God fulfilled the promises that he would bring salvation for all people, by sending Jesus the Messiah into the world. Likewise, Jesus’ words that he will one day return and fully establish his Kingdom can be trusted (see Matt 24:27, 30; see also Acts 1:6-11).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Sam 15:29; 2 Sam 7:28-29; 2 Chr 36:21; Isa 42:1-9; 49:15; Zech 2:13; 4:9-10; 14:3; John 14:1-4; 17:17; Acts 1:6-11; Titus 1:2; Rev 21:5<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God’s Commitment to His People<\/h3>\n<p>Sometimes, from the perspective of God’s people, it seems that God is being slow to fulfill his promises. Abraham and Sarah had to wait twenty-five years from the time God first promised to make of them a great nation until their son Isaac was born. After God promised the kingship to David, David had to endure many trials under the reign of Saul before God finally established him as king. And though God had promised to bring a remnant back to the Promised Land after the Exile, the Jewish captives had to wait seventy years to return. Yet in each case, God indeed brought about the fulfillment of his promises.<\/p>\n<p>Zechariah prophesied around the time that the Temple was being rebuilt after the Exile. At one point during the reconstruction, God told Zechariah not to “despise these small beginnings” (Zech 4:10). God had acted in the past for the ultimate good of his people, even in the exile to Babylon (see 7:12-14). God would accomplish his purposes for Israel’s well-being in his own time and his own way. The people of Israel could take courage in the present and have hope for the future because God keeps his word and fulfills his promises (4:9).<\/p>\n<p>God wants patience and faith from his people, not a strident voice. God kept his word and fulfilled the promises he made indicating that his people would return to Jerusalem and that the Temple would be rebuilt. About five hundred years after Zechariah, God fulfilled the promises that he would bring salvation for all people, by sending Jesus the Messiah into the world. Likewise, Jesus’ words that he will one day return and fully establish his Kingdom can be trusted (see Matt 24:27, 30; see also Acts 1:6-11).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Sam 15:29; 2 Sam 7:28-29; 2 Chr 36:21; Isa 42:1-9; 49:15; Zech 2:13; 4:9-10; 14:3; John 14:1-4; 17:17; Acts 1:6-11; Titus 1:2; Rev 21:5<\/p>","summary_ro":"God’s Commitment to His People Sometimes, from the perspective of God’s people, it seems that God is being slow to fulfill his promises. Abraham and Sarah had to wait twenty-five years from the time God first promised to make of them a great nation until their son Isaac was born. After God promised the kingship to David, David had to endure many trials under the reign of Saul before God finally established him as king. And though God had promised to bring a remnant back to the Promised Land a...","summary_en":"God’s Commitment to His People Sometimes, from the perspective of God’s people, it seems that God is being slow to fulfill his promises. Abraham and Sarah had to wait twenty-five years from the time God first promised to make of them a great nation until their son Isaac was born. After God promised the kingship to David, David had to endure many trials under the reign of Saul before God finally established him as king. And though God had promised to bring a remnant back to the Promised Land a...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":89281,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God’s Faithfulness to His People","title_en":"God’s Faithfulness to His People","content_ro":"<h3>God’s Faithfulness to His People<\/h3>\n<p>When God established the covenant with his people Israel, it included blessings for obedience and curses for disobedience (see Deut 28:1-68). Many years later, when Solomon had finished dedicating the Temple, the Lord appeared to him and reminded him that if the people were unfaithful to this covenant, sure judgment would follow (1 Kgs 9:6-9). Conversely, if they were faithful, God would dwell among them and never forsake them (6:12-13).<\/p>\n<p>God had called the nation Israel to be his covenant people (Exod 19:5-6; 1 Kgs 8:53). Despite this unique identity, the people of Israel were frequently rebellious toward God (see, e.g., Exod 32:1-6; Num 14:1-12; Judg 2:10-15). Even during the height of God’s blessing of Israel (Solomon’s reign) the people “sacrificed their offerings at local places of worship” (3:2), an expression of their ongoing commitment to pagan worship (see also 1 Kgs 11:4-13). Both the northern and southern kingdoms later fell into this sin (12:31-32; 13:2, 32-33; 14:22-24; 15:14; 22:43). Every ruler of the northern kingdom led the people into apostate religious practices, resulting in Israel being sent into exile in 722 <span>BC<\/span>. While the southern kingdom experienced occasional religious reform, such reform would only be temporary, and Judah would ultimately suffer a similar fate in being exiled by the Babylonians in 586 <span>BC<\/span>. Still, God retained a faithful remnant among his people (see, e.g., 1 Kgs 19:18; Isa 10:20-34) and had plans for their future well-being (see Isa 4:2-6; Isa 40:1-11; Jer 30:1-24). In spite of his people’s unfaithfulness, God maintained his love and faithfulness toward them and desired to restore them (Hos 2:1-23).<\/p>\n<p>God still has a people who are his own (1 Cor 1:2; 1 Pet 1:1). Those who follow Christ are his “chosen people” (1 Pet 2:9-10, who constitute the temple of God (2 Cor 6:14–7:1). They have God’s promise that he will never forsake them but will always be faithful to his promises to them (John 14:16; 2 Tim 2:13).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 32:10; Exod 3:13-17; 34:6; Deut 7:9; 31:6; Josh 1:5; 21:45; 2 Sam 7:16; 1 Kgs 6:12-13; 8:29-53; 9:3-9; Pss 31:1-5; 91:4; Isa 40:1-11; 54:8; Lam 3:22-24; Mic 7:18-20; John 14:16; Rom 3:3-4; 11:25-29; 1 Cor 10:13; 2 Cor 1:20; 2 Tim 2:13; Titus 1:2; Heb 10:23; 11:11; 1 Pet 4:19; Rev 1:4-5; 19:11<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God’s Faithfulness to His People<\/h3>\n<p>When God established the covenant with his people Israel, it included blessings for obedience and curses for disobedience (see Deut 28:1-68). Many years later, when Solomon had finished dedicating the Temple, the Lord appeared to him and reminded him that if the people were unfaithful to this covenant, sure judgment would follow (1 Kgs 9:6-9). Conversely, if they were faithful, God would dwell among them and never forsake them (6:12-13).<\/p>\n<p>God had called the nation Israel to be his covenant people (Exod 19:5-6; 1 Kgs 8:53). Despite this unique identity, the people of Israel were frequently rebellious toward God (see, e.g., Exod 32:1-6; Num 14:1-12; Judg 2:10-15). Even during the height of God’s blessing of Israel (Solomon’s reign) the people “sacrificed their offerings at local places of worship” (3:2), an expression of their ongoing commitment to pagan worship (see also 1 Kgs 11:4-13). Both the northern and southern kingdoms later fell into this sin (12:31-32; 13:2, 32-33; 14:22-24; 15:14; 22:43). Every ruler of the northern kingdom led the people into apostate religious practices, resulting in Israel being sent into exile in 722 <span>BC<\/span>. While the southern kingdom experienced occasional religious reform, such reform would only be temporary, and Judah would ultimately suffer a similar fate in being exiled by the Babylonians in 586 <span>BC<\/span>. Still, God retained a faithful remnant among his people (see, e.g., 1 Kgs 19:18; Isa 10:20-34) and had plans for their future well-being (see Isa 4:2-6; Isa 40:1-11; Jer 30:1-24). In spite of his people’s unfaithfulness, God maintained his love and faithfulness toward them and desired to restore them (Hos 2:1-23).<\/p>\n<p>God still has a people who are his own (1 Cor 1:2; 1 Pet 1:1). Those who follow Christ are his “chosen people” (1 Pet 2:9-10, who constitute the temple of God (2 Cor 6:14–7:1). They have God’s promise that he will never forsake them but will always be faithful to his promises to them (John 14:16; 2 Tim 2:13).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 32:10; Exod 3:13-17; 34:6; Deut 7:9; 31:6; Josh 1:5; 21:45; 2 Sam 7:16; 1 Kgs 6:12-13; 8:29-53; 9:3-9; Pss 31:1-5; 91:4; Isa 40:1-11; 54:8; Lam 3:22-24; Mic 7:18-20; John 14:16; Rom 3:3-4; 11:25-29; 1 Cor 10:13; 2 Cor 1:20; 2 Tim 2:13; Titus 1:2; Heb 10:23; 11:11; 1 Pet 4:19; Rev 1:4-5; 19:11<\/p>","summary_ro":"God’s Faithfulness to His People When God established the covenant with his people Israel, it included blessings for obedience and curses for disobedience (see Deut 28:1-68). Many years later, when Solomon had finished dedicating the Temple, the Lord appeared to him and reminded him that if the people were unfaithful to this covenant, sure judgment would follow (1 Kgs 9:6-9). Conversely, if they were faithful, God would dwell among them and never forsake them (6:12-13). God had called the nat...","summary_en":"God’s Faithfulness to His People When God established the covenant with his people Israel, it included blessings for obedience and curses for disobedience (see Deut 28:1-68). Many years later, when Solomon had finished dedicating the Temple, the Lord appeared to him and reminded him that if the people were unfaithful to this covenant, sure judgment would follow (1 Kgs 9:6-9). Conversely, if they were faithful, God would dwell among them and never forsake them (6:12-13). God had called the nat...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":92476,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God’s Commitment to His People","title_en":"God’s Commitment to His People","content_ro":"<h3>God’s Commitment to His People<\/h3>\n<p>Sometimes, from the perspective of God’s people, it seems that God is being slow to fulfill his promises. Abraham and Sarah had to wait twenty-five years from the time God first promised to make of them a great nation until their son Isaac was born. After God promised the kingship to David, David had to endure many trials under the reign of Saul before God finally established him as king. And though God had promised to bring a remnant back to the Promised Land after the Exile, the Jewish captives had to wait seventy years to return. Yet in each case, God indeed brought about the fulfillment of his promises.<\/p>\n<p>Zechariah prophesied around the time that the Temple was being rebuilt after the Exile. At one point during the reconstruction, God told Zechariah not to “despise these small beginnings” (Zech 4:10). God had acted in the past for the ultimate good of his people, even in the exile to Babylon (see 7:12-14). God would accomplish his purposes for Israel’s well-being in his own time and his own way. The people of Israel could take courage in the present and have hope for the future because God keeps his word and fulfills his promises (4:9).<\/p>\n<p>God wants patience and faith from his people, not a strident voice. God kept his word and fulfilled the promises he made indicating that his people would return to Jerusalem and that the Temple would be rebuilt. About five hundred years after Zechariah, God fulfilled the promises that he would bring salvation for all people, by sending Jesus the Messiah into the world. Likewise, Jesus’ words that he will one day return and fully establish his Kingdom can be trusted (see Matt 24:27, 30; see also Acts 1:6-11).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Sam 15:29; 2 Sam 7:28-29; 2 Chr 36:21; Isa 42:1-9; 49:15; Zech 2:13; 4:9-10; 14:3; John 14:1-4; 17:17; Acts 1:6-11; Titus 1:2; Rev 21:5<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God’s Commitment to His People<\/h3>\n<p>Sometimes, from the perspective of God’s people, it seems that God is being slow to fulfill his promises. Abraham and Sarah had to wait twenty-five years from the time God first promised to make of them a great nation until their son Isaac was born. After God promised the kingship to David, David had to endure many trials under the reign of Saul before God finally established him as king. And though God had promised to bring a remnant back to the Promised Land after the Exile, the Jewish captives had to wait seventy years to return. Yet in each case, God indeed brought about the fulfillment of his promises.<\/p>\n<p>Zechariah prophesied around the time that the Temple was being rebuilt after the Exile. At one point during the reconstruction, God told Zechariah not to “despise these small beginnings” (Zech 4:10). God had acted in the past for the ultimate good of his people, even in the exile to Babylon (see 7:12-14). God would accomplish his purposes for Israel’s well-being in his own time and his own way. The people of Israel could take courage in the present and have hope for the future because God keeps his word and fulfills his promises (4:9).<\/p>\n<p>God wants patience and faith from his people, not a strident voice. God kept his word and fulfilled the promises he made indicating that his people would return to Jerusalem and that the Temple would be rebuilt. About five hundred years after Zechariah, God fulfilled the promises that he would bring salvation for all people, by sending Jesus the Messiah into the world. Likewise, Jesus’ words that he will one day return and fully establish his Kingdom can be trusted (see Matt 24:27, 30; see also Acts 1:6-11).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Sam 15:29; 2 Sam 7:28-29; 2 Chr 36:21; Isa 42:1-9; 49:15; Zech 2:13; 4:9-10; 14:3; John 14:1-4; 17:17; Acts 1:6-11; Titus 1:2; Rev 21:5<\/p>","summary_ro":"God’s Commitment to His People Sometimes, from the perspective of God’s people, it seems that God is being slow to fulfill his promises. Abraham and Sarah had to wait twenty-five years from the time God first promised to make of them a great nation until their son Isaac was born. After God promised the kingship to David, David had to endure many trials under the reign of Saul before God finally established him as king. And though God had promised to bring a remnant back to the Promised Land a...","summary_en":"God’s Commitment to His People Sometimes, from the perspective of God’s people, it seems that God is being slow to fulfill his promises. Abraham and Sarah had to wait twenty-five years from the time God first promised to make of them a great nation until their son Isaac was born. After God promised the kingship to David, David had to endure many trials under the reign of Saul before God finally established him as king. And though God had promised to bring a remnant back to the Promised Land a...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":116907,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God’s Faithfulness to His People","title_en":"God’s Faithfulness to His People","content_ro":"<h3>God’s Faithfulness to His People<\/h3>\n<p>When God established the covenant with his people Israel, it included blessings for obedience and curses for disobedience (see Deut 28:1-68). Many years later, when Solomon had finished dedicating the Temple, the Lord appeared to him and reminded him that if the people were unfaithful to this covenant, sure judgment would follow (1 Kgs 9:6-9). Conversely, if they were faithful, God would dwell among them and never forsake them (6:12-13).<\/p>\n<p>God had called the nation Israel to be his covenant people (Exod 19:5-6; 1 Kgs 8:53). Despite this unique identity, the people of Israel were frequently rebellious toward God (see, e.g., Exod 32:1-6; Num 14:1-12; Judg 2:10-15). Even during the height of God’s blessing of Israel (Solomon’s reign) the people “sacrificed their offerings at local places of worship” (3:2), an expression of their ongoing commitment to pagan worship (see also 1 Kgs 11:4-13). Both the northern and southern kingdoms later fell into this sin (12:31-32; 13:2, 32-33; 14:22-24; 15:14; 22:43). Every ruler of the northern kingdom led the people into apostate religious practices, resulting in Israel being sent into exile in 722 <span>BC<\/span>. While the southern kingdom experienced occasional religious reform, such reform would only be temporary, and Judah would ultimately suffer a similar fate in being exiled by the Babylonians in 586 <span>BC<\/span>. Still, God retained a faithful remnant among his people (see, e.g., 1 Kgs 19:18; Isa 10:20-34) and had plans for their future well-being (see Isa 4:2-6; Isa 40:1-11; Jer 30:1-24). In spite of his people’s unfaithfulness, God maintained his love and faithfulness toward them and desired to restore them (Hos 2:1-23).<\/p>\n<p>God still has a people who are his own (1 Cor 1:2; 1 Pet 1:1). Those who follow Christ are his “chosen people” (1 Pet 2:9-10, who constitute the temple of God (2 Cor 6:14–7:1). They have God’s promise that he will never forsake them but will always be faithful to his promises to them (John 14:16; 2 Tim 2:13).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 32:10; Exod 3:13-17; 34:6; Deut 7:9; 31:6; Josh 1:5; 21:45; 2 Sam 7:16; 1 Kgs 6:12-13; 8:29-53; 9:3-9; Pss 31:1-5; 91:4; Isa 40:1-11; 54:8; Lam 3:22-24; Mic 7:18-20; John 14:16; Rom 3:3-4; 11:25-29; 1 Cor 10:13; 2 Cor 1:20; 2 Tim 2:13; Titus 1:2; Heb 10:23; 11:11; 1 Pet 4:19; Rev 1:4-5; 19:11<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God’s Faithfulness to His People<\/h3>\n<p>When God established the covenant with his people Israel, it included blessings for obedience and curses for disobedience (see Deut 28:1-68). Many years later, when Solomon had finished dedicating the Temple, the Lord appeared to him and reminded him that if the people were unfaithful to this covenant, sure judgment would follow (1 Kgs 9:6-9). Conversely, if they were faithful, God would dwell among them and never forsake them (6:12-13).<\/p>\n<p>God had called the nation Israel to be his covenant people (Exod 19:5-6; 1 Kgs 8:53). Despite this unique identity, the people of Israel were frequently rebellious toward God (see, e.g., Exod 32:1-6; Num 14:1-12; Judg 2:10-15). Even during the height of God’s blessing of Israel (Solomon’s reign) the people “sacrificed their offerings at local places of worship” (3:2), an expression of their ongoing commitment to pagan worship (see also 1 Kgs 11:4-13). Both the northern and southern kingdoms later fell into this sin (12:31-32; 13:2, 32-33; 14:22-24; 15:14; 22:43). Every ruler of the northern kingdom led the people into apostate religious practices, resulting in Israel being sent into exile in 722 <span>BC<\/span>. While the southern kingdom experienced occasional religious reform, such reform would only be temporary, and Judah would ultimately suffer a similar fate in being exiled by the Babylonians in 586 <span>BC<\/span>. Still, God retained a faithful remnant among his people (see, e.g., 1 Kgs 19:18; Isa 10:20-34) and had plans for their future well-being (see Isa 4:2-6; Isa 40:1-11; Jer 30:1-24). In spite of his people’s unfaithfulness, God maintained his love and faithfulness toward them and desired to restore them (Hos 2:1-23).<\/p>\n<p>God still has a people who are his own (1 Cor 1:2; 1 Pet 1:1). Those who follow Christ are his “chosen people” (1 Pet 2:9-10, who constitute the temple of God (2 Cor 6:14–7:1). They have God’s promise that he will never forsake them but will always be faithful to his promises to them (John 14:16; 2 Tim 2:13).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 32:10; Exod 3:13-17; 34:6; Deut 7:9; 31:6; Josh 1:5; 21:45; 2 Sam 7:16; 1 Kgs 6:12-13; 8:29-53; 9:3-9; Pss 31:1-5; 91:4; Isa 40:1-11; 54:8; Lam 3:22-24; Mic 7:18-20; John 14:16; Rom 3:3-4; 11:25-29; 1 Cor 10:13; 2 Cor 1:20; 2 Tim 2:13; Titus 1:2; Heb 10:23; 11:11; 1 Pet 4:19; Rev 1:4-5; 19:11<\/p>","summary_ro":"God’s Faithfulness to His People When God established the covenant with his people Israel, it included blessings for obedience and curses for disobedience (see Deut 28:1-68). Many years later, when Solomon had finished dedicating the Temple, the Lord appeared to him and reminded him that if the people were unfaithful to this covenant, sure judgment would follow (1 Kgs 9:6-9). Conversely, if they were faithful, God would dwell among them and never forsake them (6:12-13). God had called the nat...","summary_en":"God’s Faithfulness to His People When God established the covenant with his people Israel, it included blessings for obedience and curses for disobedience (see Deut 28:1-68). Many years later, when Solomon had finished dedicating the Temple, the Lord appeared to him and reminded him that if the people were unfaithful to this covenant, sure judgment would follow (1 Kgs 9:6-9). Conversely, if they were faithful, God would dwell among them and never forsake them (6:12-13). God had called the nat...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":120102,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God’s Commitment to His People","title_en":"God’s Commitment to His People","content_ro":"<h3>God’s Commitment to His People<\/h3>\n<p>Sometimes, from the perspective of God’s people, it seems that God is being slow to fulfill his promises. Abraham and Sarah had to wait twenty-five years from the time God first promised to make of them a great nation until their son Isaac was born. After God promised the kingship to David, David had to endure many trials under the reign of Saul before God finally established him as king. And though God had promised to bring a remnant back to the Promised Land after the Exile, the Jewish captives had to wait seventy years to return. Yet in each case, God indeed brought about the fulfillment of his promises.<\/p>\n<p>Zechariah prophesied around the time that the Temple was being rebuilt after the Exile. At one point during the reconstruction, God told Zechariah not to “despise these small beginnings” (Zech 4:10). God had acted in the past for the ultimate good of his people, even in the exile to Babylon (see 7:12-14). God would accomplish his purposes for Israel’s well-being in his own time and his own way. The people of Israel could take courage in the present and have hope for the future because God keeps his word and fulfills his promises (4:9).<\/p>\n<p>God wants patience and faith from his people, not a strident voice. God kept his word and fulfilled the promises he made indicating that his people would return to Jerusalem and that the Temple would be rebuilt. About five hundred years after Zechariah, God fulfilled the promises that he would bring salvation for all people, by sending Jesus the Messiah into the world. Likewise, Jesus’ words that he will one day return and fully establish his Kingdom can be trusted (see Matt 24:27, 30; see also Acts 1:6-11).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Sam 15:29; 2 Sam 7:28-29; 2 Chr 36:21; Isa 42:1-9; 49:15; Zech 2:13; 4:9-10; 14:3; John 14:1-4; 17:17; Acts 1:6-11; Titus 1:2; Rev 21:5<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God’s Commitment to His People<\/h3>\n<p>Sometimes, from the perspective of God’s people, it seems that God is being slow to fulfill his promises. Abraham and Sarah had to wait twenty-five years from the time God first promised to make of them a great nation until their son Isaac was born. After God promised the kingship to David, David had to endure many trials under the reign of Saul before God finally established him as king. And though God had promised to bring a remnant back to the Promised Land after the Exile, the Jewish captives had to wait seventy years to return. Yet in each case, God indeed brought about the fulfillment of his promises.<\/p>\n<p>Zechariah prophesied around the time that the Temple was being rebuilt after the Exile. At one point during the reconstruction, God told Zechariah not to “despise these small beginnings” (Zech 4:10). God had acted in the past for the ultimate good of his people, even in the exile to Babylon (see 7:12-14). God would accomplish his purposes for Israel’s well-being in his own time and his own way. The people of Israel could take courage in the present and have hope for the future because God keeps his word and fulfills his promises (4:9).<\/p>\n<p>God wants patience and faith from his people, not a strident voice. God kept his word and fulfilled the promises he made indicating that his people would return to Jerusalem and that the Temple would be rebuilt. About five hundred years after Zechariah, God fulfilled the promises that he would bring salvation for all people, by sending Jesus the Messiah into the world. Likewise, Jesus’ words that he will one day return and fully establish his Kingdom can be trusted (see Matt 24:27, 30; see also Acts 1:6-11).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Sam 15:29; 2 Sam 7:28-29; 2 Chr 36:21; Isa 42:1-9; 49:15; Zech 2:13; 4:9-10; 14:3; John 14:1-4; 17:17; Acts 1:6-11; Titus 1:2; Rev 21:5<\/p>","summary_ro":"God’s Commitment to His People Sometimes, from the perspective of God’s people, it seems that God is being slow to fulfill his promises. Abraham and Sarah had to wait twenty-five years from the time God first promised to make of them a great nation until their son Isaac was born. After God promised the kingship to David, David had to endure many trials under the reign of Saul before God finally established him as king. And though God had promised to bring a remnant back to the Promised Land a...","summary_en":"God’s Commitment to His People Sometimes, from the perspective of God’s people, it seems that God is being slow to fulfill his promises. Abraham and Sarah had to wait twenty-five years from the time God first promised to make of them a great nation until their son Isaac was born. After God promised the kingship to David, David had to endure many trials under the reign of Saul before God finally established him as king. And though God had promised to bring a remnant back to the Promised Land a...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":144533,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God’s Faithfulness to His People","title_en":"God’s Faithfulness to His People","content_ro":"<h3>God’s Faithfulness to His People<\/h3>\n<p>When God established the covenant with his people Israel, it included blessings for obedience and curses for disobedience (see Deut 28:1-68). Many years later, when Solomon had finished dedicating the Temple, the Lord appeared to him and reminded him that if the people were unfaithful to this covenant, sure judgment would follow (1 Kgs 9:6-9). Conversely, if they were faithful, God would dwell among them and never forsake them (6:12-13).<\/p>\n<p>God had called the nation Israel to be his covenant people (Exod 19:5-6; 1 Kgs 8:53). Despite this unique identity, the people of Israel were frequently rebellious toward God (see, e.g., Exod 32:1-6; Num 14:1-12; Judg 2:10-15). Even during the height of God’s blessing of Israel (Solomon’s reign) the people “sacrificed their offerings at local places of worship” (3:2), an expression of their ongoing commitment to pagan worship (see also 1 Kgs 11:4-13). Both the northern and southern kingdoms later fell into this sin (12:31-32; 13:2, 32-33; 14:22-24; 15:14; 22:43). Every ruler of the northern kingdom led the people into apostate religious practices, resulting in Israel being sent into exile in 722 <span>BC<\/span>. While the southern kingdom experienced occasional religious reform, such reform would only be temporary, and Judah would ultimately suffer a similar fate in being exiled by the Babylonians in 586 <span>BC<\/span>. Still, God retained a faithful remnant among his people (see, e.g., 1 Kgs 19:18; Isa 10:20-34) and had plans for their future well-being (see Isa 4:2-6; Isa 40:1-11; Jer 30:1-24). In spite of his people’s unfaithfulness, God maintained his love and faithfulness toward them and desired to restore them (Hos 2:1-23).<\/p>\n<p>God still has a people who are his own (1 Cor 1:2; 1 Pet 1:1). Those who follow Christ are his “chosen people” (1 Pet 2:9-10, who constitute the temple of God (2 Cor 6:14–7:1). They have God’s promise that he will never forsake them but will always be faithful to his promises to them (John 14:16; 2 Tim 2:13).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 32:10; Exod 3:13-17; 34:6; Deut 7:9; 31:6; Josh 1:5; 21:45; 2 Sam 7:16; 1 Kgs 6:12-13; 8:29-53; 9:3-9; Pss 31:1-5; 91:4; Isa 40:1-11; 54:8; Lam 3:22-24; Mic 7:18-20; John 14:16; Rom 3:3-4; 11:25-29; 1 Cor 10:13; 2 Cor 1:20; 2 Tim 2:13; Titus 1:2; Heb 10:23; 11:11; 1 Pet 4:19; Rev 1:4-5; 19:11<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God’s Faithfulness to His People<\/h3>\n<p>When God established the covenant with his people Israel, it included blessings for obedience and curses for disobedience (see Deut 28:1-68). Many years later, when Solomon had finished dedicating the Temple, the Lord appeared to him and reminded him that if the people were unfaithful to this covenant, sure judgment would follow (1 Kgs 9:6-9). Conversely, if they were faithful, God would dwell among them and never forsake them (6:12-13).<\/p>\n<p>God had called the nation Israel to be his covenant people (Exod 19:5-6; 1 Kgs 8:53). Despite this unique identity, the people of Israel were frequently rebellious toward God (see, e.g., Exod 32:1-6; Num 14:1-12; Judg 2:10-15). Even during the height of God’s blessing of Israel (Solomon’s reign) the people “sacrificed their offerings at local places of worship” (3:2), an expression of their ongoing commitment to pagan worship (see also 1 Kgs 11:4-13). Both the northern and southern kingdoms later fell into this sin (12:31-32; 13:2, 32-33; 14:22-24; 15:14; 22:43). Every ruler of the northern kingdom led the people into apostate religious practices, resulting in Israel being sent into exile in 722 <span>BC<\/span>. While the southern kingdom experienced occasional religious reform, such reform would only be temporary, and Judah would ultimately suffer a similar fate in being exiled by the Babylonians in 586 <span>BC<\/span>. Still, God retained a faithful remnant among his people (see, e.g., 1 Kgs 19:18; Isa 10:20-34) and had plans for their future well-being (see Isa 4:2-6; Isa 40:1-11; Jer 30:1-24). In spite of his people’s unfaithfulness, God maintained his love and faithfulness toward them and desired to restore them (Hos 2:1-23).<\/p>\n<p>God still has a people who are his own (1 Cor 1:2; 1 Pet 1:1). Those who follow Christ are his “chosen people” (1 Pet 2:9-10, who constitute the temple of God (2 Cor 6:14–7:1). They have God’s promise that he will never forsake them but will always be faithful to his promises to them (John 14:16; 2 Tim 2:13).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 32:10; Exod 3:13-17; 34:6; Deut 7:9; 31:6; Josh 1:5; 21:45; 2 Sam 7:16; 1 Kgs 6:12-13; 8:29-53; 9:3-9; Pss 31:1-5; 91:4; Isa 40:1-11; 54:8; Lam 3:22-24; Mic 7:18-20; John 14:16; Rom 3:3-4; 11:25-29; 1 Cor 10:13; 2 Cor 1:20; 2 Tim 2:13; Titus 1:2; Heb 10:23; 11:11; 1 Pet 4:19; Rev 1:4-5; 19:11<\/p>","summary_ro":"God’s Faithfulness to His People When God established the covenant with his people Israel, it included blessings for obedience and curses for disobedience (see Deut 28:1-68). Many years later, when Solomon had finished dedicating the Temple, the Lord appeared to him and reminded him that if the people were unfaithful to this covenant, sure judgment would follow (1 Kgs 9:6-9). Conversely, if they were faithful, God would dwell among them and never forsake them (6:12-13). God had called the nat...","summary_en":"God’s Faithfulness to His People When God established the covenant with his people Israel, it included blessings for obedience and curses for disobedience (see Deut 28:1-68). Many years later, when Solomon had finished dedicating the Temple, the Lord appeared to him and reminded him that if the people were unfaithful to this covenant, sure judgment would follow (1 Kgs 9:6-9). Conversely, if they were faithful, God would dwell among them and never forsake them (6:12-13). God had called the nat...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":147728,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God’s Commitment to His People","title_en":"God’s Commitment to His People","content_ro":"<h3>God’s Commitment to His People<\/h3>\n<p>Sometimes, from the perspective of God’s people, it seems that God is being slow to fulfill his promises. Abraham and Sarah had to wait twenty-five years from the time God first promised to make of them a great nation until their son Isaac was born. After God promised the kingship to David, David had to endure many trials under the reign of Saul before God finally established him as king. And though God had promised to bring a remnant back to the Promised Land after the Exile, the Jewish captives had to wait seventy years to return. Yet in each case, God indeed brought about the fulfillment of his promises.<\/p>\n<p>Zechariah prophesied around the time that the Temple was being rebuilt after the Exile. At one point during the reconstruction, God told Zechariah not to “despise these small beginnings” (Zech 4:10). God had acted in the past for the ultimate good of his people, even in the exile to Babylon (see 7:12-14). God would accomplish his purposes for Israel’s well-being in his own time and his own way. The people of Israel could take courage in the present and have hope for the future because God keeps his word and fulfills his promises (4:9).<\/p>\n<p>God wants patience and faith from his people, not a strident voice. God kept his word and fulfilled the promises he made indicating that his people would return to Jerusalem and that the Temple would be rebuilt. About five hundred years after Zechariah, God fulfilled the promises that he would bring salvation for all people, by sending Jesus the Messiah into the world. Likewise, Jesus’ words that he will one day return and fully establish his Kingdom can be trusted (see Matt 24:27, 30; see also Acts 1:6-11).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Sam 15:29; 2 Sam 7:28-29; 2 Chr 36:21; Isa 42:1-9; 49:15; Zech 2:13; 4:9-10; 14:3; John 14:1-4; 17:17; Acts 1:6-11; Titus 1:2; Rev 21:5<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God’s Commitment to His People<\/h3>\n<p>Sometimes, from the perspective of God’s people, it seems that God is being slow to fulfill his promises. Abraham and Sarah had to wait twenty-five years from the time God first promised to make of them a great nation until their son Isaac was born. After God promised the kingship to David, David had to endure many trials under the reign of Saul before God finally established him as king. And though God had promised to bring a remnant back to the Promised Land after the Exile, the Jewish captives had to wait seventy years to return. Yet in each case, God indeed brought about the fulfillment of his promises.<\/p>\n<p>Zechariah prophesied around the time that the Temple was being rebuilt after the Exile. At one point during the reconstruction, God told Zechariah not to “despise these small beginnings” (Zech 4:10). God had acted in the past for the ultimate good of his people, even in the exile to Babylon (see 7:12-14). God would accomplish his purposes for Israel’s well-being in his own time and his own way. The people of Israel could take courage in the present and have hope for the future because God keeps his word and fulfills his promises (4:9).<\/p>\n<p>God wants patience and faith from his people, not a strident voice. God kept his word and fulfilled the promises he made indicating that his people would return to Jerusalem and that the Temple would be rebuilt. About five hundred years after Zechariah, God fulfilled the promises that he would bring salvation for all people, by sending Jesus the Messiah into the world. Likewise, Jesus’ words that he will one day return and fully establish his Kingdom can be trusted (see Matt 24:27, 30; see also Acts 1:6-11).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Sam 15:29; 2 Sam 7:28-29; 2 Chr 36:21; Isa 42:1-9; 49:15; Zech 2:13; 4:9-10; 14:3; John 14:1-4; 17:17; Acts 1:6-11; Titus 1:2; Rev 21:5<\/p>","summary_ro":"God’s Commitment to His People Sometimes, from the perspective of God’s people, it seems that God is being slow to fulfill his promises. Abraham and Sarah had to wait twenty-five years from the time God first promised to make of them a great nation until their son Isaac was born. After God promised the kingship to David, David had to endure many trials under the reign of Saul before God finally established him as king. And though God had promised to bring a remnant back to the Promised Land a...","summary_en":"God’s Commitment to His People Sometimes, from the perspective of God’s people, it seems that God is being slow to fulfill his promises. Abraham and Sarah had to wait twenty-five years from the time God first promised to make of them a great nation until their son Isaac was born. After God promised the kingship to David, David had to endure many trials under the reign of Saul before God finally established him as king. And though God had promised to bring a remnant back to the Promised Land a...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"3":[{"id":58652,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Tit 1:3","title_en":"Study Note: Tit 1:3","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:3<\/strong> <em>at just the right time:<\/em> The initiative is entirely with God, who carries out his plan on his own timetable by his own will (see 3:5; 1 Tim 2:6; 2 Tim 1:10). • <em>God our Savior:<\/em> In Titus 1:4, Jesus is also called “our Savior,” identifying Jesus with God (see 2:10, 13; 3:4, 6).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:3<\/strong> <em>at just the right time:<\/em> The initiative is entirely with God, who carries out his plan on his own timetable by his own will (see 3:5; 1 Tim 2:6; 2 Tim 1:10). • <em>God our Savior:<\/em> In Titus 1:4, Jesus is also called “our Savior,” identifying Jesus with God (see 2:10, 13; 3:4, 6).<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:3 at just the right time: The initiative is entirely with God, who carries out his plan on his own timetable by his own will (see 3:5; 1 Tim 2:6; 2 Tim 1:10). • God our Savior: In Titus 1:4, Jesus is also called “our Savior,” identifying Jesus with God (see 2:10, 13; 3:4, 6).","summary_en":"1:3 at just the right time: The initiative is entirely with God, who carries out his plan on his own timetable by his own will (see 3:5; 1 Tim 2:6; 2 Tim 1:10). • God our Savior: In Titus 1:4, Jesus is also called “our Savior,” identifying Jesus with God (see 2:10, 13; 3:4, 6).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":86278,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Tit 1:3","title_en":"Study Note: Tit 1:3","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:3<\/strong> <em>at just the right time:<\/em> The initiative is entirely with God, who carries out his plan on his own timetable by his own will (see 3:5; 1 Tim 2:6; 2 Tim 1:10). • <em>God our Savior:<\/em> In Titus 1:4, Jesus is also called “our Savior,” identifying Jesus with God (see 2:10, 13; 3:4, 6).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:3<\/strong> <em>at just the right time:<\/em> The initiative is entirely with God, who carries out his plan on his own timetable by his own will (see 3:5; 1 Tim 2:6; 2 Tim 1:10). • <em>God our Savior:<\/em> In Titus 1:4, Jesus is also called “our Savior,” identifying Jesus with God (see 2:10, 13; 3:4, 6).<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:3 at just the right time: The initiative is entirely with God, who carries out his plan on his own timetable by his own will (see 3:5; 1 Tim 2:6; 2 Tim 1:10). • God our Savior: In Titus 1:4, Jesus is also called “our Savior,” identifying Jesus with God (see 2:10, 13; 3:4, 6).","summary_en":"1:3 at just the right time: The initiative is entirely with God, who carries out his plan on his own timetable by his own will (see 3:5; 1 Tim 2:6; 2 Tim 1:10). • God our Savior: In Titus 1:4, Jesus is also called “our Savior,” identifying Jesus with God (see 2:10, 13; 3:4, 6).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":113904,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Tit 1:3","title_en":"Study Note: Tit 1:3","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:3<\/strong> <em>at just the right time:<\/em> The initiative is entirely with God, who carries out his plan on his own timetable by his own will (see 3:5; 1 Tim 2:6; 2 Tim 1:10). • <em>God our Savior:<\/em> In Titus 1:4, Jesus is also called “our Savior,” identifying Jesus with God (see 2:10, 13; 3:4, 6).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:3<\/strong> <em>at just the right time:<\/em> The initiative is entirely with God, who carries out his plan on his own timetable by his own will (see 3:5; 1 Tim 2:6; 2 Tim 1:10). • <em>God our Savior:<\/em> In Titus 1:4, Jesus is also called “our Savior,” identifying Jesus with God (see 2:10, 13; 3:4, 6).<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:3 at just the right time: The initiative is entirely with God, who carries out his plan on his own timetable by his own will (see 3:5; 1 Tim 2:6; 2 Tim 1:10). • God our Savior: In Titus 1:4, Jesus is also called “our Savior,” identifying Jesus with God (see 2:10, 13; 3:4, 6).","summary_en":"1:3 at just the right time: The initiative is entirely with God, who carries out his plan on his own timetable by his own will (see 3:5; 1 Tim 2:6; 2 Tim 1:10). • God our Savior: In Titus 1:4, Jesus is also called “our Savior,” identifying Jesus with God (see 2:10, 13; 3:4, 6).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":141530,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Tit 1:3","title_en":"Study Note: Tit 1:3","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:3<\/strong> <em>at just the right time:<\/em> The initiative is entirely with God, who carries out his plan on his own timetable by his own will (see 3:5; 1 Tim 2:6; 2 Tim 1:10). • <em>God our Savior:<\/em> In Titus 1:4, Jesus is also called “our Savior,” identifying Jesus with God (see 2:10, 13; 3:4, 6).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:3<\/strong> <em>at just the right time:<\/em> The initiative is entirely with God, who carries out his plan on his own timetable by his own will (see 3:5; 1 Tim 2:6; 2 Tim 1:10). • <em>God our Savior:<\/em> In Titus 1:4, Jesus is also called “our Savior,” identifying Jesus with God (see 2:10, 13; 3:4, 6).<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:3 at just the right time: The initiative is entirely with God, who carries out his plan on his own timetable by his own will (see 3:5; 1 Tim 2:6; 2 Tim 1:10). • God our Savior: In Titus 1:4, Jesus is also called “our Savior,” identifying Jesus with God (see 2:10, 13; 3:4, 6).","summary_en":"1:3 at just the right time: The initiative is entirely with God, who carries out his plan on his own timetable by his own will (see 3:5; 1 Tim 2:6; 2 Tim 1:10). • God our Savior: In Titus 1:4, Jesus is also called “our Savior,” identifying Jesus with God (see 2:10, 13; 3:4, 6).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"4":[{"id":42808,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Titus","title_en":"Titus","content_ro":"<h3>Titus<\/h3>\n<p>Titus was a Gentile convert who served as one of Paul’s trusted assistants. One of Paul’s last letters was addressed to him, when Titus was helping to consolidate the church at Crete. Titus is an example of the Gentile converts who were so deeply touched by the Good News of Christ that they left their homes and devoted their lives to assisting Paul in the proclamation of the Good News.<\/p>\n<p>We know nothing about Titus’s background or conversion; his name is not mentioned in Acts. We first hear of him as a Gentile believer who accompanied Paul and Barnabas to Jerusalem (Gal 2:1). Significantly, Paul emphasized that Titus was not compelled to be circumcised (Gal 2:3).<\/p>\n<p>Later, as a trusted member of Paul’s team, Titus was sent on special assignments. He was the one sent by Paul to Corinth to deal with a difficult situation there (apparently carrying the demanding letter mentioned in 2 Cor 2:4, 9; 7:8-9). This task required both tact and strong leadership (Titus’s personality seems to have been stronger than Timothy’s; see 1 Cor 16:10-11; 2 Cor 7:13-15; 2 Tim 1:6-7). When Titus returned to Paul with good news (2 Cor 7:6-7, 13-15), Paul sent him back to Corinth carrying the letter we call 2 Corinthians to encourage the believers to complete their money-raising project for the poor believers in Jerusalem. It was an assignment he eagerly accepted because of his love for the Christians in Corinth (2 Cor 7:15; 8:6, 16-17). Paul speaks of him as a person of integrity and as one who is similar to Paul himself (2 Cor 8:23; 12:18).<\/p>\n<p>A few years later, following Paul’s first trial in Rome and subsequent release, Paul left Titus on the island of Crete to help consolidate the church. While Titus was there, Paul wrote his letter to Titus, giving him advice on choosing church leaders and encouraging him to teach and model godly behavior. Paul then asked Titus to meet him at Nicopolis (in Achaia), where Paul hoped to spend the winter (Titus 3:12). Later, shortly before Paul was killed in Rome, he wrote that Titus had gone to Dalmatia (along the Adriatic coast, northwest of modern-day Greece), probably for ministry there (2 Tim 4:10).<\/p>\n<p>The church historian Eusebius refers to an early tradition that Titus eventually settled on Crete, serving as the bishop there until he was quite old (Eusebius, <em>Church History<\/em> 3.4.6).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>2 Cor 2:13; 7:6, 13-14; 8:6, 16-17, 23; 12:18; Gal 2:1, 3; 2 Tim 4:10; Titus 1:4; 2:1<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Titus<\/h3>\n<p>Titus was a Gentile convert who served as one of Paul’s trusted assistants. One of Paul’s last letters was addressed to him, when Titus was helping to consolidate the church at Crete. Titus is an example of the Gentile converts who were so deeply touched by the Good News of Christ that they left their homes and devoted their lives to assisting Paul in the proclamation of the Good News.<\/p>\n<p>We know nothing about Titus’s background or conversion; his name is not mentioned in Acts. We first hear of him as a Gentile believer who accompanied Paul and Barnabas to Jerusalem (Gal 2:1). Significantly, Paul emphasized that Titus was not compelled to be circumcised (Gal 2:3).<\/p>\n<p>Later, as a trusted member of Paul’s team, Titus was sent on special assignments. He was the one sent by Paul to Corinth to deal with a difficult situation there (apparently carrying the demanding letter mentioned in 2 Cor 2:4, 9; 7:8-9). This task required both tact and strong leadership (Titus’s personality seems to have been stronger than Timothy’s; see 1 Cor 16:10-11; 2 Cor 7:13-15; 2 Tim 1:6-7). When Titus returned to Paul with good news (2 Cor 7:6-7, 13-15), Paul sent him back to Corinth carrying the letter we call 2 Corinthians to encourage the believers to complete their money-raising project for the poor believers in Jerusalem. It was an assignment he eagerly accepted because of his love for the Christians in Corinth (2 Cor 7:15; 8:6, 16-17). Paul speaks of him as a person of integrity and as one who is similar to Paul himself (2 Cor 8:23; 12:18).<\/p>\n<p>A few years later, following Paul’s first trial in Rome and subsequent release, Paul left Titus on the island of Crete to help consolidate the church. While Titus was there, Paul wrote his letter to Titus, giving him advice on choosing church leaders and encouraging him to teach and model godly behavior. Paul then asked Titus to meet him at Nicopolis (in Achaia), where Paul hoped to spend the winter (Titus 3:12). Later, shortly before Paul was killed in Rome, he wrote that Titus had gone to Dalmatia (along the Adriatic coast, northwest of modern-day Greece), probably for ministry there (2 Tim 4:10).<\/p>\n<p>The church historian Eusebius refers to an early tradition that Titus eventually settled on Crete, serving as the bishop there until he was quite old (Eusebius, <em>Church History<\/em> 3.4.6).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>2 Cor 2:13; 7:6, 13-14; 8:6, 16-17, 23; 12:18; Gal 2:1, 3; 2 Tim 4:10; Titus 1:4; 2:1<\/p>","summary_ro":"Titus Titus was a Gentile convert who served as one of Paul’s trusted assistants. One of Paul’s last letters was addressed to him, when Titus was helping to consolidate the church at Crete. Titus is an example of the Gentile converts who were so deeply touched by the Good News of Christ that they left their homes and devoted their lives to assisting Paul in the proclamation of the Good News. We know nothing about Titus’s background or conversion; his name is not mentioned in Acts. We first he...","summary_en":"Titus Titus was a Gentile convert who served as one of Paul’s trusted assistants. One of Paul’s last letters was addressed to him, when Titus was helping to consolidate the church at Crete. Titus is an example of the Gentile converts who were so deeply touched by the Good News of Christ that they left their homes and devoted their lives to assisting Paul in the proclamation of the Good News. We know nothing about Titus’s background or conversion; his name is not mentioned in Acts. We first he...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":70434,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Titus","title_en":"Titus","content_ro":"<h3>Titus<\/h3>\n<p>Titus was a Gentile convert who served as one of Paul’s trusted assistants. One of Paul’s last letters was addressed to him, when Titus was helping to consolidate the church at Crete. Titus is an example of the Gentile converts who were so deeply touched by the Good News of Christ that they left their homes and devoted their lives to assisting Paul in the proclamation of the Good News.<\/p>\n<p>We know nothing about Titus’s background or conversion; his name is not mentioned in Acts. We first hear of him as a Gentile believer who accompanied Paul and Barnabas to Jerusalem (Gal 2:1). Significantly, Paul emphasized that Titus was not compelled to be circumcised (Gal 2:3).<\/p>\n<p>Later, as a trusted member of Paul’s team, Titus was sent on special assignments. He was the one sent by Paul to Corinth to deal with a difficult situation there (apparently carrying the demanding letter mentioned in 2 Cor 2:4, 9; 7:8-9). This task required both tact and strong leadership (Titus’s personality seems to have been stronger than Timothy’s; see 1 Cor 16:10-11; 2 Cor 7:13-15; 2 Tim 1:6-7). When Titus returned to Paul with good news (2 Cor 7:6-7, 13-15), Paul sent him back to Corinth carrying the letter we call 2 Corinthians to encourage the believers to complete their money-raising project for the poor believers in Jerusalem. It was an assignment he eagerly accepted because of his love for the Christians in Corinth (2 Cor 7:15; 8:6, 16-17). Paul speaks of him as a person of integrity and as one who is similar to Paul himself (2 Cor 8:23; 12:18).<\/p>\n<p>A few years later, following Paul’s first trial in Rome and subsequent release, Paul left Titus on the island of Crete to help consolidate the church. While Titus was there, Paul wrote his letter to Titus, giving him advice on choosing church leaders and encouraging him to teach and model godly behavior. Paul then asked Titus to meet him at Nicopolis (in Achaia), where Paul hoped to spend the winter (Titus 3:12). Later, shortly before Paul was killed in Rome, he wrote that Titus had gone to Dalmatia (along the Adriatic coast, northwest of modern-day Greece), probably for ministry there (2 Tim 4:10).<\/p>\n<p>The church historian Eusebius refers to an early tradition that Titus eventually settled on Crete, serving as the bishop there until he was quite old (Eusebius, <em>Church History<\/em> 3.4.6).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>2 Cor 2:13; 7:6, 13-14; 8:6, 16-17, 23; 12:18; Gal 2:1, 3; 2 Tim 4:10; Titus 1:4; 2:1<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Titus<\/h3>\n<p>Titus was a Gentile convert who served as one of Paul’s trusted assistants. One of Paul’s last letters was addressed to him, when Titus was helping to consolidate the church at Crete. Titus is an example of the Gentile converts who were so deeply touched by the Good News of Christ that they left their homes and devoted their lives to assisting Paul in the proclamation of the Good News.<\/p>\n<p>We know nothing about Titus’s background or conversion; his name is not mentioned in Acts. We first hear of him as a Gentile believer who accompanied Paul and Barnabas to Jerusalem (Gal 2:1). Significantly, Paul emphasized that Titus was not compelled to be circumcised (Gal 2:3).<\/p>\n<p>Later, as a trusted member of Paul’s team, Titus was sent on special assignments. He was the one sent by Paul to Corinth to deal with a difficult situation there (apparently carrying the demanding letter mentioned in 2 Cor 2:4, 9; 7:8-9). This task required both tact and strong leadership (Titus’s personality seems to have been stronger than Timothy’s; see 1 Cor 16:10-11; 2 Cor 7:13-15; 2 Tim 1:6-7). When Titus returned to Paul with good news (2 Cor 7:6-7, 13-15), Paul sent him back to Corinth carrying the letter we call 2 Corinthians to encourage the believers to complete their money-raising project for the poor believers in Jerusalem. It was an assignment he eagerly accepted because of his love for the Christians in Corinth (2 Cor 7:15; 8:6, 16-17). Paul speaks of him as a person of integrity and as one who is similar to Paul himself (2 Cor 8:23; 12:18).<\/p>\n<p>A few years later, following Paul’s first trial in Rome and subsequent release, Paul left Titus on the island of Crete to help consolidate the church. While Titus was there, Paul wrote his letter to Titus, giving him advice on choosing church leaders and encouraging him to teach and model godly behavior. Paul then asked Titus to meet him at Nicopolis (in Achaia), where Paul hoped to spend the winter (Titus 3:12). Later, shortly before Paul was killed in Rome, he wrote that Titus had gone to Dalmatia (along the Adriatic coast, northwest of modern-day Greece), probably for ministry there (2 Tim 4:10).<\/p>\n<p>The church historian Eusebius refers to an early tradition that Titus eventually settled on Crete, serving as the bishop there until he was quite old (Eusebius, <em>Church History<\/em> 3.4.6).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>2 Cor 2:13; 7:6, 13-14; 8:6, 16-17, 23; 12:18; Gal 2:1, 3; 2 Tim 4:10; Titus 1:4; 2:1<\/p>","summary_ro":"Titus Titus was a Gentile convert who served as one of Paul’s trusted assistants. One of Paul’s last letters was addressed to him, when Titus was helping to consolidate the church at Crete. Titus is an example of the Gentile converts who were so deeply touched by the Good News of Christ that they left their homes and devoted their lives to assisting Paul in the proclamation of the Good News. We know nothing about Titus’s background or conversion; his name is not mentioned in Acts. We first he...","summary_en":"Titus Titus was a Gentile convert who served as one of Paul’s trusted assistants. One of Paul’s last letters was addressed to him, when Titus was helping to consolidate the church at Crete. Titus is an example of the Gentile converts who were so deeply touched by the Good News of Christ that they left their homes and devoted their lives to assisting Paul in the proclamation of the Good News. We know nothing about Titus’s background or conversion; his name is not mentioned in Acts. We first he...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":98060,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Titus","title_en":"Titus","content_ro":"<h3>Titus<\/h3>\n<p>Titus was a Gentile convert who served as one of Paul’s trusted assistants. One of Paul’s last letters was addressed to him, when Titus was helping to consolidate the church at Crete. Titus is an example of the Gentile converts who were so deeply touched by the Good News of Christ that they left their homes and devoted their lives to assisting Paul in the proclamation of the Good News.<\/p>\n<p>We know nothing about Titus’s background or conversion; his name is not mentioned in Acts. We first hear of him as a Gentile believer who accompanied Paul and Barnabas to Jerusalem (Gal 2:1). Significantly, Paul emphasized that Titus was not compelled to be circumcised (Gal 2:3).<\/p>\n<p>Later, as a trusted member of Paul’s team, Titus was sent on special assignments. He was the one sent by Paul to Corinth to deal with a difficult situation there (apparently carrying the demanding letter mentioned in 2 Cor 2:4, 9; 7:8-9). This task required both tact and strong leadership (Titus’s personality seems to have been stronger than Timothy’s; see 1 Cor 16:10-11; 2 Cor 7:13-15; 2 Tim 1:6-7). When Titus returned to Paul with good news (2 Cor 7:6-7, 13-15), Paul sent him back to Corinth carrying the letter we call 2 Corinthians to encourage the believers to complete their money-raising project for the poor believers in Jerusalem. It was an assignment he eagerly accepted because of his love for the Christians in Corinth (2 Cor 7:15; 8:6, 16-17). Paul speaks of him as a person of integrity and as one who is similar to Paul himself (2 Cor 8:23; 12:18).<\/p>\n<p>A few years later, following Paul’s first trial in Rome and subsequent release, Paul left Titus on the island of Crete to help consolidate the church. While Titus was there, Paul wrote his letter to Titus, giving him advice on choosing church leaders and encouraging him to teach and model godly behavior. Paul then asked Titus to meet him at Nicopolis (in Achaia), where Paul hoped to spend the winter (Titus 3:12). Later, shortly before Paul was killed in Rome, he wrote that Titus had gone to Dalmatia (along the Adriatic coast, northwest of modern-day Greece), probably for ministry there (2 Tim 4:10).<\/p>\n<p>The church historian Eusebius refers to an early tradition that Titus eventually settled on Crete, serving as the bishop there until he was quite old (Eusebius, <em>Church History<\/em> 3.4.6).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>2 Cor 2:13; 7:6, 13-14; 8:6, 16-17, 23; 12:18; Gal 2:1, 3; 2 Tim 4:10; Titus 1:4; 2:1<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Titus<\/h3>\n<p>Titus was a Gentile convert who served as one of Paul’s trusted assistants. One of Paul’s last letters was addressed to him, when Titus was helping to consolidate the church at Crete. Titus is an example of the Gentile converts who were so deeply touched by the Good News of Christ that they left their homes and devoted their lives to assisting Paul in the proclamation of the Good News.<\/p>\n<p>We know nothing about Titus’s background or conversion; his name is not mentioned in Acts. We first hear of him as a Gentile believer who accompanied Paul and Barnabas to Jerusalem (Gal 2:1). Significantly, Paul emphasized that Titus was not compelled to be circumcised (Gal 2:3).<\/p>\n<p>Later, as a trusted member of Paul’s team, Titus was sent on special assignments. He was the one sent by Paul to Corinth to deal with a difficult situation there (apparently carrying the demanding letter mentioned in 2 Cor 2:4, 9; 7:8-9). This task required both tact and strong leadership (Titus’s personality seems to have been stronger than Timothy’s; see 1 Cor 16:10-11; 2 Cor 7:13-15; 2 Tim 1:6-7). When Titus returned to Paul with good news (2 Cor 7:6-7, 13-15), Paul sent him back to Corinth carrying the letter we call 2 Corinthians to encourage the believers to complete their money-raising project for the poor believers in Jerusalem. It was an assignment he eagerly accepted because of his love for the Christians in Corinth (2 Cor 7:15; 8:6, 16-17). Paul speaks of him as a person of integrity and as one who is similar to Paul himself (2 Cor 8:23; 12:18).<\/p>\n<p>A few years later, following Paul’s first trial in Rome and subsequent release, Paul left Titus on the island of Crete to help consolidate the church. While Titus was there, Paul wrote his letter to Titus, giving him advice on choosing church leaders and encouraging him to teach and model godly behavior. Paul then asked Titus to meet him at Nicopolis (in Achaia), where Paul hoped to spend the winter (Titus 3:12). Later, shortly before Paul was killed in Rome, he wrote that Titus had gone to Dalmatia (along the Adriatic coast, northwest of modern-day Greece), probably for ministry there (2 Tim 4:10).<\/p>\n<p>The church historian Eusebius refers to an early tradition that Titus eventually settled on Crete, serving as the bishop there until he was quite old (Eusebius, <em>Church History<\/em> 3.4.6).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>2 Cor 2:13; 7:6, 13-14; 8:6, 16-17, 23; 12:18; Gal 2:1, 3; 2 Tim 4:10; Titus 1:4; 2:1<\/p>","summary_ro":"Titus Titus was a Gentile convert who served as one of Paul’s trusted assistants. One of Paul’s last letters was addressed to him, when Titus was helping to consolidate the church at Crete. Titus is an example of the Gentile converts who were so deeply touched by the Good News of Christ that they left their homes and devoted their lives to assisting Paul in the proclamation of the Good News. We know nothing about Titus’s background or conversion; his name is not mentioned in Acts. We first he...","summary_en":"Titus Titus was a Gentile convert who served as one of Paul’s trusted assistants. One of Paul’s last letters was addressed to him, when Titus was helping to consolidate the church at Crete. Titus is an example of the Gentile converts who were so deeply touched by the Good News of Christ that they left their homes and devoted their lives to assisting Paul in the proclamation of the Good News. We know nothing about Titus’s background or conversion; his name is not mentioned in Acts. We first he...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":125686,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Titus","title_en":"Titus","content_ro":"<h3>Titus<\/h3>\n<p>Titus was a Gentile convert who served as one of Paul’s trusted assistants. One of Paul’s last letters was addressed to him, when Titus was helping to consolidate the church at Crete. Titus is an example of the Gentile converts who were so deeply touched by the Good News of Christ that they left their homes and devoted their lives to assisting Paul in the proclamation of the Good News.<\/p>\n<p>We know nothing about Titus’s background or conversion; his name is not mentioned in Acts. We first hear of him as a Gentile believer who accompanied Paul and Barnabas to Jerusalem (Gal 2:1). Significantly, Paul emphasized that Titus was not compelled to be circumcised (Gal 2:3).<\/p>\n<p>Later, as a trusted member of Paul’s team, Titus was sent on special assignments. He was the one sent by Paul to Corinth to deal with a difficult situation there (apparently carrying the demanding letter mentioned in 2 Cor 2:4, 9; 7:8-9). This task required both tact and strong leadership (Titus’s personality seems to have been stronger than Timothy’s; see 1 Cor 16:10-11; 2 Cor 7:13-15; 2 Tim 1:6-7). When Titus returned to Paul with good news (2 Cor 7:6-7, 13-15), Paul sent him back to Corinth carrying the letter we call 2 Corinthians to encourage the believers to complete their money-raising project for the poor believers in Jerusalem. It was an assignment he eagerly accepted because of his love for the Christians in Corinth (2 Cor 7:15; 8:6, 16-17). Paul speaks of him as a person of integrity and as one who is similar to Paul himself (2 Cor 8:23; 12:18).<\/p>\n<p>A few years later, following Paul’s first trial in Rome and subsequent release, Paul left Titus on the island of Crete to help consolidate the church. While Titus was there, Paul wrote his letter to Titus, giving him advice on choosing church leaders and encouraging him to teach and model godly behavior. Paul then asked Titus to meet him at Nicopolis (in Achaia), where Paul hoped to spend the winter (Titus 3:12). Later, shortly before Paul was killed in Rome, he wrote that Titus had gone to Dalmatia (along the Adriatic coast, northwest of modern-day Greece), probably for ministry there (2 Tim 4:10).<\/p>\n<p>The church historian Eusebius refers to an early tradition that Titus eventually settled on Crete, serving as the bishop there until he was quite old (Eusebius, <em>Church History<\/em> 3.4.6).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>2 Cor 2:13; 7:6, 13-14; 8:6, 16-17, 23; 12:18; Gal 2:1, 3; 2 Tim 4:10; Titus 1:4; 2:1<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Titus<\/h3>\n<p>Titus was a Gentile convert who served as one of Paul’s trusted assistants. One of Paul’s last letters was addressed to him, when Titus was helping to consolidate the church at Crete. Titus is an example of the Gentile converts who were so deeply touched by the Good News of Christ that they left their homes and devoted their lives to assisting Paul in the proclamation of the Good News.<\/p>\n<p>We know nothing about Titus’s background or conversion; his name is not mentioned in Acts. We first hear of him as a Gentile believer who accompanied Paul and Barnabas to Jerusalem (Gal 2:1). Significantly, Paul emphasized that Titus was not compelled to be circumcised (Gal 2:3).<\/p>\n<p>Later, as a trusted member of Paul’s team, Titus was sent on special assignments. He was the one sent by Paul to Corinth to deal with a difficult situation there (apparently carrying the demanding letter mentioned in 2 Cor 2:4, 9; 7:8-9). This task required both tact and strong leadership (Titus’s personality seems to have been stronger than Timothy’s; see 1 Cor 16:10-11; 2 Cor 7:13-15; 2 Tim 1:6-7). When Titus returned to Paul with good news (2 Cor 7:6-7, 13-15), Paul sent him back to Corinth carrying the letter we call 2 Corinthians to encourage the believers to complete their money-raising project for the poor believers in Jerusalem. It was an assignment he eagerly accepted because of his love for the Christians in Corinth (2 Cor 7:15; 8:6, 16-17). Paul speaks of him as a person of integrity and as one who is similar to Paul himself (2 Cor 8:23; 12:18).<\/p>\n<p>A few years later, following Paul’s first trial in Rome and subsequent release, Paul left Titus on the island of Crete to help consolidate the church. While Titus was there, Paul wrote his letter to Titus, giving him advice on choosing church leaders and encouraging him to teach and model godly behavior. Paul then asked Titus to meet him at Nicopolis (in Achaia), where Paul hoped to spend the winter (Titus 3:12). Later, shortly before Paul was killed in Rome, he wrote that Titus had gone to Dalmatia (along the Adriatic coast, northwest of modern-day Greece), probably for ministry there (2 Tim 4:10).<\/p>\n<p>The church historian Eusebius refers to an early tradition that Titus eventually settled on Crete, serving as the bishop there until he was quite old (Eusebius, <em>Church History<\/em> 3.4.6).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>2 Cor 2:13; 7:6, 13-14; 8:6, 16-17, 23; 12:18; Gal 2:1, 3; 2 Tim 4:10; Titus 1:4; 2:1<\/p>","summary_ro":"Titus Titus was a Gentile convert who served as one of Paul’s trusted assistants. One of Paul’s last letters was addressed to him, when Titus was helping to consolidate the church at Crete. Titus is an example of the Gentile converts who were so deeply touched by the Good News of Christ that they left their homes and devoted their lives to assisting Paul in the proclamation of the Good News. We know nothing about Titus’s background or conversion; his name is not mentioned in Acts. We first he...","summary_en":"Titus Titus was a Gentile convert who served as one of Paul’s trusted assistants. One of Paul’s last letters was addressed to him, when Titus was helping to consolidate the church at Crete. Titus is an example of the Gentile converts who were so deeply touched by the Good News of Christ that they left their homes and devoted their lives to assisting Paul in the proclamation of the Good News. We know nothing about Titus’s background or conversion; his name is not mentioned in Acts. We first he...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":37358,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"First Letter to Timothy","title_en":"First Letter to Timothy","content_ro":"<h3>TIMOTHY, First Letter to<\/h3>\n<p>The first of Paul’s epistles to his young coworker Timothy.<\/p>\n<p>The authorship, date, and background of 1 Timothy must be considered together with those of the other two Pastoral Epistles, 2 Timothy and Titus, which were written to two young coworkers to help them deal with pastoral problems in the churches of Ephesus and Crete.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Theology<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>In 1 Timothy, as in 2 Timothy and Titus, Paul is named as the author in the first verse. And Paul’s name is the only one assigned as author in the tradition of the early church since the time of Irenaeus (c. <span>AD<\/span> 185). Throughout all three letters are many personal references to the life of Paul, which constitute strong evidence that he was truly the author.<\/p>\n<p>However, some scholars object to Pauline authorship on the following grounds:<\/p>\n<p>1. The Greek vocabulary contains a large number of words that are not found in the other Pauline letters.<\/p>\n<p>But the subject matter in these letters is also different. In the Pastoral Epistles the author is dealing with the more technical matters of church organization and discipline—a church leader writing to other leaders. Paul was a highly educated man, with a large vocabulary at his disposal. None of the words peculiar to the Pastoral Letters would have been beyond Paul’s own vocabulary. And if these weren’t his words, they may have come from the scribes that Paul regularly used to compose his epistles.<\/p>\n<li>2. There are notes about Paul’s journeys that do not fit into the journeys described in the book of Acts.<\/li>\n<p>To believe that Paul wrote the Pastorals and did the things described in them, he must have been released from Roman imprisonment and then traveled to Crete, Ephesus, and Macedonia. These later journeys may not have been mentioned in Acts because the writer of Acts concluded this book with Paul’s imprisonment in Rome. There is some legal evidence that Paul would automatically have been released after two years, if he had not been convicted by that time.<\/p>\n<li>3. The advanced development of the church described in the pastorals proves a date later than the life of Paul. Elders, bishops, and deacons are mentioned.<\/li>\n<p>However, elders existed in OT times and bishops, as officers within local churches, are almost certainly the same as elders. In addition, Paul refers to deacons elsewhere in his letters, such as Philippians 1:1.<\/p>\n<p>Most conservative scholars, and many others as well, believe very strongly that Paul did write all three of the Pastoral Letters.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Date\">Date<\/p>\n<p>Assuming that Paul wrote the Pastorals, 1 Timothy would have been written after his release from the first Roman imprisonment, about <span>AD<\/span> 61 or 62, and before his second Roman imprisonment, somewhere between 64 and 67, the date of the death of Nero. As to the place, Paul left Timothy in Ephesus and then went on to Macedonia (1 Tm 1:3), where he may have written 1 Timothy. The letter was, of course, written to Timothy at Ephesus.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>Paul left Timothy in charge of the church at Ephesus (1:2-3). Paul wanted to go to the Roman province of Asia, of which Ephesus was the chief city, on his second missionary journey, but the Spirit did not allow him to do so. He went on to Macedonia and Greece (Acts 16:6). He briefly visited Ephesus as he was completing his second journey (18:19-20). Then on his third journey he made Ephesus the center of his activity and spent three years there (19:1–20:1). During his first Roman imprisonment, he wrote an encyclical letter to Ephesus and the nearby churches. Only a few years later, he wrote 1 Timothy to Timothy at Ephesus.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Theology\">Theology<\/p>\n<p>In general, the theology of 1 Timothy is consistent with that of the other Pauline letters and of the NT as a whole. The sovereignty and love of God are clearly presented time and again throughout the letter. Jesus is always presented as being truly God as well as man. Salvation is by faith in God through Christ. The law will not save a person, because all people have broken it. Yet the law is good and is God’s guide for the saved person in living a life pleasing to God.<\/p>\n<p>The church occupies a large place in the letter. All Christians should be a part of the church. They gain much from the church for the development of Christian character, and they can serve God far more effectively in the church than apart from it. The church needs organization to do its work effectively. And the church must strive always to avoid heresy and to teach the truths of the gospel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Salutation (1:1-2)<\/h5>\n<p>The author names himself, Paul, and describes himself as an apostle, chosen by God and authorized by God the Father and his Son, Christ Jesus. Paul had the right to speak words of authority to the young pastor and to the church.<\/p>\n<p>The letter is written to Timothy, Paul’s beloved spiritual child, to whom Paul gave his triple blessing—grace, mercy, and peace from God.<\/p>\n<h5>Dealing with Heresy (1:3-20)<\/h5>\n<p>One of the reasons Paul left Timothy in Ephesus was that he wanted him to “stop those who are teaching wrong doctrine” (1:3). Paul believed that what a person believed was as important as what he did. The heresy here is described as an early form of the Gnostic heresy, a dangerous heresy plaguing the church for centuries.<\/p>\n<p>These early Gnostics claimed to have a deeper insight into truth than the average Christian. They separated God as Spirit from man as matter. For Gnostics, the bridge between the two was made up of innumerable angels of various ranks, emanations, aeons, and such, rather than the one mediator, Jesus Christ. They argued about myths and fables. They sought salvation by finding favor with an endless chain of angels rather than by accepting God’s salvation by faith. But only the grace of God can save sinners, as Paul himself knew well.<\/p>\n<h5>Correct Worship in the Church (2:1-15)<\/h5>\n<p>“I urge that supplications, prayers, intercessions, and thanksgivings be made for all men” (2:1, <span>rsv<\/span>). Prayer is an exceedingly important part of the worship of the Christian church. Paul emphasized the importance of special prayer for persons in high places of authority in the state (even though the state was the Roman Empire with Nero as its emperor). Paul had taught this clearly in Romans 13, and Jesus had told his disciples to give to Caesar the things that belonged to him (Mt 22:17).<\/p>\n<p>Christian men and women should pray to God, lifting up holy hands to him, hands free from sin and anger and resentment. Paul specifically urged the sisters as follows: “And I want women to be modest in their appearance. They should wear decent and appropriate clothing and not draw attention to themselves by the way they fix their hair or by wearing gold or pearls or expensive clothes. For women who claim to be devoted to God should make themselves attractive by the good things they do” (1 Tm 2:9-10, <span>nlt<\/span>). Then Paul said, “I do not let women teach men or have authority over them” (v 12). This did not mean, however, that they could not function orally in the church meetings. According to Acts and 1 Corinthians, it is quite clear that women prayed, prophesied, and testified in church meetings. But teaching was reserved for the men because it was the duty of the elders (who were male) to be the teachers. Thus, teaching and exercising authority went hand in hand.<\/p>\n<h5>Proper Organization in the Church (3:1–5:25)<\/h5>\n<p>The first issue to resolve about the organization of the early church had to do with who the bishops were. The first verse of this section reads, “If any one aspires to the office of bishop, he desires a noble task” (3:1, <span>rsv<\/span>). In all the Pastoral Epistles, the bishop is clearly an officer within a local church rather than an official over a group of churches, such as the office of the episcopal bishop, which developed in the early second century. And in the light of Titus 1:4-6, where Paul passed directly from elders to bishops, most scholars believe that Paul used the two terms interchangeably. Timothy himself would be the closest thing to a modern pastor in the church, and there were elders (bishops) and deacons assisting him in governing the church.<\/p>\n<p>To be an elder in the church is a worthy aspiration. But a person must have high qualifications to be elected to such a responsible position. He should be respected by other members of the church and by those outside the church. Most of the qualifications are quite clear but several of them deserve some attention.<\/p>\n<p>“Now a bishop must be above reproach, the husband of one wife” (3:2, <span>rsv<\/span>). The Greek says literally, “a man of one woman.” That would clearly prohibit polygamy and eliminate a man who was unfaithful to his wife. It would probably eliminate neither a man who had been divorced and remarried nor a bachelor who had never had a wife. The church should insist that its official leaders conform to a high view of sexual morality.<\/p>\n<p>The elder should be able to discipline his own family life if he is to exert discipline in the church. The man also should not be a drunkard. Paul did not demand total abstinence, but he clearly demanded that an elder not be a person under the domination of strong drink. And a person occupying the high office of elder should not be a new Christian (lit. a neophyte), lest this go to his head and keep him from being a good elder. All in all, only a person of excellent character should be elected to the high office of elder, or bishop, in the church.<\/p>\n<p>Then Paul went on to speak about the office of the deacon: “In the same way, deacons must be people who are respected and have integrity” (3:8, <span>nlt<\/span>). The qualifications for the deacons are virtually the same as those for elders. Before being elected as deacons, they should have experience in church work. First Timothy 3:11 applies the same qualifications to women aspiring to be deacons and\/or to wives of deacons (<span>nlt<\/span> mg). Verse 12 continues with the qualifications of deacons in general.<\/p>\n<p>In chapter 4 Paul urges Timothy to exercise his leadership in the church, especially in his relation to the heretics. Some of the Gnostic heretics taught a false kind of asceticism, forbidding marriage and the eating of various foods. But God has given these things to be used and appreciated for God’s glory. Timothy’s pastoral duty was to teach his people God’s truths and not to allow himself to be caught up in arguing about the heretics’ godless and silly myths (4:7). Paul urged Timothy to keep his spirit fit by constant spiritual exercise, which was even more important than exercise of the body.<\/p>\n<p>Paul recognized that Timothy was a young man, and that some of the older Christians might be tempted to look down upon his youth. Timothy should strive even harder to deserve their admiration—“in speech and conduct, in love, in faith, in purity” (4:12). Because God had called Timothy and the church had ordained him by the laying on of hands, Timothy should strive to live up to these high responsibilities.<\/p>\n<p>Paul gave Timothy practical advice as to how a young preacher should deal with the different age and sex groups in the church. He should treat the older men as his own father, the older women as his mother, the younger men as his brothers, and the younger women as his sisters—adding significantly, “in all purity” (5:2).<\/p>\n<p>Paul also told Timothy how to deal with the problem of widows. At that time, when few women could work and before the days of insurance and Social Security, women who had lost their husbands were in a hopeless situation. The early church developed a roll for widows that would enable it to minister to their needs. Younger widows were to be encouraged to marry again and get new husbands to support them. Able families should recognize their responsibility to take care of their own needy ones. The church, then, would have the responsibility of taking care of the older widows who had no families to take care of them. The church, with its charitable obligations, must use its limited means responsibly, wisely, and fairly so that the greatest possible good can result.<\/p>\n<p>Even in the early church, church leaders were paid for their work. Paul said that they should “be considered worthy of double honor” (5:17). Church leaders should not be chosen or ordained too quickly. Their sins should not be overlooked. Even Timothy himself was warned to keep himself free from sin. The section ends with another treatment of the sins of church leaders (vv 24-25). When the sins are clear, the sinner must be disciplined by the church. At times, a person’s sins are not evident to other people, but God knows them and will deal with them. Conversely, the same is true about the many good deeds of the leaders.<\/p>\n<h5>Some Practical Teaching about the Christian Life (6:1-21)<\/h5>\n<p>Slavery was a recognized institution in those days. Christian slaves should be good slaves, and Christian masters should be good masters. After many centuries, Christian principles would bring slavery to an end, but it would have been impossible for Paul or anyone else at that time to lead a crusade for the abolition of slavery.<\/p>\n<p>Timothy was urged to avoid the teaching of the heretics but to be faithful in teaching the positive truths of the gospel.<\/p>\n<p>Two sections (6:6-10, 17-19) deal with the Christian’s attitude toward wealth. Here Paul closely followed the teachings of Jesus. Money can be made into a false god and bring all kinds of evil to the church member. But it can also be used in the service of God and be changed into treasure stored in heaven.<\/p>\n<p>Finally, in two sections (6:11-16, 20-21), Paul encouraged Timothy to strive to do his very best to be truly God’s man. He should fight a good fight as a soldier of God. This life will often be hard, but Timothy should keep his eyes fixed on the second coming of the glorious Christ.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Timothy, Second Letter to; Titus, Letter to.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>TIMOTHY, First Letter to<\/h3>\n<p>The first of Paul’s epistles to his young coworker Timothy.<\/p>\n<p>The authorship, date, and background of 1 Timothy must be considered together with those of the other two Pastoral Epistles, 2 Timothy and Titus, which were written to two young coworkers to help them deal with pastoral problems in the churches of Ephesus and Crete.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Theology<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>In 1 Timothy, as in 2 Timothy and Titus, Paul is named as the author in the first verse. And Paul’s name is the only one assigned as author in the tradition of the early church since the time of Irenaeus (c. <span>AD<\/span> 185). Throughout all three letters are many personal references to the life of Paul, which constitute strong evidence that he was truly the author.<\/p>\n<p>However, some scholars object to Pauline authorship on the following grounds:<\/p>\n<p>1. The Greek vocabulary contains a large number of words that are not found in the other Pauline letters.<\/p>\n<p>But the subject matter in these letters is also different. In the Pastoral Epistles the author is dealing with the more technical matters of church organization and discipline—a church leader writing to other leaders. Paul was a highly educated man, with a large vocabulary at his disposal. None of the words peculiar to the Pastoral Letters would have been beyond Paul’s own vocabulary. And if these weren’t his words, they may have come from the scribes that Paul regularly used to compose his epistles.<\/p>\n<li>2. There are notes about Paul’s journeys that do not fit into the journeys described in the book of Acts.<\/li>\n<p>To believe that Paul wrote the Pastorals and did the things described in them, he must have been released from Roman imprisonment and then traveled to Crete, Ephesus, and Macedonia. These later journeys may not have been mentioned in Acts because the writer of Acts concluded this book with Paul’s imprisonment in Rome. There is some legal evidence that Paul would automatically have been released after two years, if he had not been convicted by that time.<\/p>\n<li>3. The advanced development of the church described in the pastorals proves a date later than the life of Paul. Elders, bishops, and deacons are mentioned.<\/li>\n<p>However, elders existed in OT times and bishops, as officers within local churches, are almost certainly the same as elders. In addition, Paul refers to deacons elsewhere in his letters, such as Philippians 1:1.<\/p>\n<p>Most conservative scholars, and many others as well, believe very strongly that Paul did write all three of the Pastoral Letters.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Date\">Date<\/p>\n<p>Assuming that Paul wrote the Pastorals, 1 Timothy would have been written after his release from the first Roman imprisonment, about <span>AD<\/span> 61 or 62, and before his second Roman imprisonment, somewhere between 64 and 67, the date of the death of Nero. As to the place, Paul left Timothy in Ephesus and then went on to Macedonia (1 Tm 1:3), where he may have written 1 Timothy. The letter was, of course, written to Timothy at Ephesus.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>Paul left Timothy in charge of the church at Ephesus (1:2-3). Paul wanted to go to the Roman province of Asia, of which Ephesus was the chief city, on his second missionary journey, but the Spirit did not allow him to do so. He went on to Macedonia and Greece (Acts 16:6). He briefly visited Ephesus as he was completing his second journey (18:19-20). Then on his third journey he made Ephesus the center of his activity and spent three years there (19:1–20:1). During his first Roman imprisonment, he wrote an encyclical letter to Ephesus and the nearby churches. Only a few years later, he wrote 1 Timothy to Timothy at Ephesus.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Theology\">Theology<\/p>\n<p>In general, the theology of 1 Timothy is consistent with that of the other Pauline letters and of the NT as a whole. The sovereignty and love of God are clearly presented time and again throughout the letter. Jesus is always presented as being truly God as well as man. Salvation is by faith in God through Christ. The law will not save a person, because all people have broken it. Yet the law is good and is God’s guide for the saved person in living a life pleasing to God.<\/p>\n<p>The church occupies a large place in the letter. All Christians should be a part of the church. They gain much from the church for the development of Christian character, and they can serve God far more effectively in the church than apart from it. The church needs organization to do its work effectively. And the church must strive always to avoid heresy and to teach the truths of the gospel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Salutation (1:1-2)<\/h5>\n<p>The author names himself, Paul, and describes himself as an apostle, chosen by God and authorized by God the Father and his Son, Christ Jesus. Paul had the right to speak words of authority to the young pastor and to the church.<\/p>\n<p>The letter is written to Timothy, Paul’s beloved spiritual child, to whom Paul gave his triple blessing—grace, mercy, and peace from God.<\/p>\n<h5>Dealing with Heresy (1:3-20)<\/h5>\n<p>One of the reasons Paul left Timothy in Ephesus was that he wanted him to “stop those who are teaching wrong doctrine” (1:3). Paul believed that what a person believed was as important as what he did. The heresy here is described as an early form of the Gnostic heresy, a dangerous heresy plaguing the church for centuries.<\/p>\n<p>These early Gnostics claimed to have a deeper insight into truth than the average Christian. They separated God as Spirit from man as matter. For Gnostics, the bridge between the two was made up of innumerable angels of various ranks, emanations, aeons, and such, rather than the one mediator, Jesus Christ. They argued about myths and fables. They sought salvation by finding favor with an endless chain of angels rather than by accepting God’s salvation by faith. But only the grace of God can save sinners, as Paul himself knew well.<\/p>\n<h5>Correct Worship in the Church (2:1-15)<\/h5>\n<p>“I urge that supplications, prayers, intercessions, and thanksgivings be made for all men” (2:1, <span>rsv<\/span>). Prayer is an exceedingly important part of the worship of the Christian church. Paul emphasized the importance of special prayer for persons in high places of authority in the state (even though the state was the Roman Empire with Nero as its emperor). Paul had taught this clearly in Romans 13, and Jesus had told his disciples to give to Caesar the things that belonged to him (Mt 22:17).<\/p>\n<p>Christian men and women should pray to God, lifting up holy hands to him, hands free from sin and anger and resentment. Paul specifically urged the sisters as follows: “And I want women to be modest in their appearance. They should wear decent and appropriate clothing and not draw attention to themselves by the way they fix their hair or by wearing gold or pearls or expensive clothes. For women who claim to be devoted to God should make themselves attractive by the good things they do” (1 Tm 2:9-10, <span>nlt<\/span>). Then Paul said, “I do not let women teach men or have authority over them” (v 12). This did not mean, however, that they could not function orally in the church meetings. According to Acts and 1 Corinthians, it is quite clear that women prayed, prophesied, and testified in church meetings. But teaching was reserved for the men because it was the duty of the elders (who were male) to be the teachers. Thus, teaching and exercising authority went hand in hand.<\/p>\n<h5>Proper Organization in the Church (3:1–5:25)<\/h5>\n<p>The first issue to resolve about the organization of the early church had to do with who the bishops were. The first verse of this section reads, “If any one aspires to the office of bishop, he desires a noble task” (3:1, <span>rsv<\/span>). In all the Pastoral Epistles, the bishop is clearly an officer within a local church rather than an official over a group of churches, such as the office of the episcopal bishop, which developed in the early second century. And in the light of Titus 1:4-6, where Paul passed directly from elders to bishops, most scholars believe that Paul used the two terms interchangeably. Timothy himself would be the closest thing to a modern pastor in the church, and there were elders (bishops) and deacons assisting him in governing the church.<\/p>\n<p>To be an elder in the church is a worthy aspiration. But a person must have high qualifications to be elected to such a responsible position. He should be respected by other members of the church and by those outside the church. Most of the qualifications are quite clear but several of them deserve some attention.<\/p>\n<p>“Now a bishop must be above reproach, the husband of one wife” (3:2, <span>rsv<\/span>). The Greek says literally, “a man of one woman.” That would clearly prohibit polygamy and eliminate a man who was unfaithful to his wife. It would probably eliminate neither a man who had been divorced and remarried nor a bachelor who had never had a wife. The church should insist that its official leaders conform to a high view of sexual morality.<\/p>\n<p>The elder should be able to discipline his own family life if he is to exert discipline in the church. The man also should not be a drunkard. Paul did not demand total abstinence, but he clearly demanded that an elder not be a person under the domination of strong drink. And a person occupying the high office of elder should not be a new Christian (lit. a neophyte), lest this go to his head and keep him from being a good elder. All in all, only a person of excellent character should be elected to the high office of elder, or bishop, in the church.<\/p>\n<p>Then Paul went on to speak about the office of the deacon: “In the same way, deacons must be people who are respected and have integrity” (3:8, <span>nlt<\/span>). The qualifications for the deacons are virtually the same as those for elders. Before being elected as deacons, they should have experience in church work. First Timothy 3:11 applies the same qualifications to women aspiring to be deacons and\/or to wives of deacons (<span>nlt<\/span> mg). Verse 12 continues with the qualifications of deacons in general.<\/p>\n<p>In chapter 4 Paul urges Timothy to exercise his leadership in the church, especially in his relation to the heretics. Some of the Gnostic heretics taught a false kind of asceticism, forbidding marriage and the eating of various foods. But God has given these things to be used and appreciated for God’s glory. Timothy’s pastoral duty was to teach his people God’s truths and not to allow himself to be caught up in arguing about the heretics’ godless and silly myths (4:7). Paul urged Timothy to keep his spirit fit by constant spiritual exercise, which was even more important than exercise of the body.<\/p>\n<p>Paul recognized that Timothy was a young man, and that some of the older Christians might be tempted to look down upon his youth. Timothy should strive even harder to deserve their admiration—“in speech and conduct, in love, in faith, in purity” (4:12). Because God had called Timothy and the church had ordained him by the laying on of hands, Timothy should strive to live up to these high responsibilities.<\/p>\n<p>Paul gave Timothy practical advice as to how a young preacher should deal with the different age and sex groups in the church. He should treat the older men as his own father, the older women as his mother, the younger men as his brothers, and the younger women as his sisters—adding significantly, “in all purity” (5:2).<\/p>\n<p>Paul also told Timothy how to deal with the problem of widows. At that time, when few women could work and before the days of insurance and Social Security, women who had lost their husbands were in a hopeless situation. The early church developed a roll for widows that would enable it to minister to their needs. Younger widows were to be encouraged to marry again and get new husbands to support them. Able families should recognize their responsibility to take care of their own needy ones. The church, then, would have the responsibility of taking care of the older widows who had no families to take care of them. The church, with its charitable obligations, must use its limited means responsibly, wisely, and fairly so that the greatest possible good can result.<\/p>\n<p>Even in the early church, church leaders were paid for their work. Paul said that they should “be considered worthy of double honor” (5:17). Church leaders should not be chosen or ordained too quickly. Their sins should not be overlooked. Even Timothy himself was warned to keep himself free from sin. The section ends with another treatment of the sins of church leaders (vv 24-25). When the sins are clear, the sinner must be disciplined by the church. At times, a person’s sins are not evident to other people, but God knows them and will deal with them. Conversely, the same is true about the many good deeds of the leaders.<\/p>\n<h5>Some Practical Teaching about the Christian Life (6:1-21)<\/h5>\n<p>Slavery was a recognized institution in those days. Christian slaves should be good slaves, and Christian masters should be good masters. After many centuries, Christian principles would bring slavery to an end, but it would have been impossible for Paul or anyone else at that time to lead a crusade for the abolition of slavery.<\/p>\n<p>Timothy was urged to avoid the teaching of the heretics but to be faithful in teaching the positive truths of the gospel.<\/p>\n<p>Two sections (6:6-10, 17-19) deal with the Christian’s attitude toward wealth. Here Paul closely followed the teachings of Jesus. Money can be made into a false god and bring all kinds of evil to the church member. But it can also be used in the service of God and be changed into treasure stored in heaven.<\/p>\n<p>Finally, in two sections (6:11-16, 20-21), Paul encouraged Timothy to strive to do his very best to be truly God’s man. He should fight a good fight as a soldier of God. This life will often be hard, but Timothy should keep his eyes fixed on the second coming of the glorious Christ.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Timothy, Second Letter to; Titus, Letter to.<\/p>","summary_ro":"TIMOTHY, First Letter to The first of Paul’s epistles to his young coworker Timothy. The authorship, date, and background of 1 Timothy must be considered together with those of the other two Pastoral Epistles, 2 Timothy and Titus, which were written to two young coworkers to help them deal with pastoral problems in the churches of Ephesus and Crete. Preview • Author • Date • Background • Theology • Content Author In 1 Timothy, as in 2 Timothy and Titus, Paul is named as the author in the firs...","summary_en":"TIMOTHY, First Letter to The first of Paul’s epistles to his young coworker Timothy. The authorship, date, and background of 1 Timothy must be considered together with those of the other two Pastoral Epistles, 2 Timothy and Titus, which were written to two young coworkers to help them deal with pastoral problems in the churches of Ephesus and Crete. Preview • Author • Date • Background • Theology • Content Author In 1 Timothy, as in 2 Timothy and Titus, Paul is named as the author in the firs...","source":"Articles\/T.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":37429,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Titus (Person)","title_en":"Titus (Person)","content_ro":"<h3>TITUS (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<li>1. One of Paul’s converts—“my true child in a common faith” (Ti 1:4, <span>nasb<\/span>)—who became an intimate and trusted associate of the apostle in his mission of planting Christianity throughout the Mediterranean world (2 Cor 8:23; 2 Tm 4:10; Ti 1:4-5). Mentioned frequently in Paul’s letters (eight times in 2 Corinthians, twice in Galatians, once each in 2 Timothy and Titus), his name occurs nowhere in Acts. This is a puzzling silence that some scholars have sought to explain with the fascinating, but uncertain, suggestion that he was a brother of Luke, the author of Acts.<\/li>\n<p>Unlike Timothy, who was half Jewish, Titus was born of gentile parents. Nothing is recorded of the circumstances surrounding his conversion and initial encounter with Paul. He is first introduced as a companion of Paul and Barnabas on a visit to Jerusalem (Gal 2:3). The occasion appears to have been the Jerusalem Council, about <span>AD<\/span> 50, which Paul and Barnabas attended as official delegates from the church at Antioch not long after the apostle’s first missionary journey (Acts 15).<\/p>\n<p>With the hotly contested issue of compulsory circumcision of gentile converts to Christianity before the council, Paul decided to make a test case of Titus. The council decided in Paul’s favor against the Judaizing party, and Titus was accepted by the other apostles and leaders of the Jerusalem church without submitting to the rite of circumcision. Thus, Titus became a key figure in the liberation of the infant church from the Judaizing party.<\/p>\n<p>Titus probably accompanied Paul from that time on, but he does not appear again until Paul’s crisis with the church at Corinth during his third missionary journey. According to 2 Corinthians, while Paul was conducting an extended ministry in Ephesus, he received word that the Corinthian church had turned hostile toward him and renounced his apostolic authority. Other attempts at reconciliation having failed, he sent Titus to Corinth to try to repair the breach. When Titus rejoined Paul somewhere in Macedonia, where the apostle had traveled from Ephesus to meet him, Titus brought the good news that the attitude of the Corinthians had changed and their former love and friendship were now restored (2 Cor 7:6-7). In view of this development Paul sent Titus back to Corinth, carrying 2 Corinthians, which included instructions to complete the collection of the relief offering for the Jewish Christians of Judea (8:6, 16). In this venture also Titus was apparently successful (Rom 15:25-26).<\/p>\n\n<p>Assuming that Paul was released after his first Roman imprisonment, it appears that Titus accompanied him on a mission to the island of Crete. On departing from Crete, Paul left Titus behind to consolidate the new Christian movement there (Ti 1:5). The assignment was difficult, for the Cretans were unruly and the struggling church was already invaded by false teachers (vv 10-16). His handling of the Corinthian problem some years before, however, demonstrated that Titus possessed the spiritual earnestness, skillful diplomacy, and loving concern required to meet the present challenge, and Paul was confident that this new commission was therefore safe in his hands.<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s letter to Titus, one of his three Pastoral Letters, was written somewhat later to encourage Titus in his Cretan ministry. The letter closes with the apostle’s request that Titus join him at Nicopolis, a town on the west coast of Greece, where he planned to spend the winter (Ti 3:12). Most likely it was from Nicopolis, or else later from Rome (where the apostle was imprisoned again and eventually martyred), that Paul sent Titus on the mission to Dalmatia, a Roman province in what is now Yugoslavia (see 2 Tm 4:10). If later tradition is correct, Titus returned to Crete, where he served as bishop until he was an old man.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Titus, Letter to.<\/p>\n<li>2. Variant spelling of a gentile proselyte in Corinth, to whose house Paul went after the Jewish community in general rejected his message (Acts 18:7). Better manuscript evidence names him as Titius Justus. <em>See<\/em> Justus #2.<\/li>\n<li>3. Vespasian’s son; the emperor of Rome from <span>AD<\/span> 79–81. <em>See<\/em> Caesars, The.<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>TITUS (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<li>1. One of Paul’s converts—“my true child in a common faith” (Ti 1:4, <span>nasb<\/span>)—who became an intimate and trusted associate of the apostle in his mission of planting Christianity throughout the Mediterranean world (2 Cor 8:23; 2 Tm 4:10; Ti 1:4-5). Mentioned frequently in Paul’s letters (eight times in 2 Corinthians, twice in Galatians, once each in 2 Timothy and Titus), his name occurs nowhere in Acts. This is a puzzling silence that some scholars have sought to explain with the fascinating, but uncertain, suggestion that he was a brother of Luke, the author of Acts.<\/li>\n<p>Unlike Timothy, who was half Jewish, Titus was born of gentile parents. Nothing is recorded of the circumstances surrounding his conversion and initial encounter with Paul. He is first introduced as a companion of Paul and Barnabas on a visit to Jerusalem (Gal 2:3). The occasion appears to have been the Jerusalem Council, about <span>AD<\/span> 50, which Paul and Barnabas attended as official delegates from the church at Antioch not long after the apostle’s first missionary journey (Acts 15).<\/p>\n<p>With the hotly contested issue of compulsory circumcision of gentile converts to Christianity before the council, Paul decided to make a test case of Titus. The council decided in Paul’s favor against the Judaizing party, and Titus was accepted by the other apostles and leaders of the Jerusalem church without submitting to the rite of circumcision. Thus, Titus became a key figure in the liberation of the infant church from the Judaizing party.<\/p>\n<p>Titus probably accompanied Paul from that time on, but he does not appear again until Paul’s crisis with the church at Corinth during his third missionary journey. According to 2 Corinthians, while Paul was conducting an extended ministry in Ephesus, he received word that the Corinthian church had turned hostile toward him and renounced his apostolic authority. Other attempts at reconciliation having failed, he sent Titus to Corinth to try to repair the breach. When Titus rejoined Paul somewhere in Macedonia, where the apostle had traveled from Ephesus to meet him, Titus brought the good news that the attitude of the Corinthians had changed and their former love and friendship were now restored (2 Cor 7:6-7). In view of this development Paul sent Titus back to Corinth, carrying 2 Corinthians, which included instructions to complete the collection of the relief offering for the Jewish Christians of Judea (8:6, 16). In this venture also Titus was apparently successful (Rom 15:25-26).<\/p>\n\n<p>Assuming that Paul was released after his first Roman imprisonment, it appears that Titus accompanied him on a mission to the island of Crete. On departing from Crete, Paul left Titus behind to consolidate the new Christian movement there (Ti 1:5). The assignment was difficult, for the Cretans were unruly and the struggling church was already invaded by false teachers (vv 10-16). His handling of the Corinthian problem some years before, however, demonstrated that Titus possessed the spiritual earnestness, skillful diplomacy, and loving concern required to meet the present challenge, and Paul was confident that this new commission was therefore safe in his hands.<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s letter to Titus, one of his three Pastoral Letters, was written somewhat later to encourage Titus in his Cretan ministry. The letter closes with the apostle’s request that Titus join him at Nicopolis, a town on the west coast of Greece, where he planned to spend the winter (Ti 3:12). Most likely it was from Nicopolis, or else later from Rome (where the apostle was imprisoned again and eventually martyred), that Paul sent Titus on the mission to Dalmatia, a Roman province in what is now Yugoslavia (see 2 Tm 4:10). If later tradition is correct, Titus returned to Crete, where he served as bishop until he was an old man.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Titus, Letter to.<\/p>\n<li>2. Variant spelling of a gentile proselyte in Corinth, to whose house Paul went after the Jewish community in general rejected his message (Acts 18:7). Better manuscript evidence names him as Titius Justus. <em>See<\/em> Justus #2.<\/li>\n<li>3. Vespasian’s son; the emperor of Rome from <span>AD<\/span> 79–81. <em>See<\/em> Caesars, The.<\/li>","summary_ro":"TITUS (Person) 1. One of Paul’s converts—“my true child in a common faith” (Ti 1:4, nasb)—who became an intimate and trusted associate of the apostle in his mission of planting Christianity throughout the Mediterranean world (2 Cor 8:23; 2 Tm 4:10; Ti 1:4-5). Mentioned frequently in Paul’s letters (eight times in 2 Corinthians, twice in Galatians, once each in 2 Timothy and Titus), his name occurs nowhere in Acts. This is a puzzling silence that some scholars have sought to explain with the f...","summary_en":"TITUS (Person) 1. One of Paul’s converts—“my true child in a common faith” (Ti 1:4, nasb)—who became an intimate and trusted associate of the apostle in his mission of planting Christianity throughout the Mediterranean world (2 Cor 8:23; 2 Tm 4:10; Ti 1:4-5). Mentioned frequently in Paul’s letters (eight times in 2 Corinthians, twice in Galatians, once each in 2 Timothy and Titus), his name occurs nowhere in Acts. This is a puzzling silence that some scholars have sought to explain with the f...","source":"Articles\/T.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":37443,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Letter to Titus","title_en":"Letter to Titus","content_ro":"<h3>TITUS, Letter to<\/h3>\n<p>Paul’s epistle to his coworker, Titus.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Recipient<\/p>\n<p>• Date<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose and Teaching<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>Though this letter begins with the name and greeting of Paul (Ti 1:1-3), Paul’s authorship has been questioned by modern scholars on the grounds of its language and style, the church situation it presents, and the way that it sets forth Christian teaching. But Pauline authorship has been stoutly defended by eminent scholars and careful students who have argued that there is no reason for supposing that this epistle was written by someone else using Paul’s name, after the apostle himself had died. The differences in this epistle and Paul’s other letters are explained previously in the section on “Author” in the article “Timothy, First Letter to.”<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Recipient\">Recipient<\/p>\n<p>Titus appears to have been one of Paul’s most trusted and valuable coworkers. Paul speaks of him (2 Cor 8:23) as “my partner and coworker.” According to Titus 1:4, he owed his conversion to Paul. It is clear from Galatians 2:1-4 that he was a Gentile, as his was a test case whether gentile Christians should be compelled to be circumcised. At that time Titus was with Paul and Barnabas in Jerusalem. Much later, at the time of Paul’s third missionary journey, he had two delicate missions to carry out for Paul in Corinth: the first pertained to the strained relationship between the apostle and the Corinthian Christians; the second related to the gentile collection for the Jerusalem church (2 Cor 2:12-13; 7:5-16; 8:1-24). If 2 Timothy 4:9-18 was written at the end of Paul’s life, then Titus went to Dalmatia after the time of this letter.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Date\">Date<\/p>\n<p>To date this letter with precision is difficult. Titus was left by the apostle in Crete to continue his work (Ti 1:5). Paul was in Crete briefly on his voyage to Rome (Acts 27:7-13), but that could not have been the occasion referred to. In 3:12 Titus is called to come to Nicopolis (probably the Nicopolis in Epirus in Greece), as Paul had decided to winter there. Many have favored the view that after Paul’s first imprisonment in Rome (Acts 28:16-31) he was released, carried out further ministry in various places (including Spain, Crete, and Greece), and then was arrested, imprisoned a second time, and finally put to death. Those who do not accept Pauline authorship of Titus, date this letter, like 1 and 2 Timothy, in the generation that followed Paul’s death.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeandTeaching\">Purpose and Teaching<\/p>\n<p>Although this letter is addressed to an individual colleague of the apostle, it has a minimum of personal references and exhortations. The growing and developing churches in Crete were Paul’s main concern. They were being bothered by false teachings that appear to have had Jewish elements, ascetic emphases, and a great deal of speculative discussion (Ti 1:10, 14-15: 3:9). In short, it seems that they were dealing with an early Jewish form of Gnosticism. Its advocates promoted this teaching “for base gain” (1:11, <span>rsv<\/span>). Titus and those whom he would appoint as elders were called upon to refute the wrong teaching and to provide the believers with healthy teaching (v 9). Though this healthy teaching is not specified, it must have pertained to the saving grace of God in Christ, the renewing work of the Holy Spirit, and the future coming of the Lord Jesus (2:11-13; 3:4-7). In this letter there is constant emphasis on the lifestyle that bears out the truth of the gospel—with application to different groups in the Christian community: older men and women, young women, young men, and slaves.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Salutation (1:1-4)<\/h5>\n<p>Greetings come from Paul—whose apostleship is described as a stewardship of the gospel that promotes faith and strengthens the knowledge of the truth, hope of eternal life, and godliness of living—to Titus, spoken of as “my true son in our common faith.”<\/p>\n<h5>Titus’s Work in Crete (1:5-9)<\/h5>\n<p>Titus was left behind in Crete to continue Paul’s work and to appoint elders in every church (cf. Acts 14:23). These elders are also called bishops (cf. 20:17, 28)—that is, those with oversight of the church. The necessary qualities of life for these positions are described (cf. 1 Tm 3:2-7).<\/p>\n<h5>Dealing with False Teachings (1:10-16)<\/h5>\n<p>The closing words of the previous section speak about the responsibility of elders “to encourage others with right teaching and show those who oppose it where they are wrong” (<span>nlt<\/span>). The opposers were upsetting people, indeed “whole families,” by teaching what was not true. These false teachers were described by Paul in terms disparaging of Cretans, and as people whose lives do not demonstrate the knowledge of God that they professed to have.<\/p>\n<h5>Promoting Right Teaching (2:1-10)<\/h5>\n<p>Titus had a particular responsibility to “promote the kind of living that reflects right teaching.” He was charged to exhort the older men to exercise self-control (2:2), and he was supposed to teach the older women to live godly lives (v 3). In turn, these women were supposed to train the younger women to live pure and loving lives in their homes so that no one will malign the word of God (vv 4-5). Younger men were to show self-control (v 6), and Titus himself was to be an example in word and life so that the opponents would have nothing bad to say about the Christians (vv 7-8). Finally, in this section slaves are taught to submit to their masters, to give good and honest service with the motivation that “then they will make the teaching about God our Savior attractive in every way” (v 10, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<h5>God’s Grace (2:11-15)<\/h5>\n<p>What has been said leads now to a great statement of the purpose of the revelation of the grace of God in Jesus Christ: to bring salvation to all people, who will make a complete break with godless and sensual living so that they may live upright lives with the constant expectancy of the coming again of “our great God and Savior Jesus Christ.” Their lives will show them to be a people who are God’s very own, always eager to do what is right.<\/p>\n<h5>Doing What Is Good (3:1-8)<\/h5>\n<p>In this section, Paul encourages Titus to tell the Christians at Crete that it is their duty to submit to rulers (cf. Rom 13:1-7; 1 Pt 2:13-17) and to be available in the community for honest work. Again, the quality of lifestyle is emphasized—in particular, courtesy and the desire for peace in relationships with others. This lifestyle comes from spiritual transformation. The means of that transformation is the saving work of Christ—not merited, but entirely of his mercy. He has brought cleansing from sin, “rebirth and renewal by the Holy Spirit.”<\/p>\n<h5>Paul’s Final Remarks and Greetings (3:9-15)<\/h5>\n<p>In this final section, Paul encourages Titus to avoid those who like to debate about religion for the sake of debating. And he tells Titus how to deal with those who cause divisions.<\/p>\n<p>Following this, Paul tells Titus that he will send him Artemas (not mentioned otherwise in the NT) or Tychicus. Then he encourages Titus to take care of Apollos and Zenas if they pass by Crete. Titus himself is supposed to come to Paul in Nicopolis before winter.<\/p>\n<p>The epistle closes with a final exhortation to “good deeds” and to a spiritually fruitful life.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Paul, The Apostle; Timothy, First Letter to; Timothy, Second Letter to; Titus (Person) #1.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>TITUS, Letter to<\/h3>\n<p>Paul’s epistle to his coworker, Titus.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Recipient<\/p>\n<p>• Date<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose and Teaching<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>Though this letter begins with the name and greeting of Paul (Ti 1:1-3), Paul’s authorship has been questioned by modern scholars on the grounds of its language and style, the church situation it presents, and the way that it sets forth Christian teaching. But Pauline authorship has been stoutly defended by eminent scholars and careful students who have argued that there is no reason for supposing that this epistle was written by someone else using Paul’s name, after the apostle himself had died. The differences in this epistle and Paul’s other letters are explained previously in the section on “Author” in the article “Timothy, First Letter to.”<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Recipient\">Recipient<\/p>\n<p>Titus appears to have been one of Paul’s most trusted and valuable coworkers. Paul speaks of him (2 Cor 8:23) as “my partner and coworker.” According to Titus 1:4, he owed his conversion to Paul. It is clear from Galatians 2:1-4 that he was a Gentile, as his was a test case whether gentile Christians should be compelled to be circumcised. At that time Titus was with Paul and Barnabas in Jerusalem. Much later, at the time of Paul’s third missionary journey, he had two delicate missions to carry out for Paul in Corinth: the first pertained to the strained relationship between the apostle and the Corinthian Christians; the second related to the gentile collection for the Jerusalem church (2 Cor 2:12-13; 7:5-16; 8:1-24). If 2 Timothy 4:9-18 was written at the end of Paul’s life, then Titus went to Dalmatia after the time of this letter.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Date\">Date<\/p>\n<p>To date this letter with precision is difficult. Titus was left by the apostle in Crete to continue his work (Ti 1:5). Paul was in Crete briefly on his voyage to Rome (Acts 27:7-13), but that could not have been the occasion referred to. In 3:12 Titus is called to come to Nicopolis (probably the Nicopolis in Epirus in Greece), as Paul had decided to winter there. Many have favored the view that after Paul’s first imprisonment in Rome (Acts 28:16-31) he was released, carried out further ministry in various places (including Spain, Crete, and Greece), and then was arrested, imprisoned a second time, and finally put to death. Those who do not accept Pauline authorship of Titus, date this letter, like 1 and 2 Timothy, in the generation that followed Paul’s death.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeandTeaching\">Purpose and Teaching<\/p>\n<p>Although this letter is addressed to an individual colleague of the apostle, it has a minimum of personal references and exhortations. The growing and developing churches in Crete were Paul’s main concern. They were being bothered by false teachings that appear to have had Jewish elements, ascetic emphases, and a great deal of speculative discussion (Ti 1:10, 14-15: 3:9). In short, it seems that they were dealing with an early Jewish form of Gnosticism. Its advocates promoted this teaching “for base gain” (1:11, <span>rsv<\/span>). Titus and those whom he would appoint as elders were called upon to refute the wrong teaching and to provide the believers with healthy teaching (v 9). Though this healthy teaching is not specified, it must have pertained to the saving grace of God in Christ, the renewing work of the Holy Spirit, and the future coming of the Lord Jesus (2:11-13; 3:4-7). In this letter there is constant emphasis on the lifestyle that bears out the truth of the gospel—with application to different groups in the Christian community: older men and women, young women, young men, and slaves.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Salutation (1:1-4)<\/h5>\n<p>Greetings come from Paul—whose apostleship is described as a stewardship of the gospel that promotes faith and strengthens the knowledge of the truth, hope of eternal life, and godliness of living—to Titus, spoken of as “my true son in our common faith.”<\/p>\n<h5>Titus’s Work in Crete (1:5-9)<\/h5>\n<p>Titus was left behind in Crete to continue Paul’s work and to appoint elders in every church (cf. Acts 14:23). These elders are also called bishops (cf. 20:17, 28)—that is, those with oversight of the church. The necessary qualities of life for these positions are described (cf. 1 Tm 3:2-7).<\/p>\n<h5>Dealing with False Teachings (1:10-16)<\/h5>\n<p>The closing words of the previous section speak about the responsibility of elders “to encourage others with right teaching and show those who oppose it where they are wrong” (<span>nlt<\/span>). The opposers were upsetting people, indeed “whole families,” by teaching what was not true. These false teachers were described by Paul in terms disparaging of Cretans, and as people whose lives do not demonstrate the knowledge of God that they professed to have.<\/p>\n<h5>Promoting Right Teaching (2:1-10)<\/h5>\n<p>Titus had a particular responsibility to “promote the kind of living that reflects right teaching.” He was charged to exhort the older men to exercise self-control (2:2), and he was supposed to teach the older women to live godly lives (v 3). In turn, these women were supposed to train the younger women to live pure and loving lives in their homes so that no one will malign the word of God (vv 4-5). Younger men were to show self-control (v 6), and Titus himself was to be an example in word and life so that the opponents would have nothing bad to say about the Christians (vv 7-8). Finally, in this section slaves are taught to submit to their masters, to give good and honest service with the motivation that “then they will make the teaching about God our Savior attractive in every way” (v 10, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<h5>God’s Grace (2:11-15)<\/h5>\n<p>What has been said leads now to a great statement of the purpose of the revelation of the grace of God in Jesus Christ: to bring salvation to all people, who will make a complete break with godless and sensual living so that they may live upright lives with the constant expectancy of the coming again of “our great God and Savior Jesus Christ.” Their lives will show them to be a people who are God’s very own, always eager to do what is right.<\/p>\n<h5>Doing What Is Good (3:1-8)<\/h5>\n<p>In this section, Paul encourages Titus to tell the Christians at Crete that it is their duty to submit to rulers (cf. Rom 13:1-7; 1 Pt 2:13-17) and to be available in the community for honest work. Again, the quality of lifestyle is emphasized—in particular, courtesy and the desire for peace in relationships with others. This lifestyle comes from spiritual transformation. The means of that transformation is the saving work of Christ—not merited, but entirely of his mercy. He has brought cleansing from sin, “rebirth and renewal by the Holy Spirit.”<\/p>\n<h5>Paul’s Final Remarks and Greetings (3:9-15)<\/h5>\n<p>In this final section, Paul encourages Titus to avoid those who like to debate about religion for the sake of debating. And he tells Titus how to deal with those who cause divisions.<\/p>\n<p>Following this, Paul tells Titus that he will send him Artemas (not mentioned otherwise in the NT) or Tychicus. Then he encourages Titus to take care of Apollos and Zenas if they pass by Crete. Titus himself is supposed to come to Paul in Nicopolis before winter.<\/p>\n<p>The epistle closes with a final exhortation to “good deeds” and to a spiritually fruitful life.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Paul, The Apostle; Timothy, First Letter to; Timothy, Second Letter to; Titus (Person) #1.<\/p>","summary_ro":"TITUS, Letter to Paul’s epistle to his coworker, Titus. Preview • Author • Recipient • Date • Purpose and Teaching • Content Author Though this letter begins with the name and greeting of Paul (Ti 1:1-3), Paul’s authorship has been questioned by modern scholars on the grounds of its language and style, the church situation it presents, and the way that it sets forth Christian teaching. But Pauline authorship has been stoutly defended by eminent scholars and careful students who have argued th...","summary_en":"TITUS, Letter to Paul’s epistle to his coworker, Titus. Preview • Author • Recipient • Date • Purpose and Teaching • Content Author Though this letter begins with the name and greeting of Paul (Ti 1:1-3), Paul’s authorship has been questioned by modern scholars on the grounds of its language and style, the church situation it presents, and the way that it sets forth Christian teaching. But Pauline authorship has been stoutly defended by eminent scholars and careful students who have argued th...","source":"Articles\/T.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":58653,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Tit 1:4","title_en":"Study Note: Tit 1:4","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:4<\/strong> <em>Titus<\/em> was Paul’s delegate in dealing with the church in Crete. • <em>my true son:<\/em> The wording authorizes the delegate (as in 1 Tim 1:2).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:4<\/strong> <em>Titus<\/em> was Paul’s delegate in dealing with the church in Crete. • <em>my true son:<\/em> The wording authorizes the delegate (as in 1 Tim 1:2).<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:4 Titus was Paul’s delegate in dealing with the church in Crete. • my true son: The wording authorizes the delegate (as in 1 Tim 1:2).","summary_en":"1:4 Titus was Paul’s delegate in dealing with the church in Crete. • my true son: The wording authorizes the delegate (as in 1 Tim 1:2).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":86279,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Tit 1:4","title_en":"Study Note: Tit 1:4","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:4<\/strong> <em>Titus<\/em> was Paul’s delegate in dealing with the church in Crete. • <em>my true son:<\/em> The wording authorizes the delegate (as in 1 Tim 1:2).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:4<\/strong> <em>Titus<\/em> was Paul’s delegate in dealing with the church in Crete. • <em>my true son:<\/em> The wording authorizes the delegate (as in 1 Tim 1:2).<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:4 Titus was Paul’s delegate in dealing with the church in Crete. • my true son: The wording authorizes the delegate (as in 1 Tim 1:2).","summary_en":"1:4 Titus was Paul’s delegate in dealing with the church in Crete. • my true son: The wording authorizes the delegate (as in 1 Tim 1:2).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":113905,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Tit 1:4","title_en":"Study Note: Tit 1:4","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:4<\/strong> <em>Titus<\/em> was Paul’s delegate in dealing with the church in Crete. • <em>my true son:<\/em> The wording authorizes the delegate (as in 1 Tim 1:2).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:4<\/strong> <em>Titus<\/em> was Paul’s delegate in dealing with the church in Crete. • <em>my true son:<\/em> The wording authorizes the delegate (as in 1 Tim 1:2).<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:4 Titus was Paul’s delegate in dealing with the church in Crete. • my true son: The wording authorizes the delegate (as in 1 Tim 1:2).","summary_en":"1:4 Titus was Paul’s delegate in dealing with the church in Crete. • my true son: The wording authorizes the delegate (as in 1 Tim 1:2).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":141531,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Tit 1:4","title_en":"Study Note: Tit 1:4","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:4<\/strong> <em>Titus<\/em> was Paul’s delegate in dealing with the church in Crete. • <em>my true son:<\/em> The wording authorizes the delegate (as in 1 Tim 1:2).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:4<\/strong> <em>Titus<\/em> was Paul’s delegate in dealing with the church in Crete. • <em>my true son:<\/em> The wording authorizes the delegate (as in 1 Tim 1:2).<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:4 Titus was Paul’s delegate in dealing with the church in Crete. • my true son: The wording authorizes the delegate (as in 1 Tim 1:2).","summary_en":"1:4 Titus was Paul’s delegate in dealing with the church in Crete. • my true son: The wording authorizes the delegate (as in 1 Tim 1:2).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"5":[{"id":5144,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Bishop*","title_en":"Bishop*","content_ro":"<h3>BISHOP*<\/h3>\n<p>Official in the church whose qualifications are listed in 1 Timothy 3:2-7 and Titus 1:6-9. The Greek word from which the English title “bishop” and the adjective “episcopal” are derived is often translated in modern versions as “elder,” “overseer,” “shepherd,” or “guardian,” corresponding closely to the current term “pastor.” Jesus is called “the Shepherd and Bishop of your souls” (1 Pt 2:25, <span>kjv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>In the NT, “bishop,” and “elder” refer to the same office, as shown by the apostle Paul’s telling Titus to appoint “elders in every town” and then referring to those same individuals as “bishops” (Ti 1:5, 7). While at Miletus, Paul summoned the elders from the church at Ephesus and then addressed them as “overseers” or “guardians” (Acts 20:17, 28). In his letter to Philippi, Paul greeted the “bishops and deacons” (Phil 1:1). The fact that there were numerous bishops at Philippi, as well as in Ephesus, shows that the episcopal office had not yet developed into what it later became: a single bishop governing one or more churches.<\/p>\n<p>Bishops obviously had positions of authority, but the duties of the office are not clearly defined in the NT. One task was to combat heresy (Ti 1:9) and to teach and expound the Scriptures (1 Tm 3:2). In addition, there is some evidence that a primary concern was with economic matters and the care of the poor, as well as with a general overseeing of the congregation. The lists of qualifications in Paul’s letters to Timothy and Titus indicate that a bishop was considered a leader in the congregation and a representative to the non-Christian world. <em>See<\/em> Elder; Pastor; Presbyter.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>BISHOP*<\/h3>\n<p>Official in the church whose qualifications are listed in 1 Timothy 3:2-7 and Titus 1:6-9. The Greek word from which the English title “bishop” and the adjective “episcopal” are derived is often translated in modern versions as “elder,” “overseer,” “shepherd,” or “guardian,” corresponding closely to the current term “pastor.” Jesus is called “the Shepherd and Bishop of your souls” (1 Pt 2:25, <span>kjv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>In the NT, “bishop,” and “elder” refer to the same office, as shown by the apostle Paul’s telling Titus to appoint “elders in every town” and then referring to those same individuals as “bishops” (Ti 1:5, 7). While at Miletus, Paul summoned the elders from the church at Ephesus and then addressed them as “overseers” or “guardians” (Acts 20:17, 28). In his letter to Philippi, Paul greeted the “bishops and deacons” (Phil 1:1). The fact that there were numerous bishops at Philippi, as well as in Ephesus, shows that the episcopal office had not yet developed into what it later became: a single bishop governing one or more churches.<\/p>\n<p>Bishops obviously had positions of authority, but the duties of the office are not clearly defined in the NT. One task was to combat heresy (Ti 1:9) and to teach and expound the Scriptures (1 Tm 3:2). In addition, there is some evidence that a primary concern was with economic matters and the care of the poor, as well as with a general overseeing of the congregation. The lists of qualifications in Paul’s letters to Timothy and Titus indicate that a bishop was considered a leader in the congregation and a representative to the non-Christian world. <em>See<\/em> Elder; Pastor; Presbyter.<\/p>","summary_ro":"BISHOP* Official in the church whose qualifications are listed in 1 Timothy 3:2-7 and Titus 1:6-9. The Greek word from which the English title “bishop” and the adjective “episcopal” are derived is often translated in modern versions as “elder,” “overseer,” “shepherd,” or “guardian,” corresponding closely to the current term “pastor.” Jesus is called “the Shepherd and Bishop of your souls” (1 Pt 2:25, kjv). In the NT, “bishop,” and “elder” refer to the same office, as shown by the apostle Paul...","summary_en":"BISHOP* Official in the church whose qualifications are listed in 1 Timothy 3:2-7 and Titus 1:6-9. The Greek word from which the English title “bishop” and the adjective “episcopal” are derived is often translated in modern versions as “elder,” “overseer,” “shepherd,” or “guardian,” corresponding closely to the current term “pastor.” Jesus is called “the Shepherd and Bishop of your souls” (1 Pt 2:25, kjv). In the NT, “bishop,” and “elder” refer to the same office, as shown by the apostle Paul...","source":"Articles\/B.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":6596,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Church Meetings","title_en":"Church Meetings","content_ro":"<h3>CHURCH MEETINGS<\/h3>\n<p>The assembling together of the believers. In the NT, the Greek word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">ekklesia<\/span> (usually translated “church”) is used primarily in two ways: (1) to describe a meeting or an assembly, and (2) to designate the people who participate in such assembling together—whether they are actually assembled or not. The NT contains a few places that speak of a secular Greek assembly (Acts 19:32, 41); every other instance speaks of a Christian assembly. Sometimes the word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">ekklesia<\/span> is used to designate the actual meeting together of Christians. This is certainly what Paul intended in 1 Corinthians 14:19, 28, and 35, in that the expression <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">en ekklesia<\/span> must mean “in a meeting” and not “in the church.” To translate this phrase “in the church” (as is done in most modern English versions) is misleading, for most readers will think it means “in the church building.” The NT never once names the place of assembly a “church.” Aside from the few instances where the word clearly means the actual meeting together of believers, <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">ekklesia<\/span> most often is used as a descriptor for the believers who constitute a local church (such as the church in Corinth, the church in Philippi, and the church in Colosse) or all the believers (past, present, and future) who constitute the universal church, the complete body of Christ.<\/p>\n<p>When reading the NT, Christians need to be aware of the various ways in which the word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">ekklesia<\/span> (“church”) is used. On the most basic level, the <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">ekklesia<\/span> is any gathering of believers. On another level, the <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">ekklesia<\/span> is an organized local entity—comprised of all the believers in any given locality, under one pluralistic eldership. On another level, the <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">ekklesia<\/span> is the universal church whose constituents are all the believers who have ever been, are now existing, and will ever be. The word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">ekklesia<\/span> was used by the NT writers with these various aspects of meaning, though, at times, it is not possible to differentiate one from the other. Nevertheless, students of the NT could avoid some confusion if they used discrimination in their exegesis of the text. Some interpreters have taught that the smallest unit of the church is the local church, but the NT writers sometimes used the word “church” to indicate a small home gathering. Other interpreters confuse the local church with the universal church. But some things in the NT are addressed to a local church that do not necessarily apply to the whole church, and some great things are spoken of the universal church that could never be attained by any particular local group. The things Paul said about the church in the Epistle to the Ephesians (which was written as an encyclical for several churches and not just for the church in Ephesus) could never be attained by a local church. For example, what local church could attain to the fullness of the stature of Christ?<\/p>\n<p>There is much to be said about how interpreters have confused the local church with the universal church, but this article is devoted to clearing up the confusion about what constitutes the smallest unit of the church—the local church, or what could be called the house church or home gathering.<\/p>\n<p>The NT seems to present the fact that a particular local church (i.e., a church comprising all the believers in a given locality under one eldership) could and did have several <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">ekklesiai<\/span>—“meetings” or “assemblies” (carried on in homes of the local Christians). Thus, the smallest unit to comprise a “church” was one of these home meetings. However, there is no indication in the NT that each of these home meetings had its own eldership or was a distinct entity separate from the other gatherings <em>(<\/em><span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">ekklesiai<\/span><em>)<\/em> in the same locality. According to Acts 14:23 and Titus 1:5, elders were appointed for every local church (compare the expressions “appointed elders in every church” and “appoint elders in every city”)—not for every house church. Nevertheless, it appears that every local church of some size had several such <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">ekklesiai<\/span> (“meetings”) going on within that locality.<\/p>\n<p>The church in Jerusalem must have had several home meetings (see Acts 2:46; 5:42; 8:3; 12:5, 12), as did the church in Rome (see Rom 16:3-5, 14-15 and comments below). A small local church may have had only one home gathering—as was probably the case with the church at Colosse (see Phlm 1:2 and comments below), but this would have been impossible for large local churches like those in Jerusalem, Rome, and Ephesus, in which there must have been several “house churches” (see 1 Cor 16:19-20 [1 Cor was written from Ephesus] and comments below). An examination of the passages that deal with the issue of the “house church” should affirm this. These passages are Romans 16:3-5, 14-15; 1 Corinthians 16:19-20; Colossians 4:15-16; and Philemon 1:1-2 (all quoted from the <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<h4>Romans 16:3-5, 14-15<\/h4>\n<p>In the last chapter of Romans, Paul asked the believers in Rome, to whom he had written this epistle, to greet Priscilla and Aquila and the church that met in their home (16:3-5). The entire church in Rome could not have met in Priscilla and Aquila’s home, for the church was much too large to have assembled in a single home. Rather, the church in Priscilla and Aquila’s home must have been one among several such “house churches” in Rome. The following discussion should substantiate this position.<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s Epistle to the Romans was addressed to “all God’s beloved in Rome” (1:7), not to “the church in Rome.” At the time of writing, Paul had not been to Rome—nor had any other apostle. The church was probably started there by Jewish Romans who had been converted during their visit to Jerusalem during Pentecost (Acts 2:10) and then returned to Rome. Since the church had not been started by an apostle, it could have been that there were no “ordained” elders in the church at Rome and that there were several gatherings of believers in various parts of Rome and its suburbs. Paul knew some of the saints in Rome (whom he addressed by name in the last chapter) and thus addressed an epistle to all the saints in that locality, instead of to the church in that locality—which was his usual practice (see 1 Cor 1:1; 2 Cor 1:1; 1 Thes 1:1; 2 Thes 1:1). Nonetheless, “all the saints in Rome” would comprise “the church in Rome” (cf. Phil 1:1, in which Paul addressed his epistle to all the saints in Philippi).<\/p>\n<p>In the final chapter of Romans, Paul asks all the believers in Rome (which equals the “local” church in Rome) to greet the church in Priscilla and Aquila’s house. Later in the chapter, Paul asks the church to greet Asyncritus, Phlegon, Hermas, Patrobas, Hermes, and the brothers with them; and then again he asks the church to greet Philologus, Julia, Nereus and his sister, Olympas, and all the saints with them (16:14-15). Evidently, Paul was identifying two other groups of believers who must have met together. (And perhaps Paul was referring to two more groups in 16:10-11, which in the Greek could mean the ones of Aristobulus’s and Narcissus’s <em>households<\/em> or the ones of their <em>fellowships.<\/em>) It seems that the church in Rome, like the church in Jerusalem and Ephesus, had several home <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">ekklesiai<\/span> (meetings).<\/p>\n<p>The Epistle to the Romans was written around <span>AD<\/span> 58. The Neronian persecution began around <span>AD<\/span> 64. Secular historians such as Tacitus tell us that a vast multitude <em>(ingens multitudo)<\/em> of Christians were tortured and killed during this persecution (<em>Annals<\/em> 15.44). Seutonius (in his book <em>Nero,<\/em> ch 16) said that the rapid increase of the Christians in Rome had made them unpopular. Indeed, at the time Paul penned the Epistle to the Romans he said their faith was known throughout the world (1:8), which indicates that the church in Rome had already made an impact on the Mediterranean world. When Paul came to Rome three years later (<span>AD<\/span> 61), he came to a city that had a large church there already. From Romans 15:23, we know that the church had been in existence for many years even before Paul wrote his epistle to them. In short, the church in Rome was a large church around the time Paul wrote his epistle to them. The entire church could not have met in the home of Aquila and Priscilla, who would have had only a modest-sized dwelling (for they were tentmakers). Besides, Paul greeted over 25 individuals by name in chapter 16—and he had not yet even been to Rome!<\/p>\n<p>There must have been several <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">ekklesiai<\/span> in Rome, i.e., several home churches all unified as the one local church in Rome. For example, the Christians in Rome apparently worshiped in numerous homes such as Priscilla and Aquila’s. Other churches in homes are mentioned in Colossians 4:15 and Philemon 1:2. Groups of Christians met in houses of prominent believers or in other available rooms (cf. Mt 26:16; Acts 12:12; 1 Cor 16:19; Col 4:15; Phlm 1:2). The church in Priscilla and Aquila’s house is the first of five groups of believers in Paul’s list, but the only one referred to definitely as a church (see Rom 16:5, 10-11, 14-15). Priscilla and Aquila opened their home for Christian meetings. The church mentioned there was obviously only a part of the total number of Christians in Rome. Verses 10-11 and 14-15 seem to refer to two other household churches in Rome. Apparently, there were at least three churches there, and probably more. Each house church could not have been a separate entity with a separate church government; rather, each house church must have been simply one home meeting of some of the saints in the one local church at Rome.<\/p>\n<h4>1 Corinthians 16:19-20<\/h4>\n<p>In this passage we again see Aquila and Priscilla and again discover that a church met in their house. According to Romans, their house church was, of course, in Rome. According to 1 Corinthians (written from Ephesus), their house church was in Ephesus. Many scholars think Aquila and Priscilla left Rome around <span>AD<\/span> 49 at the time of Claudius’s edict expelling Jews from Rome. They very well could have already been Christians at this time. According to Acts 18, they joined Paul in Corinth (where they all worked together in their craft of tentmaking) and then went on with him to Ephesus, during the time (around <span>AD<\/span> 51) the church in Ephesus was first established. Paul continued on with his second missionary journey, while Aquila and Priscilla remained in Ephesus. No doubt, the early church there first met in their home. Paul returned to Ephesus a few years later and remained there for two years (around <span>AD<\/span> 53–54). During this time, Paul’s proclamation of the gospel went out from Ephesus (as a center) to all of Asia Minor (see Acts 19:8-10). As this was going on, the church in Ephesus grew (see vv 18-20).<\/p>\n<p>It was during these years that Paul wrote to the Corinthians, in which he sent greetings from the churches in Asia, from Aquila and Priscilla—and the church in their house, and from all the brothers (1 Cor 16:19-20). In giving this kind of greeting, it seems that Paul was sending greetings from (1) all the churches in Asia Minor, (2) the church in Ephesus (equivalent to “all the brothers”), and (3) those believers who gathered with Aquila and Priscilla in their home. It would be hard to imagine that all the saints in Ephesus met at Aquila and Priscilla’s home. The church probably began that way, but as it grew, so did the number of home meetings. From other portions of the NT (specifically 1 Timothy, which was written around <span>AD<\/span> 64 by Paul to Timothy while Timothy was leading the church in Ephesus), we discover that there must have been several home meetings in Ephesus because there were so many saints there (see 1 Timothy 5–6, which reveal that there must have been a large number of saints in Ephesus—young men, young women, older men, widows, and so forth). At any rate, several saints must have hosted an <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">ekklesia<\/span><em>,<\/em> a meeting, in their home. (Aquila and Priscilla left Ephesus around <span>AD<\/span> 56\/57 and returned to Rome, where again they hosted a church in their home. Others in Ephesus would have to open their homes.) But each such <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">ekklesia<\/span> did not have its own eldership; rather, all of the church in Ephesus was under one eldership—headed up by Timothy, Paul’s coworker.<\/p>\n<h4>Colossians 4:15-16<\/h4>\n<p>In this portion, we again read about a church existing in the home of one called Nymphas. In his final remarks to the church in Colosse, Paul asked the saints in Colosse to send his greetings to (1) the brothers that are in Laodicea, (2) Nymphas in particular, and (3) the church in Nymphas’s house. According to the structure of Colossians 4:15, it seems evident that the first greeting included all the believers in Laodicea (a neighboring church to Colosse), who would comprise the entire church in Laodicea (called “the church of the Laodiceans” in Col 4:16), and that the second and third greetings were to a specific individual (Nymphas) in the church in Laodicea and a church meeting in Nymphas’s house. This church meeting in Nymphas’s house would probably be one of several home meetings—all part of the one local church in Laodicea.<\/p>\n<p>There is a textual problem in this passage that could have some effect on the interpretation of it. Some manuscripts read “his house”; others read “her house”; still others read “their house.” Because it cannot be determined from the Greek text whether Nymphas was male or female, various scribes used different pronouns before “house.” Between the readings “her” and “his,” it is far more likely that the pronoun “her” was changed to “his” than vice versa. Some scholars say that “their” refers to “the brothers” at Laodicea. But that does not make sense if we understand that “the brothers in Laodicea” is equal to the church in Laodicea. How could the church in Laodicea have the church in their house? Other scholars indicate that the Greek word for “their” <em>(<\/em><span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">auton<\/span><em>)<\/em> refers to the ones with Nymphas—i.e., the members of his household. Whether the reading was “her house” or “their house,” a particular group of believers within the church of Laodicea met there. Their meeting could legitimately be called an <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">ekklesia<\/span>—an assembling together.<\/p>\n<h4>Philemon 1:1-2<\/h4>\n<p>This is the last time in the NT we read about a church in a particular home. Paul wrote a short epistle to Philemon, an elder of the church in Colosse, on behalf of Onesimus, Philemon’s runaway slave converted by Paul to Christ. In his introduction to this short epistle, Paul sends his greetings to Philemon, Apphia, Archippus, and the church in Philemon’s house. It is important to note that Paul did not send greetings to all the saints in Colosse and then to the church in Philemon’s house (as is the pattern in 1 Cor 16:19-20 and Col 4:15); instead, he just sent greetings to Philemon and to the church in his house. Therefore, we can assume that the entire church in Colosse must have met at Philemon’s house.<\/p>\n<h4>Worship in the Home Meetings and Church Meetings<\/h4>\n<p>When the church first began in Jerusalem, the believers met in homes for fellowship and worship. Acts 2:42-47 tells us that the early Christians met in homes to hear the apostles’ teachings and to celebrate Communion (which is called “the breaking of bread”). During such gatherings, the Christians often shared meals with one another in what was called a love feast (2 Pt 2:13; Jude 1:12). At these meetings, the Christians recited Scripture, sang hymns and psalms, and joyfully praised the Lord (see Eph 5:18-20; Col 3:16-17). Christians also gathered together in homes to pray (Acts 12:12) and read the Word.<\/p>\n<p>Small groups of believers met in homes for worship quite regularly; in a city where there were several such <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">ekklesiai<\/span><em>,<\/em> all the believers would gather together for special occasions. Scripture tells us that all the believers would come together to hear an epistle from the apostles read out loud (see Acts 15:30; Col 4:16), and we can surmise from the NT record that all the Christians in a city met together once a week on Sunday, which was called the Lord’s Day. First Corinthians provides several insights about how the early Christians worshiped together when all the believers in one city met together. We know that 1 Corinthians pertains to this larger gathering because in 11:20 Paul spoke of all the believers coming together in one place and in 14:23 he spoke of the whole church coming together in one place.<\/p>\n<p>Paul used this epistle to correct the Corinthians’ behavior in the celebration of the Lord’s Supper (1 Cor 11:17-34) and in the exercising of spiritual gifts during church meetings (ch 14). Paul’s adjustments reveal his perceptions of a model Christian meeting, and his preceptions were probably developed from actual experience in other church meetings. Paul urged the Corinthians to celebrate the Lord’s Supper together in a manner that reflected Jesus’ institution of that meal. They were to remember the Lord and his death for them, and they were to partake of the bread and wine with all seriousness. At the same time, they were to be conscious of the fact that they were members of the same body of Christ—joined to one another, and also to Christ.<\/p>\n<p>According to Paul’s presentation in chapter 14, this “body consciousness” should be evident in the way the believers worshiped together. One’s personal experience and liberty should not hinder the coordination of the body in worshiping God corporately. Thus, when the believers exercised their spiritual gifts—whether it be prophesying, speaking in tongues, providing interpretations of the tongues, or teaching—it should be done in good order and for the edification of the congregation, not personal edification. When all the church assembled together to worship God, it should be a display of spiritual unity.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Church.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>CHURCH MEETINGS<\/h3>\n<p>The assembling together of the believers. In the NT, the Greek word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">ekklesia<\/span> (usually translated “church”) is used primarily in two ways: (1) to describe a meeting or an assembly, and (2) to designate the people who participate in such assembling together—whether they are actually assembled or not. The NT contains a few places that speak of a secular Greek assembly (Acts 19:32, 41); every other instance speaks of a Christian assembly. Sometimes the word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">ekklesia<\/span> is used to designate the actual meeting together of Christians. This is certainly what Paul intended in 1 Corinthians 14:19, 28, and 35, in that the expression <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">en ekklesia<\/span> must mean “in a meeting” and not “in the church.” To translate this phrase “in the church” (as is done in most modern English versions) is misleading, for most readers will think it means “in the church building.” The NT never once names the place of assembly a “church.” Aside from the few instances where the word clearly means the actual meeting together of believers, <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">ekklesia<\/span> most often is used as a descriptor for the believers who constitute a local church (such as the church in Corinth, the church in Philippi, and the church in Colosse) or all the believers (past, present, and future) who constitute the universal church, the complete body of Christ.<\/p>\n<p>When reading the NT, Christians need to be aware of the various ways in which the word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">ekklesia<\/span> (“church”) is used. On the most basic level, the <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">ekklesia<\/span> is any gathering of believers. On another level, the <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">ekklesia<\/span> is an organized local entity—comprised of all the believers in any given locality, under one pluralistic eldership. On another level, the <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">ekklesia<\/span> is the universal church whose constituents are all the believers who have ever been, are now existing, and will ever be. The word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">ekklesia<\/span> was used by the NT writers with these various aspects of meaning, though, at times, it is not possible to differentiate one from the other. Nevertheless, students of the NT could avoid some confusion if they used discrimination in their exegesis of the text. Some interpreters have taught that the smallest unit of the church is the local church, but the NT writers sometimes used the word “church” to indicate a small home gathering. Other interpreters confuse the local church with the universal church. But some things in the NT are addressed to a local church that do not necessarily apply to the whole church, and some great things are spoken of the universal church that could never be attained by any particular local group. The things Paul said about the church in the Epistle to the Ephesians (which was written as an encyclical for several churches and not just for the church in Ephesus) could never be attained by a local church. For example, what local church could attain to the fullness of the stature of Christ?<\/p>\n<p>There is much to be said about how interpreters have confused the local church with the universal church, but this article is devoted to clearing up the confusion about what constitutes the smallest unit of the church—the local church, or what could be called the house church or home gathering.<\/p>\n<p>The NT seems to present the fact that a particular local church (i.e., a church comprising all the believers in a given locality under one eldership) could and did have several <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">ekklesiai<\/span>—“meetings” or “assemblies” (carried on in homes of the local Christians). Thus, the smallest unit to comprise a “church” was one of these home meetings. However, there is no indication in the NT that each of these home meetings had its own eldership or was a distinct entity separate from the other gatherings <em>(<\/em><span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">ekklesiai<\/span><em>)<\/em> in the same locality. According to Acts 14:23 and Titus 1:5, elders were appointed for every local church (compare the expressions “appointed elders in every church” and “appoint elders in every city”)—not for every house church. Nevertheless, it appears that every local church of some size had several such <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">ekklesiai<\/span> (“meetings”) going on within that locality.<\/p>\n<p>The church in Jerusalem must have had several home meetings (see Acts 2:46; 5:42; 8:3; 12:5, 12), as did the church in Rome (see Rom 16:3-5, 14-15 and comments below). A small local church may have had only one home gathering—as was probably the case with the church at Colosse (see Phlm 1:2 and comments below), but this would have been impossible for large local churches like those in Jerusalem, Rome, and Ephesus, in which there must have been several “house churches” (see 1 Cor 16:19-20 [1 Cor was written from Ephesus] and comments below). An examination of the passages that deal with the issue of the “house church” should affirm this. These passages are Romans 16:3-5, 14-15; 1 Corinthians 16:19-20; Colossians 4:15-16; and Philemon 1:1-2 (all quoted from the <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<h4>Romans 16:3-5, 14-15<\/h4>\n<p>In the last chapter of Romans, Paul asked the believers in Rome, to whom he had written this epistle, to greet Priscilla and Aquila and the church that met in their home (16:3-5). The entire church in Rome could not have met in Priscilla and Aquila’s home, for the church was much too large to have assembled in a single home. Rather, the church in Priscilla and Aquila’s home must have been one among several such “house churches” in Rome. The following discussion should substantiate this position.<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s Epistle to the Romans was addressed to “all God’s beloved in Rome” (1:7), not to “the church in Rome.” At the time of writing, Paul had not been to Rome—nor had any other apostle. The church was probably started there by Jewish Romans who had been converted during their visit to Jerusalem during Pentecost (Acts 2:10) and then returned to Rome. Since the church had not been started by an apostle, it could have been that there were no “ordained” elders in the church at Rome and that there were several gatherings of believers in various parts of Rome and its suburbs. Paul knew some of the saints in Rome (whom he addressed by name in the last chapter) and thus addressed an epistle to all the saints in that locality, instead of to the church in that locality—which was his usual practice (see 1 Cor 1:1; 2 Cor 1:1; 1 Thes 1:1; 2 Thes 1:1). Nonetheless, “all the saints in Rome” would comprise “the church in Rome” (cf. Phil 1:1, in which Paul addressed his epistle to all the saints in Philippi).<\/p>\n<p>In the final chapter of Romans, Paul asks all the believers in Rome (which equals the “local” church in Rome) to greet the church in Priscilla and Aquila’s house. Later in the chapter, Paul asks the church to greet Asyncritus, Phlegon, Hermas, Patrobas, Hermes, and the brothers with them; and then again he asks the church to greet Philologus, Julia, Nereus and his sister, Olympas, and all the saints with them (16:14-15). Evidently, Paul was identifying two other groups of believers who must have met together. (And perhaps Paul was referring to two more groups in 16:10-11, which in the Greek could mean the ones of Aristobulus’s and Narcissus’s <em>households<\/em> or the ones of their <em>fellowships.<\/em>) It seems that the church in Rome, like the church in Jerusalem and Ephesus, had several home <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">ekklesiai<\/span> (meetings).<\/p>\n<p>The Epistle to the Romans was written around <span>AD<\/span> 58. The Neronian persecution began around <span>AD<\/span> 64. Secular historians such as Tacitus tell us that a vast multitude <em>(ingens multitudo)<\/em> of Christians were tortured and killed during this persecution (<em>Annals<\/em> 15.44). Seutonius (in his book <em>Nero,<\/em> ch 16) said that the rapid increase of the Christians in Rome had made them unpopular. Indeed, at the time Paul penned the Epistle to the Romans he said their faith was known throughout the world (1:8), which indicates that the church in Rome had already made an impact on the Mediterranean world. When Paul came to Rome three years later (<span>AD<\/span> 61), he came to a city that had a large church there already. From Romans 15:23, we know that the church had been in existence for many years even before Paul wrote his epistle to them. In short, the church in Rome was a large church around the time Paul wrote his epistle to them. The entire church could not have met in the home of Aquila and Priscilla, who would have had only a modest-sized dwelling (for they were tentmakers). Besides, Paul greeted over 25 individuals by name in chapter 16—and he had not yet even been to Rome!<\/p>\n<p>There must have been several <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">ekklesiai<\/span> in Rome, i.e., several home churches all unified as the one local church in Rome. For example, the Christians in Rome apparently worshiped in numerous homes such as Priscilla and Aquila’s. Other churches in homes are mentioned in Colossians 4:15 and Philemon 1:2. Groups of Christians met in houses of prominent believers or in other available rooms (cf. Mt 26:16; Acts 12:12; 1 Cor 16:19; Col 4:15; Phlm 1:2). The church in Priscilla and Aquila’s house is the first of five groups of believers in Paul’s list, but the only one referred to definitely as a church (see Rom 16:5, 10-11, 14-15). Priscilla and Aquila opened their home for Christian meetings. The church mentioned there was obviously only a part of the total number of Christians in Rome. Verses 10-11 and 14-15 seem to refer to two other household churches in Rome. Apparently, there were at least three churches there, and probably more. Each house church could not have been a separate entity with a separate church government; rather, each house church must have been simply one home meeting of some of the saints in the one local church at Rome.<\/p>\n<h4>1 Corinthians 16:19-20<\/h4>\n<p>In this passage we again see Aquila and Priscilla and again discover that a church met in their house. According to Romans, their house church was, of course, in Rome. According to 1 Corinthians (written from Ephesus), their house church was in Ephesus. Many scholars think Aquila and Priscilla left Rome around <span>AD<\/span> 49 at the time of Claudius’s edict expelling Jews from Rome. They very well could have already been Christians at this time. According to Acts 18, they joined Paul in Corinth (where they all worked together in their craft of tentmaking) and then went on with him to Ephesus, during the time (around <span>AD<\/span> 51) the church in Ephesus was first established. Paul continued on with his second missionary journey, while Aquila and Priscilla remained in Ephesus. No doubt, the early church there first met in their home. Paul returned to Ephesus a few years later and remained there for two years (around <span>AD<\/span> 53–54). During this time, Paul’s proclamation of the gospel went out from Ephesus (as a center) to all of Asia Minor (see Acts 19:8-10). As this was going on, the church in Ephesus grew (see vv 18-20).<\/p>\n<p>It was during these years that Paul wrote to the Corinthians, in which he sent greetings from the churches in Asia, from Aquila and Priscilla—and the church in their house, and from all the brothers (1 Cor 16:19-20). In giving this kind of greeting, it seems that Paul was sending greetings from (1) all the churches in Asia Minor, (2) the church in Ephesus (equivalent to “all the brothers”), and (3) those believers who gathered with Aquila and Priscilla in their home. It would be hard to imagine that all the saints in Ephesus met at Aquila and Priscilla’s home. The church probably began that way, but as it grew, so did the number of home meetings. From other portions of the NT (specifically 1 Timothy, which was written around <span>AD<\/span> 64 by Paul to Timothy while Timothy was leading the church in Ephesus), we discover that there must have been several home meetings in Ephesus because there were so many saints there (see 1 Timothy 5–6, which reveal that there must have been a large number of saints in Ephesus—young men, young women, older men, widows, and so forth). At any rate, several saints must have hosted an <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">ekklesia<\/span><em>,<\/em> a meeting, in their home. (Aquila and Priscilla left Ephesus around <span>AD<\/span> 56\/57 and returned to Rome, where again they hosted a church in their home. Others in Ephesus would have to open their homes.) But each such <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">ekklesia<\/span> did not have its own eldership; rather, all of the church in Ephesus was under one eldership—headed up by Timothy, Paul’s coworker.<\/p>\n<h4>Colossians 4:15-16<\/h4>\n<p>In this portion, we again read about a church existing in the home of one called Nymphas. In his final remarks to the church in Colosse, Paul asked the saints in Colosse to send his greetings to (1) the brothers that are in Laodicea, (2) Nymphas in particular, and (3) the church in Nymphas’s house. According to the structure of Colossians 4:15, it seems evident that the first greeting included all the believers in Laodicea (a neighboring church to Colosse), who would comprise the entire church in Laodicea (called “the church of the Laodiceans” in Col 4:16), and that the second and third greetings were to a specific individual (Nymphas) in the church in Laodicea and a church meeting in Nymphas’s house. This church meeting in Nymphas’s house would probably be one of several home meetings—all part of the one local church in Laodicea.<\/p>\n<p>There is a textual problem in this passage that could have some effect on the interpretation of it. Some manuscripts read “his house”; others read “her house”; still others read “their house.” Because it cannot be determined from the Greek text whether Nymphas was male or female, various scribes used different pronouns before “house.” Between the readings “her” and “his,” it is far more likely that the pronoun “her” was changed to “his” than vice versa. Some scholars say that “their” refers to “the brothers” at Laodicea. But that does not make sense if we understand that “the brothers in Laodicea” is equal to the church in Laodicea. How could the church in Laodicea have the church in their house? Other scholars indicate that the Greek word for “their” <em>(<\/em><span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">auton<\/span><em>)<\/em> refers to the ones with Nymphas—i.e., the members of his household. Whether the reading was “her house” or “their house,” a particular group of believers within the church of Laodicea met there. Their meeting could legitimately be called an <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">ekklesia<\/span>—an assembling together.<\/p>\n<h4>Philemon 1:1-2<\/h4>\n<p>This is the last time in the NT we read about a church in a particular home. Paul wrote a short epistle to Philemon, an elder of the church in Colosse, on behalf of Onesimus, Philemon’s runaway slave converted by Paul to Christ. In his introduction to this short epistle, Paul sends his greetings to Philemon, Apphia, Archippus, and the church in Philemon’s house. It is important to note that Paul did not send greetings to all the saints in Colosse and then to the church in Philemon’s house (as is the pattern in 1 Cor 16:19-20 and Col 4:15); instead, he just sent greetings to Philemon and to the church in his house. Therefore, we can assume that the entire church in Colosse must have met at Philemon’s house.<\/p>\n<h4>Worship in the Home Meetings and Church Meetings<\/h4>\n<p>When the church first began in Jerusalem, the believers met in homes for fellowship and worship. Acts 2:42-47 tells us that the early Christians met in homes to hear the apostles’ teachings and to celebrate Communion (which is called “the breaking of bread”). During such gatherings, the Christians often shared meals with one another in what was called a love feast (2 Pt 2:13; Jude 1:12). At these meetings, the Christians recited Scripture, sang hymns and psalms, and joyfully praised the Lord (see Eph 5:18-20; Col 3:16-17). Christians also gathered together in homes to pray (Acts 12:12) and read the Word.<\/p>\n<p>Small groups of believers met in homes for worship quite regularly; in a city where there were several such <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">ekklesiai<\/span><em>,<\/em> all the believers would gather together for special occasions. Scripture tells us that all the believers would come together to hear an epistle from the apostles read out loud (see Acts 15:30; Col 4:16), and we can surmise from the NT record that all the Christians in a city met together once a week on Sunday, which was called the Lord’s Day. First Corinthians provides several insights about how the early Christians worshiped together when all the believers in one city met together. We know that 1 Corinthians pertains to this larger gathering because in 11:20 Paul spoke of all the believers coming together in one place and in 14:23 he spoke of the whole church coming together in one place.<\/p>\n<p>Paul used this epistle to correct the Corinthians’ behavior in the celebration of the Lord’s Supper (1 Cor 11:17-34) and in the exercising of spiritual gifts during church meetings (ch 14). Paul’s adjustments reveal his perceptions of a model Christian meeting, and his preceptions were probably developed from actual experience in other church meetings. Paul urged the Corinthians to celebrate the Lord’s Supper together in a manner that reflected Jesus’ institution of that meal. They were to remember the Lord and his death for them, and they were to partake of the bread and wine with all seriousness. At the same time, they were to be conscious of the fact that they were members of the same body of Christ—joined to one another, and also to Christ.<\/p>\n<p>According to Paul’s presentation in chapter 14, this “body consciousness” should be evident in the way the believers worshiped together. One’s personal experience and liberty should not hinder the coordination of the body in worshiping God corporately. Thus, when the believers exercised their spiritual gifts—whether it be prophesying, speaking in tongues, providing interpretations of the tongues, or teaching—it should be done in good order and for the edification of the congregation, not personal edification. When all the church assembled together to worship God, it should be a display of spiritual unity.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Church.<\/p>","summary_ro":"CHURCH MEETINGS The assembling together of the believers. In the NT, the Greek word ekklesia (usually translated “church”) is used primarily in two ways: (1) to describe a meeting or an assembly, and (2) to designate the people who participate in such assembling together—whether they are actually assembled or not. The NT contains a few places that speak of a secular Greek assembly (Acts 19:32, 41); every other instance speaks of a Christian assembly. Sometimes the word ekklesia is used to des...","summary_en":"CHURCH MEETINGS The assembling together of the believers. In the NT, the Greek word ekklesia (usually translated “church”) is used primarily in two ways: (1) to describe a meeting or an assembly, and (2) to designate the people who participate in such assembling together—whether they are actually assembled or not. The NT contains a few places that speak of a secular Greek assembly (Acts 19:32, 41); every other instance speaks of a Christian assembly. Sometimes the word ekklesia is used to des...","source":"Articles\/C.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":8041,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Crete","title_en":"Crete","content_ro":"<h3>CRETE<\/h3>\n<p>Fourth largest island in the Mediterranean, lying approximately 60 miles (97 kilometers) southeast of Greece and 110 miles (177 kilometers) southwest of Turkey. It is 160 miles (257.4 kilometers) long from east to west, with a width of approximately 36 miles (58 kilometers), an area of 3,200 square miles (5,149 square kilometers). Through the island stretches a mountain range dominated in the center by the sacred Mt Ida (altitude 9,000 feet or 2,742 meters). These mountains slope down sharply to the southern coast, with the result that most of the inhabitants live on the more gradual northern slopes.<\/p>\n<p>Civilization in ancient Crete reached its climax with the Minoan era (3000–1100 <span>BC<\/span>). The spectacular remnants of this high civilization may be seen best at Knossos, thanks to the labors of British archaeologist Arthur Evans. About 1950–1900 <span>BC<\/span>, beautiful pottery was produced and exported. Metallurgy was highly developed, and hieroglyphic writing was introduced. This civilization was suddenly and dramatically destroyed in a mysterious manner about 1700 <span>BC<\/span>, perhaps by volcanic eruption or earthquake. Following this, the towns and palaces were rebuilt, and the island enjoyed its greatest prosperity. The partially restored palace of Knossos amazes today’s visitor with superb frescoes, stairways, and pillars. All this ended in destruction about 1450 <span>BC<\/span>. Some think it was caused by the volcanic explosion at the nearby island of Santorini.<\/p>\n<p>Crete is important in the history of the Christian church. When Paul went to Rome as a prisoner, the ship sought refuge from a storm at Fair Havens (Acts 27:8). The ship tried in vain to reach the more commodious harbor at Phoenix (v 12) but was blown off course and sought refuge at an island off the southwest coast of Crete, called Cauda (v 16). Paul may have visited Crete after imprisonment in Rome, for in his Letter to Titus, he said, “I left you on the island of Crete” (Ti 1:5, <span>nlt<\/span>). On the basis of this and other evidence, many scholars conclude that Paul was released and had an extended ministry before his second imprisonment and execution (2 Tm 4:6). Paul had little good to say about the people of Crete, quoting one of their own poets as saying they were “liars, cruel animals, and lazy gluttons” (Ti 1:12). But the gospel must have made quite a difference there, for today the name of Titus is honored in many villages, churches, and monasteries.<\/p>\n<p>Because of its location and its relative fertility, Crete has been a prize of war and of commerce. The island was conquered by Rome in 67 <span>BC<\/span> and became a separate province. The inhabitants prospered under the Romans and later under the Greek Christians (Byzantines). The Saracens (Muslims) occupied the island for over a century (<span>AD<\/span> 823–960). After centuries of Christian leadership, it was conquered by the Turkish sultan, and civilization languished (1669–1898). In the 20th century Crete has been a part of Greece, except for a period of German occupancy during World War II.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>CRETE<\/h3>\n<p>Fourth largest island in the Mediterranean, lying approximately 60 miles (97 kilometers) southeast of Greece and 110 miles (177 kilometers) southwest of Turkey. It is 160 miles (257.4 kilometers) long from east to west, with a width of approximately 36 miles (58 kilometers), an area of 3,200 square miles (5,149 square kilometers). Through the island stretches a mountain range dominated in the center by the sacred Mt Ida (altitude 9,000 feet or 2,742 meters). These mountains slope down sharply to the southern coast, with the result that most of the inhabitants live on the more gradual northern slopes.<\/p>\n<p>Civilization in ancient Crete reached its climax with the Minoan era (3000–1100 <span>BC<\/span>). The spectacular remnants of this high civilization may be seen best at Knossos, thanks to the labors of British archaeologist Arthur Evans. About 1950–1900 <span>BC<\/span>, beautiful pottery was produced and exported. Metallurgy was highly developed, and hieroglyphic writing was introduced. This civilization was suddenly and dramatically destroyed in a mysterious manner about 1700 <span>BC<\/span>, perhaps by volcanic eruption or earthquake. Following this, the towns and palaces were rebuilt, and the island enjoyed its greatest prosperity. The partially restored palace of Knossos amazes today’s visitor with superb frescoes, stairways, and pillars. All this ended in destruction about 1450 <span>BC<\/span>. Some think it was caused by the volcanic explosion at the nearby island of Santorini.<\/p>\n<p>Crete is important in the history of the Christian church. When Paul went to Rome as a prisoner, the ship sought refuge from a storm at Fair Havens (Acts 27:8). The ship tried in vain to reach the more commodious harbor at Phoenix (v 12) but was blown off course and sought refuge at an island off the southwest coast of Crete, called Cauda (v 16). Paul may have visited Crete after imprisonment in Rome, for in his Letter to Titus, he said, “I left you on the island of Crete” (Ti 1:5, <span>nlt<\/span>). On the basis of this and other evidence, many scholars conclude that Paul was released and had an extended ministry before his second imprisonment and execution (2 Tm 4:6). Paul had little good to say about the people of Crete, quoting one of their own poets as saying they were “liars, cruel animals, and lazy gluttons” (Ti 1:12). But the gospel must have made quite a difference there, for today the name of Titus is honored in many villages, churches, and monasteries.<\/p>\n<p>Because of its location and its relative fertility, Crete has been a prize of war and of commerce. The island was conquered by Rome in 67 <span>BC<\/span> and became a separate province. The inhabitants prospered under the Romans and later under the Greek Christians (Byzantines). The Saracens (Muslims) occupied the island for over a century (<span>AD<\/span> 823–960). After centuries of Christian leadership, it was conquered by the Turkish sultan, and civilization languished (1669–1898). In the 20th century Crete has been a part of Greece, except for a period of German occupancy during World War II.<\/p>","summary_ro":"CRETE Fourth largest island in the Mediterranean, lying approximately 60 miles (97 kilometers) southeast of Greece and 110 miles (177 kilometers) southwest of Turkey. It is 160 miles (257.4 kilometers) long from east to west, with a width of approximately 36 miles (58 kilometers), an area of 3,200 square miles (5,149 square kilometers). Through the island stretches a mountain range dominated in the center by the sacred Mt Ida (altitude 9,000 feet or 2,742 meters). These mountains slope down s...","summary_en":"CRETE Fourth largest island in the Mediterranean, lying approximately 60 miles (97 kilometers) southeast of Greece and 110 miles (177 kilometers) southwest of Turkey. It is 160 miles (257.4 kilometers) long from east to west, with a width of approximately 36 miles (58 kilometers), an area of 3,200 square miles (5,149 square kilometers). Through the island stretches a mountain range dominated in the center by the sacred Mt Ida (altitude 9,000 feet or 2,742 meters). These mountains slope down s...","source":"Articles\/C.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":10324,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Elder","title_en":"Elder","content_ro":"<h3>ELDER<\/h3>\n<p>Person who, by virtue of position in the family, clan, or tribe; or by reason of personality, prowess, stature, or influence; or through a process of appointment and ordination, exercised leadership and judicial functions in both religious and secular spheres in the ancient world, both among biblical and nonbiblical peoples. The roots of the development of the presbytery (group of elders) in the NT and postapostolic church originate in Judaism and the OT, though the figure of the elder or groups of elders can also be found in the world surrounding ancient Israel and in the Greco-Roman world of the NT period.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"IntheOldTestament\">In the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>The elder, or the institution of elders, is closely linked with the tribal system. Tribes were composed of clans, and clans of large, extended family units. By virtue of age and function in a patriarchal society, the father of a family ruled. This fact of age, as well as the wisdom and maturity invested in older persons, is undoubtedly the origin of the authority that these elders exercised. A clan was ruled by the heads of the families constituting it, forming a council of elders. In time of war, each clan furnished a contingent; these were led by a chief, probably chosen from the ranks of the elders.<\/p>\n<p>In Israel’s premonarchy period, local administration and judicial action was largely in the hands of those elders. In the exodus narrative, it was the elders of Israel (heads of families) who were instructed by Moses concerning the first Passover meal (Ex 12:21-22). It was these elders who, in Exodus 18:12, met with Jethro, Moses’ father-in-law, and from whose ranks were chosen worthy representatives to assist Moses in the interpretation of the law of God and the administration of justice (18:13-23). Similarly, according to Numbers 11:16-17, Moses was instructed by God to select 70 men from among the elders of Israel to assist him in leadership of the people. In this latter account, the elders were marked by a special endowment of God’s Spirit. In the former the elders—chosen as coadministrators with Moses—were those known to be trustworthy.<\/p>\n<p>A central function of elders was the administration of justice. They were the “judges,” who sat “in the gate,” the traditional courtroom of ancient villages and towns. Here disputes and trials were settled by the elders, and community affairs were discussed and decisions made (Gn 23:10, 18; Jb 29:7; Prv 24:7; 31:23). The preservation and application of the law was clearly in the hands of elders who sat at the gate of the town (Dt 19:12; 21:19; 22:15; 25:7-10). Ruth 4:1-12 provides an excellent description of such a process.<\/p>\n<p>During the period of the monarchy, local administration and judicial authority continued to be invested in councils of elders. At the end of Saul’s reign, David sent messages and gifts to the elders of the towns of Judah (1 Sm 30:26), obviously recognizing that his efficient rule would depend on their goodwill and allegiance. In the time of Jehu (2 Kgs 10:5), we hear of elders in Samaria, side by side with a governor and master of the palace. To facilitate her plot against Naboth, Jezebel wrote instructions to the elders and nobles of Jezreel (1 Kgs 21:8-11). Again, Josiah convened the elders of Judah and Jerusalem to hear the reading of the law and to enter with him into a new covenant of obedience (2 Kgs 23:1). It is clear that the elders of Israel were now responsible for the application of the law within their jurisdictions. Besides administrative and judicial functions, elders also assumed cultic roles (Ex 24:1, 9; Lv 4:14-15).<\/p>\n<p>The institution of the elders survived the collapse of the royal institutions. Elders were present during the exile (Ez 8:1; 14:1; 20:1-3) as well as after the return (e.g., Ezr 10:16).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"InJudaismoftheNewTestamentPeriod\">In Judaism of the New Testament Period<\/p>\n<p>While use of the title “elder” to designate officers of various Greek cult associations and village magistrates may have influenced the development of community structure in the gentile churches, the Christian office (or function) of elder stems from a very similar institution within Judaism. In the first three Gospels and in Acts there are numerous references to elders as functionaries within the communal and religious life of Judaism. Generally they are mentioned together with one or more other groups of functionaries (quoting the <span>rsv<\/span>): “elders and chief priests and scribes” (Mt 16:21); “chief priests and elders of the people” (21:23; 26:3, 47); “scribes and elders” (26:57; 27:41); “chief priests and elders” (27:1, 3, 12, 20); “rulers and elders and scribes” (Acts 4:5); “rulers of the people and elders” (v 8). From these NT passages we cannot determine what exactly their functions were, or how they differed from rulers or scribes. However, the duties of Jewish elders are clearly described in the tractate <em>Sanhedrin<\/em> in the Mishnah, as well as in the community rule books of the Qumran ascetics, discovered among the Dead Sea Scrolls.<\/p>\n<p>Each Jewish community had its council of elders, who had general administrative oversight and represented the community in relations with Roman authorities. Their primary duty was judicial. They were custodians of the law and its traditional interpretations (see Mt 15:2), and they were charged with both its enforcement and the punishment of offenders. The most important of these councils of elders was the Sanhedrin in Jerusalem, a group of 71 men who acted as the final court for the entire nation.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"IntheChristianCommunity\">In the Christian Community<\/p>\n<p>Since the primitive church eventually regarded itself as the new Israel (Mt 21:43; Gal 6:16), it is easy to see why it should gradually adopt the institution of elders. Though it is difficult to make out the order that prevailed in the first Christian communities, because it apparently varied according to place and time in both form and extent, the presence and functioning of elders was part of the reality of early church life.<\/p>\n<p>In Luke’s account of the origin and spread of Christianity, the elders are already present in the church at Jerusalem. In Acts we see Christians at Antioch sending famine relief “to the elders [of the Judean churches] by Barnabas and Saul” (Acts 11:30). On their first missionary journey, Paul and Barnabas “appointed elders in every church” (14:23). Later, Paul and Barnabas were sent from Antioch to Jerusalem “to the apostles and elders” about the question of circumcision of gentile Christians (15:2), and were “welcomed by the church, and the apostles, and the elders” (v 4), who gathered to hear the case and resolve the issue (vv 6-23).<\/p>\n<p>Who these elders were, and how they were chosen, we are not told. It seems possible to argue, on the basis of Jewish precedent, that age and prominence gave them the privilege of rendering special service within the community. Veneration for age was a deeply rooted sentiment among Jews, and the name “presbyter” (elder) was derived from Jewish usage. It is also possible that, like the appointment of “the seven” for special service by the laying on of hands (6:1-6), the first elders in the Jerusalem church were appointed by the apostles. Apparently they functioned in the Christian community in ways comparable to the elders in the Jewish communities and the Sanhedrin (11:30; 15:2-6, 22-23; 16:4; 21:18).<\/p>\n<p>Paul apparently continued the practice among the gentile churches, though elders are not mentioned in the earliest Pauline writings. They are mentioned only in the Pastoral Epistles (1 Tm 5:17, 19; Ti 1:5). On his last journey to Jerusalem, Paul summoned the elders of the church at Ephesus to Miletus (Acts 20:17) to bid them farewell, and to instruct them to be faithful in their task of overseeing and caring for the Christian flock, the church of God (20:28).<\/p>\n<p>Although elders are not explicitly mentioned in Paul’s early letters, they may have been among the leaders who presided over the congregations (Rom 12:8; 1 Thes 5:12-13). Philippians 1:1 certainly reveals a definite stratification of leadership (“overseers and deacons”) within a young Pauline congregation. And 1 Timothy 5:17, reflecting what is often considered a later phase in the development of church government, attributes the functions of preaching and teaching to the ruling elders. Further, that Christian elders exercised pastoral functions may be inferred from 1 Peter 5:1-5 and James 5:14.<\/p>\n<p>There is one passage where we find a possible identification of an apostle (Peter) as also being an elder: “I exhort the elders among you, as a fellow elder and a witness of the sufferings of Christ” (1 Pt 5:1a, <span>rsv<\/span>). This text may indicate that elders were appointed and functioned as extensions of apostolic servanthood. Paul’s practice of appointing elders in the churches before his departure may support such a suggestion. The fact that in the tradition of the later church the “elder” of 2 and 3 John was identified as the apostle John points in a similar direction. Though such an identification is implicit, the apostles could function as elders but not the other way around.<\/p>\n<p>The elders had several functions. For example, 1 Timothy 5:17 speaks of elders as involved in preaching and teaching; James 5:14 sees them involved in a healing ministry; 1 Peter 5:2 exhorts them to tend the flock. Thus, the prophets and teachers who led the church at Antioch (according to Acts 13:1-3) may well have been the elders of this community.<\/p>\n<p>The diaconate, too, whose roots are to be seen in the selection of “the seven” for service to those in need (Acts 6:1-3), was not restricted to purely external service. Two of these men, whom Luke introduces to us as deacons, appear at the same time as evangelists who were particularly effective as preachers of the Word, performers of miracles, expounders of the Scriptures (Stephen, Acts 6:8-10; Philip, Acts 8:4-13, 26-40).<\/p>\n<p>Whereas in the later church bishops and elders were clearly distinguished, the NT reflects an early period when these offices were virtually synonymous. In Paul’s farewell speech at Miletus (Acts 20), addressed specifically to the Ephesian church elders (v 17), he tells them that the Holy Spirit has made them “overseers, to care for the church of God” (v 28). Whether “overseer” is used here in the later technical sense of bishop or the more general sense of guardian is not clear. However, in Titus 1:5-7, the elders of verse 5 are clearly the same persons as the bishops of verse 7. Again, the bishops of Philippians 1:1 are likely to be understood as the elders appointed by Paul upon his leaving this mission station.<\/p>\n<p>It is clear that church government in the NT period was still relatively fluid, but the seeds for the later structures were surely planted. The institution of the elders, on the basis of Jewish precedent, was central. The episcopate (overseers\/bishops) probably emerged out of the presbyterian (elders), one elder being appointed as overseer by the entire council of elders.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Bishop; Deacon, Deaconess; Pastor; Presbyter; Spiritual Gifts.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ELDER<\/h3>\n<p>Person who, by virtue of position in the family, clan, or tribe; or by reason of personality, prowess, stature, or influence; or through a process of appointment and ordination, exercised leadership and judicial functions in both religious and secular spheres in the ancient world, both among biblical and nonbiblical peoples. The roots of the development of the presbytery (group of elders) in the NT and postapostolic church originate in Judaism and the OT, though the figure of the elder or groups of elders can also be found in the world surrounding ancient Israel and in the Greco-Roman world of the NT period.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"IntheOldTestament\">In the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>The elder, or the institution of elders, is closely linked with the tribal system. Tribes were composed of clans, and clans of large, extended family units. By virtue of age and function in a patriarchal society, the father of a family ruled. This fact of age, as well as the wisdom and maturity invested in older persons, is undoubtedly the origin of the authority that these elders exercised. A clan was ruled by the heads of the families constituting it, forming a council of elders. In time of war, each clan furnished a contingent; these were led by a chief, probably chosen from the ranks of the elders.<\/p>\n<p>In Israel’s premonarchy period, local administration and judicial action was largely in the hands of those elders. In the exodus narrative, it was the elders of Israel (heads of families) who were instructed by Moses concerning the first Passover meal (Ex 12:21-22). It was these elders who, in Exodus 18:12, met with Jethro, Moses’ father-in-law, and from whose ranks were chosen worthy representatives to assist Moses in the interpretation of the law of God and the administration of justice (18:13-23). Similarly, according to Numbers 11:16-17, Moses was instructed by God to select 70 men from among the elders of Israel to assist him in leadership of the people. In this latter account, the elders were marked by a special endowment of God’s Spirit. In the former the elders—chosen as coadministrators with Moses—were those known to be trustworthy.<\/p>\n<p>A central function of elders was the administration of justice. They were the “judges,” who sat “in the gate,” the traditional courtroom of ancient villages and towns. Here disputes and trials were settled by the elders, and community affairs were discussed and decisions made (Gn 23:10, 18; Jb 29:7; Prv 24:7; 31:23). The preservation and application of the law was clearly in the hands of elders who sat at the gate of the town (Dt 19:12; 21:19; 22:15; 25:7-10). Ruth 4:1-12 provides an excellent description of such a process.<\/p>\n<p>During the period of the monarchy, local administration and judicial authority continued to be invested in councils of elders. At the end of Saul’s reign, David sent messages and gifts to the elders of the towns of Judah (1 Sm 30:26), obviously recognizing that his efficient rule would depend on their goodwill and allegiance. In the time of Jehu (2 Kgs 10:5), we hear of elders in Samaria, side by side with a governor and master of the palace. To facilitate her plot against Naboth, Jezebel wrote instructions to the elders and nobles of Jezreel (1 Kgs 21:8-11). Again, Josiah convened the elders of Judah and Jerusalem to hear the reading of the law and to enter with him into a new covenant of obedience (2 Kgs 23:1). It is clear that the elders of Israel were now responsible for the application of the law within their jurisdictions. Besides administrative and judicial functions, elders also assumed cultic roles (Ex 24:1, 9; Lv 4:14-15).<\/p>\n<p>The institution of the elders survived the collapse of the royal institutions. Elders were present during the exile (Ez 8:1; 14:1; 20:1-3) as well as after the return (e.g., Ezr 10:16).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"InJudaismoftheNewTestamentPeriod\">In Judaism of the New Testament Period<\/p>\n<p>While use of the title “elder” to designate officers of various Greek cult associations and village magistrates may have influenced the development of community structure in the gentile churches, the Christian office (or function) of elder stems from a very similar institution within Judaism. In the first three Gospels and in Acts there are numerous references to elders as functionaries within the communal and religious life of Judaism. Generally they are mentioned together with one or more other groups of functionaries (quoting the <span>rsv<\/span>): “elders and chief priests and scribes” (Mt 16:21); “chief priests and elders of the people” (21:23; 26:3, 47); “scribes and elders” (26:57; 27:41); “chief priests and elders” (27:1, 3, 12, 20); “rulers and elders and scribes” (Acts 4:5); “rulers of the people and elders” (v 8). From these NT passages we cannot determine what exactly their functions were, or how they differed from rulers or scribes. However, the duties of Jewish elders are clearly described in the tractate <em>Sanhedrin<\/em> in the Mishnah, as well as in the community rule books of the Qumran ascetics, discovered among the Dead Sea Scrolls.<\/p>\n<p>Each Jewish community had its council of elders, who had general administrative oversight and represented the community in relations with Roman authorities. Their primary duty was judicial. They were custodians of the law and its traditional interpretations (see Mt 15:2), and they were charged with both its enforcement and the punishment of offenders. The most important of these councils of elders was the Sanhedrin in Jerusalem, a group of 71 men who acted as the final court for the entire nation.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"IntheChristianCommunity\">In the Christian Community<\/p>\n<p>Since the primitive church eventually regarded itself as the new Israel (Mt 21:43; Gal 6:16), it is easy to see why it should gradually adopt the institution of elders. Though it is difficult to make out the order that prevailed in the first Christian communities, because it apparently varied according to place and time in both form and extent, the presence and functioning of elders was part of the reality of early church life.<\/p>\n<p>In Luke’s account of the origin and spread of Christianity, the elders are already present in the church at Jerusalem. In Acts we see Christians at Antioch sending famine relief “to the elders [of the Judean churches] by Barnabas and Saul” (Acts 11:30). On their first missionary journey, Paul and Barnabas “appointed elders in every church” (14:23). Later, Paul and Barnabas were sent from Antioch to Jerusalem “to the apostles and elders” about the question of circumcision of gentile Christians (15:2), and were “welcomed by the church, and the apostles, and the elders” (v 4), who gathered to hear the case and resolve the issue (vv 6-23).<\/p>\n<p>Who these elders were, and how they were chosen, we are not told. It seems possible to argue, on the basis of Jewish precedent, that age and prominence gave them the privilege of rendering special service within the community. Veneration for age was a deeply rooted sentiment among Jews, and the name “presbyter” (elder) was derived from Jewish usage. It is also possible that, like the appointment of “the seven” for special service by the laying on of hands (6:1-6), the first elders in the Jerusalem church were appointed by the apostles. Apparently they functioned in the Christian community in ways comparable to the elders in the Jewish communities and the Sanhedrin (11:30; 15:2-6, 22-23; 16:4; 21:18).<\/p>\n<p>Paul apparently continued the practice among the gentile churches, though elders are not mentioned in the earliest Pauline writings. They are mentioned only in the Pastoral Epistles (1 Tm 5:17, 19; Ti 1:5). On his last journey to Jerusalem, Paul summoned the elders of the church at Ephesus to Miletus (Acts 20:17) to bid them farewell, and to instruct them to be faithful in their task of overseeing and caring for the Christian flock, the church of God (20:28).<\/p>\n<p>Although elders are not explicitly mentioned in Paul’s early letters, they may have been among the leaders who presided over the congregations (Rom 12:8; 1 Thes 5:12-13). Philippians 1:1 certainly reveals a definite stratification of leadership (“overseers and deacons”) within a young Pauline congregation. And 1 Timothy 5:17, reflecting what is often considered a later phase in the development of church government, attributes the functions of preaching and teaching to the ruling elders. Further, that Christian elders exercised pastoral functions may be inferred from 1 Peter 5:1-5 and James 5:14.<\/p>\n<p>There is one passage where we find a possible identification of an apostle (Peter) as also being an elder: “I exhort the elders among you, as a fellow elder and a witness of the sufferings of Christ” (1 Pt 5:1a, <span>rsv<\/span>). This text may indicate that elders were appointed and functioned as extensions of apostolic servanthood. Paul’s practice of appointing elders in the churches before his departure may support such a suggestion. The fact that in the tradition of the later church the “elder” of 2 and 3 John was identified as the apostle John points in a similar direction. Though such an identification is implicit, the apostles could function as elders but not the other way around.<\/p>\n<p>The elders had several functions. For example, 1 Timothy 5:17 speaks of elders as involved in preaching and teaching; James 5:14 sees them involved in a healing ministry; 1 Peter 5:2 exhorts them to tend the flock. Thus, the prophets and teachers who led the church at Antioch (according to Acts 13:1-3) may well have been the elders of this community.<\/p>\n<p>The diaconate, too, whose roots are to be seen in the selection of “the seven” for service to those in need (Acts 6:1-3), was not restricted to purely external service. Two of these men, whom Luke introduces to us as deacons, appear at the same time as evangelists who were particularly effective as preachers of the Word, performers of miracles, expounders of the Scriptures (Stephen, Acts 6:8-10; Philip, Acts 8:4-13, 26-40).<\/p>\n<p>Whereas in the later church bishops and elders were clearly distinguished, the NT reflects an early period when these offices were virtually synonymous. In Paul’s farewell speech at Miletus (Acts 20), addressed specifically to the Ephesian church elders (v 17), he tells them that the Holy Spirit has made them “overseers, to care for the church of God” (v 28). Whether “overseer” is used here in the later technical sense of bishop or the more general sense of guardian is not clear. However, in Titus 1:5-7, the elders of verse 5 are clearly the same persons as the bishops of verse 7. Again, the bishops of Philippians 1:1 are likely to be understood as the elders appointed by Paul upon his leaving this mission station.<\/p>\n<p>It is clear that church government in the NT period was still relatively fluid, but the seeds for the later structures were surely planted. The institution of the elders, on the basis of Jewish precedent, was central. The episcopate (overseers\/bishops) probably emerged out of the presbyterian (elders), one elder being appointed as overseer by the entire council of elders.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Bishop; Deacon, Deaconess; Pastor; Presbyter; Spiritual Gifts.<\/p>","summary_ro":"ELDER Person who, by virtue of position in the family, clan, or tribe; or by reason of personality, prowess, stature, or influence; or through a process of appointment and ordination, exercised leadership and judicial functions in both religious and secular spheres in the ancient world, both among biblical and nonbiblical peoples. The roots of the development of the presbytery (group of elders) in the NT and postapostolic church originate in Judaism and the OT, though the figure of the elder ...","summary_en":"ELDER Person who, by virtue of position in the family, clan, or tribe; or by reason of personality, prowess, stature, or influence; or through a process of appointment and ordination, exercised leadership and judicial functions in both religious and secular spheres in the ancient world, both among biblical and nonbiblical peoples. The roots of the development of the presbytery (group of elders) in the NT and postapostolic church originate in Judaism and the OT, though the figure of the elder ...","source":"Articles\/E.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":27547,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Nicopolis","title_en":"Nicopolis","content_ro":"<h3>NICOPOLIS<\/h3>\n<p>Name meaning “Victory City,” a popular choice in the Roman Empire when a newly founded city required a name, especially when a newly built town was created to commemorate some military victory in days of warfare.<\/p>\n<p>In his letter to Titus, Paul directs him to leave Crete, where he had been ministering (Ti 1:5), and make his way to Nicopolis, where the apostle was working and intended to spend the winter (3:12). Of the nine Nicopolises throughout the empire, Paul almost certainly meant the city situated northwest of the Gulf of Corinth and southeast of the promontory of Epirus.<\/p>\n<p>Octavian founded this city in 31 <span>BC<\/span> to celebrate his victory over Mark Antony in the great battle of Actium fought nearby. Nicopolis was Greek both in name and constitution. The center of a number of nearby towns, the new Nicopolis was a metropolis, enjoying an independence similar to that of neighboring Athens. Temples, theaters, a stadium, and an aqueduct were built, and games were instituted for the four yearly festivals. Nicopolis’s most famous citizen, Epictetus, the Stoic philosopher, lived there around <span>AD<\/span> 90. Paul made this splendid metropolis and its satellite communities a field for evangelism.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>NICOPOLIS<\/h3>\n<p>Name meaning “Victory City,” a popular choice in the Roman Empire when a newly founded city required a name, especially when a newly built town was created to commemorate some military victory in days of warfare.<\/p>\n<p>In his letter to Titus, Paul directs him to leave Crete, where he had been ministering (Ti 1:5), and make his way to Nicopolis, where the apostle was working and intended to spend the winter (3:12). Of the nine Nicopolises throughout the empire, Paul almost certainly meant the city situated northwest of the Gulf of Corinth and southeast of the promontory of Epirus.<\/p>\n<p>Octavian founded this city in 31 <span>BC<\/span> to celebrate his victory over Mark Antony in the great battle of Actium fought nearby. Nicopolis was Greek both in name and constitution. The center of a number of nearby towns, the new Nicopolis was a metropolis, enjoying an independence similar to that of neighboring Athens. Temples, theaters, a stadium, and an aqueduct were built, and games were instituted for the four yearly festivals. Nicopolis’s most famous citizen, Epictetus, the Stoic philosopher, lived there around <span>AD<\/span> 90. Paul made this splendid metropolis and its satellite communities a field for evangelism.<\/p>","summary_ro":"NICOPOLIS Name meaning “Victory City,” a popular choice in the Roman Empire when a newly founded city required a name, especially when a newly built town was created to commemorate some military victory in days of warfare. In his letter to Titus, Paul directs him to leave Crete, where he had been ministering (Ti 1:5), and make his way to Nicopolis, where the apostle was working and intended to spend the winter (3:12). Of the nine Nicopolises throughout the empire, Paul almost certainly meant ...","summary_en":"NICOPOLIS Name meaning “Victory City,” a popular choice in the Roman Empire when a newly founded city required a name, especially when a newly built town was created to commemorate some military victory in days of warfare. In his letter to Titus, Paul directs him to leave Crete, where he had been ministering (Ti 1:5), and make his way to Nicopolis, where the apostle was working and intended to spend the winter (3:12). Of the nine Nicopolises throughout the empire, Paul almost certainly meant ...","source":"Articles\/N.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":28580,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Ordination Ordain","title_en":"Ordination Ordain","content_ro":"<h3>ORDAIN, ORDINATION<\/h3>\n<p>The act of officially investing someone with religious authority. Several synonyms are “appoint,” “institute,” “make,” and “establish.” In current usage, the words “ordain” and “ordination” are applied to persons, signifying selection and appointment to God’s service.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"IntheOldTestament\">In the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>Throughout the OT, emphasis falls upon God’s choosing and appointing whom he wills. Priestly functions passed very early from the head of each household to the divinely chosen tribe of Levi (Dt 33:8-11; Jgs 17:13). Through all subsequent clan rivalries—“Zadokite,” “Aaronic,” “Hasmonean”—this claim to inherited privilege persisted. Divine appointment through Levi was traced back to Moses (Ex 4:14; 28:41; 29:9), claimed for the Ephraimite Samuel (1 Chr 6:28), and still celebrated by Sirach (Ecclus 45:6-22, c. 180 <span>BC<\/span>). As the book of Hebrews states (Heb 5:1, 4), no one takes the honor upon himself; he is “called by God, as Aaron was,” by birth into an inherited status.<\/p>\n<p>The first Levites were presented at the tabernacle in the presence of the people, and acknowledged by “the laying on of hands” (Nm 8:10, 14-18). Similarly, Moses received instructions for the week-long consecration of Aaron and his sons, with elaborate sacrifices, vestments, anointing, and ritual (Ex 29; Lv 8). In both cases, the careful preservation of these detailed instructions suggests that the ceremonies were retained, to some degree, in later years, though no repetition is recorded.<\/p>\n<p>Alongside the priests there existed establishments of recognized prophets, or prophetic communities, sometimes with royal patronage (1 Sm 10:5; 1 Kgs 1:9-10; 18:17-19; 20:35; 22:5-28; 2 Kgs 2:3-7; 23:2). The line of prophecy was also traced back to earliest days (see Gn 20:7; Dt 34:10; Jgs 4:4; Jer 7:25). The phrase “sons of the prophets,” and an obscure hint in Jeremiah 35:4, may imply that prophecy, like priesthood, was sometimes hereditary, but the manner of appointment and installation is unknown. The outstanding prophets were frequently opposed to the prophetic “schools” (Elijah, 1 Kgs 17; Micaiah, 1 Kgs 22:5-28; Jeremiah, Jer 27:14-16; 28). Such men were appointed by direct, divine call (1 Kgs 17:1; 21:17; Is 6; Jer 1; Am 7:15), though by God’s instruction Elisha was called and anointed by Elijah (1 Kgs 19:16; cf. Is 61:1). Authentication of the prophet’s message lay not in appropriate installation ceremonies but in its self-evident truth; in the case of predictions, in their fulfillment (1 Kgs 22:13-14, 26-28; Jer 28:5-9).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"IntheNewTestament\">In the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>Christian ordination is also a matter of divine choice. Neither Jesus, nor any disciple, came from the professional religious classes. In ordaining the 12 apostles, Jesus called to him those whom he desired, later insisting, “You did not choose me, but I chose you and appointed you” (Jn 15:16, <span>rsv<\/span>). The selection of Matthias rested upon prayer and the divine lot (Acts 1:24-26). Paul contended that he had been set apart by God before he was born and did not receive his apostleship from or through men (Gal 1:1, 15). Paul and Barnabas were commissioned by direction of the Spirit during worship, probably through a Christian prophet. Similarly, Timothy was first chosen as assistant to Paul by prophetic utterances that pointed to him (1 Tm 1:18; 4:14).<\/p>\n<p>At Corinth, various ministries of speaking, teaching, healing, and administration were directly conferred as gifts of the Spirit, who apportions as he sees fit (1 Cor 12:8-11, 28; cf. Eph 4:11). Elders of the church at Ephesus were made guardians of the flock by the Holy Spirit (Acts 20:28). The divine prerogative is everywhere clear: any attempt to obtain the privilege of ministry by personal initiative and unworthy means meets with sharpest condemnation (8:18-24).<\/p>\n<p>On the other hand, the assembled church “nominated” Barsabbas and Matthias before submitting the final choice to God (Acts 1:15, 23). The believers chose the seven servers, then presented them to the apostles (6:2-6). An assembled church, at the Spirit’s command, commissioned and sent off Paul and Barnabas (13:3). Paul and Barnabas themselves appointed elders (14:23), as Titus is instructed to do (Ti 1:5), and probably Timothy also (1 Tm 5:22). Elders at Lystra and Iconium, with Paul, obeying a Christian prophet, appointed Timothy to leadership (1 Tm 4:14; 2 Tm 1:6). By the time letters were written to Timothy and Titus, elaborate lists of qualifications were required for church leaders (1 Tm 3:1-13; 2 Tm 2:2).<\/p>\n<p>The congregation of believers also participated in selecting leaders. This could have involved prayer, fasting, and casting lots (Acts 1:26; 6:6; 13:2-3; 14:23); sometimes “selection by hands” (Greek, <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">cheirotonein<\/span><em>,<\/em> originally meaning “election by raising hands,” later “selection by pointing to”; cf. Acts 14:23; 2 Cor 8:19); and sometimes selection by group choice (Acts 1:15, 23; 6:2-5; 13:3; 16:2; 1 Tm 4:14).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Foreordination.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ORDAIN, ORDINATION<\/h3>\n<p>The act of officially investing someone with religious authority. Several synonyms are “appoint,” “institute,” “make,” and “establish.” In current usage, the words “ordain” and “ordination” are applied to persons, signifying selection and appointment to God’s service.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"IntheOldTestament\">In the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>Throughout the OT, emphasis falls upon God’s choosing and appointing whom he wills. Priestly functions passed very early from the head of each household to the divinely chosen tribe of Levi (Dt 33:8-11; Jgs 17:13). Through all subsequent clan rivalries—“Zadokite,” “Aaronic,” “Hasmonean”—this claim to inherited privilege persisted. Divine appointment through Levi was traced back to Moses (Ex 4:14; 28:41; 29:9), claimed for the Ephraimite Samuel (1 Chr 6:28), and still celebrated by Sirach (Ecclus 45:6-22, c. 180 <span>BC<\/span>). As the book of Hebrews states (Heb 5:1, 4), no one takes the honor upon himself; he is “called by God, as Aaron was,” by birth into an inherited status.<\/p>\n<p>The first Levites were presented at the tabernacle in the presence of the people, and acknowledged by “the laying on of hands” (Nm 8:10, 14-18). Similarly, Moses received instructions for the week-long consecration of Aaron and his sons, with elaborate sacrifices, vestments, anointing, and ritual (Ex 29; Lv 8). In both cases, the careful preservation of these detailed instructions suggests that the ceremonies were retained, to some degree, in later years, though no repetition is recorded.<\/p>\n<p>Alongside the priests there existed establishments of recognized prophets, or prophetic communities, sometimes with royal patronage (1 Sm 10:5; 1 Kgs 1:9-10; 18:17-19; 20:35; 22:5-28; 2 Kgs 2:3-7; 23:2). The line of prophecy was also traced back to earliest days (see Gn 20:7; Dt 34:10; Jgs 4:4; Jer 7:25). The phrase “sons of the prophets,” and an obscure hint in Jeremiah 35:4, may imply that prophecy, like priesthood, was sometimes hereditary, but the manner of appointment and installation is unknown. The outstanding prophets were frequently opposed to the prophetic “schools” (Elijah, 1 Kgs 17; Micaiah, 1 Kgs 22:5-28; Jeremiah, Jer 27:14-16; 28). Such men were appointed by direct, divine call (1 Kgs 17:1; 21:17; Is 6; Jer 1; Am 7:15), though by God’s instruction Elisha was called and anointed by Elijah (1 Kgs 19:16; cf. Is 61:1). Authentication of the prophet’s message lay not in appropriate installation ceremonies but in its self-evident truth; in the case of predictions, in their fulfillment (1 Kgs 22:13-14, 26-28; Jer 28:5-9).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"IntheNewTestament\">In the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>Christian ordination is also a matter of divine choice. Neither Jesus, nor any disciple, came from the professional religious classes. In ordaining the 12 apostles, Jesus called to him those whom he desired, later insisting, “You did not choose me, but I chose you and appointed you” (Jn 15:16, <span>rsv<\/span>). The selection of Matthias rested upon prayer and the divine lot (Acts 1:24-26). Paul contended that he had been set apart by God before he was born and did not receive his apostleship from or through men (Gal 1:1, 15). Paul and Barnabas were commissioned by direction of the Spirit during worship, probably through a Christian prophet. Similarly, Timothy was first chosen as assistant to Paul by prophetic utterances that pointed to him (1 Tm 1:18; 4:14).<\/p>\n<p>At Corinth, various ministries of speaking, teaching, healing, and administration were directly conferred as gifts of the Spirit, who apportions as he sees fit (1 Cor 12:8-11, 28; cf. Eph 4:11). Elders of the church at Ephesus were made guardians of the flock by the Holy Spirit (Acts 20:28). The divine prerogative is everywhere clear: any attempt to obtain the privilege of ministry by personal initiative and unworthy means meets with sharpest condemnation (8:18-24).<\/p>\n<p>On the other hand, the assembled church “nominated” Barsabbas and Matthias before submitting the final choice to God (Acts 1:15, 23). The believers chose the seven servers, then presented them to the apostles (6:2-6). An assembled church, at the Spirit’s command, commissioned and sent off Paul and Barnabas (13:3). Paul and Barnabas themselves appointed elders (14:23), as Titus is instructed to do (Ti 1:5), and probably Timothy also (1 Tm 5:22). Elders at Lystra and Iconium, with Paul, obeying a Christian prophet, appointed Timothy to leadership (1 Tm 4:14; 2 Tm 1:6). By the time letters were written to Timothy and Titus, elaborate lists of qualifications were required for church leaders (1 Tm 3:1-13; 2 Tm 2:2).<\/p>\n<p>The congregation of believers also participated in selecting leaders. This could have involved prayer, fasting, and casting lots (Acts 1:26; 6:6; 13:2-3; 14:23); sometimes “selection by hands” (Greek, <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">cheirotonein<\/span><em>,<\/em> originally meaning “election by raising hands,” later “selection by pointing to”; cf. Acts 14:23; 2 Cor 8:19); and sometimes selection by group choice (Acts 1:15, 23; 6:2-5; 13:3; 16:2; 1 Tm 4:14).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Foreordination.<\/p>","summary_ro":"ORDAIN, ORDINATION The act of officially investing someone with religious authority. Several synonyms are “appoint,” “institute,” “make,” and “establish.” In current usage, the words “ordain” and “ordination” are applied to persons, signifying selection and appointment to God’s service. In the Old Testament Throughout the OT, emphasis falls upon God’s choosing and appointing whom he wills. Priestly functions passed very early from the head of each household to the divinely chosen tribe of Lev...","summary_en":"ORDAIN, ORDINATION The act of officially investing someone with religious authority. Several synonyms are “appoint,” “institute,” “make,” and “establish.” In current usage, the words “ordain” and “ordination” are applied to persons, signifying selection and appointment to God’s service. In the Old Testament Throughout the OT, emphasis falls upon God’s choosing and appointing whom he wills. Priestly functions passed very early from the head of each household to the divinely chosen tribe of Lev...","source":"Articles\/O.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":28977,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Pastor","title_en":"Pastor","content_ro":"<h3>PASTOR<\/h3>\n<p>Word literally meaning “shepherd,” used in both the OT and NT in a figurative sense for rulers and leaders. Of the 12 times the word is used in the NT as a metaphor for “leader,” it is translated as “pastor” only in Ephesians 4:11 (<span>kjv<\/span>, <span>asv<\/span>, <span>rsv<\/span>, <span>niv<\/span>, <span>tev<\/span>, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Pastors and teachers together formed a group who complemented the work of apostles, prophets, and evangelists. The titles “bishop” and “elder” refer to the same office in the NT (cf. Acts 20:17, 28; Ti 1:5-7), and “pastor” seems to be practically synonymous with them, as shown by Jesus being referred to as “the Shepherd and Bishop of your souls” (1 Pt 2:25, <span>kjv<\/span>). The verb “to shepherd” is used to describe the work of local church leaders (Jn 21:16; Acts 20:28; 1 Pt 5:2), and often the congregation is called a flock. It is the pastor’s responsibility to build up the body of Christ by watching over the congregation (Acts 20:28; Heb 13:7) and countering false teaching (Acts 20:29-30). More detailed information regarding the duties and responsibilities of pastors is found in Paul’s letters to Timothy and Titus, which have come to be called the Pastoral Letters.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Bishop; Deacon, Deaconess; Elder; Presbyter; Shepherd; Spiritual Gifts.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>PASTOR<\/h3>\n<p>Word literally meaning “shepherd,” used in both the OT and NT in a figurative sense for rulers and leaders. Of the 12 times the word is used in the NT as a metaphor for “leader,” it is translated as “pastor” only in Ephesians 4:11 (<span>kjv<\/span>, <span>asv<\/span>, <span>rsv<\/span>, <span>niv<\/span>, <span>tev<\/span>, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Pastors and teachers together formed a group who complemented the work of apostles, prophets, and evangelists. The titles “bishop” and “elder” refer to the same office in the NT (cf. Acts 20:17, 28; Ti 1:5-7), and “pastor” seems to be practically synonymous with them, as shown by Jesus being referred to as “the Shepherd and Bishop of your souls” (1 Pt 2:25, <span>kjv<\/span>). The verb “to shepherd” is used to describe the work of local church leaders (Jn 21:16; Acts 20:28; 1 Pt 5:2), and often the congregation is called a flock. It is the pastor’s responsibility to build up the body of Christ by watching over the congregation (Acts 20:28; Heb 13:7) and countering false teaching (Acts 20:29-30). More detailed information regarding the duties and responsibilities of pastors is found in Paul’s letters to Timothy and Titus, which have come to be called the Pastoral Letters.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Bishop; Deacon, Deaconess; Elder; Presbyter; Shepherd; Spiritual Gifts.<\/p>","summary_ro":"PASTOR Word literally meaning “shepherd,” used in both the OT and NT in a figurative sense for rulers and leaders. Of the 12 times the word is used in the NT as a metaphor for “leader,” it is translated as “pastor” only in Ephesians 4:11 (kjv, asv, rsv, niv, tev, nlt). Pastors and teachers together formed a group who complemented the work of apostles, prophets, and evangelists. The titles “bishop” and “elder” refer to the same office in the NT (cf. Acts 20:17, 28; Ti 1:5-7), and “pastor” seem...","summary_en":"PASTOR Word literally meaning “shepherd,” used in both the OT and NT in a figurative sense for rulers and leaders. Of the 12 times the word is used in the NT as a metaphor for “leader,” it is translated as “pastor” only in Ephesians 4:11 (kjv, asv, rsv, niv, tev, nlt). Pastors and teachers together formed a group who complemented the work of apostles, prophets, and evangelists. The titles “bishop” and “elder” refer to the same office in the NT (cf. Acts 20:17, 28; Ti 1:5-7), and “pastor” seem...","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":29299,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Paul, the Apostle","title_en":"Paul, the Apostle","content_ro":"<h3>PAUL, T<span>he Apostle<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Prominent leader of the first-century church; apostle to the Gentiles; author of 13 NT epistles.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Family and Cultural Background<\/p>\n<p>• Education<\/p>\n<p>• Saul the Persecutor<\/p>\n<p>• Conversion and Calling<\/p>\n<p>• Preparation for Ministry<\/p>\n<p>• Sent Out from Antioch<\/p>\n<p>• Traveling with Barnabas<\/p>\n<p>• The Council of Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>• Further Travel<\/p>\n<p>• Labor in the Gospel<\/p>\n<p>• The Arrest in Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>• Voyage and Stay in Rome<\/p>\n<p>• Final Years and Martyrdom<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FamilyandCulturalBackground\">Family and Cultural Background<\/p>\n<p>Paul was born around <span>AD<\/span> 10, a Jew in a family of Pharisees (Acts 23:6) of the tribe of Benjamin (Phil 3:5) in Tarsus of Cilicia (Acts 9:11; 21:39; 22:3), a center of commerce and learning that embraced the Hellenistic spirit and Roman politics. It was a city of which he could be proud (21:39). His parents named him Saul, perhaps after the first king of Israel, who was also a Benjaminite (1 Sm 11:15; Acts 13:21), but Acts 13:9 notes that he “was also called Paul.” He uses the Roman name Paul throughout his letters.<\/p>\n<p>From religious parents Paul received knowledge of the Law and Prophets and the Hebrew and Aramaic languages (Acts 21:40; 22:2-3; 23:6; Gal 1:14; Phil 3:5-6). Tarsus, however, was not a Jewish city. Rather, it had a Greek character, being a place where the Greek language was spoken and Greek literature was cultivated. This accounts for Paul’s familiarity with Greek (Acts 21:37), the language of the streets and shops of Tarsus.<\/p>\n<p>Jews were brought to Tarsus, the capital of the Roman province of Cilicia, in 171 <span>BC<\/span> to promote business in the region. At that time Paul’s ancestors were probably given Roman citizenship. Paul inherited from his father both Tarsisian and Roman citizenship, which would prove to be of great value to Paul in his later life as he traveled with the gospel throughout the Roman Empire (Acts 16:37; 22:25-29; 23:27). Paul may have had several brothers and sisters, but Acts 23:16 mentions only one sister, whose son performed a lifesaving act for his uncle.<\/p>\n<p>Paul was a tent maker (Acts 18:3). He may have learned this trade from his father, or he may have selected it as a means of self-support, as was the custom of those in rabbinical training. Tarsus was well known for the goat’s-hair cloth called cilicium. It was the weaving of this cloth and the fashioning of it into tents, sails, awnings, and cloaks that gave Paul his economic independence during his apostolic ministry (Acts 18:3; 20:34; 28:30; 2 Cor 11:9; 1 Thes 2:9; 2 Thes 3:8).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Education\">Education<\/p>\n<p>Although born in Tarsus, Paul testified to the Jews in Jerusalem that he had been brought up in this city and studied under Gamaliel (Acts 22:3). It is not clear when Paul was first brought to Jerusalem, but it is likely that sometime between the ages of 13 and 20 he began his formal rabbinical studies. His teacher, Gamaliel, was the grandson of Hillel, founder of a Pharisaic school whose teachings run through the Talmudic writings to this day. This is the same Gamaliel whose wisdom persuaded the Sanhedrin to spare the lives of Peter and the apostles (5:33-40). No doubt, it was while studying under Gamaliel in Hillel’s school that Paul began to advance in Judaism beyond many Jews of his own age and became extremely zealous for the traditions of his fathers (Gal 1:14). Perhaps then also Paul began to experience the struggles with the law he would later describe in Romans 7.<\/p>\n<p>While Paul was studying the Jewish law in Jerusalem, Jesus was working as a carpenter in Nazareth. Then Jesus gathered the disciples who would one day be Paul’s coworkers in the gospel, fulfilled his ministry, and accomplished redemption on the cross of Calvary (<span>AD<\/span> 30). Christ’s resurrection gave birth to the church, which was baptized in the Holy Spirit at the Feast of Pentecost in Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SaulthePersecutor\">Saul the Persecutor<\/p>\n<p>Shortly after these world-changing events, the members of certain synagogues in Jerusalem, including the Cilician synagogue, that of Paul’s native land (Acts 6:9), could not withstand the wisdom and spirit (v 10) of a member of the church in Jerusalem named Stephen (vv 5, 8). They accused him of blasphemy before the Sanhedrin (vv 11-15) and after his eloquent defense (7:1-53) dragged him out of the city, where he was stoned to death. He became the first Christian martyr. The record does not fully reveal the role Paul played in these proceedings, but we know that he was present and prominent because the witnesses against Stephen, who were required to throw the first stones in the execution, “laid their clothes at the feet of a young man called Saul [Paul]” (v 58, <span>niv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>At Stephen’s trial, Paul heard Stephen’s historical method of defense, and he later used it himself at Antioch of Pisidia (Acts 13:16-41). He witnessed the man with the face of an angel (6:15), full of the Holy Spirit, looking above and proclaiming “the heavens opened, and the Son of man standing at the right hand of God” (7:56). Stephen’s death initiated the events that would culminate in Paul’s conversion and commission as the apostle to the Gentiles. But at that time Paul was a leader of the oppressors of the church. He breathed threats and murder against the disciples of the Lord (9:1); he persecuted the church of God and tried to destroy it (Gal 1:13) by imprisoning Christians, both male and female (Acts 22:4), in many cities.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ConversionandCalling\">Conversion and Calling<\/p>\n<p>Paul had obtained letters from the high priest in Jerusalem to the synagogues in Damascus authorizing him to arrest the believers there and bring them to Jerusalem for trial (Acts 9:1-2). Paul traveled to Damascus for this purpose. Then, on the outskirts of the city, came the event that was to transform this law-keeping persecutor of Jesus Christ and blasphemous destroyer of the infant church into the chief propagator of the gospel of grace and master builder of the church (1 Cor 3:10; 1 Tm 1:13). This was the occasion of Paul’s conversion (c. <span>AD<\/span> 31–33). It was of such revolutionary and lasting importance that three detailed accounts of it are given in the book of Acts (Acts 9:1-19; 22:1-21; 26:1-23), and many references are given to it in Paul’s own writings (1 Cor 9:1; 15:8; Gal 1:15-16; Eph 3:3; Phil 3:12).<\/p>\n<p>At that time a light from heaven, brighter than the midday sun, shone around Paul and his traveling companions, and they fell to the ground (Acts 26:13-14). Only Paul, however, heard the voice of Jesus instruct him in his commission as a minister and witness to the Gentiles (vv 14-18). Temporarily blinded, Paul was led into Damascus (9:8). There, the disciple Ananias and the Christian community forgave Paul, baptized him, and helped him through the bewildering event of his conversion (vv 10-22). After a short time with the church there, Paul was threatened with death by the Jews to whom he preached Jesus (vv 20-22), but he was protected by the believers and ingeniously delivered from his persecutors (vv 23-25).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PreparationforMinistry\">Preparation for Ministry<\/p>\n<p>Then began a period of preparation, which lasted about 13 years. During this time, Paul first was in the desert of Arabia for three years. Here was his opportunity to pray and reflect on Stephen’s defense to the Sanhedrin, the momentous significance of his conversion, the vision he received of Jesus Christ, and the meaning of all this in the light of Jewish theology. Following this, Paul returned to Damascus and then visited Peter in Jerusalem for 15 days (Gal 1:17-18).<\/p>\n<p>At first, the disciples in Jerusalem were afraid of him because they did not believe he was a disciple of Jesus (Acts 9:26), but he was championed by Barnabas and thus accepted by the believers in Jerusalem (vv 27-28). While there, Paul may have heard the oral gospel, a summary of the words and deeds of Jesus, handed down to all converts. This would have included the institution of the Lord’s Supper (1 Cor 11:23-25), specific words of the Lord (Acts 20:35; 1 Cor 7:10; 9:14), the appearances of the resurrected Christ (1 Cor 15:3-8), and the spirit and character of Jesus (2 Cor 10:1; Phil 2:5-8). Paul also preached in Jerusalem, perhaps in the same synagogues in which he had heard Stephen. However, when his life was again threatened by the Jews, the believers sent him away to Tarsus (Acts 9:29-30; Gal 1:21).<\/p>\n<p>The end of Paul’s preparation came when Barnabas went to Tarsus to look for him and bring him to Antioch. By this time Paul had lived for 10 years in Cilicia. Since his conversion, before being sent to Tarsus, he had proclaimed Jesus (Acts 9:20), speaking boldly in the name of the Lord (v 27). There is no reason to think he did otherwise while living among the Gentiles in Cilicia. In fact, his work may have been so effective that he began to attract attention in Antioch. During these years, Paul probably underwent many of the sufferings mentioned in 2 Corinthians 11:24-26. Several scholars think that the ecstatic experience mentioned in 2 Corinthians 12:1-9, with its accompanying thorn in the flesh, also took place before he came to Antioch.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SentOutfromAntioch\">Sent Out from Antioch<\/p>\n<p>The church in Antioch had its origins in the persecution fomented by Paul after the death of Stephen. Until they arrived in Antioch, the scattered believers had only spoken the word to Jews (Acts 11:19). It was here that the Gentiles first heard the Good News (v 20), and many became believers (v 21). It is fitting that Paul, the apostle to the Gentiles (Acts 22:21; Rom 11:13), who was as yet unknown by sight to the churches of Judea (Gal 1:22), should appear in Antioch to formally begin the ministry to which he was called (Acts 26:17-18).<\/p>\n<p>Barnabas and Paul stayed with the church in Antioch for a year. Their work there was so blessed that a new name, Christian, was coined to distinguish the believers in Antioch from Gentiles and Jews (Acts 11:26). Hearing of a famine in Judea, the disciples in Antioch determined to send relief to the believers in Judea and did so by Barnabas and Paul (v 30). Such a gift displayed to the Jewish churches the potency of the gospel among the Gentiles. Their mission complete, Barnabas and Paul returned to Antioch with John Mark (12:25), Barnabas’s cousin (Col 4:10).<\/p>\n<p>Beginning from the Day of Pentecost, the work in the gospel had been casual and incidental. Contacts were made in the homes, the marketplace, the streets, synagogues, highways, etc. (Acts 3:1; 5:12, 42; 8:26-29; 10:22). But in Antioch the Holy Spirit initiated a determined effort to evangelize a section of the Roman Empire (13:1-3). By the Holy Spirit’s instructions, the church separated Barnabas and Paul for this work. With the prayers and encouragement of this church, and with John Mark as their assistant, Barnabas and Paul, sent out by the Holy Spirit, sailed for Cyprus (v 4).<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TravelingwithBarnabas\">Traveling with Barnabas<\/p>\n<p>Arriving in Salamis, they preached in the synagogues as they traveled the length of the island to Paphos (Acts 13:5-6). There the Roman proconsul, Sergius Paulus, wanted to hear the word of God (v 7). A magician named Elymas Bar-Jesus tried to prevent the proconsul from believing in Jesus but was stricken with temporary blindness by Paul’s command (vv 8-11). This was the first manifestation in Paul of the signs of an apostle (2 Cor 12:12). From then on, the name Paul, not Saul, is used in Luke’s record of the Acts of the Apostles (Acts 13:9), and Paul replaced Barnabas as the leader of the party. So “Paul and his company” set sail from Paphos and arrived in Perga of Pamphylia (v 13). John Mark deserted them at Perga and returned to his home in Jerusalem (v 13). This caused discord (15:39), but Paul and Mark were later reconciled (Col 4:10; 2 Tm 4:11).<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s travels with the gospel now continued through the Roman province of Asia, specifically in the southern portion of Galatia, the areas of Pamphylia, Pisidia, and Lycaonia. The coastal area where the party landed is a hot, malarial region. It is thought that Paul contracted malaria there and so traveled inland through the mountains to the 4,000-foot- (1,219.2-meter-) high tablelands. Such a journey would have been full of dangerous rivers and bandits (2 Cor 11:26), but Paul was well cared for by the Galatian highlanders when he arrived (Gal 4:13-15) and was rewarded with a warm reception to his message (Acts 13:48-49).<\/p>\n<p>Paul and Barnabas were asked to speak at the synagogue of Antioch in Pisidia (Acts 13:15), and Paul delivered a discourse full of the characteristics of the gospel he would later record in his letters to the churches (vv 16-41). He was invited to speak the next week (v 42); nearly the whole city gathered together to hear the word of God (v 44). This stirred up jealousy in the Jews who opposed Paul’s words (v 45), causing the apostles’ dramatic turn to the Gentiles (vv 46-47). Many Gentiles in Antioch believed and spread the word throughout the region, but Paul and Barnabas were forced out and went to Iconium in Lycaonia (vv 48-51).<\/p>\n<p>The success in Antioch was duplicated in Iconium as was the Jews’ opposition (Acts 14:1), and the apostles fled from the threat of a stoning to Lystra and Derbe in Lycaonia (vv 5-6). In Lystra the signs of an apostle were again seen when Paul healed a man who had been crippled since birth (vv 8-10). The idolatrous citizens of the town, however, primed by the popular belief that Jupiter, accompanied by Mercury, had once visited their region, worshiped Paul and Barnabas as these deities (vv 11-13). Even the convincing words of Paul, whom they mistook for Mercury, hardly restrained the crowds from offering a sacrifice (vv 14-18).<\/p>\n<p>It was in Lystra that Paul was first given a taste of the same medicine he had once administered to Christians. The Jews stoned him, dragged him out of the city, and left him for dead (Acts 14:19). Timothy (16:1-3) may have been among the new disciples surrounding Paul as he lay outside the gate (14:20). Timothy was Paul’s son in the faith (1 Cor 4:17; 1 Tm 1:2), eyewitness to his suffering (2 Tm 3:10-11), faithful companion, and fellow worker (Acts 19:22; 20:4; Rom 16:21; 1 Thes 3:2). The next day Barnabas and Paul went on to Derbe (Acts 14:20).<\/p>\n<p>After making many disciples in Derbe, the apostles retraced their steps through Lystra, Iconium, and Antioch of Pisidia, strengthening and encouraging the new believers and appointing elders in each church (Acts 14:21-23). Arriving again in Perga, they sailed back to Antioch of Syria, where they reported to the church the wonderful news that God had opened a door of faith for the Gentiles (vv 25-27).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheCouncilofJerusalem\">The Council of Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>The Jews, who had dogged the steps of Paul and Barnabas throughout Galatia, followed on their heels to bewitch the Gentiles there, convincing them to desert the grace of Christ and submit to the Jewish law (Gal 1:6; 3:1). Shortly after the apostles’ return to Antioch, Judaizers came from Judea to Antioch, teaching salvation by the law (Acts 15:1). This began the war against the gospel of grace, which Paul preached.<\/p>\n<p>The church in Antioch sent Paul, Barnabas, and others to Jerusalem to settle the controversy of the law versus grace with the apostles and elders there (<span>AD<\/span> 49, Acts 15:2). Along the way to Jerusalem they spread the news of the conversion of the Gentiles. This brought great joy to the believers (v 3). Such joy was not shared by some in Jerusalem, who in the first meeting of the council said that the Gentiles should be ordered to keep the law of Moses (v 5).<\/p>\n<p>After this meeting, Paul and Barnabas met privately with Peter, John, and James (Gal 2:1-10) and explained the gospel they had been preaching to the Gentiles. These three leaders of the church in Jerusalem saw the grace that had been given to Paul to bring the gospel to the Gentiles and extended to him the “right hand of fellowship.” This private meeting seems to have decided the question of compliance to the Jewish law because in the next general meeting Peter said, “We believe that we shall be saved through the grace of the Lord Jesus” (Acts 15:11, <span>rsv<\/span>), and James reached the decision that “we should not trouble those of the Gentiles who turn to God” (Acts 15:19, <span>rsv<\/span>). This was a great victory for Paul and Barnabas, and the news was received with rejoicing by the church in Antioch (vv 30-35).<\/p>\n<p>Later, Peter visited Antioch and freely associated with the Gentile believers as he had timidly done in Cornelius’s house (Acts 10:28). This continued until “certain men came from James.” Their presence brought fear to Peter, clouding the light of the gospel of grace, and causing him to separate himself from the Gentiles. Peter’s action influenced others, including Barnabas, to do the same (Gal 2:12-13). Paul rose to the challenge of this serious crisis, confronted Peter publicly, and charged him with Judaizing and hypocrisy (v 14). Paul won the battle and rescued Peter and Barnabas with eloquent words on justification by faith (vv 15-21), but the Judaizers had resumed their war. From this time on, they did not rest; rather, they tormented and persecuted Paul all over the world. But the apostle did not submit to them for a moment. He was engaged in the fight of his life, so that the truth of the gospel might remain with the Gentile believers (v 5).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FurtherTravel\">Further Travel<\/p>\n<p>Paul wanted to visit the new believers and see how they were doing. So he proposed to Barnabas that they return to the cities where they had previously preached about Jesus (Acts 15:36). Barnabas wanted to take John Mark with them, but Paul would not take him since he had deserted them during their earlier journey (13:13). This sharp disagreement ended Barnabas’s association with Paul (15:37-39). Silas, a leader among the brothers in Jerusalem (v 22), accompanied Paul as he set out by land through Syria and Cilicia, strengthening the churches (vv 40-41).<\/p>\n<p>Beginning from Derbe in Galatia, Paul and Silas revisited the churches Paul had established with Barnabas. While in Lystra, they were joined by Timothy (Acts 16:1-3). The apostles delivered to these young churches the letter drafted by the elders and apostles in Jerusalem concerning the observance of the law (15:23-29), thus strengthening and increasing them (16:4-5).<\/p>\n<p>It is likely that Ephesus, a major city in the Roman province of Asia, was the party’s main objective for the advancement of the gospel, but they were “forbidden by the Holy Spirit to speak the word in Asia” (Acts 16:6). Then they attempted to turn north and enter the region of Bithynia, “but the Spirit of Jesus did not allow them” (v 7). In this way they were forced by God to continue straight westward to Troas on the Aegean Sea, where Luke joined them (“we” in v 10), and Paul had a vision in which he was called out of Asia into Macedonia (vv 8-9). Paul and his party immediately crossed by boat into Europe (v 11) where they carried the gospel to Philippi, Thessalonica, Berea, Athens, and Corinth.<\/p>\n<p>Philippi was a Roman colony and military outpost where there were few Jews, so Paul went to a place by the river where the local Jews prayed. He spoke to some women there, notably Lydia, who believed and with her household was baptized (Acts 16:12-15), beginning the first church in Europe. Paul cast a spirit of divination out of a girl in Philippi, and as a result he and Silas were jailed (vv 16-24). The events of their night in jail made the jailer a believer in God (vv 25-34), and he and his family were added to the church in Philippi, which met in Lydia’s home (v 40). When Paul disclosed his Roman citizenship, he was released and was asked to leave the city (vv 35-39).<\/p>\n<p>At Thessalonica the Jews, aroused to jealousy by the success of Paul’s gospel message, raised a mob to search for the apostles. They complained to the city authorities that the people “who have turned the world upside down have come here also” and accused the apostles of “saying that there is another king [besides Caesar], Jesus” (Acts 17:5-7).<\/p>\n<p>Paul and Silas quickly left Thessalonica by night and arrived in Berea, a city thereafter distinguished by its citizens who eagerly and thoughtfully received the gospel (Acts 17:10-12). The Thessalonian Jews did not rest but trailed Paul to Berea to incite the crowds. The believers then sent Paul away to Athens, while Silas and Timothy stayed behind (vv 13-15).<\/p>\n<p>The Athenians called Paul a babbler but let him air his views before the Areopagus. Paul’s speech there was alive with his broad knowledge. He alluded to Greco-Roman philosophy (Acts 17:27), poetry (v 28), sculpture (vv 25, 29), architecture (v 24), and religion while proclaiming the existence of an “unknown god” (v 23). But he was rudely cut short by scoffing and indifference when he mentioned the resurrection (v 32). Paul’s words delighted the minds of many but influenced the wills of few, so when he arrived in Corinth, he determined not to proclaim the mystery of God in lofty words of wisdom so that the believers’ faith would not rest on human wisdom but on the power of God (1 Cor 2:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>In Corinth Paul met Aquila and Priscilla (Acts 18:2-3), Roman Jews with whom he lived and worked as a tent maker and who would become prominent among the churches (Acts 18:26; Rom 16:3; 1 Cor 16:19; 2 Tm 4:19). He stayed in Corinth 18 months from <span>AD<\/span> 50 to 51, raising up a church (Acts 18:11) on the strength of a vision from God (vv 9-10) and in spite of the attacks of the Jews (vv 12-17). Paul wrote the first and second letters to the Thessalonians from Corinth to establish the believers in a holy, industrious life (1 Thes 3:13; 5:23; 2 Thes 3:7-12) in hope of the second coming of Jesus Christ (1 Thes 4:15-18; 2 Thes 2:1ff.).<\/p>\n<p>Accompanied by Priscilla and Aquila, Paul sailed from Corinth for Syria. He left his fellow workers in Ephesus, sailed to Caesarea, briefly visited Jerusalem, and returned to Antioch (Acts 18:18-22). Paul stayed in Antioch for awhile but did not remain absent from the field of his labors for long. Alone, he departed from Antioch, went from place to place in Galatia and Phrygia strengthening all the disciples, and eventually arrived in Ephesus (18:23; 19:1).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LaborintheGospel\">Labor in the Gospel<\/p>\n<p>A Jew named Apollos had ministered in Ephesus prior to Paul’s arrival and had recently gone over to Corinth (Acts 18:24-28). There Apollos innocently became the cause of such discord (1 Cor 3:3-9) that he left and refused to return even at Paul’s request (16:12). Paul’s earlier visit to Ephesus (Acts 18:19-20), Apollos’s ministry, and the presence of Priscilla and Aquila had prepared Ephesus for the apostle’s preaching of the gospel of Christ.<\/p>\n<p>Paul began his work in Ephesus by setting straight some ill-informed disciples of John the Baptist (Acts 19:1-7). He then spent three months preaching at the local synagogue until members of the congregation “spoke evil of the Way” (v 9). Paul then took the disciples and continued his arguments on the neutral ground of Tyrannus’s school (vv 8-9), where Jews and Greeks were free to come. He continued there for two years and “all the residents of Asia, both Jews and Greeks, heard the word of the Lord” (v 10).<\/p>\n<p>The work in Ephesus was a great success (Acts 19:10, 20, 26). Paul enjoyed an open door for effective work (1 Cor 16:9), bolstered by extraordinary miracles (Acts 19:11-17), a public burning of valuable books of sorcery (vv 18-19), and the assistance of friendly officials from the province of Asia (v 31). There were also many adversaries (1 Cor 15:32; 16:9), especially among the artisans associated with the temple of Diana. Paul’s ministry had hurt their trade to the extent that they were incited to riot (Acts 19:23-41). Paul had intended to stay in Ephesus until Pentecost (1 Cor 16:8), but this tumult seems to have hastened his departure (Acts 20:1).<\/p>\n<p>During his stay in Ephesus, the household of Chloe sent word to Paul from Corinth that there were divisions in the church there (1 Cor 1:10-13). This report generated a flurry of letters and travels. Paul wrote a letter, which is now lost, to this church (5:9). The church in Corinth wrote a letter (7:1) and sent messengers to Paul (16:17), and Paul sent Timothy to them (4:17; 16:10). Paul then wrote 1 Corinthians (<span>AD<\/span> 53) and sent it by Titus, who was to meet him in Troas to report the results (2 Cor 2:12-13).<\/p>\n<p>After his hasty exit from Ephesus, Paul found an open door for the gospel in Troas, but he so longed to hear from Corinth that he pushed on into Macedonia (2 Cor 2:12-13). There he was finally comforted by Titus (7:5-7) and rejoiced at the news of the Corinthians’ repentance, earnestness, longing, and zeal (vv 8-16). From Macedonia Paul wrote 2 Corinthians (<span>AD<\/span> 54), toured northwest to proclaim the good news of Christ in Illyricum (Rom 15:19), and then turned south for Achaia and his third visit to Corinth (Acts 19:21; 20:1-3; 2 Cor 13:1).<\/p>\n<p>The time and place from which Paul wrote his letter to the Galatians is a topic of controversy. Some date it before the council at Jerusalem, about <span>AD<\/span> 45. Others say he wrote it from Corinth at this stage in his history. The latter opinion is the choice of this narrative.<\/p>\n<p>A three-month winter stay in Corinth (<span>AD<\/span> 55–56) produced the Letter to the Romans, which firmly set the benchmark of the gospel for all the ages. Paul had many personal friends in Rome (Rom 16) and had long intended to visit there (1:10-15). His plans were to deliver a collection from the Gentile churches to Jerusalem (Acts 20:35; Rom 15:25-26; 1 Cor 16:1) and then visit Rome (Acts 19:21) on his way to Spain (Rom 15:23-24).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheArrestinJerusalem\">The Arrest in Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s trip from Corinth to Jerusalem was marked by abundant warnings of the danger awaiting him in Jerusalem. The Judaizers’ acrimony toward Paul was common talk everywhere, but all alarms went unheeded (Acts 20:22-24, 38; 21:4, 10-15). However, the request for prayer in Romans 15:30-32 shows that Paul knew he might soon need a divine rescue from the unbelievers in Judea.<\/p>\n<p>The travelers, carrying the collection for Jerusalem, journeyed swiftly in order to reach Jerusalem by Pentecost (Acts 20:16). They proceeded by land from Achaia, through Macedonia, to Philippi in time for the Passover (spring <span>AD<\/span> 56, v 6). Crossing by sea to Troas, they visited the believers there (vv 7-12) and then sailed through the archipelago of the eastern Aegean Sea to Miletus (vv 13-16). From Miletus, Paul sent for the elders of Ephesus, to whom he delivered an impassioned speech containing his own dire warnings for them (vv 17-38).<\/p>\n<p>Parting from them, Paul and his companions set sail to Cos, to Rhodes, and then to Patara, where they changed ships for Phoenicia (Acts 21:1-2). A straight course to Tyre brought them within sight of Cyprus, with its memories of Barnabas and Sergius Paulus (v 3). “Through the Spirit” the disciples in Tyre “told Paul not to go on to Jerusalem” (v 4), but he pressed on to Caesarea, where he and his company stayed with Philip, who had formerly served with the martyred Stephen (21:8; cf. 6:5). In Caesarea, Paul would not be persuaded by an especially dramatic prophecy of his coming arrest (21:10-14).<\/p>\n<p>In Jerusalem the apostolic band stayed with Mnason, an early disciple, and were warmly welcomed by the brothers there (Acts 21:15-17). James and the elders of the church praised God when they heard of the things he had done through Paul among the Gentiles (vv 18-20), and when they received the collection from the churches (24:17). They told Paul of his bad reputation among the thousands of Jewish believers in Jerusalem and urged him to set right the Judaizers’ misrepresentation that he encouraged Jewish Christians to forsake the Mosaic customs (21:21-24). Acts 21:25 shows the Jerusalem elders understood that the Gentiles were under no obligation to Moses; their concern was for Paul to demonstrate that Jewish believers were free to continue their traditional observances.<\/p>\n<p>Paul had kept the Jewish feasts (Acts 20:6), as had Jesus and the early disciples in Jerusalem. He had also cut his hair in a vow at Cenchreae (18:18), so it was a small matter for him, a Jew, to ceremonially purify himself after becoming a Christian, especially if it would undermine the arguments of the Judaizers. To have refused the elders’ request would have lent credence to the Judaizers’ charge. The success of this plan is seen in that it was the Jews from Asia, visiting Jerusalem for the Pentecost feast of <span>AD<\/span> 57, who stirred up trouble for Paul (21:27-29)—not the Judaizers from Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p>The whole city was aroused by Paul’s persistent persecutors. A violent crowd dragged him out of the temple just as Stephen had once been hauled to his martyrdom. They tried to kill him, but he was rescued by Roman soldiers as the mob cried, “Away with him!”—just as they had done to Jesus (Acts 21:30-36). At this juncture the educational and cultural diversity of Paul’s life came to his rescue. As he was carried for safety to the Roman barracks, he spoke in Greek to the tribune, who had mistaken him for an Egyptian assassin (vv 37-38). Given permission to speak to the crowd, he did so in the Aramaic language then common in Israel (vv 39-40). The hushed crowd eagerly heard Paul’s defense until he uttered the word “Gentiles.” At this, the crowd resumed its threatening and violence, and Paul was brought into the barracks (22:1-24). There the Romans prepared to flog him, until Paul revealed that he was not only a Jew from Tarsus but also a freeborn Roman citizen. The tribune was afraid, since he had bound a Roman citizen. Wanting to know the charges against Paul, he brought him to the Sanhedrin (vv 25-30).<\/p>\n<p>This meeting of the Jewish judiciary was shortly reduced to dissension and violence. Paul resorted to tactics justifiable in such a war and hopelessly divided the Sanhedrin on the subject of the resurrection (Acts 23:1-9). Paul again was rescued, this time from the contending factions of the Jewish leadership, and taken to the barracks, where the Lord encouraged him, promising that he would go to Rome (<span>AD<\/span> 56, vv 10-11).<\/p>\n<p>In the meantime 40 Jews entered into a murderous plot against Paul. They vowed not to eat or drink until they had killed the apostle (Acts 23:12-15). They almost succeeded, but with the help of the son of Paul’s sister (v 16), the conspiracy was exposed. For safety, Paul was taken from Jerusalem to Caesarea under guard of 470 soldiers and handed over to the custody of Felix the governor (vv 16-35). Inconclusive hearings before Felix (Acts 24), his successor, Festus (25:1-12), and King Agrippa (25:23–26:32) occupied Paul in his two years of imprisonment in Caesarea. Festus, wanting to please the Jews, suggested that Paul be returned to Jerusalem for trial, but Paul knew the murderous intent of his accusers and again utilized his Roman citizenship by making a dramatic appeal to Caesar (25:9-12).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"VoyageandStayinRome\">Voyage and Stay in Rome<\/p>\n<p>To plead his case at Caesar’s court, Paul and his companions, Aristarchus and Luke, were taken on a perilous voyage (<span>AD<\/span> 58, Acts 27:1–28:16). Their passage by ship from Caesarea to Rome is one of the most remarkable on record. Luke’s detailed account is a treasure of information on ancient ships, navigation, and seamanship. It is also a beautiful portrait of a heroic and dignified apostle Paul, the gospel’s ambassador in chains (Eph 6:20), who with the guidance and assurance of his God (Acts 27:23-26), led the 276 people on board to safety (v 37).<\/p>\n<p>Luke traces the voyage stage by stage through every crisis, with a change of ship at Myra, delay at Fair Havens on Crete, and the shipwreck on Malta. Finally, in the spring of <span>AD<\/span> 59, they arrived at Puteoli, Italy, and made their way to Rome, welcomed by the believers along the Appian Way (Acts 28:13-16).<\/p>\n<p>Luke provided a peaceful denouement to the Acts, notwithstanding the fact that the apostle was an imperial prisoner of Caesar Nero. Paul lived by himself in his own house, chained to a Roman guard (Acts 28:16, 30). There he received the local Jewish leaders—to calm any misgivings they may have had about him and, at the same time, to convince them about Jesus. His efforts had mixed success (vv 17-28). During Paul’s two or more years in Rome, the Judaizers seem to have withdrawn, only to be replaced by the peril of Eastern Gnosticism. This is seen in Paul’s letters to the Philippians, Colossians, and Ephesians, and to Philemon, all written at this time. It is unlikely that Paul’s accusers appeared in Rome to bring formal charges before Caesar, so Paul was probably released in <span>AD<\/span> 61.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FinalYearsandMartyrdom\">Final Years and Martyrdom<\/p>\n<p>It is here assumed that the Pastoral Letters (1 Timothy, 2 Timothy, and Titus) are truly Paul’s work. Only through them can the probable course of events in Paul’s final years be traced. Romans 15:28 shows that Paul intended to deliver the collection to Jerusalem and then to “set out by way of you [Rome] to Spain.” The arrest and imprisonment in Jerusalem not only destroyed these plans but also extracted five precious years from the prime of a most productive life. Although Clement of Rome implied that Paul did fulfill his desire to go to Spain (<em>Clement to the Corinthians<\/em> 5), it is certain that the daily pressure of Paul’s anxious care for all the churches (2 Cor 11:28) did not abate.<\/p>\n<p>If Paul went to Spain, he may have been there when Rome was burned on July 19, <span>AD<\/span> 64. Tradition says that Paul traveled as far as Britain, but there is no evidence to confirm this. Returning east, he left Titus in Crete (Ti 1:5) and traveled through Miletus, south of Ephesus, where he left Trophimus sick (2 Tm 4:20). Traveling toward Macedonia, Paul visited Timothy in Ephesus (1 Tm 1:3). On the way, Paul left his cloak and books with Carpus in Troas (2 Tm 4:13). This indicates that he intended to return there for his possessions. From Macedonia Paul wrote his loving yet apprehensive first letter to Timothy (<span>AD<\/span> 62–64). He had decided to spend the winter in Nicopolis (Ti 3:12), northwest of Corinth on the Adriatic Sea, but was still in Macedonia when he wrote his letter to Titus. This letter is similar to 1 Timothy, yet with a somewhat harsher tone. In it is a final glimpse of the eloquent and zealous Apollos (Ti 3:13), who is still in association with Paul 10 or more years after his first appearance in Ephesus (Acts 18:24).<\/p>\n<p>From here Paul’s path is obscure. He may have wintered in Nicopolis, but he did not return to Troas for his winter cloak (2 Tm 4:13). At some point he was arrested by the Romans, because he spent a winter in Rome’s Mamertine Prison, suffering from the cold in that rock cell before he wrote his second letter to Timothy (<span>AD<\/span> 66–67). He may have been anticipating the coming winter when he requested that Timothy bring his cloak (vv 13, 21). It is possible that the charges against Paul were related to the burning of Rome; this is unknown. It was, however, now “illegal” to be a Christian since the “new religion” was no longer protected by Roman law as being part of Judaism (which was a legalized, recognized religion by Roman law).<\/p>\n<p>It was dangerous to be associated with Paul at this time. Many deserted him (2 Tm 4:16), including all his coworkers in Asia (1:15) and Demas, who loved the world (4:10). Only Luke, the physician and author of Luke and Acts, was with him when he wrote his second letter to Timothy (v 11). Faithful believers still in hiding in Rome were also in contact with the apostle (1:16; 4:19, 21). He told Timothy to come to him in Rome and bring Mark also (4:11). Apparently Timothy did come and was imprisoned (Heb 13:23). Paul’s request for the books and parchments (2 Tm 4:13) discloses that he was reading and studying the Scripture to the end.<\/p>\n<p>The apostle Paul had two hearings before Caesar Nero. At his first defense only the Lord stood by him (2 Tm 4:16). There he not only pleaded his own cause but also that of the gospel, still longing that all the Gentiles would hear its message. Perhaps no decision was made, and thus he was “rescued from the lion’s mouth” (v 17). Though he knew he would soon die, he was not afraid, but was assured that the Lord would give him a crown of righteousness on the last day (v 8). Finally, the apostle himself recorded his seminal encouragement to all believers: “The Lord be with your spirit. Grace be with you” (v 22, <span>rsv<\/span>). After this, the Scripture is silent regarding Paul.<\/p>\n<p>Nothing is known of Paul’s second hearing but that it resulted in the sentence of capital punishment. History does not record Paul’s end. Nero died in the summer of <span>AD<\/span> 68, so Paul was executed before that date. As a Roman citizen, he must have been spared the lingering torture that had recently been suffered by his fellow martyrs. Tradition says that he was decapitated by the sword of an imperial headsman on the Ostian Road just outside of Rome, and buried nearby. This fulfilled Paul’s desire “to depart and be with Christ, for that is far better” (Phil 1:23, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>PAUL, T<span>he Apostle<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Prominent leader of the first-century church; apostle to the Gentiles; author of 13 NT epistles.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Family and Cultural Background<\/p>\n<p>• Education<\/p>\n<p>• Saul the Persecutor<\/p>\n<p>• Conversion and Calling<\/p>\n<p>• Preparation for Ministry<\/p>\n<p>• Sent Out from Antioch<\/p>\n<p>• Traveling with Barnabas<\/p>\n<p>• The Council of Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>• Further Travel<\/p>\n<p>• Labor in the Gospel<\/p>\n<p>• The Arrest in Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>• Voyage and Stay in Rome<\/p>\n<p>• Final Years and Martyrdom<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FamilyandCulturalBackground\">Family and Cultural Background<\/p>\n<p>Paul was born around <span>AD<\/span> 10, a Jew in a family of Pharisees (Acts 23:6) of the tribe of Benjamin (Phil 3:5) in Tarsus of Cilicia (Acts 9:11; 21:39; 22:3), a center of commerce and learning that embraced the Hellenistic spirit and Roman politics. It was a city of which he could be proud (21:39). His parents named him Saul, perhaps after the first king of Israel, who was also a Benjaminite (1 Sm 11:15; Acts 13:21), but Acts 13:9 notes that he “was also called Paul.” He uses the Roman name Paul throughout his letters.<\/p>\n<p>From religious parents Paul received knowledge of the Law and Prophets and the Hebrew and Aramaic languages (Acts 21:40; 22:2-3; 23:6; Gal 1:14; Phil 3:5-6). Tarsus, however, was not a Jewish city. Rather, it had a Greek character, being a place where the Greek language was spoken and Greek literature was cultivated. This accounts for Paul’s familiarity with Greek (Acts 21:37), the language of the streets and shops of Tarsus.<\/p>\n<p>Jews were brought to Tarsus, the capital of the Roman province of Cilicia, in 171 <span>BC<\/span> to promote business in the region. At that time Paul’s ancestors were probably given Roman citizenship. Paul inherited from his father both Tarsisian and Roman citizenship, which would prove to be of great value to Paul in his later life as he traveled with the gospel throughout the Roman Empire (Acts 16:37; 22:25-29; 23:27). Paul may have had several brothers and sisters, but Acts 23:16 mentions only one sister, whose son performed a lifesaving act for his uncle.<\/p>\n<p>Paul was a tent maker (Acts 18:3). He may have learned this trade from his father, or he may have selected it as a means of self-support, as was the custom of those in rabbinical training. Tarsus was well known for the goat’s-hair cloth called cilicium. It was the weaving of this cloth and the fashioning of it into tents, sails, awnings, and cloaks that gave Paul his economic independence during his apostolic ministry (Acts 18:3; 20:34; 28:30; 2 Cor 11:9; 1 Thes 2:9; 2 Thes 3:8).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Education\">Education<\/p>\n<p>Although born in Tarsus, Paul testified to the Jews in Jerusalem that he had been brought up in this city and studied under Gamaliel (Acts 22:3). It is not clear when Paul was first brought to Jerusalem, but it is likely that sometime between the ages of 13 and 20 he began his formal rabbinical studies. His teacher, Gamaliel, was the grandson of Hillel, founder of a Pharisaic school whose teachings run through the Talmudic writings to this day. This is the same Gamaliel whose wisdom persuaded the Sanhedrin to spare the lives of Peter and the apostles (5:33-40). No doubt, it was while studying under Gamaliel in Hillel’s school that Paul began to advance in Judaism beyond many Jews of his own age and became extremely zealous for the traditions of his fathers (Gal 1:14). Perhaps then also Paul began to experience the struggles with the law he would later describe in Romans 7.<\/p>\n<p>While Paul was studying the Jewish law in Jerusalem, Jesus was working as a carpenter in Nazareth. Then Jesus gathered the disciples who would one day be Paul’s coworkers in the gospel, fulfilled his ministry, and accomplished redemption on the cross of Calvary (<span>AD<\/span> 30). Christ’s resurrection gave birth to the church, which was baptized in the Holy Spirit at the Feast of Pentecost in Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SaulthePersecutor\">Saul the Persecutor<\/p>\n<p>Shortly after these world-changing events, the members of certain synagogues in Jerusalem, including the Cilician synagogue, that of Paul’s native land (Acts 6:9), could not withstand the wisdom and spirit (v 10) of a member of the church in Jerusalem named Stephen (vv 5, 8). They accused him of blasphemy before the Sanhedrin (vv 11-15) and after his eloquent defense (7:1-53) dragged him out of the city, where he was stoned to death. He became the first Christian martyr. The record does not fully reveal the role Paul played in these proceedings, but we know that he was present and prominent because the witnesses against Stephen, who were required to throw the first stones in the execution, “laid their clothes at the feet of a young man called Saul [Paul]” (v 58, <span>niv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>At Stephen’s trial, Paul heard Stephen’s historical method of defense, and he later used it himself at Antioch of Pisidia (Acts 13:16-41). He witnessed the man with the face of an angel (6:15), full of the Holy Spirit, looking above and proclaiming “the heavens opened, and the Son of man standing at the right hand of God” (7:56). Stephen’s death initiated the events that would culminate in Paul’s conversion and commission as the apostle to the Gentiles. But at that time Paul was a leader of the oppressors of the church. He breathed threats and murder against the disciples of the Lord (9:1); he persecuted the church of God and tried to destroy it (Gal 1:13) by imprisoning Christians, both male and female (Acts 22:4), in many cities.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ConversionandCalling\">Conversion and Calling<\/p>\n<p>Paul had obtained letters from the high priest in Jerusalem to the synagogues in Damascus authorizing him to arrest the believers there and bring them to Jerusalem for trial (Acts 9:1-2). Paul traveled to Damascus for this purpose. Then, on the outskirts of the city, came the event that was to transform this law-keeping persecutor of Jesus Christ and blasphemous destroyer of the infant church into the chief propagator of the gospel of grace and master builder of the church (1 Cor 3:10; 1 Tm 1:13). This was the occasion of Paul’s conversion (c. <span>AD<\/span> 31–33). It was of such revolutionary and lasting importance that three detailed accounts of it are given in the book of Acts (Acts 9:1-19; 22:1-21; 26:1-23), and many references are given to it in Paul’s own writings (1 Cor 9:1; 15:8; Gal 1:15-16; Eph 3:3; Phil 3:12).<\/p>\n<p>At that time a light from heaven, brighter than the midday sun, shone around Paul and his traveling companions, and they fell to the ground (Acts 26:13-14). Only Paul, however, heard the voice of Jesus instruct him in his commission as a minister and witness to the Gentiles (vv 14-18). Temporarily blinded, Paul was led into Damascus (9:8). There, the disciple Ananias and the Christian community forgave Paul, baptized him, and helped him through the bewildering event of his conversion (vv 10-22). After a short time with the church there, Paul was threatened with death by the Jews to whom he preached Jesus (vv 20-22), but he was protected by the believers and ingeniously delivered from his persecutors (vv 23-25).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PreparationforMinistry\">Preparation for Ministry<\/p>\n<p>Then began a period of preparation, which lasted about 13 years. During this time, Paul first was in the desert of Arabia for three years. Here was his opportunity to pray and reflect on Stephen’s defense to the Sanhedrin, the momentous significance of his conversion, the vision he received of Jesus Christ, and the meaning of all this in the light of Jewish theology. Following this, Paul returned to Damascus and then visited Peter in Jerusalem for 15 days (Gal 1:17-18).<\/p>\n<p>At first, the disciples in Jerusalem were afraid of him because they did not believe he was a disciple of Jesus (Acts 9:26), but he was championed by Barnabas and thus accepted by the believers in Jerusalem (vv 27-28). While there, Paul may have heard the oral gospel, a summary of the words and deeds of Jesus, handed down to all converts. This would have included the institution of the Lord’s Supper (1 Cor 11:23-25), specific words of the Lord (Acts 20:35; 1 Cor 7:10; 9:14), the appearances of the resurrected Christ (1 Cor 15:3-8), and the spirit and character of Jesus (2 Cor 10:1; Phil 2:5-8). Paul also preached in Jerusalem, perhaps in the same synagogues in which he had heard Stephen. However, when his life was again threatened by the Jews, the believers sent him away to Tarsus (Acts 9:29-30; Gal 1:21).<\/p>\n<p>The end of Paul’s preparation came when Barnabas went to Tarsus to look for him and bring him to Antioch. By this time Paul had lived for 10 years in Cilicia. Since his conversion, before being sent to Tarsus, he had proclaimed Jesus (Acts 9:20), speaking boldly in the name of the Lord (v 27). There is no reason to think he did otherwise while living among the Gentiles in Cilicia. In fact, his work may have been so effective that he began to attract attention in Antioch. During these years, Paul probably underwent many of the sufferings mentioned in 2 Corinthians 11:24-26. Several scholars think that the ecstatic experience mentioned in 2 Corinthians 12:1-9, with its accompanying thorn in the flesh, also took place before he came to Antioch.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SentOutfromAntioch\">Sent Out from Antioch<\/p>\n<p>The church in Antioch had its origins in the persecution fomented by Paul after the death of Stephen. Until they arrived in Antioch, the scattered believers had only spoken the word to Jews (Acts 11:19). It was here that the Gentiles first heard the Good News (v 20), and many became believers (v 21). It is fitting that Paul, the apostle to the Gentiles (Acts 22:21; Rom 11:13), who was as yet unknown by sight to the churches of Judea (Gal 1:22), should appear in Antioch to formally begin the ministry to which he was called (Acts 26:17-18).<\/p>\n<p>Barnabas and Paul stayed with the church in Antioch for a year. Their work there was so blessed that a new name, Christian, was coined to distinguish the believers in Antioch from Gentiles and Jews (Acts 11:26). Hearing of a famine in Judea, the disciples in Antioch determined to send relief to the believers in Judea and did so by Barnabas and Paul (v 30). Such a gift displayed to the Jewish churches the potency of the gospel among the Gentiles. Their mission complete, Barnabas and Paul returned to Antioch with John Mark (12:25), Barnabas’s cousin (Col 4:10).<\/p>\n<p>Beginning from the Day of Pentecost, the work in the gospel had been casual and incidental. Contacts were made in the homes, the marketplace, the streets, synagogues, highways, etc. (Acts 3:1; 5:12, 42; 8:26-29; 10:22). But in Antioch the Holy Spirit initiated a determined effort to evangelize a section of the Roman Empire (13:1-3). By the Holy Spirit’s instructions, the church separated Barnabas and Paul for this work. With the prayers and encouragement of this church, and with John Mark as their assistant, Barnabas and Paul, sent out by the Holy Spirit, sailed for Cyprus (v 4).<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TravelingwithBarnabas\">Traveling with Barnabas<\/p>\n<p>Arriving in Salamis, they preached in the synagogues as they traveled the length of the island to Paphos (Acts 13:5-6). There the Roman proconsul, Sergius Paulus, wanted to hear the word of God (v 7). A magician named Elymas Bar-Jesus tried to prevent the proconsul from believing in Jesus but was stricken with temporary blindness by Paul’s command (vv 8-11). This was the first manifestation in Paul of the signs of an apostle (2 Cor 12:12). From then on, the name Paul, not Saul, is used in Luke’s record of the Acts of the Apostles (Acts 13:9), and Paul replaced Barnabas as the leader of the party. So “Paul and his company” set sail from Paphos and arrived in Perga of Pamphylia (v 13). John Mark deserted them at Perga and returned to his home in Jerusalem (v 13). This caused discord (15:39), but Paul and Mark were later reconciled (Col 4:10; 2 Tm 4:11).<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s travels with the gospel now continued through the Roman province of Asia, specifically in the southern portion of Galatia, the areas of Pamphylia, Pisidia, and Lycaonia. The coastal area where the party landed is a hot, malarial region. It is thought that Paul contracted malaria there and so traveled inland through the mountains to the 4,000-foot- (1,219.2-meter-) high tablelands. Such a journey would have been full of dangerous rivers and bandits (2 Cor 11:26), but Paul was well cared for by the Galatian highlanders when he arrived (Gal 4:13-15) and was rewarded with a warm reception to his message (Acts 13:48-49).<\/p>\n<p>Paul and Barnabas were asked to speak at the synagogue of Antioch in Pisidia (Acts 13:15), and Paul delivered a discourse full of the characteristics of the gospel he would later record in his letters to the churches (vv 16-41). He was invited to speak the next week (v 42); nearly the whole city gathered together to hear the word of God (v 44). This stirred up jealousy in the Jews who opposed Paul’s words (v 45), causing the apostles’ dramatic turn to the Gentiles (vv 46-47). Many Gentiles in Antioch believed and spread the word throughout the region, but Paul and Barnabas were forced out and went to Iconium in Lycaonia (vv 48-51).<\/p>\n<p>The success in Antioch was duplicated in Iconium as was the Jews’ opposition (Acts 14:1), and the apostles fled from the threat of a stoning to Lystra and Derbe in Lycaonia (vv 5-6). In Lystra the signs of an apostle were again seen when Paul healed a man who had been crippled since birth (vv 8-10). The idolatrous citizens of the town, however, primed by the popular belief that Jupiter, accompanied by Mercury, had once visited their region, worshiped Paul and Barnabas as these deities (vv 11-13). Even the convincing words of Paul, whom they mistook for Mercury, hardly restrained the crowds from offering a sacrifice (vv 14-18).<\/p>\n<p>It was in Lystra that Paul was first given a taste of the same medicine he had once administered to Christians. The Jews stoned him, dragged him out of the city, and left him for dead (Acts 14:19). Timothy (16:1-3) may have been among the new disciples surrounding Paul as he lay outside the gate (14:20). Timothy was Paul’s son in the faith (1 Cor 4:17; 1 Tm 1:2), eyewitness to his suffering (2 Tm 3:10-11), faithful companion, and fellow worker (Acts 19:22; 20:4; Rom 16:21; 1 Thes 3:2). The next day Barnabas and Paul went on to Derbe (Acts 14:20).<\/p>\n<p>After making many disciples in Derbe, the apostles retraced their steps through Lystra, Iconium, and Antioch of Pisidia, strengthening and encouraging the new believers and appointing elders in each church (Acts 14:21-23). Arriving again in Perga, they sailed back to Antioch of Syria, where they reported to the church the wonderful news that God had opened a door of faith for the Gentiles (vv 25-27).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheCouncilofJerusalem\">The Council of Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>The Jews, who had dogged the steps of Paul and Barnabas throughout Galatia, followed on their heels to bewitch the Gentiles there, convincing them to desert the grace of Christ and submit to the Jewish law (Gal 1:6; 3:1). Shortly after the apostles’ return to Antioch, Judaizers came from Judea to Antioch, teaching salvation by the law (Acts 15:1). This began the war against the gospel of grace, which Paul preached.<\/p>\n<p>The church in Antioch sent Paul, Barnabas, and others to Jerusalem to settle the controversy of the law versus grace with the apostles and elders there (<span>AD<\/span> 49, Acts 15:2). Along the way to Jerusalem they spread the news of the conversion of the Gentiles. This brought great joy to the believers (v 3). Such joy was not shared by some in Jerusalem, who in the first meeting of the council said that the Gentiles should be ordered to keep the law of Moses (v 5).<\/p>\n<p>After this meeting, Paul and Barnabas met privately with Peter, John, and James (Gal 2:1-10) and explained the gospel they had been preaching to the Gentiles. These three leaders of the church in Jerusalem saw the grace that had been given to Paul to bring the gospel to the Gentiles and extended to him the “right hand of fellowship.” This private meeting seems to have decided the question of compliance to the Jewish law because in the next general meeting Peter said, “We believe that we shall be saved through the grace of the Lord Jesus” (Acts 15:11, <span>rsv<\/span>), and James reached the decision that “we should not trouble those of the Gentiles who turn to God” (Acts 15:19, <span>rsv<\/span>). This was a great victory for Paul and Barnabas, and the news was received with rejoicing by the church in Antioch (vv 30-35).<\/p>\n<p>Later, Peter visited Antioch and freely associated with the Gentile believers as he had timidly done in Cornelius’s house (Acts 10:28). This continued until “certain men came from James.” Their presence brought fear to Peter, clouding the light of the gospel of grace, and causing him to separate himself from the Gentiles. Peter’s action influenced others, including Barnabas, to do the same (Gal 2:12-13). Paul rose to the challenge of this serious crisis, confronted Peter publicly, and charged him with Judaizing and hypocrisy (v 14). Paul won the battle and rescued Peter and Barnabas with eloquent words on justification by faith (vv 15-21), but the Judaizers had resumed their war. From this time on, they did not rest; rather, they tormented and persecuted Paul all over the world. But the apostle did not submit to them for a moment. He was engaged in the fight of his life, so that the truth of the gospel might remain with the Gentile believers (v 5).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FurtherTravel\">Further Travel<\/p>\n<p>Paul wanted to visit the new believers and see how they were doing. So he proposed to Barnabas that they return to the cities where they had previously preached about Jesus (Acts 15:36). Barnabas wanted to take John Mark with them, but Paul would not take him since he had deserted them during their earlier journey (13:13). This sharp disagreement ended Barnabas’s association with Paul (15:37-39). Silas, a leader among the brothers in Jerusalem (v 22), accompanied Paul as he set out by land through Syria and Cilicia, strengthening the churches (vv 40-41).<\/p>\n<p>Beginning from Derbe in Galatia, Paul and Silas revisited the churches Paul had established with Barnabas. While in Lystra, they were joined by Timothy (Acts 16:1-3). The apostles delivered to these young churches the letter drafted by the elders and apostles in Jerusalem concerning the observance of the law (15:23-29), thus strengthening and increasing them (16:4-5).<\/p>\n<p>It is likely that Ephesus, a major city in the Roman province of Asia, was the party’s main objective for the advancement of the gospel, but they were “forbidden by the Holy Spirit to speak the word in Asia” (Acts 16:6). Then they attempted to turn north and enter the region of Bithynia, “but the Spirit of Jesus did not allow them” (v 7). In this way they were forced by God to continue straight westward to Troas on the Aegean Sea, where Luke joined them (“we” in v 10), and Paul had a vision in which he was called out of Asia into Macedonia (vv 8-9). Paul and his party immediately crossed by boat into Europe (v 11) where they carried the gospel to Philippi, Thessalonica, Berea, Athens, and Corinth.<\/p>\n<p>Philippi was a Roman colony and military outpost where there were few Jews, so Paul went to a place by the river where the local Jews prayed. He spoke to some women there, notably Lydia, who believed and with her household was baptized (Acts 16:12-15), beginning the first church in Europe. Paul cast a spirit of divination out of a girl in Philippi, and as a result he and Silas were jailed (vv 16-24). The events of their night in jail made the jailer a believer in God (vv 25-34), and he and his family were added to the church in Philippi, which met in Lydia’s home (v 40). When Paul disclosed his Roman citizenship, he was released and was asked to leave the city (vv 35-39).<\/p>\n<p>At Thessalonica the Jews, aroused to jealousy by the success of Paul’s gospel message, raised a mob to search for the apostles. They complained to the city authorities that the people “who have turned the world upside down have come here also” and accused the apostles of “saying that there is another king [besides Caesar], Jesus” (Acts 17:5-7).<\/p>\n<p>Paul and Silas quickly left Thessalonica by night and arrived in Berea, a city thereafter distinguished by its citizens who eagerly and thoughtfully received the gospel (Acts 17:10-12). The Thessalonian Jews did not rest but trailed Paul to Berea to incite the crowds. The believers then sent Paul away to Athens, while Silas and Timothy stayed behind (vv 13-15).<\/p>\n<p>The Athenians called Paul a babbler but let him air his views before the Areopagus. Paul’s speech there was alive with his broad knowledge. He alluded to Greco-Roman philosophy (Acts 17:27), poetry (v 28), sculpture (vv 25, 29), architecture (v 24), and religion while proclaiming the existence of an “unknown god” (v 23). But he was rudely cut short by scoffing and indifference when he mentioned the resurrection (v 32). Paul’s words delighted the minds of many but influenced the wills of few, so when he arrived in Corinth, he determined not to proclaim the mystery of God in lofty words of wisdom so that the believers’ faith would not rest on human wisdom but on the power of God (1 Cor 2:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>In Corinth Paul met Aquila and Priscilla (Acts 18:2-3), Roman Jews with whom he lived and worked as a tent maker and who would become prominent among the churches (Acts 18:26; Rom 16:3; 1 Cor 16:19; 2 Tm 4:19). He stayed in Corinth 18 months from <span>AD<\/span> 50 to 51, raising up a church (Acts 18:11) on the strength of a vision from God (vv 9-10) and in spite of the attacks of the Jews (vv 12-17). Paul wrote the first and second letters to the Thessalonians from Corinth to establish the believers in a holy, industrious life (1 Thes 3:13; 5:23; 2 Thes 3:7-12) in hope of the second coming of Jesus Christ (1 Thes 4:15-18; 2 Thes 2:1ff.).<\/p>\n<p>Accompanied by Priscilla and Aquila, Paul sailed from Corinth for Syria. He left his fellow workers in Ephesus, sailed to Caesarea, briefly visited Jerusalem, and returned to Antioch (Acts 18:18-22). Paul stayed in Antioch for awhile but did not remain absent from the field of his labors for long. Alone, he departed from Antioch, went from place to place in Galatia and Phrygia strengthening all the disciples, and eventually arrived in Ephesus (18:23; 19:1).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LaborintheGospel\">Labor in the Gospel<\/p>\n<p>A Jew named Apollos had ministered in Ephesus prior to Paul’s arrival and had recently gone over to Corinth (Acts 18:24-28). There Apollos innocently became the cause of such discord (1 Cor 3:3-9) that he left and refused to return even at Paul’s request (16:12). Paul’s earlier visit to Ephesus (Acts 18:19-20), Apollos’s ministry, and the presence of Priscilla and Aquila had prepared Ephesus for the apostle’s preaching of the gospel of Christ.<\/p>\n<p>Paul began his work in Ephesus by setting straight some ill-informed disciples of John the Baptist (Acts 19:1-7). He then spent three months preaching at the local synagogue until members of the congregation “spoke evil of the Way” (v 9). Paul then took the disciples and continued his arguments on the neutral ground of Tyrannus’s school (vv 8-9), where Jews and Greeks were free to come. He continued there for two years and “all the residents of Asia, both Jews and Greeks, heard the word of the Lord” (v 10).<\/p>\n<p>The work in Ephesus was a great success (Acts 19:10, 20, 26). Paul enjoyed an open door for effective work (1 Cor 16:9), bolstered by extraordinary miracles (Acts 19:11-17), a public burning of valuable books of sorcery (vv 18-19), and the assistance of friendly officials from the province of Asia (v 31). There were also many adversaries (1 Cor 15:32; 16:9), especially among the artisans associated with the temple of Diana. Paul’s ministry had hurt their trade to the extent that they were incited to riot (Acts 19:23-41). Paul had intended to stay in Ephesus until Pentecost (1 Cor 16:8), but this tumult seems to have hastened his departure (Acts 20:1).<\/p>\n<p>During his stay in Ephesus, the household of Chloe sent word to Paul from Corinth that there were divisions in the church there (1 Cor 1:10-13). This report generated a flurry of letters and travels. Paul wrote a letter, which is now lost, to this church (5:9). The church in Corinth wrote a letter (7:1) and sent messengers to Paul (16:17), and Paul sent Timothy to them (4:17; 16:10). Paul then wrote 1 Corinthians (<span>AD<\/span> 53) and sent it by Titus, who was to meet him in Troas to report the results (2 Cor 2:12-13).<\/p>\n<p>After his hasty exit from Ephesus, Paul found an open door for the gospel in Troas, but he so longed to hear from Corinth that he pushed on into Macedonia (2 Cor 2:12-13). There he was finally comforted by Titus (7:5-7) and rejoiced at the news of the Corinthians’ repentance, earnestness, longing, and zeal (vv 8-16). From Macedonia Paul wrote 2 Corinthians (<span>AD<\/span> 54), toured northwest to proclaim the good news of Christ in Illyricum (Rom 15:19), and then turned south for Achaia and his third visit to Corinth (Acts 19:21; 20:1-3; 2 Cor 13:1).<\/p>\n<p>The time and place from which Paul wrote his letter to the Galatians is a topic of controversy. Some date it before the council at Jerusalem, about <span>AD<\/span> 45. Others say he wrote it from Corinth at this stage in his history. The latter opinion is the choice of this narrative.<\/p>\n<p>A three-month winter stay in Corinth (<span>AD<\/span> 55–56) produced the Letter to the Romans, which firmly set the benchmark of the gospel for all the ages. Paul had many personal friends in Rome (Rom 16) and had long intended to visit there (1:10-15). His plans were to deliver a collection from the Gentile churches to Jerusalem (Acts 20:35; Rom 15:25-26; 1 Cor 16:1) and then visit Rome (Acts 19:21) on his way to Spain (Rom 15:23-24).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheArrestinJerusalem\">The Arrest in Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s trip from Corinth to Jerusalem was marked by abundant warnings of the danger awaiting him in Jerusalem. The Judaizers’ acrimony toward Paul was common talk everywhere, but all alarms went unheeded (Acts 20:22-24, 38; 21:4, 10-15). However, the request for prayer in Romans 15:30-32 shows that Paul knew he might soon need a divine rescue from the unbelievers in Judea.<\/p>\n<p>The travelers, carrying the collection for Jerusalem, journeyed swiftly in order to reach Jerusalem by Pentecost (Acts 20:16). They proceeded by land from Achaia, through Macedonia, to Philippi in time for the Passover (spring <span>AD<\/span> 56, v 6). Crossing by sea to Troas, they visited the believers there (vv 7-12) and then sailed through the archipelago of the eastern Aegean Sea to Miletus (vv 13-16). From Miletus, Paul sent for the elders of Ephesus, to whom he delivered an impassioned speech containing his own dire warnings for them (vv 17-38).<\/p>\n<p>Parting from them, Paul and his companions set sail to Cos, to Rhodes, and then to Patara, where they changed ships for Phoenicia (Acts 21:1-2). A straight course to Tyre brought them within sight of Cyprus, with its memories of Barnabas and Sergius Paulus (v 3). “Through the Spirit” the disciples in Tyre “told Paul not to go on to Jerusalem” (v 4), but he pressed on to Caesarea, where he and his company stayed with Philip, who had formerly served with the martyred Stephen (21:8; cf. 6:5). In Caesarea, Paul would not be persuaded by an especially dramatic prophecy of his coming arrest (21:10-14).<\/p>\n<p>In Jerusalem the apostolic band stayed with Mnason, an early disciple, and were warmly welcomed by the brothers there (Acts 21:15-17). James and the elders of the church praised God when they heard of the things he had done through Paul among the Gentiles (vv 18-20), and when they received the collection from the churches (24:17). They told Paul of his bad reputation among the thousands of Jewish believers in Jerusalem and urged him to set right the Judaizers’ misrepresentation that he encouraged Jewish Christians to forsake the Mosaic customs (21:21-24). Acts 21:25 shows the Jerusalem elders understood that the Gentiles were under no obligation to Moses; their concern was for Paul to demonstrate that Jewish believers were free to continue their traditional observances.<\/p>\n<p>Paul had kept the Jewish feasts (Acts 20:6), as had Jesus and the early disciples in Jerusalem. He had also cut his hair in a vow at Cenchreae (18:18), so it was a small matter for him, a Jew, to ceremonially purify himself after becoming a Christian, especially if it would undermine the arguments of the Judaizers. To have refused the elders’ request would have lent credence to the Judaizers’ charge. The success of this plan is seen in that it was the Jews from Asia, visiting Jerusalem for the Pentecost feast of <span>AD<\/span> 57, who stirred up trouble for Paul (21:27-29)—not the Judaizers from Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p>The whole city was aroused by Paul’s persistent persecutors. A violent crowd dragged him out of the temple just as Stephen had once been hauled to his martyrdom. They tried to kill him, but he was rescued by Roman soldiers as the mob cried, “Away with him!”—just as they had done to Jesus (Acts 21:30-36). At this juncture the educational and cultural diversity of Paul’s life came to his rescue. As he was carried for safety to the Roman barracks, he spoke in Greek to the tribune, who had mistaken him for an Egyptian assassin (vv 37-38). Given permission to speak to the crowd, he did so in the Aramaic language then common in Israel (vv 39-40). The hushed crowd eagerly heard Paul’s defense until he uttered the word “Gentiles.” At this, the crowd resumed its threatening and violence, and Paul was brought into the barracks (22:1-24). There the Romans prepared to flog him, until Paul revealed that he was not only a Jew from Tarsus but also a freeborn Roman citizen. The tribune was afraid, since he had bound a Roman citizen. Wanting to know the charges against Paul, he brought him to the Sanhedrin (vv 25-30).<\/p>\n<p>This meeting of the Jewish judiciary was shortly reduced to dissension and violence. Paul resorted to tactics justifiable in such a war and hopelessly divided the Sanhedrin on the subject of the resurrection (Acts 23:1-9). Paul again was rescued, this time from the contending factions of the Jewish leadership, and taken to the barracks, where the Lord encouraged him, promising that he would go to Rome (<span>AD<\/span> 56, vv 10-11).<\/p>\n<p>In the meantime 40 Jews entered into a murderous plot against Paul. They vowed not to eat or drink until they had killed the apostle (Acts 23:12-15). They almost succeeded, but with the help of the son of Paul’s sister (v 16), the conspiracy was exposed. For safety, Paul was taken from Jerusalem to Caesarea under guard of 470 soldiers and handed over to the custody of Felix the governor (vv 16-35). Inconclusive hearings before Felix (Acts 24), his successor, Festus (25:1-12), and King Agrippa (25:23–26:32) occupied Paul in his two years of imprisonment in Caesarea. Festus, wanting to please the Jews, suggested that Paul be returned to Jerusalem for trial, but Paul knew the murderous intent of his accusers and again utilized his Roman citizenship by making a dramatic appeal to Caesar (25:9-12).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"VoyageandStayinRome\">Voyage and Stay in Rome<\/p>\n<p>To plead his case at Caesar’s court, Paul and his companions, Aristarchus and Luke, were taken on a perilous voyage (<span>AD<\/span> 58, Acts 27:1–28:16). Their passage by ship from Caesarea to Rome is one of the most remarkable on record. Luke’s detailed account is a treasure of information on ancient ships, navigation, and seamanship. It is also a beautiful portrait of a heroic and dignified apostle Paul, the gospel’s ambassador in chains (Eph 6:20), who with the guidance and assurance of his God (Acts 27:23-26), led the 276 people on board to safety (v 37).<\/p>\n<p>Luke traces the voyage stage by stage through every crisis, with a change of ship at Myra, delay at Fair Havens on Crete, and the shipwreck on Malta. Finally, in the spring of <span>AD<\/span> 59, they arrived at Puteoli, Italy, and made their way to Rome, welcomed by the believers along the Appian Way (Acts 28:13-16).<\/p>\n<p>Luke provided a peaceful denouement to the Acts, notwithstanding the fact that the apostle was an imperial prisoner of Caesar Nero. Paul lived by himself in his own house, chained to a Roman guard (Acts 28:16, 30). There he received the local Jewish leaders—to calm any misgivings they may have had about him and, at the same time, to convince them about Jesus. His efforts had mixed success (vv 17-28). During Paul’s two or more years in Rome, the Judaizers seem to have withdrawn, only to be replaced by the peril of Eastern Gnosticism. This is seen in Paul’s letters to the Philippians, Colossians, and Ephesians, and to Philemon, all written at this time. It is unlikely that Paul’s accusers appeared in Rome to bring formal charges before Caesar, so Paul was probably released in <span>AD<\/span> 61.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FinalYearsandMartyrdom\">Final Years and Martyrdom<\/p>\n<p>It is here assumed that the Pastoral Letters (1 Timothy, 2 Timothy, and Titus) are truly Paul’s work. Only through them can the probable course of events in Paul’s final years be traced. Romans 15:28 shows that Paul intended to deliver the collection to Jerusalem and then to “set out by way of you [Rome] to Spain.” The arrest and imprisonment in Jerusalem not only destroyed these plans but also extracted five precious years from the prime of a most productive life. Although Clement of Rome implied that Paul did fulfill his desire to go to Spain (<em>Clement to the Corinthians<\/em> 5), it is certain that the daily pressure of Paul’s anxious care for all the churches (2 Cor 11:28) did not abate.<\/p>\n<p>If Paul went to Spain, he may have been there when Rome was burned on July 19, <span>AD<\/span> 64. Tradition says that Paul traveled as far as Britain, but there is no evidence to confirm this. Returning east, he left Titus in Crete (Ti 1:5) and traveled through Miletus, south of Ephesus, where he left Trophimus sick (2 Tm 4:20). Traveling toward Macedonia, Paul visited Timothy in Ephesus (1 Tm 1:3). On the way, Paul left his cloak and books with Carpus in Troas (2 Tm 4:13). This indicates that he intended to return there for his possessions. From Macedonia Paul wrote his loving yet apprehensive first letter to Timothy (<span>AD<\/span> 62–64). He had decided to spend the winter in Nicopolis (Ti 3:12), northwest of Corinth on the Adriatic Sea, but was still in Macedonia when he wrote his letter to Titus. This letter is similar to 1 Timothy, yet with a somewhat harsher tone. In it is a final glimpse of the eloquent and zealous Apollos (Ti 3:13), who is still in association with Paul 10 or more years after his first appearance in Ephesus (Acts 18:24).<\/p>\n<p>From here Paul’s path is obscure. He may have wintered in Nicopolis, but he did not return to Troas for his winter cloak (2 Tm 4:13). At some point he was arrested by the Romans, because he spent a winter in Rome’s Mamertine Prison, suffering from the cold in that rock cell before he wrote his second letter to Timothy (<span>AD<\/span> 66–67). He may have been anticipating the coming winter when he requested that Timothy bring his cloak (vv 13, 21). It is possible that the charges against Paul were related to the burning of Rome; this is unknown. It was, however, now “illegal” to be a Christian since the “new religion” was no longer protected by Roman law as being part of Judaism (which was a legalized, recognized religion by Roman law).<\/p>\n<p>It was dangerous to be associated with Paul at this time. Many deserted him (2 Tm 4:16), including all his coworkers in Asia (1:15) and Demas, who loved the world (4:10). Only Luke, the physician and author of Luke and Acts, was with him when he wrote his second letter to Timothy (v 11). Faithful believers still in hiding in Rome were also in contact with the apostle (1:16; 4:19, 21). He told Timothy to come to him in Rome and bring Mark also (4:11). Apparently Timothy did come and was imprisoned (Heb 13:23). Paul’s request for the books and parchments (2 Tm 4:13) discloses that he was reading and studying the Scripture to the end.<\/p>\n<p>The apostle Paul had two hearings before Caesar Nero. At his first defense only the Lord stood by him (2 Tm 4:16). There he not only pleaded his own cause but also that of the gospel, still longing that all the Gentiles would hear its message. Perhaps no decision was made, and thus he was “rescued from the lion’s mouth” (v 17). Though he knew he would soon die, he was not afraid, but was assured that the Lord would give him a crown of righteousness on the last day (v 8). Finally, the apostle himself recorded his seminal encouragement to all believers: “The Lord be with your spirit. Grace be with you” (v 22, <span>rsv<\/span>). After this, the Scripture is silent regarding Paul.<\/p>\n<p>Nothing is known of Paul’s second hearing but that it resulted in the sentence of capital punishment. History does not record Paul’s end. Nero died in the summer of <span>AD<\/span> 68, so Paul was executed before that date. As a Roman citizen, he must have been spared the lingering torture that had recently been suffered by his fellow martyrs. Tradition says that he was decapitated by the sword of an imperial headsman on the Ostian Road just outside of Rome, and buried nearby. This fulfilled Paul’s desire “to depart and be with Christ, for that is far better” (Phil 1:23, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>","summary_ro":"PAUL, The Apostle Prominent leader of the first-century church; apostle to the Gentiles; author of 13 NT epistles. Preview • Family and Cultural Background • Education • Saul the Persecutor • Conversion and Calling • Preparation for Ministry • Sent Out from Antioch • Traveling with Barnabas • The Council of Jerusalem • Further Travel • Labor in the Gospel • The Arrest in Jerusalem • Voyage and Stay in Rome • Final Years and Martyrdom Family and Cultural Background Paul was born around AD 10, ...","summary_en":"PAUL, The Apostle Prominent leader of the first-century church; apostle to the Gentiles; author of 13 NT epistles. Preview • Family and Cultural Background • Education • Saul the Persecutor • Conversion and Calling • Preparation for Ministry • Sent Out from Antioch • Traveling with Barnabas • The Council of Jerusalem • Further Travel • Labor in the Gospel • The Arrest in Jerusalem • Voyage and Stay in Rome • Final Years and Martyrdom Family and Cultural Background Paul was born around AD 10, ...","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":31192,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Presbyter*","title_en":"Presbyter*","content_ro":"<h3>PRESBYTER*<\/h3>\n<p>NT term referring to an elder in the church. Following the OT pattern of synagogues governed by a council of elders, the church of the NT had officers (<span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">presbuteroi<\/span><em>,<\/em> “older persons”) whose task was to tend the flock of God that was under their care (1 Pt 5:2). Thus, they were called to labor in preaching and teaching (1 Tm 5:17); visit, pray over, and anoint the sick (Jas 5:14); administer famine relief (Acts 11:29-30); and generally oversee the affairs of the church (15:4; 16:4). There is evidence to suggest that all elders were of equal status and that the terms “presbyter” and “bishop” were at first used interchangeably (Acts 20:17, 28; Phil 1:1; Ti 1:5-7). In the second century, however, the presiding presbyter gradually emerged as a distinctive figure with a position of preeminence and as the source of authority. As the years passed, the designation “presbyter” was contracted to that of “priest,” and in churches of the episcopal order it remains so today. It is significant, nevertheless, that the NT nowhere links priestly functions with the office of presbyter. With the spread and development of Christianity, the priest became a powerful figure. With eucharistic theology, there grew up unbiblical accretions. These were exposed and rejected when the Reformers triumphed in the 16th century and stressed the priesthood of all believers. In Protestantism priests became ministers, pastors, or (in more modern times) clergymen. In non-Roman Episcopal churches, “priest” is found again today. Even where it is interpreted differently from Roman usage, most evangelical Anglicans refuse to use it. In Presbyterian and similar churches, the elders (whether teaching or ruling) are still officially called presbyters, and all are of equal status.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Bishop; Deacon, Deaconess; Elder; Pastor; Spiritual Gifts.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>PRESBYTER*<\/h3>\n<p>NT term referring to an elder in the church. Following the OT pattern of synagogues governed by a council of elders, the church of the NT had officers (<span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">presbuteroi<\/span><em>,<\/em> “older persons”) whose task was to tend the flock of God that was under their care (1 Pt 5:2). Thus, they were called to labor in preaching and teaching (1 Tm 5:17); visit, pray over, and anoint the sick (Jas 5:14); administer famine relief (Acts 11:29-30); and generally oversee the affairs of the church (15:4; 16:4). There is evidence to suggest that all elders were of equal status and that the terms “presbyter” and “bishop” were at first used interchangeably (Acts 20:17, 28; Phil 1:1; Ti 1:5-7). In the second century, however, the presiding presbyter gradually emerged as a distinctive figure with a position of preeminence and as the source of authority. As the years passed, the designation “presbyter” was contracted to that of “priest,” and in churches of the episcopal order it remains so today. It is significant, nevertheless, that the NT nowhere links priestly functions with the office of presbyter. With the spread and development of Christianity, the priest became a powerful figure. With eucharistic theology, there grew up unbiblical accretions. These were exposed and rejected when the Reformers triumphed in the 16th century and stressed the priesthood of all believers. In Protestantism priests became ministers, pastors, or (in more modern times) clergymen. In non-Roman Episcopal churches, “priest” is found again today. Even where it is interpreted differently from Roman usage, most evangelical Anglicans refuse to use it. In Presbyterian and similar churches, the elders (whether teaching or ruling) are still officially called presbyters, and all are of equal status.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Bishop; Deacon, Deaconess; Elder; Pastor; Spiritual Gifts.<\/p>","summary_ro":"PRESBYTER* NT term referring to an elder in the church. Following the OT pattern of synagogues governed by a council of elders, the church of the NT had officers (presbuteroi, “older persons”) whose task was to tend the flock of God that was under their care (1 Pt 5:2). Thus, they were called to labor in preaching and teaching (1 Tm 5:17); visit, pray over, and anoint the sick (Jas 5:14); administer famine relief (Acts 11:29-30); and generally oversee the affairs of the church (15:4; 16:4). T...","summary_en":"PRESBYTER* NT term referring to an elder in the church. Following the OT pattern of synagogues governed by a council of elders, the church of the NT had officers (presbuteroi, “older persons”) whose task was to tend the flock of God that was under their care (1 Pt 5:2). Thus, they were called to labor in preaching and teaching (1 Tm 5:17); visit, pray over, and anoint the sick (Jas 5:14); administer famine relief (Acts 11:29-30); and generally oversee the affairs of the church (15:4; 16:4). T...","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":37437,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Titus (Person)","title_en":"Titus (Person)","content_ro":"<h3>TITUS (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<li>1. One of Paul’s converts—“my true child in a common faith” (Ti 1:4, <span>nasb<\/span>)—who became an intimate and trusted associate of the apostle in his mission of planting Christianity throughout the Mediterranean world (2 Cor 8:23; 2 Tm 4:10; Ti 1:4-5). Mentioned frequently in Paul’s letters (eight times in 2 Corinthians, twice in Galatians, once each in 2 Timothy and Titus), his name occurs nowhere in Acts. This is a puzzling silence that some scholars have sought to explain with the fascinating, but uncertain, suggestion that he was a brother of Luke, the author of Acts.<\/li>\n<p>Unlike Timothy, who was half Jewish, Titus was born of gentile parents. Nothing is recorded of the circumstances surrounding his conversion and initial encounter with Paul. He is first introduced as a companion of Paul and Barnabas on a visit to Jerusalem (Gal 2:3). The occasion appears to have been the Jerusalem Council, about <span>AD<\/span> 50, which Paul and Barnabas attended as official delegates from the church at Antioch not long after the apostle’s first missionary journey (Acts 15).<\/p>\n<p>With the hotly contested issue of compulsory circumcision of gentile converts to Christianity before the council, Paul decided to make a test case of Titus. The council decided in Paul’s favor against the Judaizing party, and Titus was accepted by the other apostles and leaders of the Jerusalem church without submitting to the rite of circumcision. Thus, Titus became a key figure in the liberation of the infant church from the Judaizing party.<\/p>\n<p>Titus probably accompanied Paul from that time on, but he does not appear again until Paul’s crisis with the church at Corinth during his third missionary journey. According to 2 Corinthians, while Paul was conducting an extended ministry in Ephesus, he received word that the Corinthian church had turned hostile toward him and renounced his apostolic authority. Other attempts at reconciliation having failed, he sent Titus to Corinth to try to repair the breach. When Titus rejoined Paul somewhere in Macedonia, where the apostle had traveled from Ephesus to meet him, Titus brought the good news that the attitude of the Corinthians had changed and their former love and friendship were now restored (2 Cor 7:6-7). In view of this development Paul sent Titus back to Corinth, carrying 2 Corinthians, which included instructions to complete the collection of the relief offering for the Jewish Christians of Judea (8:6, 16). In this venture also Titus was apparently successful (Rom 15:25-26).<\/p>\n\n<p>Assuming that Paul was released after his first Roman imprisonment, it appears that Titus accompanied him on a mission to the island of Crete. On departing from Crete, Paul left Titus behind to consolidate the new Christian movement there (Ti 1:5). The assignment was difficult, for the Cretans were unruly and the struggling church was already invaded by false teachers (vv 10-16). His handling of the Corinthian problem some years before, however, demonstrated that Titus possessed the spiritual earnestness, skillful diplomacy, and loving concern required to meet the present challenge, and Paul was confident that this new commission was therefore safe in his hands.<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s letter to Titus, one of his three Pastoral Letters, was written somewhat later to encourage Titus in his Cretan ministry. The letter closes with the apostle’s request that Titus join him at Nicopolis, a town on the west coast of Greece, where he planned to spend the winter (Ti 3:12). Most likely it was from Nicopolis, or else later from Rome (where the apostle was imprisoned again and eventually martyred), that Paul sent Titus on the mission to Dalmatia, a Roman province in what is now Yugoslavia (see 2 Tm 4:10). If later tradition is correct, Titus returned to Crete, where he served as bishop until he was an old man.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Titus, Letter to.<\/p>\n<li>2. Variant spelling of a gentile proselyte in Corinth, to whose house Paul went after the Jewish community in general rejected his message (Acts 18:7). Better manuscript evidence names him as Titius Justus. <em>See<\/em> Justus #2.<\/li>\n<li>3. Vespasian’s son; the emperor of Rome from <span>AD<\/span> 79–81. <em>See<\/em> Caesars, The.<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>TITUS (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<li>1. One of Paul’s converts—“my true child in a common faith” (Ti 1:4, <span>nasb<\/span>)—who became an intimate and trusted associate of the apostle in his mission of planting Christianity throughout the Mediterranean world (2 Cor 8:23; 2 Tm 4:10; Ti 1:4-5). Mentioned frequently in Paul’s letters (eight times in 2 Corinthians, twice in Galatians, once each in 2 Timothy and Titus), his name occurs nowhere in Acts. This is a puzzling silence that some scholars have sought to explain with the fascinating, but uncertain, suggestion that he was a brother of Luke, the author of Acts.<\/li>\n<p>Unlike Timothy, who was half Jewish, Titus was born of gentile parents. Nothing is recorded of the circumstances surrounding his conversion and initial encounter with Paul. He is first introduced as a companion of Paul and Barnabas on a visit to Jerusalem (Gal 2:3). The occasion appears to have been the Jerusalem Council, about <span>AD<\/span> 50, which Paul and Barnabas attended as official delegates from the church at Antioch not long after the apostle’s first missionary journey (Acts 15).<\/p>\n<p>With the hotly contested issue of compulsory circumcision of gentile converts to Christianity before the council, Paul decided to make a test case of Titus. The council decided in Paul’s favor against the Judaizing party, and Titus was accepted by the other apostles and leaders of the Jerusalem church without submitting to the rite of circumcision. Thus, Titus became a key figure in the liberation of the infant church from the Judaizing party.<\/p>\n<p>Titus probably accompanied Paul from that time on, but he does not appear again until Paul’s crisis with the church at Corinth during his third missionary journey. According to 2 Corinthians, while Paul was conducting an extended ministry in Ephesus, he received word that the Corinthian church had turned hostile toward him and renounced his apostolic authority. Other attempts at reconciliation having failed, he sent Titus to Corinth to try to repair the breach. When Titus rejoined Paul somewhere in Macedonia, where the apostle had traveled from Ephesus to meet him, Titus brought the good news that the attitude of the Corinthians had changed and their former love and friendship were now restored (2 Cor 7:6-7). In view of this development Paul sent Titus back to Corinth, carrying 2 Corinthians, which included instructions to complete the collection of the relief offering for the Jewish Christians of Judea (8:6, 16). In this venture also Titus was apparently successful (Rom 15:25-26).<\/p>\n\n<p>Assuming that Paul was released after his first Roman imprisonment, it appears that Titus accompanied him on a mission to the island of Crete. On departing from Crete, Paul left Titus behind to consolidate the new Christian movement there (Ti 1:5). The assignment was difficult, for the Cretans were unruly and the struggling church was already invaded by false teachers (vv 10-16). His handling of the Corinthian problem some years before, however, demonstrated that Titus possessed the spiritual earnestness, skillful diplomacy, and loving concern required to meet the present challenge, and Paul was confident that this new commission was therefore safe in his hands.<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s letter to Titus, one of his three Pastoral Letters, was written somewhat later to encourage Titus in his Cretan ministry. The letter closes with the apostle’s request that Titus join him at Nicopolis, a town on the west coast of Greece, where he planned to spend the winter (Ti 3:12). Most likely it was from Nicopolis, or else later from Rome (where the apostle was imprisoned again and eventually martyred), that Paul sent Titus on the mission to Dalmatia, a Roman province in what is now Yugoslavia (see 2 Tm 4:10). If later tradition is correct, Titus returned to Crete, where he served as bishop until he was an old man.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Titus, Letter to.<\/p>\n<li>2. Variant spelling of a gentile proselyte in Corinth, to whose house Paul went after the Jewish community in general rejected his message (Acts 18:7). Better manuscript evidence names him as Titius Justus. <em>See<\/em> Justus #2.<\/li>\n<li>3. Vespasian’s son; the emperor of Rome from <span>AD<\/span> 79–81. <em>See<\/em> Caesars, The.<\/li>","summary_ro":"TITUS (Person) 1. One of Paul’s converts—“my true child in a common faith” (Ti 1:4, nasb)—who became an intimate and trusted associate of the apostle in his mission of planting Christianity throughout the Mediterranean world (2 Cor 8:23; 2 Tm 4:10; Ti 1:4-5). Mentioned frequently in Paul’s letters (eight times in 2 Corinthians, twice in Galatians, once each in 2 Timothy and Titus), his name occurs nowhere in Acts. This is a puzzling silence that some scholars have sought to explain with the f...","summary_en":"TITUS (Person) 1. One of Paul’s converts—“my true child in a common faith” (Ti 1:4, nasb)—who became an intimate and trusted associate of the apostle in his mission of planting Christianity throughout the Mediterranean world (2 Cor 8:23; 2 Tm 4:10; Ti 1:4-5). Mentioned frequently in Paul’s letters (eight times in 2 Corinthians, twice in Galatians, once each in 2 Timothy and Titus), his name occurs nowhere in Acts. This is a puzzling silence that some scholars have sought to explain with the f...","source":"Articles\/T.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":37449,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Letter to Titus","title_en":"Letter to Titus","content_ro":"<h3>TITUS, Letter to<\/h3>\n<p>Paul’s epistle to his coworker, Titus.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Recipient<\/p>\n<p>• Date<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose and Teaching<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>Though this letter begins with the name and greeting of Paul (Ti 1:1-3), Paul’s authorship has been questioned by modern scholars on the grounds of its language and style, the church situation it presents, and the way that it sets forth Christian teaching. But Pauline authorship has been stoutly defended by eminent scholars and careful students who have argued that there is no reason for supposing that this epistle was written by someone else using Paul’s name, after the apostle himself had died. The differences in this epistle and Paul’s other letters are explained previously in the section on “Author” in the article “Timothy, First Letter to.”<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Recipient\">Recipient<\/p>\n<p>Titus appears to have been one of Paul’s most trusted and valuable coworkers. Paul speaks of him (2 Cor 8:23) as “my partner and coworker.” According to Titus 1:4, he owed his conversion to Paul. It is clear from Galatians 2:1-4 that he was a Gentile, as his was a test case whether gentile Christians should be compelled to be circumcised. At that time Titus was with Paul and Barnabas in Jerusalem. Much later, at the time of Paul’s third missionary journey, he had two delicate missions to carry out for Paul in Corinth: the first pertained to the strained relationship between the apostle and the Corinthian Christians; the second related to the gentile collection for the Jerusalem church (2 Cor 2:12-13; 7:5-16; 8:1-24). If 2 Timothy 4:9-18 was written at the end of Paul’s life, then Titus went to Dalmatia after the time of this letter.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Date\">Date<\/p>\n<p>To date this letter with precision is difficult. Titus was left by the apostle in Crete to continue his work (Ti 1:5). Paul was in Crete briefly on his voyage to Rome (Acts 27:7-13), but that could not have been the occasion referred to. In 3:12 Titus is called to come to Nicopolis (probably the Nicopolis in Epirus in Greece), as Paul had decided to winter there. Many have favored the view that after Paul’s first imprisonment in Rome (Acts 28:16-31) he was released, carried out further ministry in various places (including Spain, Crete, and Greece), and then was arrested, imprisoned a second time, and finally put to death. Those who do not accept Pauline authorship of Titus, date this letter, like 1 and 2 Timothy, in the generation that followed Paul’s death.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeandTeaching\">Purpose and Teaching<\/p>\n<p>Although this letter is addressed to an individual colleague of the apostle, it has a minimum of personal references and exhortations. The growing and developing churches in Crete were Paul’s main concern. They were being bothered by false teachings that appear to have had Jewish elements, ascetic emphases, and a great deal of speculative discussion (Ti 1:10, 14-15: 3:9). In short, it seems that they were dealing with an early Jewish form of Gnosticism. Its advocates promoted this teaching “for base gain” (1:11, <span>rsv<\/span>). Titus and those whom he would appoint as elders were called upon to refute the wrong teaching and to provide the believers with healthy teaching (v 9). Though this healthy teaching is not specified, it must have pertained to the saving grace of God in Christ, the renewing work of the Holy Spirit, and the future coming of the Lord Jesus (2:11-13; 3:4-7). In this letter there is constant emphasis on the lifestyle that bears out the truth of the gospel—with application to different groups in the Christian community: older men and women, young women, young men, and slaves.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Salutation (1:1-4)<\/h5>\n<p>Greetings come from Paul—whose apostleship is described as a stewardship of the gospel that promotes faith and strengthens the knowledge of the truth, hope of eternal life, and godliness of living—to Titus, spoken of as “my true son in our common faith.”<\/p>\n<h5>Titus’s Work in Crete (1:5-9)<\/h5>\n<p>Titus was left behind in Crete to continue Paul’s work and to appoint elders in every church (cf. Acts 14:23). These elders are also called bishops (cf. 20:17, 28)—that is, those with oversight of the church. The necessary qualities of life for these positions are described (cf. 1 Tm 3:2-7).<\/p>\n<h5>Dealing with False Teachings (1:10-16)<\/h5>\n<p>The closing words of the previous section speak about the responsibility of elders “to encourage others with right teaching and show those who oppose it where they are wrong” (<span>nlt<\/span>). The opposers were upsetting people, indeed “whole families,” by teaching what was not true. These false teachers were described by Paul in terms disparaging of Cretans, and as people whose lives do not demonstrate the knowledge of God that they professed to have.<\/p>\n<h5>Promoting Right Teaching (2:1-10)<\/h5>\n<p>Titus had a particular responsibility to “promote the kind of living that reflects right teaching.” He was charged to exhort the older men to exercise self-control (2:2), and he was supposed to teach the older women to live godly lives (v 3). In turn, these women were supposed to train the younger women to live pure and loving lives in their homes so that no one will malign the word of God (vv 4-5). Younger men were to show self-control (v 6), and Titus himself was to be an example in word and life so that the opponents would have nothing bad to say about the Christians (vv 7-8). Finally, in this section slaves are taught to submit to their masters, to give good and honest service with the motivation that “then they will make the teaching about God our Savior attractive in every way” (v 10, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<h5>God’s Grace (2:11-15)<\/h5>\n<p>What has been said leads now to a great statement of the purpose of the revelation of the grace of God in Jesus Christ: to bring salvation to all people, who will make a complete break with godless and sensual living so that they may live upright lives with the constant expectancy of the coming again of “our great God and Savior Jesus Christ.” Their lives will show them to be a people who are God’s very own, always eager to do what is right.<\/p>\n<h5>Doing What Is Good (3:1-8)<\/h5>\n<p>In this section, Paul encourages Titus to tell the Christians at Crete that it is their duty to submit to rulers (cf. Rom 13:1-7; 1 Pt 2:13-17) and to be available in the community for honest work. Again, the quality of lifestyle is emphasized—in particular, courtesy and the desire for peace in relationships with others. This lifestyle comes from spiritual transformation. The means of that transformation is the saving work of Christ—not merited, but entirely of his mercy. He has brought cleansing from sin, “rebirth and renewal by the Holy Spirit.”<\/p>\n<h5>Paul’s Final Remarks and Greetings (3:9-15)<\/h5>\n<p>In this final section, Paul encourages Titus to avoid those who like to debate about religion for the sake of debating. And he tells Titus how to deal with those who cause divisions.<\/p>\n<p>Following this, Paul tells Titus that he will send him Artemas (not mentioned otherwise in the NT) or Tychicus. Then he encourages Titus to take care of Apollos and Zenas if they pass by Crete. Titus himself is supposed to come to Paul in Nicopolis before winter.<\/p>\n<p>The epistle closes with a final exhortation to “good deeds” and to a spiritually fruitful life.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Paul, The Apostle; Timothy, First Letter to; Timothy, Second Letter to; Titus (Person) #1.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>TITUS, Letter to<\/h3>\n<p>Paul’s epistle to his coworker, Titus.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Recipient<\/p>\n<p>• Date<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose and Teaching<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>Though this letter begins with the name and greeting of Paul (Ti 1:1-3), Paul’s authorship has been questioned by modern scholars on the grounds of its language and style, the church situation it presents, and the way that it sets forth Christian teaching. But Pauline authorship has been stoutly defended by eminent scholars and careful students who have argued that there is no reason for supposing that this epistle was written by someone else using Paul’s name, after the apostle himself had died. The differences in this epistle and Paul’s other letters are explained previously in the section on “Author” in the article “Timothy, First Letter to.”<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Recipient\">Recipient<\/p>\n<p>Titus appears to have been one of Paul’s most trusted and valuable coworkers. Paul speaks of him (2 Cor 8:23) as “my partner and coworker.” According to Titus 1:4, he owed his conversion to Paul. It is clear from Galatians 2:1-4 that he was a Gentile, as his was a test case whether gentile Christians should be compelled to be circumcised. At that time Titus was with Paul and Barnabas in Jerusalem. Much later, at the time of Paul’s third missionary journey, he had two delicate missions to carry out for Paul in Corinth: the first pertained to the strained relationship between the apostle and the Corinthian Christians; the second related to the gentile collection for the Jerusalem church (2 Cor 2:12-13; 7:5-16; 8:1-24). If 2 Timothy 4:9-18 was written at the end of Paul’s life, then Titus went to Dalmatia after the time of this letter.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Date\">Date<\/p>\n<p>To date this letter with precision is difficult. Titus was left by the apostle in Crete to continue his work (Ti 1:5). Paul was in Crete briefly on his voyage to Rome (Acts 27:7-13), but that could not have been the occasion referred to. In 3:12 Titus is called to come to Nicopolis (probably the Nicopolis in Epirus in Greece), as Paul had decided to winter there. Many have favored the view that after Paul’s first imprisonment in Rome (Acts 28:16-31) he was released, carried out further ministry in various places (including Spain, Crete, and Greece), and then was arrested, imprisoned a second time, and finally put to death. Those who do not accept Pauline authorship of Titus, date this letter, like 1 and 2 Timothy, in the generation that followed Paul’s death.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeandTeaching\">Purpose and Teaching<\/p>\n<p>Although this letter is addressed to an individual colleague of the apostle, it has a minimum of personal references and exhortations. The growing and developing churches in Crete were Paul’s main concern. They were being bothered by false teachings that appear to have had Jewish elements, ascetic emphases, and a great deal of speculative discussion (Ti 1:10, 14-15: 3:9). In short, it seems that they were dealing with an early Jewish form of Gnosticism. Its advocates promoted this teaching “for base gain” (1:11, <span>rsv<\/span>). Titus and those whom he would appoint as elders were called upon to refute the wrong teaching and to provide the believers with healthy teaching (v 9). Though this healthy teaching is not specified, it must have pertained to the saving grace of God in Christ, the renewing work of the Holy Spirit, and the future coming of the Lord Jesus (2:11-13; 3:4-7). In this letter there is constant emphasis on the lifestyle that bears out the truth of the gospel—with application to different groups in the Christian community: older men and women, young women, young men, and slaves.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Salutation (1:1-4)<\/h5>\n<p>Greetings come from Paul—whose apostleship is described as a stewardship of the gospel that promotes faith and strengthens the knowledge of the truth, hope of eternal life, and godliness of living—to Titus, spoken of as “my true son in our common faith.”<\/p>\n<h5>Titus’s Work in Crete (1:5-9)<\/h5>\n<p>Titus was left behind in Crete to continue Paul’s work and to appoint elders in every church (cf. Acts 14:23). These elders are also called bishops (cf. 20:17, 28)—that is, those with oversight of the church. The necessary qualities of life for these positions are described (cf. 1 Tm 3:2-7).<\/p>\n<h5>Dealing with False Teachings (1:10-16)<\/h5>\n<p>The closing words of the previous section speak about the responsibility of elders “to encourage others with right teaching and show those who oppose it where they are wrong” (<span>nlt<\/span>). The opposers were upsetting people, indeed “whole families,” by teaching what was not true. These false teachers were described by Paul in terms disparaging of Cretans, and as people whose lives do not demonstrate the knowledge of God that they professed to have.<\/p>\n<h5>Promoting Right Teaching (2:1-10)<\/h5>\n<p>Titus had a particular responsibility to “promote the kind of living that reflects right teaching.” He was charged to exhort the older men to exercise self-control (2:2), and he was supposed to teach the older women to live godly lives (v 3). In turn, these women were supposed to train the younger women to live pure and loving lives in their homes so that no one will malign the word of God (vv 4-5). Younger men were to show self-control (v 6), and Titus himself was to be an example in word and life so that the opponents would have nothing bad to say about the Christians (vv 7-8). Finally, in this section slaves are taught to submit to their masters, to give good and honest service with the motivation that “then they will make the teaching about God our Savior attractive in every way” (v 10, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<h5>God’s Grace (2:11-15)<\/h5>\n<p>What has been said leads now to a great statement of the purpose of the revelation of the grace of God in Jesus Christ: to bring salvation to all people, who will make a complete break with godless and sensual living so that they may live upright lives with the constant expectancy of the coming again of “our great God and Savior Jesus Christ.” Their lives will show them to be a people who are God’s very own, always eager to do what is right.<\/p>\n<h5>Doing What Is Good (3:1-8)<\/h5>\n<p>In this section, Paul encourages Titus to tell the Christians at Crete that it is their duty to submit to rulers (cf. Rom 13:1-7; 1 Pt 2:13-17) and to be available in the community for honest work. Again, the quality of lifestyle is emphasized—in particular, courtesy and the desire for peace in relationships with others. This lifestyle comes from spiritual transformation. The means of that transformation is the saving work of Christ—not merited, but entirely of his mercy. He has brought cleansing from sin, “rebirth and renewal by the Holy Spirit.”<\/p>\n<h5>Paul’s Final Remarks and Greetings (3:9-15)<\/h5>\n<p>In this final section, Paul encourages Titus to avoid those who like to debate about religion for the sake of debating. And he tells Titus how to deal with those who cause divisions.<\/p>\n<p>Following this, Paul tells Titus that he will send him Artemas (not mentioned otherwise in the NT) or Tychicus. Then he encourages Titus to take care of Apollos and Zenas if they pass by Crete. Titus himself is supposed to come to Paul in Nicopolis before winter.<\/p>\n<p>The epistle closes with a final exhortation to “good deeds” and to a spiritually fruitful life.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Paul, The Apostle; Timothy, First Letter to; Timothy, Second Letter to; Titus (Person) #1.<\/p>","summary_ro":"TITUS, Letter to Paul’s epistle to his coworker, Titus. Preview • Author • Recipient • Date • Purpose and Teaching • Content Author Though this letter begins with the name and greeting of Paul (Ti 1:1-3), Paul’s authorship has been questioned by modern scholars on the grounds of its language and style, the church situation it presents, and the way that it sets forth Christian teaching. But Pauline authorship has been stoutly defended by eminent scholars and careful students who have argued th...","summary_en":"TITUS, Letter to Paul’s epistle to his coworker, Titus. Preview • Author • Recipient • Date • Purpose and Teaching • Content Author Though this letter begins with the name and greeting of Paul (Ti 1:1-3), Paul’s authorship has been questioned by modern scholars on the grounds of its language and style, the church situation it presents, and the way that it sets forth Christian teaching. But Pauline authorship has been stoutly defended by eminent scholars and careful students who have argued th...","source":"Articles\/T.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":58654,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Tit 1:5","title_en":"Study Note: Tit 1:5","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:5-16<\/strong> Strong, faithful leadership was needed in the churches of Crete to address the danger of false teachers (1:10-16). This part of Titus’s task dovetails with the larger concern of the letter: to shape a community that bears witness to Christ by embodying God’s grace in its conduct. Cp. 1 Tim 3:1-7.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:5-16<\/strong> Strong, faithful leadership was needed in the churches of Crete to address the danger of false teachers (1:10-16). This part of Titus’s task dovetails with the larger concern of the letter: to shape a community that bears witness to Christ by embodying God’s grace in its conduct. Cp. 1 Tim 3:1-7.<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:5-16 Strong, faithful leadership was needed in the churches of Crete to address the danger of false teachers (1:10-16). This part of Titus’s task dovetails with the larger concern of the letter: to shape a community that bears witness to Christ by embodying God’s grace in its conduct. Cp. 1 Tim 3:1-7.","summary_en":"1:5-16 Strong, faithful leadership was needed in the churches of Crete to address the danger of false teachers (1:10-16). This part of Titus’s task dovetails with the larger concern of the letter: to shape a community that bears witness to Christ by embodying God’s grace in its conduct. Cp. 1 Tim 3:1-7.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":58655,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Tit 1:5","title_en":"Study Note: Tit 1:5","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:5-9<\/strong> Titus was directed to appoint leaders in order to <em>complete our work there<\/em>—i.e., to establish the church (cp. 1 Tim 3:1-13). Deacons are not mentioned, possibly because these were new, small churches. • These leadership qualities might be an accommodation to the newness of these converts and the roughness of their culture. It is assumed that the elders will be male (see 1 Tim 3:4-5).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:5-9<\/strong> Titus was directed to appoint leaders in order to <em>complete our work there<\/em>—i.e., to establish the church (cp. 1 Tim 3:1-13). Deacons are not mentioned, possibly because these were new, small churches. • These leadership qualities might be an accommodation to the newness of these converts and the roughness of their culture. It is assumed that the elders will be male (see 1 Tim 3:4-5).<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:5-9 Titus was directed to appoint leaders in order to complete our work there—i.e., to establish the church (cp. 1 Tim 3:1-13). Deacons are not mentioned, possibly because these were new, small churches. • These leadership qualities might be an accommodation to the newness of these converts and the roughness of their culture. It is assumed that the elders will be male (see 1 Tim 3:4-5).","summary_en":"1:5-9 Titus was directed to appoint leaders in order to complete our work there—i.e., to establish the church (cp. 1 Tim 3:1-13). Deacons are not mentioned, possibly because these were new, small churches. • These leadership qualities might be an accommodation to the newness of these converts and the roughness of their culture. It is assumed that the elders will be male (see 1 Tim 3:4-5).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":58656,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Tit 1:5","title_en":"Study Note: Tit 1:5","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:5<\/strong> <em>Crete<\/em> was located in the Mediterranean, south of the Aegean Sea. It was an important location for travel and trade by sea, so it had a mix of influences, including a Jewish population. Some from Crete had been at Pentecost (Acts 2:11), but this letter seems to deal with an infant church. • <em>elders in each town:<\/em> There may have been more than one house church in a given town and possibly more than one elder in a given house church. Clearly, there were churches in at least two towns and the leadership was specific to each town.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:5<\/strong> <em>Crete<\/em> was located in the Mediterranean, south of the Aegean Sea. It was an important location for travel and trade by sea, so it had a mix of influences, including a Jewish population. Some from Crete had been at Pentecost (Acts 2:11), but this letter seems to deal with an infant church. • <em>elders in each town:<\/em> There may have been more than one house church in a given town and possibly more than one elder in a given house church. Clearly, there were churches in at least two towns and the leadership was specific to each town.<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:5 Crete was located in the Mediterranean, south of the Aegean Sea. It was an important location for travel and trade by sea, so it had a mix of influences, including a Jewish population. Some from Crete had been at Pentecost (Acts 2:11), but this letter seems to deal with an infant church. • elders in each town: There may have been more than one house church in a given town and possibly more than one elder in a given house church. Clearly, there were churches in at least two towns and the l...","summary_en":"1:5 Crete was located in the Mediterranean, south of the Aegean Sea. It was an important location for travel and trade by sea, so it had a mix of influences, including a Jewish population. Some from Crete had been at Pentecost (Acts 2:11), but this letter seems to deal with an infant church. • elders in each town: There may have been more than one house church in a given town and possibly more than one elder in a given house church. Clearly, there were churches in at least two towns and the l...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":86280,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Tit 1:5","title_en":"Study Note: Tit 1:5","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:5-16<\/strong> Strong, faithful leadership was needed in the churches of Crete to address the danger of false teachers (1:10-16). This part of Titus’s task dovetails with the larger concern of the letter: to shape a community that bears witness to Christ by embodying God’s grace in its conduct. Cp. 1 Tim 3:1-7.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:5-16<\/strong> Strong, faithful leadership was needed in the churches of Crete to address the danger of false teachers (1:10-16). This part of Titus’s task dovetails with the larger concern of the letter: to shape a community that bears witness to Christ by embodying God’s grace in its conduct. Cp. 1 Tim 3:1-7.<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:5-16 Strong, faithful leadership was needed in the churches of Crete to address the danger of false teachers (1:10-16). This part of Titus’s task dovetails with the larger concern of the letter: to shape a community that bears witness to Christ by embodying God’s grace in its conduct. Cp. 1 Tim 3:1-7.","summary_en":"1:5-16 Strong, faithful leadership was needed in the churches of Crete to address the danger of false teachers (1:10-16). This part of Titus’s task dovetails with the larger concern of the letter: to shape a community that bears witness to Christ by embodying God’s grace in its conduct. Cp. 1 Tim 3:1-7.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":86281,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Tit 1:5","title_en":"Study Note: Tit 1:5","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:5-9<\/strong> Titus was directed to appoint leaders in order to <em>complete our work there<\/em>—i.e., to establish the church (cp. 1 Tim 3:1-13). Deacons are not mentioned, possibly because these were new, small churches. • These leadership qualities might be an accommodation to the newness of these converts and the roughness of their culture. It is assumed that the elders will be male (see 1 Tim 3:4-5).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:5-9<\/strong> Titus was directed to appoint leaders in order to <em>complete our work there<\/em>—i.e., to establish the church (cp. 1 Tim 3:1-13). Deacons are not mentioned, possibly because these were new, small churches. • These leadership qualities might be an accommodation to the newness of these converts and the roughness of their culture. It is assumed that the elders will be male (see 1 Tim 3:4-5).<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:5-9 Titus was directed to appoint leaders in order to complete our work there—i.e., to establish the church (cp. 1 Tim 3:1-13). Deacons are not mentioned, possibly because these were new, small churches. • These leadership qualities might be an accommodation to the newness of these converts and the roughness of their culture. It is assumed that the elders will be male (see 1 Tim 3:4-5).","summary_en":"1:5-9 Titus was directed to appoint leaders in order to complete our work there—i.e., to establish the church (cp. 1 Tim 3:1-13). Deacons are not mentioned, possibly because these were new, small churches. • These leadership qualities might be an accommodation to the newness of these converts and the roughness of their culture. It is assumed that the elders will be male (see 1 Tim 3:4-5).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":86282,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Tit 1:5","title_en":"Study Note: Tit 1:5","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:5<\/strong> <em>Crete<\/em> was located in the Mediterranean, south of the Aegean Sea. It was an important location for travel and trade by sea, so it had a mix of influences, including a Jewish population. Some from Crete had been at Pentecost (Acts 2:11), but this letter seems to deal with an infant church. • <em>elders in each town:<\/em> There may have been more than one house church in a given town and possibly more than one elder in a given house church. Clearly, there were churches in at least two towns and the leadership was specific to each town.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:5<\/strong> <em>Crete<\/em> was located in the Mediterranean, south of the Aegean Sea. It was an important location for travel and trade by sea, so it had a mix of influences, including a Jewish population. Some from Crete had been at Pentecost (Acts 2:11), but this letter seems to deal with an infant church. • <em>elders in each town:<\/em> There may have been more than one house church in a given town and possibly more than one elder in a given house church. Clearly, there were churches in at least two towns and the leadership was specific to each town.<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:5 Crete was located in the Mediterranean, south of the Aegean Sea. It was an important location for travel and trade by sea, so it had a mix of influences, including a Jewish population. Some from Crete had been at Pentecost (Acts 2:11), but this letter seems to deal with an infant church. • elders in each town: There may have been more than one house church in a given town and possibly more than one elder in a given house church. Clearly, there were churches in at least two towns and the l...","summary_en":"1:5 Crete was located in the Mediterranean, south of the Aegean Sea. It was an important location for travel and trade by sea, so it had a mix of influences, including a Jewish population. Some from Crete had been at Pentecost (Acts 2:11), but this letter seems to deal with an infant church. • elders in each town: There may have been more than one house church in a given town and possibly more than one elder in a given house church. Clearly, there were churches in at least two towns and the l...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":113906,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Tit 1:5","title_en":"Study Note: Tit 1:5","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:5-16<\/strong> Strong, faithful leadership was needed in the churches of Crete to address the danger of false teachers (1:10-16). This part of Titus’s task dovetails with the larger concern of the letter: to shape a community that bears witness to Christ by embodying God’s grace in its conduct. Cp. 1 Tim 3:1-7.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:5-16<\/strong> Strong, faithful leadership was needed in the churches of Crete to address the danger of false teachers (1:10-16). This part of Titus’s task dovetails with the larger concern of the letter: to shape a community that bears witness to Christ by embodying God’s grace in its conduct. Cp. 1 Tim 3:1-7.<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:5-16 Strong, faithful leadership was needed in the churches of Crete to address the danger of false teachers (1:10-16). This part of Titus’s task dovetails with the larger concern of the letter: to shape a community that bears witness to Christ by embodying God’s grace in its conduct. Cp. 1 Tim 3:1-7.","summary_en":"1:5-16 Strong, faithful leadership was needed in the churches of Crete to address the danger of false teachers (1:10-16). This part of Titus’s task dovetails with the larger concern of the letter: to shape a community that bears witness to Christ by embodying God’s grace in its conduct. Cp. 1 Tim 3:1-7.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":113907,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Tit 1:5","title_en":"Study Note: Tit 1:5","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:5-9<\/strong> Titus was directed to appoint leaders in order to <em>complete our work there<\/em>—i.e., to establish the church (cp. 1 Tim 3:1-13). Deacons are not mentioned, possibly because these were new, small churches. • These leadership qualities might be an accommodation to the newness of these converts and the roughness of their culture. It is assumed that the elders will be male (see 1 Tim 3:4-5).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:5-9<\/strong> Titus was directed to appoint leaders in order to <em>complete our work there<\/em>—i.e., to establish the church (cp. 1 Tim 3:1-13). Deacons are not mentioned, possibly because these were new, small churches. • These leadership qualities might be an accommodation to the newness of these converts and the roughness of their culture. It is assumed that the elders will be male (see 1 Tim 3:4-5).<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:5-9 Titus was directed to appoint leaders in order to complete our work there—i.e., to establish the church (cp. 1 Tim 3:1-13). Deacons are not mentioned, possibly because these were new, small churches. • These leadership qualities might be an accommodation to the newness of these converts and the roughness of their culture. It is assumed that the elders will be male (see 1 Tim 3:4-5).","summary_en":"1:5-9 Titus was directed to appoint leaders in order to complete our work there—i.e., to establish the church (cp. 1 Tim 3:1-13). Deacons are not mentioned, possibly because these were new, small churches. • These leadership qualities might be an accommodation to the newness of these converts and the roughness of their culture. It is assumed that the elders will be male (see 1 Tim 3:4-5).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":113908,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Tit 1:5","title_en":"Study Note: Tit 1:5","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:5<\/strong> <em>Crete<\/em> was located in the Mediterranean, south of the Aegean Sea. It was an important location for travel and trade by sea, so it had a mix of influences, including a Jewish population. Some from Crete had been at Pentecost (Acts 2:11), but this letter seems to deal with an infant church. • <em>elders in each town:<\/em> There may have been more than one house church in a given town and possibly more than one elder in a given house church. Clearly, there were churches in at least two towns and the leadership was specific to each town.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:5<\/strong> <em>Crete<\/em> was located in the Mediterranean, south of the Aegean Sea. It was an important location for travel and trade by sea, so it had a mix of influences, including a Jewish population. Some from Crete had been at Pentecost (Acts 2:11), but this letter seems to deal with an infant church. • <em>elders in each town:<\/em> There may have been more than one house church in a given town and possibly more than one elder in a given house church. Clearly, there were churches in at least two towns and the leadership was specific to each town.<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:5 Crete was located in the Mediterranean, south of the Aegean Sea. It was an important location for travel and trade by sea, so it had a mix of influences, including a Jewish population. Some from Crete had been at Pentecost (Acts 2:11), but this letter seems to deal with an infant church. • elders in each town: There may have been more than one house church in a given town and possibly more than one elder in a given house church. Clearly, there were churches in at least two towns and the l...","summary_en":"1:5 Crete was located in the Mediterranean, south of the Aegean Sea. It was an important location for travel and trade by sea, so it had a mix of influences, including a Jewish population. Some from Crete had been at Pentecost (Acts 2:11), but this letter seems to deal with an infant church. • elders in each town: There may have been more than one house church in a given town and possibly more than one elder in a given house church. Clearly, there were churches in at least two towns and the l...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":141532,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Tit 1:5","title_en":"Study Note: Tit 1:5","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:5-16<\/strong> Strong, faithful leadership was needed in the churches of Crete to address the danger of false teachers (1:10-16). This part of Titus’s task dovetails with the larger concern of the letter: to shape a community that bears witness to Christ by embodying God’s grace in its conduct. Cp. 1 Tim 3:1-7.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:5-16<\/strong> Strong, faithful leadership was needed in the churches of Crete to address the danger of false teachers (1:10-16). This part of Titus’s task dovetails with the larger concern of the letter: to shape a community that bears witness to Christ by embodying God’s grace in its conduct. Cp. 1 Tim 3:1-7.<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:5-16 Strong, faithful leadership was needed in the churches of Crete to address the danger of false teachers (1:10-16). This part of Titus’s task dovetails with the larger concern of the letter: to shape a community that bears witness to Christ by embodying God’s grace in its conduct. Cp. 1 Tim 3:1-7.","summary_en":"1:5-16 Strong, faithful leadership was needed in the churches of Crete to address the danger of false teachers (1:10-16). This part of Titus’s task dovetails with the larger concern of the letter: to shape a community that bears witness to Christ by embodying God’s grace in its conduct. Cp. 1 Tim 3:1-7.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":141533,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Tit 1:5","title_en":"Study Note: Tit 1:5","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:5-9<\/strong> Titus was directed to appoint leaders in order to <em>complete our work there<\/em>—i.e., to establish the church (cp. 1 Tim 3:1-13). Deacons are not mentioned, possibly because these were new, small churches. • These leadership qualities might be an accommodation to the newness of these converts and the roughness of their culture. It is assumed that the elders will be male (see 1 Tim 3:4-5).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:5-9<\/strong> Titus was directed to appoint leaders in order to <em>complete our work there<\/em>—i.e., to establish the church (cp. 1 Tim 3:1-13). Deacons are not mentioned, possibly because these were new, small churches. • These leadership qualities might be an accommodation to the newness of these converts and the roughness of their culture. It is assumed that the elders will be male (see 1 Tim 3:4-5).<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:5-9 Titus was directed to appoint leaders in order to complete our work there—i.e., to establish the church (cp. 1 Tim 3:1-13). Deacons are not mentioned, possibly because these were new, small churches. • These leadership qualities might be an accommodation to the newness of these converts and the roughness of their culture. It is assumed that the elders will be male (see 1 Tim 3:4-5).","summary_en":"1:5-9 Titus was directed to appoint leaders in order to complete our work there—i.e., to establish the church (cp. 1 Tim 3:1-13). Deacons are not mentioned, possibly because these were new, small churches. • These leadership qualities might be an accommodation to the newness of these converts and the roughness of their culture. It is assumed that the elders will be male (see 1 Tim 3:4-5).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":141534,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Tit 1:5","title_en":"Study Note: Tit 1:5","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:5<\/strong> <em>Crete<\/em> was located in the Mediterranean, south of the Aegean Sea. It was an important location for travel and trade by sea, so it had a mix of influences, including a Jewish population. Some from Crete had been at Pentecost (Acts 2:11), but this letter seems to deal with an infant church. • <em>elders in each town:<\/em> There may have been more than one house church in a given town and possibly more than one elder in a given house church. Clearly, there were churches in at least two towns and the leadership was specific to each town.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:5<\/strong> <em>Crete<\/em> was located in the Mediterranean, south of the Aegean Sea. It was an important location for travel and trade by sea, so it had a mix of influences, including a Jewish population. Some from Crete had been at Pentecost (Acts 2:11), but this letter seems to deal with an infant church. • <em>elders in each town:<\/em> There may have been more than one house church in a given town and possibly more than one elder in a given house church. Clearly, there were churches in at least two towns and the leadership was specific to each town.<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:5 Crete was located in the Mediterranean, south of the Aegean Sea. It was an important location for travel and trade by sea, so it had a mix of influences, including a Jewish population. Some from Crete had been at Pentecost (Acts 2:11), but this letter seems to deal with an infant church. • elders in each town: There may have been more than one house church in a given town and possibly more than one elder in a given house church. Clearly, there were churches in at least two towns and the l...","summary_en":"1:5 Crete was located in the Mediterranean, south of the Aegean Sea. It was an important location for travel and trade by sea, so it had a mix of influences, including a Jewish population. Some from Crete had been at Pentecost (Acts 2:11), but this letter seems to deal with an infant church. • elders in each town: There may have been more than one house church in a given town and possibly more than one elder in a given house church. Clearly, there were churches in at least two towns and the l...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":67553,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Church Leaders","title_en":"Church Leaders","content_ro":"<h3>Church Leaders<\/h3>\n<p>Spontaneity and spiritual giftedness characterized the first church gatherings (see 1 Cor 14:26-33). The apostles exercised general oversight of the Christian communities (Acts 6:2; 8:14; 14:23) together with the elders in Jerusalem (Acts 15:4, 6, 22-23), whose function was drawn from the Jewish synagogue and Greco-Roman models. The titles and functions of Christian leaders in communities outside of Jerusalem appear to have been fluid (e.g. Acts 6:1-6; 13:1-3), but local leaders were dependent on the apostles when possible. Teachers and prophets also had important roles in guiding the church (see Acts 11:27-30; 1 Cor 14:26-40). Churches were often founded before their leaders were appointed (Titus 1:5; Acts 14:23). Such appointments were related to spiritual gifting (see 1 Cor 12:28-30; Eph 4:11-13) and (in some situations) to age.<\/p>\n<p>There were likely always community leaders, whether or not they occupied a formal office. In the letters to Timothy and Titus, however, there is a strong emphasis on the offices of elder, overseer, and deacon. How these offices developed over the years is unclear, and even the practices described in 1 Timothy and Titus might not have been universal. Elders in Ephesus and on Crete may have carried more of a teaching role because the false teachers had to be decisively counteracted. Otherwise, the problems implied in 1 Corinthians 14:26-33 might have prevailed. These letters are more concerned with ensuring that the Good News be faithfully transmitted than with perpetuating a specific form of church government.<\/p>\n<p>The apostle Paul exercised influence and control over his entire mission field, but there is no evidence that he intended to build or leave a regional or mission-wide infrastructure of governance. Apparently, the overseers were to carry on the teaching and disciplinary roles of Paul and his delegates without the wider responsibilities and authority of the apostles. As leaders of the local church, they wielded real and distinctive authority within their communities (see 1 Cor 5:3-5; 1 Tim 4:11-16; 5:19-22; 2 Tim 2:14-19, 25-26; Titus 2:15; 3:10-11). Yet it was not long after the death of the apostles that church structure began to take a more centralized form—largely around the office of bishop—as evidenced in Christian writings from the early second century.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Acts 6:1-6; 13:1-3; 14:23; 15:4-35; 1 Cor 12:28-30; 14:26-33; Eph 4:11-13; 1 Tim 3:1-13; 4:11-16; 5:17-22; 2 Tim 2:2, 25-26; Titus 1:5-9; 2:15<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Church Leaders<\/h3>\n<p>Spontaneity and spiritual giftedness characterized the first church gatherings (see 1 Cor 14:26-33). The apostles exercised general oversight of the Christian communities (Acts 6:2; 8:14; 14:23) together with the elders in Jerusalem (Acts 15:4, 6, 22-23), whose function was drawn from the Jewish synagogue and Greco-Roman models. The titles and functions of Christian leaders in communities outside of Jerusalem appear to have been fluid (e.g. Acts 6:1-6; 13:1-3), but local leaders were dependent on the apostles when possible. Teachers and prophets also had important roles in guiding the church (see Acts 11:27-30; 1 Cor 14:26-40). Churches were often founded before their leaders were appointed (Titus 1:5; Acts 14:23). Such appointments were related to spiritual gifting (see 1 Cor 12:28-30; Eph 4:11-13) and (in some situations) to age.<\/p>\n<p>There were likely always community leaders, whether or not they occupied a formal office. In the letters to Timothy and Titus, however, there is a strong emphasis on the offices of elder, overseer, and deacon. How these offices developed over the years is unclear, and even the practices described in 1 Timothy and Titus might not have been universal. Elders in Ephesus and on Crete may have carried more of a teaching role because the false teachers had to be decisively counteracted. Otherwise, the problems implied in 1 Corinthians 14:26-33 might have prevailed. These letters are more concerned with ensuring that the Good News be faithfully transmitted than with perpetuating a specific form of church government.<\/p>\n<p>The apostle Paul exercised influence and control over his entire mission field, but there is no evidence that he intended to build or leave a regional or mission-wide infrastructure of governance. Apparently, the overseers were to carry on the teaching and disciplinary roles of Paul and his delegates without the wider responsibilities and authority of the apostles. As leaders of the local church, they wielded real and distinctive authority within their communities (see 1 Cor 5:3-5; 1 Tim 4:11-16; 5:19-22; 2 Tim 2:14-19, 25-26; Titus 2:15; 3:10-11). Yet it was not long after the death of the apostles that church structure began to take a more centralized form—largely around the office of bishop—as evidenced in Christian writings from the early second century.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Acts 6:1-6; 13:1-3; 14:23; 15:4-35; 1 Cor 12:28-30; 14:26-33; Eph 4:11-13; 1 Tim 3:1-13; 4:11-16; 5:17-22; 2 Tim 2:2, 25-26; Titus 1:5-9; 2:15<\/p>","summary_ro":"Church Leaders Spontaneity and spiritual giftedness characterized the first church gatherings (see 1 Cor 14:26-33). The apostles exercised general oversight of the Christian communities (Acts 6:2; 8:14; 14:23) together with the elders in Jerusalem (Acts 15:4, 6, 22-23), whose function was drawn from the Jewish synagogue and Greco-Roman models. The titles and functions of Christian leaders in communities outside of Jerusalem appear to have been fluid (e.g. Acts 6:1-6; 13:1-3), but local leader...","summary_en":"Church Leaders Spontaneity and spiritual giftedness characterized the first church gatherings (see 1 Cor 14:26-33). The apostles exercised general oversight of the Christian communities (Acts 6:2; 8:14; 14:23) together with the elders in Jerusalem (Acts 15:4, 6, 22-23), whose function was drawn from the Jewish synagogue and Greco-Roman models. The titles and functions of Christian leaders in communities outside of Jerusalem appear to have been fluid (e.g. Acts 6:1-6; 13:1-3), but local leader...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":95179,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Church Leaders","title_en":"Church Leaders","content_ro":"<h3>Church Leaders<\/h3>\n<p>Spontaneity and spiritual giftedness characterized the first church gatherings (see 1 Cor 14:26-33). The apostles exercised general oversight of the Christian communities (Acts 6:2; 8:14; 14:23) together with the elders in Jerusalem (Acts 15:4, 6, 22-23), whose function was drawn from the Jewish synagogue and Greco-Roman models. The titles and functions of Christian leaders in communities outside of Jerusalem appear to have been fluid (e.g. Acts 6:1-6; 13:1-3), but local leaders were dependent on the apostles when possible. Teachers and prophets also had important roles in guiding the church (see Acts 11:27-30; 1 Cor 14:26-40). Churches were often founded before their leaders were appointed (Titus 1:5; Acts 14:23). Such appointments were related to spiritual gifting (see 1 Cor 12:28-30; Eph 4:11-13) and (in some situations) to age.<\/p>\n<p>There were likely always community leaders, whether or not they occupied a formal office. In the letters to Timothy and Titus, however, there is a strong emphasis on the offices of elder, overseer, and deacon. How these offices developed over the years is unclear, and even the practices described in 1 Timothy and Titus might not have been universal. Elders in Ephesus and on Crete may have carried more of a teaching role because the false teachers had to be decisively counteracted. Otherwise, the problems implied in 1 Corinthians 14:26-33 might have prevailed. These letters are more concerned with ensuring that the Good News be faithfully transmitted than with perpetuating a specific form of church government.<\/p>\n<p>The apostle Paul exercised influence and control over his entire mission field, but there is no evidence that he intended to build or leave a regional or mission-wide infrastructure of governance. Apparently, the overseers were to carry on the teaching and disciplinary roles of Paul and his delegates without the wider responsibilities and authority of the apostles. As leaders of the local church, they wielded real and distinctive authority within their communities (see 1 Cor 5:3-5; 1 Tim 4:11-16; 5:19-22; 2 Tim 2:14-19, 25-26; Titus 2:15; 3:10-11). Yet it was not long after the death of the apostles that church structure began to take a more centralized form—largely around the office of bishop—as evidenced in Christian writings from the early second century.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Acts 6:1-6; 13:1-3; 14:23; 15:4-35; 1 Cor 12:28-30; 14:26-33; Eph 4:11-13; 1 Tim 3:1-13; 4:11-16; 5:17-22; 2 Tim 2:2, 25-26; Titus 1:5-9; 2:15<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Church Leaders<\/h3>\n<p>Spontaneity and spiritual giftedness characterized the first church gatherings (see 1 Cor 14:26-33). The apostles exercised general oversight of the Christian communities (Acts 6:2; 8:14; 14:23) together with the elders in Jerusalem (Acts 15:4, 6, 22-23), whose function was drawn from the Jewish synagogue and Greco-Roman models. The titles and functions of Christian leaders in communities outside of Jerusalem appear to have been fluid (e.g. Acts 6:1-6; 13:1-3), but local leaders were dependent on the apostles when possible. Teachers and prophets also had important roles in guiding the church (see Acts 11:27-30; 1 Cor 14:26-40). Churches were often founded before their leaders were appointed (Titus 1:5; Acts 14:23). Such appointments were related to spiritual gifting (see 1 Cor 12:28-30; Eph 4:11-13) and (in some situations) to age.<\/p>\n<p>There were likely always community leaders, whether or not they occupied a formal office. In the letters to Timothy and Titus, however, there is a strong emphasis on the offices of elder, overseer, and deacon. How these offices developed over the years is unclear, and even the practices described in 1 Timothy and Titus might not have been universal. Elders in Ephesus and on Crete may have carried more of a teaching role because the false teachers had to be decisively counteracted. Otherwise, the problems implied in 1 Corinthians 14:26-33 might have prevailed. These letters are more concerned with ensuring that the Good News be faithfully transmitted than with perpetuating a specific form of church government.<\/p>\n<p>The apostle Paul exercised influence and control over his entire mission field, but there is no evidence that he intended to build or leave a regional or mission-wide infrastructure of governance. Apparently, the overseers were to carry on the teaching and disciplinary roles of Paul and his delegates without the wider responsibilities and authority of the apostles. As leaders of the local church, they wielded real and distinctive authority within their communities (see 1 Cor 5:3-5; 1 Tim 4:11-16; 5:19-22; 2 Tim 2:14-19, 25-26; Titus 2:15; 3:10-11). Yet it was not long after the death of the apostles that church structure began to take a more centralized form—largely around the office of bishop—as evidenced in Christian writings from the early second century.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Acts 6:1-6; 13:1-3; 14:23; 15:4-35; 1 Cor 12:28-30; 14:26-33; Eph 4:11-13; 1 Tim 3:1-13; 4:11-16; 5:17-22; 2 Tim 2:2, 25-26; Titus 1:5-9; 2:15<\/p>","summary_ro":"Church Leaders Spontaneity and spiritual giftedness characterized the first church gatherings (see 1 Cor 14:26-33). The apostles exercised general oversight of the Christian communities (Acts 6:2; 8:14; 14:23) together with the elders in Jerusalem (Acts 15:4, 6, 22-23), whose function was drawn from the Jewish synagogue and Greco-Roman models. The titles and functions of Christian leaders in communities outside of Jerusalem appear to have been fluid (e.g. Acts 6:1-6; 13:1-3), but local leader...","summary_en":"Church Leaders Spontaneity and spiritual giftedness characterized the first church gatherings (see 1 Cor 14:26-33). The apostles exercised general oversight of the Christian communities (Acts 6:2; 8:14; 14:23) together with the elders in Jerusalem (Acts 15:4, 6, 22-23), whose function was drawn from the Jewish synagogue and Greco-Roman models. The titles and functions of Christian leaders in communities outside of Jerusalem appear to have been fluid (e.g. Acts 6:1-6; 13:1-3), but local leader...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":122805,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Church Leaders","title_en":"Church Leaders","content_ro":"<h3>Church Leaders<\/h3>\n<p>Spontaneity and spiritual giftedness characterized the first church gatherings (see 1 Cor 14:26-33). The apostles exercised general oversight of the Christian communities (Acts 6:2; 8:14; 14:23) together with the elders in Jerusalem (Acts 15:4, 6, 22-23), whose function was drawn from the Jewish synagogue and Greco-Roman models. The titles and functions of Christian leaders in communities outside of Jerusalem appear to have been fluid (e.g. Acts 6:1-6; 13:1-3), but local leaders were dependent on the apostles when possible. Teachers and prophets also had important roles in guiding the church (see Acts 11:27-30; 1 Cor 14:26-40). Churches were often founded before their leaders were appointed (Titus 1:5; Acts 14:23). Such appointments were related to spiritual gifting (see 1 Cor 12:28-30; Eph 4:11-13) and (in some situations) to age.<\/p>\n<p>There were likely always community leaders, whether or not they occupied a formal office. In the letters to Timothy and Titus, however, there is a strong emphasis on the offices of elder, overseer, and deacon. How these offices developed over the years is unclear, and even the practices described in 1 Timothy and Titus might not have been universal. Elders in Ephesus and on Crete may have carried more of a teaching role because the false teachers had to be decisively counteracted. Otherwise, the problems implied in 1 Corinthians 14:26-33 might have prevailed. These letters are more concerned with ensuring that the Good News be faithfully transmitted than with perpetuating a specific form of church government.<\/p>\n<p>The apostle Paul exercised influence and control over his entire mission field, but there is no evidence that he intended to build or leave a regional or mission-wide infrastructure of governance. Apparently, the overseers were to carry on the teaching and disciplinary roles of Paul and his delegates without the wider responsibilities and authority of the apostles. As leaders of the local church, they wielded real and distinctive authority within their communities (see 1 Cor 5:3-5; 1 Tim 4:11-16; 5:19-22; 2 Tim 2:14-19, 25-26; Titus 2:15; 3:10-11). Yet it was not long after the death of the apostles that church structure began to take a more centralized form—largely around the office of bishop—as evidenced in Christian writings from the early second century.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Acts 6:1-6; 13:1-3; 14:23; 15:4-35; 1 Cor 12:28-30; 14:26-33; Eph 4:11-13; 1 Tim 3:1-13; 4:11-16; 5:17-22; 2 Tim 2:2, 25-26; Titus 1:5-9; 2:15<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Church Leaders<\/h3>\n<p>Spontaneity and spiritual giftedness characterized the first church gatherings (see 1 Cor 14:26-33). The apostles exercised general oversight of the Christian communities (Acts 6:2; 8:14; 14:23) together with the elders in Jerusalem (Acts 15:4, 6, 22-23), whose function was drawn from the Jewish synagogue and Greco-Roman models. The titles and functions of Christian leaders in communities outside of Jerusalem appear to have been fluid (e.g. Acts 6:1-6; 13:1-3), but local leaders were dependent on the apostles when possible. Teachers and prophets also had important roles in guiding the church (see Acts 11:27-30; 1 Cor 14:26-40). Churches were often founded before their leaders were appointed (Titus 1:5; Acts 14:23). Such appointments were related to spiritual gifting (see 1 Cor 12:28-30; Eph 4:11-13) and (in some situations) to age.<\/p>\n<p>There were likely always community leaders, whether or not they occupied a formal office. In the letters to Timothy and Titus, however, there is a strong emphasis on the offices of elder, overseer, and deacon. How these offices developed over the years is unclear, and even the practices described in 1 Timothy and Titus might not have been universal. Elders in Ephesus and on Crete may have carried more of a teaching role because the false teachers had to be decisively counteracted. Otherwise, the problems implied in 1 Corinthians 14:26-33 might have prevailed. These letters are more concerned with ensuring that the Good News be faithfully transmitted than with perpetuating a specific form of church government.<\/p>\n<p>The apostle Paul exercised influence and control over his entire mission field, but there is no evidence that he intended to build or leave a regional or mission-wide infrastructure of governance. Apparently, the overseers were to carry on the teaching and disciplinary roles of Paul and his delegates without the wider responsibilities and authority of the apostles. As leaders of the local church, they wielded real and distinctive authority within their communities (see 1 Cor 5:3-5; 1 Tim 4:11-16; 5:19-22; 2 Tim 2:14-19, 25-26; Titus 2:15; 3:10-11). Yet it was not long after the death of the apostles that church structure began to take a more centralized form—largely around the office of bishop—as evidenced in Christian writings from the early second century.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Acts 6:1-6; 13:1-3; 14:23; 15:4-35; 1 Cor 12:28-30; 14:26-33; Eph 4:11-13; 1 Tim 3:1-13; 4:11-16; 5:17-22; 2 Tim 2:2, 25-26; Titus 1:5-9; 2:15<\/p>","summary_ro":"Church Leaders Spontaneity and spiritual giftedness characterized the first church gatherings (see 1 Cor 14:26-33). The apostles exercised general oversight of the Christian communities (Acts 6:2; 8:14; 14:23) together with the elders in Jerusalem (Acts 15:4, 6, 22-23), whose function was drawn from the Jewish synagogue and Greco-Roman models. The titles and functions of Christian leaders in communities outside of Jerusalem appear to have been fluid (e.g. Acts 6:1-6; 13:1-3), but local leader...","summary_en":"Church Leaders Spontaneity and spiritual giftedness characterized the first church gatherings (see 1 Cor 14:26-33). The apostles exercised general oversight of the Christian communities (Acts 6:2; 8:14; 14:23) together with the elders in Jerusalem (Acts 15:4, 6, 22-23), whose function was drawn from the Jewish synagogue and Greco-Roman models. The titles and functions of Christian leaders in communities outside of Jerusalem appear to have been fluid (e.g. Acts 6:1-6; 13:1-3), but local leader...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":150431,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Church Leaders","title_en":"Church Leaders","content_ro":"<h3>Church Leaders<\/h3>\n<p>Spontaneity and spiritual giftedness characterized the first church gatherings (see 1 Cor 14:26-33). The apostles exercised general oversight of the Christian communities (Acts 6:2; 8:14; 14:23) together with the elders in Jerusalem (Acts 15:4, 6, 22-23), whose function was drawn from the Jewish synagogue and Greco-Roman models. The titles and functions of Christian leaders in communities outside of Jerusalem appear to have been fluid (e.g. Acts 6:1-6; 13:1-3), but local leaders were dependent on the apostles when possible. Teachers and prophets also had important roles in guiding the church (see Acts 11:27-30; 1 Cor 14:26-40). Churches were often founded before their leaders were appointed (Titus 1:5; Acts 14:23). Such appointments were related to spiritual gifting (see 1 Cor 12:28-30; Eph 4:11-13) and (in some situations) to age.<\/p>\n<p>There were likely always community leaders, whether or not they occupied a formal office. In the letters to Timothy and Titus, however, there is a strong emphasis on the offices of elder, overseer, and deacon. How these offices developed over the years is unclear, and even the practices described in 1 Timothy and Titus might not have been universal. Elders in Ephesus and on Crete may have carried more of a teaching role because the false teachers had to be decisively counteracted. Otherwise, the problems implied in 1 Corinthians 14:26-33 might have prevailed. These letters are more concerned with ensuring that the Good News be faithfully transmitted than with perpetuating a specific form of church government.<\/p>\n<p>The apostle Paul exercised influence and control over his entire mission field, but there is no evidence that he intended to build or leave a regional or mission-wide infrastructure of governance. Apparently, the overseers were to carry on the teaching and disciplinary roles of Paul and his delegates without the wider responsibilities and authority of the apostles. As leaders of the local church, they wielded real and distinctive authority within their communities (see 1 Cor 5:3-5; 1 Tim 4:11-16; 5:19-22; 2 Tim 2:14-19, 25-26; Titus 2:15; 3:10-11). Yet it was not long after the death of the apostles that church structure began to take a more centralized form—largely around the office of bishop—as evidenced in Christian writings from the early second century.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Acts 6:1-6; 13:1-3; 14:23; 15:4-35; 1 Cor 12:28-30; 14:26-33; Eph 4:11-13; 1 Tim 3:1-13; 4:11-16; 5:17-22; 2 Tim 2:2, 25-26; Titus 1:5-9; 2:15<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Church Leaders<\/h3>\n<p>Spontaneity and spiritual giftedness characterized the first church gatherings (see 1 Cor 14:26-33). The apostles exercised general oversight of the Christian communities (Acts 6:2; 8:14; 14:23) together with the elders in Jerusalem (Acts 15:4, 6, 22-23), whose function was drawn from the Jewish synagogue and Greco-Roman models. The titles and functions of Christian leaders in communities outside of Jerusalem appear to have been fluid (e.g. Acts 6:1-6; 13:1-3), but local leaders were dependent on the apostles when possible. Teachers and prophets also had important roles in guiding the church (see Acts 11:27-30; 1 Cor 14:26-40). Churches were often founded before their leaders were appointed (Titus 1:5; Acts 14:23). Such appointments were related to spiritual gifting (see 1 Cor 12:28-30; Eph 4:11-13) and (in some situations) to age.<\/p>\n<p>There were likely always community leaders, whether or not they occupied a formal office. In the letters to Timothy and Titus, however, there is a strong emphasis on the offices of elder, overseer, and deacon. How these offices developed over the years is unclear, and even the practices described in 1 Timothy and Titus might not have been universal. Elders in Ephesus and on Crete may have carried more of a teaching role because the false teachers had to be decisively counteracted. Otherwise, the problems implied in 1 Corinthians 14:26-33 might have prevailed. These letters are more concerned with ensuring that the Good News be faithfully transmitted than with perpetuating a specific form of church government.<\/p>\n<p>The apostle Paul exercised influence and control over his entire mission field, but there is no evidence that he intended to build or leave a regional or mission-wide infrastructure of governance. Apparently, the overseers were to carry on the teaching and disciplinary roles of Paul and his delegates without the wider responsibilities and authority of the apostles. As leaders of the local church, they wielded real and distinctive authority within their communities (see 1 Cor 5:3-5; 1 Tim 4:11-16; 5:19-22; 2 Tim 2:14-19, 25-26; Titus 2:15; 3:10-11). Yet it was not long after the death of the apostles that church structure began to take a more centralized form—largely around the office of bishop—as evidenced in Christian writings from the early second century.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Acts 6:1-6; 13:1-3; 14:23; 15:4-35; 1 Cor 12:28-30; 14:26-33; Eph 4:11-13; 1 Tim 3:1-13; 4:11-16; 5:17-22; 2 Tim 2:2, 25-26; Titus 1:5-9; 2:15<\/p>","summary_ro":"Church Leaders Spontaneity and spiritual giftedness characterized the first church gatherings (see 1 Cor 14:26-33). The apostles exercised general oversight of the Christian communities (Acts 6:2; 8:14; 14:23) together with the elders in Jerusalem (Acts 15:4, 6, 22-23), whose function was drawn from the Jewish synagogue and Greco-Roman models. The titles and functions of Christian leaders in communities outside of Jerusalem appear to have been fluid (e.g. Acts 6:1-6; 13:1-3), but local leader...","summary_en":"Church Leaders Spontaneity and spiritual giftedness characterized the first church gatherings (see 1 Cor 14:26-33). The apostles exercised general oversight of the Christian communities (Acts 6:2; 8:14; 14:23) together with the elders in Jerusalem (Acts 15:4, 6, 22-23), whose function was drawn from the Jewish synagogue and Greco-Roman models. The titles and functions of Christian leaders in communities outside of Jerusalem appear to have been fluid (e.g. Acts 6:1-6; 13:1-3), but local leader...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"6":[{"id":5142,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Bishop*","title_en":"Bishop*","content_ro":"<h3>BISHOP*<\/h3>\n<p>Official in the church whose qualifications are listed in 1 Timothy 3:2-7 and Titus 1:6-9. The Greek word from which the English title “bishop” and the adjective “episcopal” are derived is often translated in modern versions as “elder,” “overseer,” “shepherd,” or “guardian,” corresponding closely to the current term “pastor.” Jesus is called “the Shepherd and Bishop of your souls” (1 Pt 2:25, <span>kjv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>In the NT, “bishop,” and “elder” refer to the same office, as shown by the apostle Paul’s telling Titus to appoint “elders in every town” and then referring to those same individuals as “bishops” (Ti 1:5, 7). While at Miletus, Paul summoned the elders from the church at Ephesus and then addressed them as “overseers” or “guardians” (Acts 20:17, 28). In his letter to Philippi, Paul greeted the “bishops and deacons” (Phil 1:1). The fact that there were numerous bishops at Philippi, as well as in Ephesus, shows that the episcopal office had not yet developed into what it later became: a single bishop governing one or more churches.<\/p>\n<p>Bishops obviously had positions of authority, but the duties of the office are not clearly defined in the NT. One task was to combat heresy (Ti 1:9) and to teach and expound the Scriptures (1 Tm 3:2). In addition, there is some evidence that a primary concern was with economic matters and the care of the poor, as well as with a general overseeing of the congregation. The lists of qualifications in Paul’s letters to Timothy and Titus indicate that a bishop was considered a leader in the congregation and a representative to the non-Christian world. <em>See<\/em> Elder; Pastor; Presbyter.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>BISHOP*<\/h3>\n<p>Official in the church whose qualifications are listed in 1 Timothy 3:2-7 and Titus 1:6-9. The Greek word from which the English title “bishop” and the adjective “episcopal” are derived is often translated in modern versions as “elder,” “overseer,” “shepherd,” or “guardian,” corresponding closely to the current term “pastor.” Jesus is called “the Shepherd and Bishop of your souls” (1 Pt 2:25, <span>kjv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>In the NT, “bishop,” and “elder” refer to the same office, as shown by the apostle Paul’s telling Titus to appoint “elders in every town” and then referring to those same individuals as “bishops” (Ti 1:5, 7). While at Miletus, Paul summoned the elders from the church at Ephesus and then addressed them as “overseers” or “guardians” (Acts 20:17, 28). In his letter to Philippi, Paul greeted the “bishops and deacons” (Phil 1:1). The fact that there were numerous bishops at Philippi, as well as in Ephesus, shows that the episcopal office had not yet developed into what it later became: a single bishop governing one or more churches.<\/p>\n<p>Bishops obviously had positions of authority, but the duties of the office are not clearly defined in the NT. One task was to combat heresy (Ti 1:9) and to teach and expound the Scriptures (1 Tm 3:2). In addition, there is some evidence that a primary concern was with economic matters and the care of the poor, as well as with a general overseeing of the congregation. The lists of qualifications in Paul’s letters to Timothy and Titus indicate that a bishop was considered a leader in the congregation and a representative to the non-Christian world. <em>See<\/em> Elder; Pastor; Presbyter.<\/p>","summary_ro":"BISHOP* Official in the church whose qualifications are listed in 1 Timothy 3:2-7 and Titus 1:6-9. The Greek word from which the English title “bishop” and the adjective “episcopal” are derived is often translated in modern versions as “elder,” “overseer,” “shepherd,” or “guardian,” corresponding closely to the current term “pastor.” Jesus is called “the Shepherd and Bishop of your souls” (1 Pt 2:25, kjv). In the NT, “bishop,” and “elder” refer to the same office, as shown by the apostle Paul...","summary_en":"BISHOP* Official in the church whose qualifications are listed in 1 Timothy 3:2-7 and Titus 1:6-9. The Greek word from which the English title “bishop” and the adjective “episcopal” are derived is often translated in modern versions as “elder,” “overseer,” “shepherd,” or “guardian,” corresponding closely to the current term “pastor.” Jesus is called “the Shepherd and Bishop of your souls” (1 Pt 2:25, kjv). In the NT, “bishop,” and “elder” refer to the same office, as shown by the apostle Paul...","source":"Articles\/B.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":58657,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Tit 1:6","title_en":"Study Note: Tit 1:6","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:6<\/strong> <em>must be faithful to his wife:<\/em> See study note on 1 Tim 3:2. • <em>wild or rebellious:<\/em> This probably reflects Cretan culture with its low moral standards (Titus 1:12).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:6<\/strong> <em>must be faithful to his wife:<\/em> See study note on 1 Tim 3:2. • <em>wild or rebellious:<\/em> This probably reflects Cretan culture with its low moral standards (Titus 1:12).<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:6 must be faithful to his wife: See study note on 1 Tim 3:2. • wild or rebellious: This probably reflects Cretan culture with its low moral standards (Titus 1:12).","summary_en":"1:6 must be faithful to his wife: See study note on 1 Tim 3:2. • wild or rebellious: This probably reflects Cretan culture with its low moral standards (Titus 1:12).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":86283,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Tit 1:6","title_en":"Study Note: Tit 1:6","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:6<\/strong> <em>must be faithful to his wife:<\/em> See study note on 1 Tim 3:2. • <em>wild or rebellious:<\/em> This probably reflects Cretan culture with its low moral standards (Titus 1:12).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:6<\/strong> <em>must be faithful to his wife:<\/em> See study note on 1 Tim 3:2. • <em>wild or rebellious:<\/em> This probably reflects Cretan culture with its low moral standards (Titus 1:12).<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:6 must be faithful to his wife: See study note on 1 Tim 3:2. • wild or rebellious: This probably reflects Cretan culture with its low moral standards (Titus 1:12).","summary_en":"1:6 must be faithful to his wife: See study note on 1 Tim 3:2. • wild or rebellious: This probably reflects Cretan culture with its low moral standards (Titus 1:12).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":113909,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Tit 1:6","title_en":"Study Note: Tit 1:6","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:6<\/strong> <em>must be faithful to his wife:<\/em> See study note on 1 Tim 3:2. • <em>wild or rebellious:<\/em> This probably reflects Cretan culture with its low moral standards (Titus 1:12).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:6<\/strong> <em>must be faithful to his wife:<\/em> See study note on 1 Tim 3:2. • <em>wild or rebellious:<\/em> This probably reflects Cretan culture with its low moral standards (Titus 1:12).<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:6 must be faithful to his wife: See study note on 1 Tim 3:2. • wild or rebellious: This probably reflects Cretan culture with its low moral standards (Titus 1:12).","summary_en":"1:6 must be faithful to his wife: See study note on 1 Tim 3:2. • wild or rebellious: This probably reflects Cretan culture with its low moral standards (Titus 1:12).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":141535,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Tit 1:6","title_en":"Study Note: Tit 1:6","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:6<\/strong> <em>must be faithful to his wife:<\/em> See study note on 1 Tim 3:2. • <em>wild or rebellious:<\/em> This probably reflects Cretan culture with its low moral standards (Titus 1:12).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:6<\/strong> <em>must be faithful to his wife:<\/em> See study note on 1 Tim 3:2. • <em>wild or rebellious:<\/em> This probably reflects Cretan culture with its low moral standards (Titus 1:12).<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:6 must be faithful to his wife: See study note on 1 Tim 3:2. • wild or rebellious: This probably reflects Cretan culture with its low moral standards (Titus 1:12).","summary_en":"1:6 must be faithful to his wife: See study note on 1 Tim 3:2. • wild or rebellious: This probably reflects Cretan culture with its low moral standards (Titus 1:12).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"7":[{"id":1667,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Anger","title_en":"Anger","content_ro":"<h3>ANGER<\/h3>\n<p>The word normally used in the Bible to refer to rage, fury, and indignation. In most instances, anger is considered to be wrong. Psalm 37:8 (<span>nlt<\/span>), for example, commands: “Stop your anger! Turn from your rage!” Jesus paralleled anger with murder when he said, “If you are angry with someone, you are subject to judgment!” (Mt 5:22, <span>nlt<\/span>)—just as if the person had actually committed the murder he felt in his angry heart. Ephesians 4:31 and Colossians 3:8 both list anger, along with bitterness, wrath, malice, and slander, as attitudes that Christians must rid themselves of once and for all. In his list of attributes for a bishop or pastor of a church, the apostle Paul said that a Christian leader should not be prone to anger, that is, easily provoked (Ti 1:7).<\/p>\n<p>The Bible recognizes that humans get angry; it does not condemn the anger in and of itself but what often happens as the result. Humans have a habit of letting their anger get the best of them, causing them to sin. That is why the apostle Paul said, “Don’t sin by letting anger gain control over you” (Eph 4:26, <span>nlt<\/span>). The longer a person allows anger to continue, the greater the danger that it will develop sinful qualities, giving Satan a foothold (see Eph 4:27).<\/p>\n<p>Anger of a good sort is also spoken of in the Bible. “Righteous indignation” refers to the extreme displeasure of a holy heart unable to tolerate sin of any kind. The anger of God contains this element: man should be good, yet he sins—and God is angry “because they forsook the covenant of the Lord, the God of their fathers, which he made with them when he brought them out of the land of Egypt, and went and served other gods and worshiped them, gods whom they had not known and whom he had not allotted to them” (Dt 29:25-26, <span>rsv<\/span>). It was in that sense also that Moses’ anger burned on Mt Sinai and caused him to smash the tablets of the covenant on the ground when he saw the golden calf and Israel’s idolatry (Ex 32:19).<\/p>\n<p>In the NT, Mark says that Jesus looked with anger at the Pharisees, who were hoping to catch him breaking their law (Mk 3:5). Jesus’ anger was also shown in his cleansing of the temple (Jn 2:13-22); it should have been a place of prayer but was being used as a place of business. So Jesus “entered the Temple and began to drive out the merchants and their customers. He knocked over the tables of the money changers and the stalls of those selling doves” (Mt 21:12, <span>nlt<\/span>). His holy indignation was neither a weakness nor a sin. Such anger is an appropriate response to iniquity and injustice, especially when they are apparently unpunished.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ANGER<\/h3>\n<p>The word normally used in the Bible to refer to rage, fury, and indignation. In most instances, anger is considered to be wrong. Psalm 37:8 (<span>nlt<\/span>), for example, commands: “Stop your anger! Turn from your rage!” Jesus paralleled anger with murder when he said, “If you are angry with someone, you are subject to judgment!” (Mt 5:22, <span>nlt<\/span>)—just as if the person had actually committed the murder he felt in his angry heart. Ephesians 4:31 and Colossians 3:8 both list anger, along with bitterness, wrath, malice, and slander, as attitudes that Christians must rid themselves of once and for all. In his list of attributes for a bishop or pastor of a church, the apostle Paul said that a Christian leader should not be prone to anger, that is, easily provoked (Ti 1:7).<\/p>\n<p>The Bible recognizes that humans get angry; it does not condemn the anger in and of itself but what often happens as the result. Humans have a habit of letting their anger get the best of them, causing them to sin. That is why the apostle Paul said, “Don’t sin by letting anger gain control over you” (Eph 4:26, <span>nlt<\/span>). The longer a person allows anger to continue, the greater the danger that it will develop sinful qualities, giving Satan a foothold (see Eph 4:27).<\/p>\n<p>Anger of a good sort is also spoken of in the Bible. “Righteous indignation” refers to the extreme displeasure of a holy heart unable to tolerate sin of any kind. The anger of God contains this element: man should be good, yet he sins—and God is angry “because they forsook the covenant of the Lord, the God of their fathers, which he made with them when he brought them out of the land of Egypt, and went and served other gods and worshiped them, gods whom they had not known and whom he had not allotted to them” (Dt 29:25-26, <span>rsv<\/span>). It was in that sense also that Moses’ anger burned on Mt Sinai and caused him to smash the tablets of the covenant on the ground when he saw the golden calf and Israel’s idolatry (Ex 32:19).<\/p>\n<p>In the NT, Mark says that Jesus looked with anger at the Pharisees, who were hoping to catch him breaking their law (Mk 3:5). Jesus’ anger was also shown in his cleansing of the temple (Jn 2:13-22); it should have been a place of prayer but was being used as a place of business. So Jesus “entered the Temple and began to drive out the merchants and their customers. He knocked over the tables of the money changers and the stalls of those selling doves” (Mt 21:12, <span>nlt<\/span>). His holy indignation was neither a weakness nor a sin. Such anger is an appropriate response to iniquity and injustice, especially when they are apparently unpunished.<\/p>","summary_ro":"ANGER The word normally used in the Bible to refer to rage, fury, and indignation. In most instances, anger is considered to be wrong. Psalm 37:8 (nlt), for example, commands: “Stop your anger! Turn from your rage!” Jesus paralleled anger with murder when he said, “If you are angry with someone, you are subject to judgment!” (Mt 5:22, nlt)—just as if the person had actually committed the murder he felt in his angry heart. Ephesians 4:31 and Colossians 3:8 both list anger, along with bitternes...","summary_en":"ANGER The word normally used in the Bible to refer to rage, fury, and indignation. In most instances, anger is considered to be wrong. Psalm 37:8 (nlt), for example, commands: “Stop your anger! Turn from your rage!” Jesus paralleled anger with murder when he said, “If you are angry with someone, you are subject to judgment!” (Mt 5:22, nlt)—just as if the person had actually committed the murder he felt in his angry heart. Ephesians 4:31 and Colossians 3:8 both list anger, along with bitternes...","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":10337,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Elder","title_en":"Elder","content_ro":"<h3>ELDER<\/h3>\n<p>Person who, by virtue of position in the family, clan, or tribe; or by reason of personality, prowess, stature, or influence; or through a process of appointment and ordination, exercised leadership and judicial functions in both religious and secular spheres in the ancient world, both among biblical and nonbiblical peoples. The roots of the development of the presbytery (group of elders) in the NT and postapostolic church originate in Judaism and the OT, though the figure of the elder or groups of elders can also be found in the world surrounding ancient Israel and in the Greco-Roman world of the NT period.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"IntheOldTestament\">In the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>The elder, or the institution of elders, is closely linked with the tribal system. Tribes were composed of clans, and clans of large, extended family units. By virtue of age and function in a patriarchal society, the father of a family ruled. This fact of age, as well as the wisdom and maturity invested in older persons, is undoubtedly the origin of the authority that these elders exercised. A clan was ruled by the heads of the families constituting it, forming a council of elders. In time of war, each clan furnished a contingent; these were led by a chief, probably chosen from the ranks of the elders.<\/p>\n<p>In Israel’s premonarchy period, local administration and judicial action was largely in the hands of those elders. In the exodus narrative, it was the elders of Israel (heads of families) who were instructed by Moses concerning the first Passover meal (Ex 12:21-22). It was these elders who, in Exodus 18:12, met with Jethro, Moses’ father-in-law, and from whose ranks were chosen worthy representatives to assist Moses in the interpretation of the law of God and the administration of justice (18:13-23). Similarly, according to Numbers 11:16-17, Moses was instructed by God to select 70 men from among the elders of Israel to assist him in leadership of the people. In this latter account, the elders were marked by a special endowment of God’s Spirit. In the former the elders—chosen as coadministrators with Moses—were those known to be trustworthy.<\/p>\n<p>A central function of elders was the administration of justice. They were the “judges,” who sat “in the gate,” the traditional courtroom of ancient villages and towns. Here disputes and trials were settled by the elders, and community affairs were discussed and decisions made (Gn 23:10, 18; Jb 29:7; Prv 24:7; 31:23). The preservation and application of the law was clearly in the hands of elders who sat at the gate of the town (Dt 19:12; 21:19; 22:15; 25:7-10). Ruth 4:1-12 provides an excellent description of such a process.<\/p>\n<p>During the period of the monarchy, local administration and judicial authority continued to be invested in councils of elders. At the end of Saul’s reign, David sent messages and gifts to the elders of the towns of Judah (1 Sm 30:26), obviously recognizing that his efficient rule would depend on their goodwill and allegiance. In the time of Jehu (2 Kgs 10:5), we hear of elders in Samaria, side by side with a governor and master of the palace. To facilitate her plot against Naboth, Jezebel wrote instructions to the elders and nobles of Jezreel (1 Kgs 21:8-11). Again, Josiah convened the elders of Judah and Jerusalem to hear the reading of the law and to enter with him into a new covenant of obedience (2 Kgs 23:1). It is clear that the elders of Israel were now responsible for the application of the law within their jurisdictions. Besides administrative and judicial functions, elders also assumed cultic roles (Ex 24:1, 9; Lv 4:14-15).<\/p>\n<p>The institution of the elders survived the collapse of the royal institutions. Elders were present during the exile (Ez 8:1; 14:1; 20:1-3) as well as after the return (e.g., Ezr 10:16).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"InJudaismoftheNewTestamentPeriod\">In Judaism of the New Testament Period<\/p>\n<p>While use of the title “elder” to designate officers of various Greek cult associations and village magistrates may have influenced the development of community structure in the gentile churches, the Christian office (or function) of elder stems from a very similar institution within Judaism. In the first three Gospels and in Acts there are numerous references to elders as functionaries within the communal and religious life of Judaism. Generally they are mentioned together with one or more other groups of functionaries (quoting the <span>rsv<\/span>): “elders and chief priests and scribes” (Mt 16:21); “chief priests and elders of the people” (21:23; 26:3, 47); “scribes and elders” (26:57; 27:41); “chief priests and elders” (27:1, 3, 12, 20); “rulers and elders and scribes” (Acts 4:5); “rulers of the people and elders” (v 8). From these NT passages we cannot determine what exactly their functions were, or how they differed from rulers or scribes. However, the duties of Jewish elders are clearly described in the tractate <em>Sanhedrin<\/em> in the Mishnah, as well as in the community rule books of the Qumran ascetics, discovered among the Dead Sea Scrolls.<\/p>\n<p>Each Jewish community had its council of elders, who had general administrative oversight and represented the community in relations with Roman authorities. Their primary duty was judicial. They were custodians of the law and its traditional interpretations (see Mt 15:2), and they were charged with both its enforcement and the punishment of offenders. The most important of these councils of elders was the Sanhedrin in Jerusalem, a group of 71 men who acted as the final court for the entire nation.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"IntheChristianCommunity\">In the Christian Community<\/p>\n<p>Since the primitive church eventually regarded itself as the new Israel (Mt 21:43; Gal 6:16), it is easy to see why it should gradually adopt the institution of elders. Though it is difficult to make out the order that prevailed in the first Christian communities, because it apparently varied according to place and time in both form and extent, the presence and functioning of elders was part of the reality of early church life.<\/p>\n<p>In Luke’s account of the origin and spread of Christianity, the elders are already present in the church at Jerusalem. In Acts we see Christians at Antioch sending famine relief “to the elders [of the Judean churches] by Barnabas and Saul” (Acts 11:30). On their first missionary journey, Paul and Barnabas “appointed elders in every church” (14:23). Later, Paul and Barnabas were sent from Antioch to Jerusalem “to the apostles and elders” about the question of circumcision of gentile Christians (15:2), and were “welcomed by the church, and the apostles, and the elders” (v 4), who gathered to hear the case and resolve the issue (vv 6-23).<\/p>\n<p>Who these elders were, and how they were chosen, we are not told. It seems possible to argue, on the basis of Jewish precedent, that age and prominence gave them the privilege of rendering special service within the community. Veneration for age was a deeply rooted sentiment among Jews, and the name “presbyter” (elder) was derived from Jewish usage. It is also possible that, like the appointment of “the seven” for special service by the laying on of hands (6:1-6), the first elders in the Jerusalem church were appointed by the apostles. Apparently they functioned in the Christian community in ways comparable to the elders in the Jewish communities and the Sanhedrin (11:30; 15:2-6, 22-23; 16:4; 21:18).<\/p>\n<p>Paul apparently continued the practice among the gentile churches, though elders are not mentioned in the earliest Pauline writings. They are mentioned only in the Pastoral Epistles (1 Tm 5:17, 19; Ti 1:5). On his last journey to Jerusalem, Paul summoned the elders of the church at Ephesus to Miletus (Acts 20:17) to bid them farewell, and to instruct them to be faithful in their task of overseeing and caring for the Christian flock, the church of God (20:28).<\/p>\n<p>Although elders are not explicitly mentioned in Paul’s early letters, they may have been among the leaders who presided over the congregations (Rom 12:8; 1 Thes 5:12-13). Philippians 1:1 certainly reveals a definite stratification of leadership (“overseers and deacons”) within a young Pauline congregation. And 1 Timothy 5:17, reflecting what is often considered a later phase in the development of church government, attributes the functions of preaching and teaching to the ruling elders. Further, that Christian elders exercised pastoral functions may be inferred from 1 Peter 5:1-5 and James 5:14.<\/p>\n<p>There is one passage where we find a possible identification of an apostle (Peter) as also being an elder: “I exhort the elders among you, as a fellow elder and a witness of the sufferings of Christ” (1 Pt 5:1a, <span>rsv<\/span>). This text may indicate that elders were appointed and functioned as extensions of apostolic servanthood. Paul’s practice of appointing elders in the churches before his departure may support such a suggestion. The fact that in the tradition of the later church the “elder” of 2 and 3 John was identified as the apostle John points in a similar direction. Though such an identification is implicit, the apostles could function as elders but not the other way around.<\/p>\n<p>The elders had several functions. For example, 1 Timothy 5:17 speaks of elders as involved in preaching and teaching; James 5:14 sees them involved in a healing ministry; 1 Peter 5:2 exhorts them to tend the flock. Thus, the prophets and teachers who led the church at Antioch (according to Acts 13:1-3) may well have been the elders of this community.<\/p>\n<p>The diaconate, too, whose roots are to be seen in the selection of “the seven” for service to those in need (Acts 6:1-3), was not restricted to purely external service. Two of these men, whom Luke introduces to us as deacons, appear at the same time as evangelists who were particularly effective as preachers of the Word, performers of miracles, expounders of the Scriptures (Stephen, Acts 6:8-10; Philip, Acts 8:4-13, 26-40).<\/p>\n<p>Whereas in the later church bishops and elders were clearly distinguished, the NT reflects an early period when these offices were virtually synonymous. In Paul’s farewell speech at Miletus (Acts 20), addressed specifically to the Ephesian church elders (v 17), he tells them that the Holy Spirit has made them “overseers, to care for the church of God” (v 28). Whether “overseer” is used here in the later technical sense of bishop or the more general sense of guardian is not clear. However, in Titus 1:5-7, the elders of verse 5 are clearly the same persons as the bishops of verse 7. Again, the bishops of Philippians 1:1 are likely to be understood as the elders appointed by Paul upon his leaving this mission station.<\/p>\n<p>It is clear that church government in the NT period was still relatively fluid, but the seeds for the later structures were surely planted. The institution of the elders, on the basis of Jewish precedent, was central. The episcopate (overseers\/bishops) probably emerged out of the presbyterian (elders), one elder being appointed as overseer by the entire council of elders.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Bishop; Deacon, Deaconess; Pastor; Presbyter; Spiritual Gifts.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ELDER<\/h3>\n<p>Person who, by virtue of position in the family, clan, or tribe; or by reason of personality, prowess, stature, or influence; or through a process of appointment and ordination, exercised leadership and judicial functions in both religious and secular spheres in the ancient world, both among biblical and nonbiblical peoples. The roots of the development of the presbytery (group of elders) in the NT and postapostolic church originate in Judaism and the OT, though the figure of the elder or groups of elders can also be found in the world surrounding ancient Israel and in the Greco-Roman world of the NT period.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"IntheOldTestament\">In the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>The elder, or the institution of elders, is closely linked with the tribal system. Tribes were composed of clans, and clans of large, extended family units. By virtue of age and function in a patriarchal society, the father of a family ruled. This fact of age, as well as the wisdom and maturity invested in older persons, is undoubtedly the origin of the authority that these elders exercised. A clan was ruled by the heads of the families constituting it, forming a council of elders. In time of war, each clan furnished a contingent; these were led by a chief, probably chosen from the ranks of the elders.<\/p>\n<p>In Israel’s premonarchy period, local administration and judicial action was largely in the hands of those elders. In the exodus narrative, it was the elders of Israel (heads of families) who were instructed by Moses concerning the first Passover meal (Ex 12:21-22). It was these elders who, in Exodus 18:12, met with Jethro, Moses’ father-in-law, and from whose ranks were chosen worthy representatives to assist Moses in the interpretation of the law of God and the administration of justice (18:13-23). Similarly, according to Numbers 11:16-17, Moses was instructed by God to select 70 men from among the elders of Israel to assist him in leadership of the people. In this latter account, the elders were marked by a special endowment of God’s Spirit. In the former the elders—chosen as coadministrators with Moses—were those known to be trustworthy.<\/p>\n<p>A central function of elders was the administration of justice. They were the “judges,” who sat “in the gate,” the traditional courtroom of ancient villages and towns. Here disputes and trials were settled by the elders, and community affairs were discussed and decisions made (Gn 23:10, 18; Jb 29:7; Prv 24:7; 31:23). The preservation and application of the law was clearly in the hands of elders who sat at the gate of the town (Dt 19:12; 21:19; 22:15; 25:7-10). Ruth 4:1-12 provides an excellent description of such a process.<\/p>\n<p>During the period of the monarchy, local administration and judicial authority continued to be invested in councils of elders. At the end of Saul’s reign, David sent messages and gifts to the elders of the towns of Judah (1 Sm 30:26), obviously recognizing that his efficient rule would depend on their goodwill and allegiance. In the time of Jehu (2 Kgs 10:5), we hear of elders in Samaria, side by side with a governor and master of the palace. To facilitate her plot against Naboth, Jezebel wrote instructions to the elders and nobles of Jezreel (1 Kgs 21:8-11). Again, Josiah convened the elders of Judah and Jerusalem to hear the reading of the law and to enter with him into a new covenant of obedience (2 Kgs 23:1). It is clear that the elders of Israel were now responsible for the application of the law within their jurisdictions. Besides administrative and judicial functions, elders also assumed cultic roles (Ex 24:1, 9; Lv 4:14-15).<\/p>\n<p>The institution of the elders survived the collapse of the royal institutions. Elders were present during the exile (Ez 8:1; 14:1; 20:1-3) as well as after the return (e.g., Ezr 10:16).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"InJudaismoftheNewTestamentPeriod\">In Judaism of the New Testament Period<\/p>\n<p>While use of the title “elder” to designate officers of various Greek cult associations and village magistrates may have influenced the development of community structure in the gentile churches, the Christian office (or function) of elder stems from a very similar institution within Judaism. In the first three Gospels and in Acts there are numerous references to elders as functionaries within the communal and religious life of Judaism. Generally they are mentioned together with one or more other groups of functionaries (quoting the <span>rsv<\/span>): “elders and chief priests and scribes” (Mt 16:21); “chief priests and elders of the people” (21:23; 26:3, 47); “scribes and elders” (26:57; 27:41); “chief priests and elders” (27:1, 3, 12, 20); “rulers and elders and scribes” (Acts 4:5); “rulers of the people and elders” (v 8). From these NT passages we cannot determine what exactly their functions were, or how they differed from rulers or scribes. However, the duties of Jewish elders are clearly described in the tractate <em>Sanhedrin<\/em> in the Mishnah, as well as in the community rule books of the Qumran ascetics, discovered among the Dead Sea Scrolls.<\/p>\n<p>Each Jewish community had its council of elders, who had general administrative oversight and represented the community in relations with Roman authorities. Their primary duty was judicial. They were custodians of the law and its traditional interpretations (see Mt 15:2), and they were charged with both its enforcement and the punishment of offenders. The most important of these councils of elders was the Sanhedrin in Jerusalem, a group of 71 men who acted as the final court for the entire nation.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"IntheChristianCommunity\">In the Christian Community<\/p>\n<p>Since the primitive church eventually regarded itself as the new Israel (Mt 21:43; Gal 6:16), it is easy to see why it should gradually adopt the institution of elders. Though it is difficult to make out the order that prevailed in the first Christian communities, because it apparently varied according to place and time in both form and extent, the presence and functioning of elders was part of the reality of early church life.<\/p>\n<p>In Luke’s account of the origin and spread of Christianity, the elders are already present in the church at Jerusalem. In Acts we see Christians at Antioch sending famine relief “to the elders [of the Judean churches] by Barnabas and Saul” (Acts 11:30). On their first missionary journey, Paul and Barnabas “appointed elders in every church” (14:23). Later, Paul and Barnabas were sent from Antioch to Jerusalem “to the apostles and elders” about the question of circumcision of gentile Christians (15:2), and were “welcomed by the church, and the apostles, and the elders” (v 4), who gathered to hear the case and resolve the issue (vv 6-23).<\/p>\n<p>Who these elders were, and how they were chosen, we are not told. It seems possible to argue, on the basis of Jewish precedent, that age and prominence gave them the privilege of rendering special service within the community. Veneration for age was a deeply rooted sentiment among Jews, and the name “presbyter” (elder) was derived from Jewish usage. It is also possible that, like the appointment of “the seven” for special service by the laying on of hands (6:1-6), the first elders in the Jerusalem church were appointed by the apostles. Apparently they functioned in the Christian community in ways comparable to the elders in the Jewish communities and the Sanhedrin (11:30; 15:2-6, 22-23; 16:4; 21:18).<\/p>\n<p>Paul apparently continued the practice among the gentile churches, though elders are not mentioned in the earliest Pauline writings. They are mentioned only in the Pastoral Epistles (1 Tm 5:17, 19; Ti 1:5). On his last journey to Jerusalem, Paul summoned the elders of the church at Ephesus to Miletus (Acts 20:17) to bid them farewell, and to instruct them to be faithful in their task of overseeing and caring for the Christian flock, the church of God (20:28).<\/p>\n<p>Although elders are not explicitly mentioned in Paul’s early letters, they may have been among the leaders who presided over the congregations (Rom 12:8; 1 Thes 5:12-13). Philippians 1:1 certainly reveals a definite stratification of leadership (“overseers and deacons”) within a young Pauline congregation. And 1 Timothy 5:17, reflecting what is often considered a later phase in the development of church government, attributes the functions of preaching and teaching to the ruling elders. Further, that Christian elders exercised pastoral functions may be inferred from 1 Peter 5:1-5 and James 5:14.<\/p>\n<p>There is one passage where we find a possible identification of an apostle (Peter) as also being an elder: “I exhort the elders among you, as a fellow elder and a witness of the sufferings of Christ” (1 Pt 5:1a, <span>rsv<\/span>). This text may indicate that elders were appointed and functioned as extensions of apostolic servanthood. Paul’s practice of appointing elders in the churches before his departure may support such a suggestion. The fact that in the tradition of the later church the “elder” of 2 and 3 John was identified as the apostle John points in a similar direction. Though such an identification is implicit, the apostles could function as elders but not the other way around.<\/p>\n<p>The elders had several functions. For example, 1 Timothy 5:17 speaks of elders as involved in preaching and teaching; James 5:14 sees them involved in a healing ministry; 1 Peter 5:2 exhorts them to tend the flock. Thus, the prophets and teachers who led the church at Antioch (according to Acts 13:1-3) may well have been the elders of this community.<\/p>\n<p>The diaconate, too, whose roots are to be seen in the selection of “the seven” for service to those in need (Acts 6:1-3), was not restricted to purely external service. Two of these men, whom Luke introduces to us as deacons, appear at the same time as evangelists who were particularly effective as preachers of the Word, performers of miracles, expounders of the Scriptures (Stephen, Acts 6:8-10; Philip, Acts 8:4-13, 26-40).<\/p>\n<p>Whereas in the later church bishops and elders were clearly distinguished, the NT reflects an early period when these offices were virtually synonymous. In Paul’s farewell speech at Miletus (Acts 20), addressed specifically to the Ephesian church elders (v 17), he tells them that the Holy Spirit has made them “overseers, to care for the church of God” (v 28). Whether “overseer” is used here in the later technical sense of bishop or the more general sense of guardian is not clear. However, in Titus 1:5-7, the elders of verse 5 are clearly the same persons as the bishops of verse 7. Again, the bishops of Philippians 1:1 are likely to be understood as the elders appointed by Paul upon his leaving this mission station.<\/p>\n<p>It is clear that church government in the NT period was still relatively fluid, but the seeds for the later structures were surely planted. The institution of the elders, on the basis of Jewish precedent, was central. The episcopate (overseers\/bishops) probably emerged out of the presbyterian (elders), one elder being appointed as overseer by the entire council of elders.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Bishop; Deacon, Deaconess; Pastor; Presbyter; Spiritual Gifts.<\/p>","summary_ro":"ELDER Person who, by virtue of position in the family, clan, or tribe; or by reason of personality, prowess, stature, or influence; or through a process of appointment and ordination, exercised leadership and judicial functions in both religious and secular spheres in the ancient world, both among biblical and nonbiblical peoples. The roots of the development of the presbytery (group of elders) in the NT and postapostolic church originate in Judaism and the OT, though the figure of the elder ...","summary_en":"ELDER Person who, by virtue of position in the family, clan, or tribe; or by reason of personality, prowess, stature, or influence; or through a process of appointment and ordination, exercised leadership and judicial functions in both religious and secular spheres in the ancient world, both among biblical and nonbiblical peoples. The roots of the development of the presbytery (group of elders) in the NT and postapostolic church originate in Judaism and the OT, though the figure of the elder ...","source":"Articles\/E.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":28686,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Overseer","title_en":"Overseer","content_ro":"<h3>OVERSEER<\/h3>\n<p>Word appearing 12 times in the OT (<span>kjv<\/span>) and once in the NT. The <span>niv<\/span> uses it at least six times in the NT to translate the word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">episkopos<\/span><em>,<\/em> which is derived from “peer” or “watch over.” In the OT “overseer” is used to translate three words, which literally mean (1) one with authority who visits, (2) the preeminent one, or (3) the head writer.<\/p>\n<p>Joseph was given authority to watch over and administer all aspects of Potiphar’s house (Gn 39:4-5), advising Pharaoh to appoint 50 men to regulate and watch over the abundant harvest for seven years (41:34). Solomon appointed 3,600 overseers (“supervisors,” <span>nasb<\/span>) to make the people work (2 Chr 2:18). In Josiah’s time of temple renovation, there were overseers over all the workmen in every job (34:13, 17). Nehemiah appointed men to oversee the rebuilding of the wall (Neh 11:9, 14), to oversee the Levites (v 22), and to be in charge of the Levitical singers (12:42).<\/p>\n<p>The word “overseer” speaks of the highest person of authority who exercised oversight over others. Included in this authoritative oversight was the idea of watching, directing, and protecting the master’s interests. The NT carries these ideas also in regard to men appointed to serve the church on behalf of Jesus Christ (Acts 20:28; Phil 1:1; 1 Tm 3:1-2; Ti 1:7). Jesus Christ himself is the great Overseer (1 Pt 2:25, <span>niv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Bishop; Elder.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>OVERSEER<\/h3>\n<p>Word appearing 12 times in the OT (<span>kjv<\/span>) and once in the NT. The <span>niv<\/span> uses it at least six times in the NT to translate the word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">episkopos<\/span><em>,<\/em> which is derived from “peer” or “watch over.” In the OT “overseer” is used to translate three words, which literally mean (1) one with authority who visits, (2) the preeminent one, or (3) the head writer.<\/p>\n<p>Joseph was given authority to watch over and administer all aspects of Potiphar’s house (Gn 39:4-5), advising Pharaoh to appoint 50 men to regulate and watch over the abundant harvest for seven years (41:34). Solomon appointed 3,600 overseers (“supervisors,” <span>nasb<\/span>) to make the people work (2 Chr 2:18). In Josiah’s time of temple renovation, there were overseers over all the workmen in every job (34:13, 17). Nehemiah appointed men to oversee the rebuilding of the wall (Neh 11:9, 14), to oversee the Levites (v 22), and to be in charge of the Levitical singers (12:42).<\/p>\n<p>The word “overseer” speaks of the highest person of authority who exercised oversight over others. Included in this authoritative oversight was the idea of watching, directing, and protecting the master’s interests. The NT carries these ideas also in regard to men appointed to serve the church on behalf of Jesus Christ (Acts 20:28; Phil 1:1; 1 Tm 3:1-2; Ti 1:7). Jesus Christ himself is the great Overseer (1 Pt 2:25, <span>niv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Bishop; Elder.<\/p>","summary_ro":"OVERSEER Word appearing 12 times in the OT (kjv) and once in the NT. The niv uses it at least six times in the NT to translate the word episkopos, which is derived from “peer” or “watch over.” In the OT “overseer” is used to translate three words, which literally mean (1) one with authority who visits, (2) the preeminent one, or (3) the head writer. Joseph was given authority to watch over and administer all aspects of Potiphar’s house (Gn 39:4-5), advising Pharaoh to appoint 50 men to regula...","summary_en":"OVERSEER Word appearing 12 times in the OT (kjv) and once in the NT. The niv uses it at least six times in the NT to translate the word episkopos, which is derived from “peer” or “watch over.” In the OT “overseer” is used to translate three words, which literally mean (1) one with authority who visits, (2) the preeminent one, or (3) the head writer. Joseph was given authority to watch over and administer all aspects of Potiphar’s house (Gn 39:4-5), advising Pharaoh to appoint 50 men to regula...","source":"Articles\/O.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":38461,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Wine","title_en":"Wine","content_ro":"<h3>WINE<\/h3>\n<p>Beverage made from fermented grape juice.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Origin\">Origin<\/p>\n<p>Noah was among the first to produce wine (Gn 9:21), presumably on the slopes of Mt Ararat. But wine making was not confined to that region, because Egypt, and later Greece, had a fondness for the juice. In fact, wine making was known to have existed in the prehistoric period of Mesopotamia and was brought to Egypt before 3000 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>The word “wine” may be identified with words for vine, vineyard, and black grapes. The vine, which brings forth the wine, was often identified in the Near Eastern world with the “tree of life.” In both Egypt and Mesopotamia a goddess was thought to protect the vine. The “mistress of the heavenly tree of life,” the goddess Siris, lived in the mountains of northwestern Assyria. First Enoch 32:4 calls the vine the tree of knowledge. According to Jewish tradition, the vine was saved from the Flood by Noah.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ProductionofWine\">Production of Wine<\/p>\n<p>Few ancient documents are extant on the art of wine making. Experience and the interests of a few early botanists appear to be the only source of knowledge available about the early vine growers. Aristotle’s gifted student Theophrastus of Eresos wrote a book entitled <em>Enquiry into Plants<\/em> showing a blend of practical experience and theory. Later, he followed with <em>On the Life of Plants,<\/em> a work giving detailed observations about wine making. His ideas on when to plant, how to prune, statements against grafting, and how to care for the vine demonstrate the Greek genius. They raised viticulture to a science that has changed little in the last 2200 years.<\/p>\n<p>Great care was taken by Greek vine growers to ensure the success of their crops. The vines were close to the ground instead of being propped. In view of this, mice and foxes were especially undesirable, and much hoeing was needed to keep the soil free of weeds. But their method, overall, was very effective.<\/p>\n<p>In early September the grapes were collected in the plains, and at the end of the month in the hills. With an initial festival of song and dance, the workers brought the bunches of grapes to the winepresses, low cement vats inclined toward one corner. After this, workers trod the grapes. The first <em>must<\/em> (juice from the crushing) was highly valued because it provided the choicest wines. The remaining juice was extracted by wringing the trodden grapes in a bag press usually made of cloth. A third class of wine was produced by mixing or even cooking the remaining grapes with some water and expressing the mixture. This type of wine was drunk only by the poor.<\/p>\n<p>At a later time the Greeks invented a beam press in which a long beam, having a turning portion at one end and heavy stones on the other, compressed layers of grapes. The ancient Near East had these different methods of extracting wine, but the treading of grapes, even in Greece, was always the favorite method.<\/p>\n<p>In Greece the fermentation period was usually six months, during which the liquid was constantly skimmed. However, in the ancient Near East the fermentation process was usually over in three or four days, the optimum growth temperature being 77 degrees. The ancients knew that any further fermentation would produce acid.<\/p>\n<p>After desired fermentation, the wine was transferred to skins or pottery jars for transport or sale. The handles and stoppers were stamped to indicate the brand, the origin, and the vintage. At this time the wine was strained through perforated metal sieves or cloth to eliminate contaminates such as grit or insects.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"KindsofWine\">Kinds of Wine<\/p>\n<p>Ancient poets discuss many different brands of wine, with Athenaeus mentioning 85 different varieties. Galen cites 60; Pliny mentions 150; and Strabo, 30. Wines are distinguished by different colors (black, red, white, or yellow) and by their taste (dry, harsh, light, or sweet). The biblical account enumerates various kinds of wine, such as the wines of Lebanon and Helbon. Hebron and Samaria were famous for their wine making. The Hebrew language has at least nine different words for wine, and the Greek has four that are mentioned in the NT.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"NatureofWine\">Nature of Wine<\/p>\n<p>Few would question that at least some wine of the OT was fermented. Some scholars argue, however, that certain forms of wine in the ancient world were unfermented. They contrast two Hebrew words for wine, concluding that one particular Hebrew word that refers to fresh wine meant only grape juice (Prv 3:10; Hos 9:2; Jl 2:24; Mi 6:15). The inconclusiveness of these arguments may be seen from the following points: (1) the Hebrew word is found in primarily neutral contexts; (2) often that particular word is found in contexts definitely including a fermented beverage (e.g., Gn 27:28; Hos 4:11; Mi 6:15); (3) the Ugaritic parallel to the term in question refers with certainty to a fermented wine; (4) the Septuagint equivalents refer to fermented wine; (5) fermentation in the ancient Near East, unlike Greece, took only about three days; and (6) the Mishnah provides no such evidence of the practice of having unfermented wine. There seems to have been no attempts to preserve wine in an unfermented state; it may have been a near-impossible task. A careful examination of all the Hebrew words (as well as their Semitic cognates) and the Greek words for wine demonstrates that the ancients knew little, if anything, about unfermented wine.<\/p>\n<p>Ample evidence is available to demonstrate that wine, though always fermented, was usually mixed with water in the classical and Hellenistic world. The wine was stored in large jugs called <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">amphorae<\/span><em>,<\/em> from which the wine was poured through a strainer into a large mixing bowl called a <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">krater<\/span><em>.<\/em> In the krater the wine was mixed with water. Then the drinking bowls or cups were filled.<\/p>\n<p>The amount of wine per volume varied. The mixture that represented the greatest amount of water to wine was 20 to 1, apparently because the wine was so strong (Homer, <em>Odyssey<\/em> 10.208).<\/p>\n<p>In the western Mediterranean world, the term “wine” referred to the mixture of wine and water. If one desired to mention wine without water, it was necessary to add the word “unmixed.” For the Greeks, to drink wine unmixed was regarded as barbaric. The evidence, however, seems to indicate that in the OT era wine was used without being mixed with water. The terminology of mixing water and wine is strikingly unattested. Wine diluted with water was symbolic of spiritual adulteration (Is 1:22). By Roman times, this attitude had changed. The Mishnah assumes a ratio of two parts of water to one part wine; however, later Talmudic sources speak of three to one. A natural, nondistilled wine could reach as high as 15 percent alcohol content. If watered down three parts water to one part wine, the alcohol content would be 5 percent and still fairly potent.<\/p>\n<p>Wine was mixed not only with water but also with other ingredients, similar to mixed drinks today. An example of this is seen in the Homeric “Hymn to Demeter,” where the goddess rejects straight wine and desires the drink mixed with meal, water, and a soft mint. Often strong wine was mixed into weak wine, resulting in a stronger drink. This is what is meant by “mixture” in the Bible (Ps 75:8; Is 5:22; Rv 18:6; 19:13-15). At times the fresh wine, high in sugar content, was evaporated, and this concentrated <em>must<\/em> was mixed with wine to obtain a higher alcohol content.<\/p>\n<p>There is no mention of wine being mixed with water to make it safe for drinking, as is commonly accepted. Modern examples of pollution were not common in the ancient world, although this problem appeared occasionally. Examples are myriad concerning the fresh wells, springs, and moving bodies of water in biblical times, and methods were available to purify any impure water.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"WineintheOldTestament\">Wine in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>The evidence, as seen above, suggests that wine in the OT was not mixed with water and was looked on with favor when taken in moderation. Judges 9:13 presents wine as that “which cheers God and men.” Psalm 104:15 portrays wine similarly: “wine which makes man’s heart glad” (cf. also Est 1:10; Eccl 10:19; Is 55:1-2; Zec 10:7). The temperate use of wine was a normal and accepted part of life (Gn 14:18; Jgs 19:19; 1 Sm 16:20). Levitical priests in service at the temple (Lv 10:8-9), Nazirites (Nm 6:3), and the Recabites (Jer 35:1-6) were forbidden to drink wine.<\/p>\n<p>Wine had many uses in the OT world. The “drink offering” was wine (Ex 29:40; Lv 23:13), and the worshiper regularly brought wine when offering sacrifice (1 Sm 1:24). In addition, a supply of wine was kept in the temple for sacrificial purposes (1 Chr 9:29). At times, wine was used in helping the weak and sick (2 Sm 16:2; Prv 31:6).<\/p>\n<p>The strong drink of the OT seems to be closely related to Mesopotamian date wine. This same date wine, high in sugar content, must have also been high in alcohol content. One Hebrew word is consistently used as strong drink (Lv 10:9; Dt 29:6; 1 Sm 1:15; Prv 20:1; 31:6; Is 29:9). There is an equivalent word to this in Ugaritic, translated “drunk,” which parallels the normal word for wine.<\/p>\n<p>Negative reactions to intemperate wine drinking abound in the OT. Isaiah condemned those who drank wine to excess (Is 28:1-8). Many admonitions of drinking wine in excess are given in the Scriptures (Prv 20:1; 21:17; 23:20-21; 23:32-34).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"WineintheNewTestament\">Wine in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>Wine in the NT was a fermented beverage that was mixed with various amounts of water. It was also mixed with gall (Mt 27:34) and myrrh (Mk 15:23). Evidence strongly suggests that the wine used at the Lord’s Supper was a mixture of water and wine, probably three to one in agreement with the dictates of the Mishnah. The phrase “fruit of the vine” (Mt 26:27-29) is often interpreted to mean fresh grape juice. However, fresh grape juice would be all but impossible to find.<\/p>\n<p>The NT, as the OT, argues forcefully against the unrestrained use of wine. The biblical admonition is not to be drunk with wine (Eph 5:18; 1 Pt 4:3). Leaders in the church were to practice moderation in the use of wine (1 Tm 3:3, 8; Ti 1:7); the Greek says that they should “not be addicted to wine.”<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Vines, Vineyard; Winepress.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>WINE<\/h3>\n<p>Beverage made from fermented grape juice.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Origin\">Origin<\/p>\n<p>Noah was among the first to produce wine (Gn 9:21), presumably on the slopes of Mt Ararat. But wine making was not confined to that region, because Egypt, and later Greece, had a fondness for the juice. In fact, wine making was known to have existed in the prehistoric period of Mesopotamia and was brought to Egypt before 3000 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>The word “wine” may be identified with words for vine, vineyard, and black grapes. The vine, which brings forth the wine, was often identified in the Near Eastern world with the “tree of life.” In both Egypt and Mesopotamia a goddess was thought to protect the vine. The “mistress of the heavenly tree of life,” the goddess Siris, lived in the mountains of northwestern Assyria. First Enoch 32:4 calls the vine the tree of knowledge. According to Jewish tradition, the vine was saved from the Flood by Noah.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ProductionofWine\">Production of Wine<\/p>\n<p>Few ancient documents are extant on the art of wine making. Experience and the interests of a few early botanists appear to be the only source of knowledge available about the early vine growers. Aristotle’s gifted student Theophrastus of Eresos wrote a book entitled <em>Enquiry into Plants<\/em> showing a blend of practical experience and theory. Later, he followed with <em>On the Life of Plants,<\/em> a work giving detailed observations about wine making. His ideas on when to plant, how to prune, statements against grafting, and how to care for the vine demonstrate the Greek genius. They raised viticulture to a science that has changed little in the last 2200 years.<\/p>\n<p>Great care was taken by Greek vine growers to ensure the success of their crops. The vines were close to the ground instead of being propped. In view of this, mice and foxes were especially undesirable, and much hoeing was needed to keep the soil free of weeds. But their method, overall, was very effective.<\/p>\n<p>In early September the grapes were collected in the plains, and at the end of the month in the hills. With an initial festival of song and dance, the workers brought the bunches of grapes to the winepresses, low cement vats inclined toward one corner. After this, workers trod the grapes. The first <em>must<\/em> (juice from the crushing) was highly valued because it provided the choicest wines. The remaining juice was extracted by wringing the trodden grapes in a bag press usually made of cloth. A third class of wine was produced by mixing or even cooking the remaining grapes with some water and expressing the mixture. This type of wine was drunk only by the poor.<\/p>\n<p>At a later time the Greeks invented a beam press in which a long beam, having a turning portion at one end and heavy stones on the other, compressed layers of grapes. The ancient Near East had these different methods of extracting wine, but the treading of grapes, even in Greece, was always the favorite method.<\/p>\n<p>In Greece the fermentation period was usually six months, during which the liquid was constantly skimmed. However, in the ancient Near East the fermentation process was usually over in three or four days, the optimum growth temperature being 77 degrees. The ancients knew that any further fermentation would produce acid.<\/p>\n<p>After desired fermentation, the wine was transferred to skins or pottery jars for transport or sale. The handles and stoppers were stamped to indicate the brand, the origin, and the vintage. At this time the wine was strained through perforated metal sieves or cloth to eliminate contaminates such as grit or insects.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"KindsofWine\">Kinds of Wine<\/p>\n<p>Ancient poets discuss many different brands of wine, with Athenaeus mentioning 85 different varieties. Galen cites 60; Pliny mentions 150; and Strabo, 30. Wines are distinguished by different colors (black, red, white, or yellow) and by their taste (dry, harsh, light, or sweet). The biblical account enumerates various kinds of wine, such as the wines of Lebanon and Helbon. Hebron and Samaria were famous for their wine making. The Hebrew language has at least nine different words for wine, and the Greek has four that are mentioned in the NT.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"NatureofWine\">Nature of Wine<\/p>\n<p>Few would question that at least some wine of the OT was fermented. Some scholars argue, however, that certain forms of wine in the ancient world were unfermented. They contrast two Hebrew words for wine, concluding that one particular Hebrew word that refers to fresh wine meant only grape juice (Prv 3:10; Hos 9:2; Jl 2:24; Mi 6:15). The inconclusiveness of these arguments may be seen from the following points: (1) the Hebrew word is found in primarily neutral contexts; (2) often that particular word is found in contexts definitely including a fermented beverage (e.g., Gn 27:28; Hos 4:11; Mi 6:15); (3) the Ugaritic parallel to the term in question refers with certainty to a fermented wine; (4) the Septuagint equivalents refer to fermented wine; (5) fermentation in the ancient Near East, unlike Greece, took only about three days; and (6) the Mishnah provides no such evidence of the practice of having unfermented wine. There seems to have been no attempts to preserve wine in an unfermented state; it may have been a near-impossible task. A careful examination of all the Hebrew words (as well as their Semitic cognates) and the Greek words for wine demonstrates that the ancients knew little, if anything, about unfermented wine.<\/p>\n<p>Ample evidence is available to demonstrate that wine, though always fermented, was usually mixed with water in the classical and Hellenistic world. The wine was stored in large jugs called <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">amphorae<\/span><em>,<\/em> from which the wine was poured through a strainer into a large mixing bowl called a <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">krater<\/span><em>.<\/em> In the krater the wine was mixed with water. Then the drinking bowls or cups were filled.<\/p>\n<p>The amount of wine per volume varied. The mixture that represented the greatest amount of water to wine was 20 to 1, apparently because the wine was so strong (Homer, <em>Odyssey<\/em> 10.208).<\/p>\n<p>In the western Mediterranean world, the term “wine” referred to the mixture of wine and water. If one desired to mention wine without water, it was necessary to add the word “unmixed.” For the Greeks, to drink wine unmixed was regarded as barbaric. The evidence, however, seems to indicate that in the OT era wine was used without being mixed with water. The terminology of mixing water and wine is strikingly unattested. Wine diluted with water was symbolic of spiritual adulteration (Is 1:22). By Roman times, this attitude had changed. The Mishnah assumes a ratio of two parts of water to one part wine; however, later Talmudic sources speak of three to one. A natural, nondistilled wine could reach as high as 15 percent alcohol content. If watered down three parts water to one part wine, the alcohol content would be 5 percent and still fairly potent.<\/p>\n<p>Wine was mixed not only with water but also with other ingredients, similar to mixed drinks today. An example of this is seen in the Homeric “Hymn to Demeter,” where the goddess rejects straight wine and desires the drink mixed with meal, water, and a soft mint. Often strong wine was mixed into weak wine, resulting in a stronger drink. This is what is meant by “mixture” in the Bible (Ps 75:8; Is 5:22; Rv 18:6; 19:13-15). At times the fresh wine, high in sugar content, was evaporated, and this concentrated <em>must<\/em> was mixed with wine to obtain a higher alcohol content.<\/p>\n<p>There is no mention of wine being mixed with water to make it safe for drinking, as is commonly accepted. Modern examples of pollution were not common in the ancient world, although this problem appeared occasionally. Examples are myriad concerning the fresh wells, springs, and moving bodies of water in biblical times, and methods were available to purify any impure water.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"WineintheOldTestament\">Wine in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>The evidence, as seen above, suggests that wine in the OT was not mixed with water and was looked on with favor when taken in moderation. Judges 9:13 presents wine as that “which cheers God and men.” Psalm 104:15 portrays wine similarly: “wine which makes man’s heart glad” (cf. also Est 1:10; Eccl 10:19; Is 55:1-2; Zec 10:7). The temperate use of wine was a normal and accepted part of life (Gn 14:18; Jgs 19:19; 1 Sm 16:20). Levitical priests in service at the temple (Lv 10:8-9), Nazirites (Nm 6:3), and the Recabites (Jer 35:1-6) were forbidden to drink wine.<\/p>\n<p>Wine had many uses in the OT world. The “drink offering” was wine (Ex 29:40; Lv 23:13), and the worshiper regularly brought wine when offering sacrifice (1 Sm 1:24). In addition, a supply of wine was kept in the temple for sacrificial purposes (1 Chr 9:29). At times, wine was used in helping the weak and sick (2 Sm 16:2; Prv 31:6).<\/p>\n<p>The strong drink of the OT seems to be closely related to Mesopotamian date wine. This same date wine, high in sugar content, must have also been high in alcohol content. One Hebrew word is consistently used as strong drink (Lv 10:9; Dt 29:6; 1 Sm 1:15; Prv 20:1; 31:6; Is 29:9). There is an equivalent word to this in Ugaritic, translated “drunk,” which parallels the normal word for wine.<\/p>\n<p>Negative reactions to intemperate wine drinking abound in the OT. Isaiah condemned those who drank wine to excess (Is 28:1-8). Many admonitions of drinking wine in excess are given in the Scriptures (Prv 20:1; 21:17; 23:20-21; 23:32-34).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"WineintheNewTestament\">Wine in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>Wine in the NT was a fermented beverage that was mixed with various amounts of water. It was also mixed with gall (Mt 27:34) and myrrh (Mk 15:23). Evidence strongly suggests that the wine used at the Lord’s Supper was a mixture of water and wine, probably three to one in agreement with the dictates of the Mishnah. The phrase “fruit of the vine” (Mt 26:27-29) is often interpreted to mean fresh grape juice. However, fresh grape juice would be all but impossible to find.<\/p>\n<p>The NT, as the OT, argues forcefully against the unrestrained use of wine. The biblical admonition is not to be drunk with wine (Eph 5:18; 1 Pt 4:3). Leaders in the church were to practice moderation in the use of wine (1 Tm 3:3, 8; Ti 1:7); the Greek says that they should “not be addicted to wine.”<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Vines, Vineyard; Winepress.<\/p>","summary_ro":"WINE Beverage made from fermented grape juice. Origin Noah was among the first to produce wine (Gn 9:21), presumably on the slopes of Mt Ararat. But wine making was not confined to that region, because Egypt, and later Greece, had a fondness for the juice. In fact, wine making was known to have existed in the prehistoric period of Mesopotamia and was brought to Egypt before 3000 BC. The word “wine” may be identified with words for vine, vineyard, and black grapes. The vine, which brings forth...","summary_en":"WINE Beverage made from fermented grape juice. Origin Noah was among the first to produce wine (Gn 9:21), presumably on the slopes of Mt Ararat. But wine making was not confined to that region, because Egypt, and later Greece, had a fondness for the juice. In fact, wine making was known to have existed in the prehistoric period of Mesopotamia and was brought to Egypt before 3000 BC. The word “wine” may be identified with words for vine, vineyard, and black grapes. The vine, which brings forth...","source":"Articles\/W.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":58658,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Tit 1:7","title_en":"Study Note: Tit 1:7","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:7<\/strong> <em>A church leader<\/em> (or <em>An overseer,<\/em> or <em>A bishop<\/em>) <em>is a manager of God’s household:<\/em> See 1:11; 2:2-10; 1 Tim 1:4; 3:4-5, 12, 15; 2 Tim 2:20-21. • These qualities indicate that an elder should not be running with the Cretan masses (see Titus 1:12).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:7<\/strong> <em>A church leader<\/em> (or <em>An overseer,<\/em> or <em>A bishop<\/em>) <em>is a manager of God’s household:<\/em> See 1:11; 2:2-10; 1 Tim 1:4; 3:4-5, 12, 15; 2 Tim 2:20-21. • These qualities indicate that an elder should not be running with the Cretan masses (see Titus 1:12).<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:7 A church leader (or An overseer, or A bishop) is a manager of God’s household: See 1:11; 2:2-10; 1 Tim 1:4; 3:4-5, 12, 15; 2 Tim 2:20-21. • These qualities indicate that an elder should not be running with the Cretan masses (see Titus 1:12).","summary_en":"1:7 A church leader (or An overseer, or A bishop) is a manager of God’s household: See 1:11; 2:2-10; 1 Tim 1:4; 3:4-5, 12, 15; 2 Tim 2:20-21. • These qualities indicate that an elder should not be running with the Cretan masses (see Titus 1:12).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":86284,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Tit 1:7","title_en":"Study Note: Tit 1:7","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:7<\/strong> <em>A church leader<\/em> (or <em>An overseer,<\/em> or <em>A bishop<\/em>) <em>is a manager of God’s household:<\/em> See 1:11; 2:2-10; 1 Tim 1:4; 3:4-5, 12, 15; 2 Tim 2:20-21. • These qualities indicate that an elder should not be running with the Cretan masses (see Titus 1:12).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:7<\/strong> <em>A church leader<\/em> (or <em>An overseer,<\/em> or <em>A bishop<\/em>) <em>is a manager of God’s household:<\/em> See 1:11; 2:2-10; 1 Tim 1:4; 3:4-5, 12, 15; 2 Tim 2:20-21. • These qualities indicate that an elder should not be running with the Cretan masses (see Titus 1:12).<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:7 A church leader (or An overseer, or A bishop) is a manager of God’s household: See 1:11; 2:2-10; 1 Tim 1:4; 3:4-5, 12, 15; 2 Tim 2:20-21. • These qualities indicate that an elder should not be running with the Cretan masses (see Titus 1:12).","summary_en":"1:7 A church leader (or An overseer, or A bishop) is a manager of God’s household: See 1:11; 2:2-10; 1 Tim 1:4; 3:4-5, 12, 15; 2 Tim 2:20-21. • These qualities indicate that an elder should not be running with the Cretan masses (see Titus 1:12).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":113910,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Tit 1:7","title_en":"Study Note: Tit 1:7","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:7<\/strong> <em>A church leader<\/em> (or <em>An overseer,<\/em> or <em>A bishop<\/em>) <em>is a manager of God’s household:<\/em> See 1:11; 2:2-10; 1 Tim 1:4; 3:4-5, 12, 15; 2 Tim 2:20-21. • These qualities indicate that an elder should not be running with the Cretan masses (see Titus 1:12).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:7<\/strong> <em>A church leader<\/em> (or <em>An overseer,<\/em> or <em>A bishop<\/em>) <em>is a manager of God’s household:<\/em> See 1:11; 2:2-10; 1 Tim 1:4; 3:4-5, 12, 15; 2 Tim 2:20-21. • These qualities indicate that an elder should not be running with the Cretan masses (see Titus 1:12).<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:7 A church leader (or An overseer, or A bishop) is a manager of God’s household: See 1:11; 2:2-10; 1 Tim 1:4; 3:4-5, 12, 15; 2 Tim 2:20-21. • These qualities indicate that an elder should not be running with the Cretan masses (see Titus 1:12).","summary_en":"1:7 A church leader (or An overseer, or A bishop) is a manager of God’s household: See 1:11; 2:2-10; 1 Tim 1:4; 3:4-5, 12, 15; 2 Tim 2:20-21. • These qualities indicate that an elder should not be running with the Cretan masses (see Titus 1:12).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":141536,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Tit 1:7","title_en":"Study Note: Tit 1:7","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:7<\/strong> <em>A church leader<\/em> (or <em>An overseer,<\/em> or <em>A bishop<\/em>) <em>is a manager of God’s household:<\/em> See 1:11; 2:2-10; 1 Tim 1:4; 3:4-5, 12, 15; 2 Tim 2:20-21. • These qualities indicate that an elder should not be running with the Cretan masses (see Titus 1:12).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:7<\/strong> <em>A church leader<\/em> (or <em>An overseer,<\/em> or <em>A bishop<\/em>) <em>is a manager of God’s household:<\/em> See 1:11; 2:2-10; 1 Tim 1:4; 3:4-5, 12, 15; 2 Tim 2:20-21. • These qualities indicate that an elder should not be running with the Cretan masses (see Titus 1:12).<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:7 A church leader (or An overseer, or A bishop) is a manager of God’s household: See 1:11; 2:2-10; 1 Tim 1:4; 3:4-5, 12, 15; 2 Tim 2:20-21. • These qualities indicate that an elder should not be running with the Cretan masses (see Titus 1:12).","summary_en":"1:7 A church leader (or An overseer, or A bishop) is a manager of God’s household: See 1:11; 2:2-10; 1 Tim 1:4; 3:4-5, 12, 15; 2 Tim 2:20-21. • These qualities indicate that an elder should not be running with the Cretan masses (see Titus 1:12).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":63533,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Anger","title_en":"Anger","content_ro":"<h3>Anger<\/h3>\n<p>Wise people do not fly off the handle in anger. “People with understanding control their anger; a hot temper shows great foolishness” (Prov 14:29). Because anger can cloud judgment, it is vitally important for the wise to reflect on their actions before responding (14:16).<\/p>\n<p>Although the book of Proverbs comments on anger only in a negative light, Scripture does not portray all anger as bad. Many psalms express anger (e.g., Ps 77), and Jesus became angry as he threw the money changers out of the Temple (Mark 11:15-17; John 2:13-16). People must learn to distinguish righteous anger from unrighteous anger, though it is often hard to tell the two apart. Unrighteous anger is only concerned to protect or promote oneself (e.g., Gen 4:3-8; 1 Sam 18:8-9; 1 Kgs 21:3-4; 2 Kgs 5:11; 2 Chr 25:10; Jon 4). Righteous anger reflects God’s hatred of evil and love of justice (e.g., Exod 32; Num 11:1, 10; see also Nah 1:3; Rom 9:22). The wise person reads the circumstances and discerns whether and to what degree to express anger (see also Prov 22:24; Eccl 7:9; Matt 5:22; Rom 12:19; Eph 4:26-27, 31; Jas 1:19-20).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Sam 18:8-11; 1 Kgs 21:3-16; Pss 30:5; 37:8; Prov 12:16; 14:29; 15:1, 18; 16:14; 19:11-12, 19; 22:24-25; 27:4; Eccl 7:9; Nah 1:2-3; Matt 5:22; Eph 4:26-27, 31-32; 1 Tim 2:8; Titus 1:7; Jas 1:19-21<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Anger<\/h3>\n<p>Wise people do not fly off the handle in anger. “People with understanding control their anger; a hot temper shows great foolishness” (Prov 14:29). Because anger can cloud judgment, it is vitally important for the wise to reflect on their actions before responding (14:16).<\/p>\n<p>Although the book of Proverbs comments on anger only in a negative light, Scripture does not portray all anger as bad. Many psalms express anger (e.g., Ps 77), and Jesus became angry as he threw the money changers out of the Temple (Mark 11:15-17; John 2:13-16). People must learn to distinguish righteous anger from unrighteous anger, though it is often hard to tell the two apart. Unrighteous anger is only concerned to protect or promote oneself (e.g., Gen 4:3-8; 1 Sam 18:8-9; 1 Kgs 21:3-4; 2 Kgs 5:11; 2 Chr 25:10; Jon 4). Righteous anger reflects God’s hatred of evil and love of justice (e.g., Exod 32; Num 11:1, 10; see also Nah 1:3; Rom 9:22). The wise person reads the circumstances and discerns whether and to what degree to express anger (see also Prov 22:24; Eccl 7:9; Matt 5:22; Rom 12:19; Eph 4:26-27, 31; Jas 1:19-20).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Sam 18:8-11; 1 Kgs 21:3-16; Pss 30:5; 37:8; Prov 12:16; 14:29; 15:1, 18; 16:14; 19:11-12, 19; 22:24-25; 27:4; Eccl 7:9; Nah 1:2-3; Matt 5:22; Eph 4:26-27, 31-32; 1 Tim 2:8; Titus 1:7; Jas 1:19-21<\/p>","summary_ro":"Anger Wise people do not fly off the handle in anger. “People with understanding control their anger; a hot temper shows great foolishness” (Prov 14:29). Because anger can cloud judgment, it is vitally important for the wise to reflect on their actions before responding (14:16). Although the book of Proverbs comments on anger only in a negative light, Scripture does not portray all anger as bad. Many psalms express anger (e.g., Ps 77), and Jesus became angry as he threw the money changers out...","summary_en":"Anger Wise people do not fly off the handle in anger. “People with understanding control their anger; a hot temper shows great foolishness” (Prov 14:29). Because anger can cloud judgment, it is vitally important for the wise to reflect on their actions before responding (14:16). Although the book of Proverbs comments on anger only in a negative light, Scripture does not portray all anger as bad. Many psalms express anger (e.g., Ps 77), and Jesus became angry as he threw the money changers out...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":91159,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Anger","title_en":"Anger","content_ro":"<h3>Anger<\/h3>\n<p>Wise people do not fly off the handle in anger. “People with understanding control their anger; a hot temper shows great foolishness” (Prov 14:29). Because anger can cloud judgment, it is vitally important for the wise to reflect on their actions before responding (14:16).<\/p>\n<p>Although the book of Proverbs comments on anger only in a negative light, Scripture does not portray all anger as bad. Many psalms express anger (e.g., Ps 77), and Jesus became angry as he threw the money changers out of the Temple (Mark 11:15-17; John 2:13-16). People must learn to distinguish righteous anger from unrighteous anger, though it is often hard to tell the two apart. Unrighteous anger is only concerned to protect or promote oneself (e.g., Gen 4:3-8; 1 Sam 18:8-9; 1 Kgs 21:3-4; 2 Kgs 5:11; 2 Chr 25:10; Jon 4). Righteous anger reflects God’s hatred of evil and love of justice (e.g., Exod 32; Num 11:1, 10; see also Nah 1:3; Rom 9:22). The wise person reads the circumstances and discerns whether and to what degree to express anger (see also Prov 22:24; Eccl 7:9; Matt 5:22; Rom 12:19; Eph 4:26-27, 31; Jas 1:19-20).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Sam 18:8-11; 1 Kgs 21:3-16; Pss 30:5; 37:8; Prov 12:16; 14:29; 15:1, 18; 16:14; 19:11-12, 19; 22:24-25; 27:4; Eccl 7:9; Nah 1:2-3; Matt 5:22; Eph 4:26-27, 31-32; 1 Tim 2:8; Titus 1:7; Jas 1:19-21<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Anger<\/h3>\n<p>Wise people do not fly off the handle in anger. “People with understanding control their anger; a hot temper shows great foolishness” (Prov 14:29). Because anger can cloud judgment, it is vitally important for the wise to reflect on their actions before responding (14:16).<\/p>\n<p>Although the book of Proverbs comments on anger only in a negative light, Scripture does not portray all anger as bad. Many psalms express anger (e.g., Ps 77), and Jesus became angry as he threw the money changers out of the Temple (Mark 11:15-17; John 2:13-16). People must learn to distinguish righteous anger from unrighteous anger, though it is often hard to tell the two apart. Unrighteous anger is only concerned to protect or promote oneself (e.g., Gen 4:3-8; 1 Sam 18:8-9; 1 Kgs 21:3-4; 2 Kgs 5:11; 2 Chr 25:10; Jon 4). Righteous anger reflects God’s hatred of evil and love of justice (e.g., Exod 32; Num 11:1, 10; see also Nah 1:3; Rom 9:22). The wise person reads the circumstances and discerns whether and to what degree to express anger (see also Prov 22:24; Eccl 7:9; Matt 5:22; Rom 12:19; Eph 4:26-27, 31; Jas 1:19-20).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Sam 18:8-11; 1 Kgs 21:3-16; Pss 30:5; 37:8; Prov 12:16; 14:29; 15:1, 18; 16:14; 19:11-12, 19; 22:24-25; 27:4; Eccl 7:9; Nah 1:2-3; Matt 5:22; Eph 4:26-27, 31-32; 1 Tim 2:8; Titus 1:7; Jas 1:19-21<\/p>","summary_ro":"Anger Wise people do not fly off the handle in anger. “People with understanding control their anger; a hot temper shows great foolishness” (Prov 14:29). Because anger can cloud judgment, it is vitally important for the wise to reflect on their actions before responding (14:16). Although the book of Proverbs comments on anger only in a negative light, Scripture does not portray all anger as bad. Many psalms express anger (e.g., Ps 77), and Jesus became angry as he threw the money changers out...","summary_en":"Anger Wise people do not fly off the handle in anger. “People with understanding control their anger; a hot temper shows great foolishness” (Prov 14:29). Because anger can cloud judgment, it is vitally important for the wise to reflect on their actions before responding (14:16). Although the book of Proverbs comments on anger only in a negative light, Scripture does not portray all anger as bad. Many psalms express anger (e.g., Ps 77), and Jesus became angry as he threw the money changers out...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":118785,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Anger","title_en":"Anger","content_ro":"<h3>Anger<\/h3>\n<p>Wise people do not fly off the handle in anger. “People with understanding control their anger; a hot temper shows great foolishness” (Prov 14:29). Because anger can cloud judgment, it is vitally important for the wise to reflect on their actions before responding (14:16).<\/p>\n<p>Although the book of Proverbs comments on anger only in a negative light, Scripture does not portray all anger as bad. Many psalms express anger (e.g., Ps 77), and Jesus became angry as he threw the money changers out of the Temple (Mark 11:15-17; John 2:13-16). People must learn to distinguish righteous anger from unrighteous anger, though it is often hard to tell the two apart. Unrighteous anger is only concerned to protect or promote oneself (e.g., Gen 4:3-8; 1 Sam 18:8-9; 1 Kgs 21:3-4; 2 Kgs 5:11; 2 Chr 25:10; Jon 4). Righteous anger reflects God’s hatred of evil and love of justice (e.g., Exod 32; Num 11:1, 10; see also Nah 1:3; Rom 9:22). The wise person reads the circumstances and discerns whether and to what degree to express anger (see also Prov 22:24; Eccl 7:9; Matt 5:22; Rom 12:19; Eph 4:26-27, 31; Jas 1:19-20).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Sam 18:8-11; 1 Kgs 21:3-16; Pss 30:5; 37:8; Prov 12:16; 14:29; 15:1, 18; 16:14; 19:11-12, 19; 22:24-25; 27:4; Eccl 7:9; Nah 1:2-3; Matt 5:22; Eph 4:26-27, 31-32; 1 Tim 2:8; Titus 1:7; Jas 1:19-21<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Anger<\/h3>\n<p>Wise people do not fly off the handle in anger. “People with understanding control their anger; a hot temper shows great foolishness” (Prov 14:29). Because anger can cloud judgment, it is vitally important for the wise to reflect on their actions before responding (14:16).<\/p>\n<p>Although the book of Proverbs comments on anger only in a negative light, Scripture does not portray all anger as bad. Many psalms express anger (e.g., Ps 77), and Jesus became angry as he threw the money changers out of the Temple (Mark 11:15-17; John 2:13-16). People must learn to distinguish righteous anger from unrighteous anger, though it is often hard to tell the two apart. Unrighteous anger is only concerned to protect or promote oneself (e.g., Gen 4:3-8; 1 Sam 18:8-9; 1 Kgs 21:3-4; 2 Kgs 5:11; 2 Chr 25:10; Jon 4). Righteous anger reflects God’s hatred of evil and love of justice (e.g., Exod 32; Num 11:1, 10; see also Nah 1:3; Rom 9:22). The wise person reads the circumstances and discerns whether and to what degree to express anger (see also Prov 22:24; Eccl 7:9; Matt 5:22; Rom 12:19; Eph 4:26-27, 31; Jas 1:19-20).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Sam 18:8-11; 1 Kgs 21:3-16; Pss 30:5; 37:8; Prov 12:16; 14:29; 15:1, 18; 16:14; 19:11-12, 19; 22:24-25; 27:4; Eccl 7:9; Nah 1:2-3; Matt 5:22; Eph 4:26-27, 31-32; 1 Tim 2:8; Titus 1:7; Jas 1:19-21<\/p>","summary_ro":"Anger Wise people do not fly off the handle in anger. “People with understanding control their anger; a hot temper shows great foolishness” (Prov 14:29). Because anger can cloud judgment, it is vitally important for the wise to reflect on their actions before responding (14:16). Although the book of Proverbs comments on anger only in a negative light, Scripture does not portray all anger as bad. Many psalms express anger (e.g., Ps 77), and Jesus became angry as he threw the money changers out...","summary_en":"Anger Wise people do not fly off the handle in anger. “People with understanding control their anger; a hot temper shows great foolishness” (Prov 14:29). Because anger can cloud judgment, it is vitally important for the wise to reflect on their actions before responding (14:16). Although the book of Proverbs comments on anger only in a negative light, Scripture does not portray all anger as bad. Many psalms express anger (e.g., Ps 77), and Jesus became angry as he threw the money changers out...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":146411,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Anger","title_en":"Anger","content_ro":"<h3>Anger<\/h3>\n<p>Wise people do not fly off the handle in anger. “People with understanding control their anger; a hot temper shows great foolishness” (Prov 14:29). Because anger can cloud judgment, it is vitally important for the wise to reflect on their actions before responding (14:16).<\/p>\n<p>Although the book of Proverbs comments on anger only in a negative light, Scripture does not portray all anger as bad. Many psalms express anger (e.g., Ps 77), and Jesus became angry as he threw the money changers out of the Temple (Mark 11:15-17; John 2:13-16). People must learn to distinguish righteous anger from unrighteous anger, though it is often hard to tell the two apart. Unrighteous anger is only concerned to protect or promote oneself (e.g., Gen 4:3-8; 1 Sam 18:8-9; 1 Kgs 21:3-4; 2 Kgs 5:11; 2 Chr 25:10; Jon 4). Righteous anger reflects God’s hatred of evil and love of justice (e.g., Exod 32; Num 11:1, 10; see also Nah 1:3; Rom 9:22). The wise person reads the circumstances and discerns whether and to what degree to express anger (see also Prov 22:24; Eccl 7:9; Matt 5:22; Rom 12:19; Eph 4:26-27, 31; Jas 1:19-20).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Sam 18:8-11; 1 Kgs 21:3-16; Pss 30:5; 37:8; Prov 12:16; 14:29; 15:1, 18; 16:14; 19:11-12, 19; 22:24-25; 27:4; Eccl 7:9; Nah 1:2-3; Matt 5:22; Eph 4:26-27, 31-32; 1 Tim 2:8; Titus 1:7; Jas 1:19-21<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Anger<\/h3>\n<p>Wise people do not fly off the handle in anger. “People with understanding control their anger; a hot temper shows great foolishness” (Prov 14:29). Because anger can cloud judgment, it is vitally important for the wise to reflect on their actions before responding (14:16).<\/p>\n<p>Although the book of Proverbs comments on anger only in a negative light, Scripture does not portray all anger as bad. Many psalms express anger (e.g., Ps 77), and Jesus became angry as he threw the money changers out of the Temple (Mark 11:15-17; John 2:13-16). People must learn to distinguish righteous anger from unrighteous anger, though it is often hard to tell the two apart. Unrighteous anger is only concerned to protect or promote oneself (e.g., Gen 4:3-8; 1 Sam 18:8-9; 1 Kgs 21:3-4; 2 Kgs 5:11; 2 Chr 25:10; Jon 4). Righteous anger reflects God’s hatred of evil and love of justice (e.g., Exod 32; Num 11:1, 10; see also Nah 1:3; Rom 9:22). The wise person reads the circumstances and discerns whether and to what degree to express anger (see also Prov 22:24; Eccl 7:9; Matt 5:22; Rom 12:19; Eph 4:26-27, 31; Jas 1:19-20).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Sam 18:8-11; 1 Kgs 21:3-16; Pss 30:5; 37:8; Prov 12:16; 14:29; 15:1, 18; 16:14; 19:11-12, 19; 22:24-25; 27:4; Eccl 7:9; Nah 1:2-3; Matt 5:22; Eph 4:26-27, 31-32; 1 Tim 2:8; Titus 1:7; Jas 1:19-21<\/p>","summary_ro":"Anger Wise people do not fly off the handle in anger. “People with understanding control their anger; a hot temper shows great foolishness” (Prov 14:29). Because anger can cloud judgment, it is vitally important for the wise to reflect on their actions before responding (14:16). Although the book of Proverbs comments on anger only in a negative light, Scripture does not portray all anger as bad. Many psalms express anger (e.g., Ps 77), and Jesus became angry as he threw the money changers out...","summary_en":"Anger Wise people do not fly off the handle in anger. “People with understanding control their anger; a hot temper shows great foolishness” (Prov 14:29). Because anger can cloud judgment, it is vitally important for the wise to reflect on their actions before responding (14:16). Although the book of Proverbs comments on anger only in a negative light, Scripture does not portray all anger as bad. Many psalms express anger (e.g., Ps 77), and Jesus became angry as he threw the money changers out...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"8":[{"id":16862,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Hospitality","title_en":"Hospitality","content_ro":"<h3>HOSPITALITY<\/h3>\n<p>Biblical concept often used with the terms “guest,” “stranger,” and “sojourner.” It is useful to limit the meaning of “hospitality” to benevolence done to those outside one’s normal circle of friends, as is implied in the literal meaning of the Greek word meaning “love of strangers.” Although the concept is thoroughly endorsed in the Bible, it is clearly found in nonbiblical cultures as well, especially among the nomadic peoples, where definite obligations to provide food, shelter, and protection are recognized.<\/p>\n<p>The normal exercise of hospitality in the OT can be seen in the examples of Abraham and the three visitors (Gn 18:2-8, 16), Laban’s reception of Abraham’s servant (24:15-61), and Manoah’s treatment of the angel (Jgs 13:15). But there are also cases in which the host felt compelled to take extreme steps to protect his guest, even to the harm of his own family (Gn 19:1-8; Jgs 19:14-24). The hospitality of the Shunammite family is also noteworthy, although Elisha was no stranger to them (2 Kgs 4:10).<\/p>\n<p>According to the NT, Jesus relied on the general practice of hospitality in sending out the disciples (Lk 10:7), as well as in his own travels. As the gospel was spread by traveling missionaries, Christians were commended for entertaining them in their homes (Heb 13:2; 1 Pt 4:9; 3 Jn 1:5-8). Church leaders must not exempt themselves from this ministry (1 Tm 3:2; Ti 1:8); to do so is grounds for judgment (Mt 25:43-46).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Foreigner.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>HOSPITALITY<\/h3>\n<p>Biblical concept often used with the terms “guest,” “stranger,” and “sojourner.” It is useful to limit the meaning of “hospitality” to benevolence done to those outside one’s normal circle of friends, as is implied in the literal meaning of the Greek word meaning “love of strangers.” Although the concept is thoroughly endorsed in the Bible, it is clearly found in nonbiblical cultures as well, especially among the nomadic peoples, where definite obligations to provide food, shelter, and protection are recognized.<\/p>\n<p>The normal exercise of hospitality in the OT can be seen in the examples of Abraham and the three visitors (Gn 18:2-8, 16), Laban’s reception of Abraham’s servant (24:15-61), and Manoah’s treatment of the angel (Jgs 13:15). But there are also cases in which the host felt compelled to take extreme steps to protect his guest, even to the harm of his own family (Gn 19:1-8; Jgs 19:14-24). The hospitality of the Shunammite family is also noteworthy, although Elisha was no stranger to them (2 Kgs 4:10).<\/p>\n<p>According to the NT, Jesus relied on the general practice of hospitality in sending out the disciples (Lk 10:7), as well as in his own travels. As the gospel was spread by traveling missionaries, Christians were commended for entertaining them in their homes (Heb 13:2; 1 Pt 4:9; 3 Jn 1:5-8). Church leaders must not exempt themselves from this ministry (1 Tm 3:2; Ti 1:8); to do so is grounds for judgment (Mt 25:43-46).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Foreigner.<\/p>","summary_ro":"HOSPITALITY Biblical concept often used with the terms “guest,” “stranger,” and “sojourner.” It is useful to limit the meaning of “hospitality” to benevolence done to those outside one’s normal circle of friends, as is implied in the literal meaning of the Greek word meaning “love of strangers.” Although the concept is thoroughly endorsed in the Bible, it is clearly found in nonbiblical cultures as well, especially among the nomadic peoples, where definite obligations to provide food, shelter...","summary_en":"HOSPITALITY Biblical concept often used with the terms “guest,” “stranger,” and “sojourner.” It is useful to limit the meaning of “hospitality” to benevolence done to those outside one’s normal circle of friends, as is implied in the literal meaning of the Greek word meaning “love of strangers.” Although the concept is thoroughly endorsed in the Bible, it is clearly found in nonbiblical cultures as well, especially among the nomadic peoples, where definite obligations to provide food, shelter...","source":"Articles\/H.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"9":[{"id":5147,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Bishop*","title_en":"Bishop*","content_ro":"<h3>BISHOP*<\/h3>\n<p>Official in the church whose qualifications are listed in 1 Timothy 3:2-7 and Titus 1:6-9. The Greek word from which the English title “bishop” and the adjective “episcopal” are derived is often translated in modern versions as “elder,” “overseer,” “shepherd,” or “guardian,” corresponding closely to the current term “pastor.” Jesus is called “the Shepherd and Bishop of your souls” (1 Pt 2:25, <span>kjv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>In the NT, “bishop,” and “elder” refer to the same office, as shown by the apostle Paul’s telling Titus to appoint “elders in every town” and then referring to those same individuals as “bishops” (Ti 1:5, 7). While at Miletus, Paul summoned the elders from the church at Ephesus and then addressed them as “overseers” or “guardians” (Acts 20:17, 28). In his letter to Philippi, Paul greeted the “bishops and deacons” (Phil 1:1). The fact that there were numerous bishops at Philippi, as well as in Ephesus, shows that the episcopal office had not yet developed into what it later became: a single bishop governing one or more churches.<\/p>\n<p>Bishops obviously had positions of authority, but the duties of the office are not clearly defined in the NT. One task was to combat heresy (Ti 1:9) and to teach and expound the Scriptures (1 Tm 3:2). In addition, there is some evidence that a primary concern was with economic matters and the care of the poor, as well as with a general overseeing of the congregation. The lists of qualifications in Paul’s letters to Timothy and Titus indicate that a bishop was considered a leader in the congregation and a representative to the non-Christian world. <em>See<\/em> Elder; Pastor; Presbyter.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>BISHOP*<\/h3>\n<p>Official in the church whose qualifications are listed in 1 Timothy 3:2-7 and Titus 1:6-9. The Greek word from which the English title “bishop” and the adjective “episcopal” are derived is often translated in modern versions as “elder,” “overseer,” “shepherd,” or “guardian,” corresponding closely to the current term “pastor.” Jesus is called “the Shepherd and Bishop of your souls” (1 Pt 2:25, <span>kjv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>In the NT, “bishop,” and “elder” refer to the same office, as shown by the apostle Paul’s telling Titus to appoint “elders in every town” and then referring to those same individuals as “bishops” (Ti 1:5, 7). While at Miletus, Paul summoned the elders from the church at Ephesus and then addressed them as “overseers” or “guardians” (Acts 20:17, 28). In his letter to Philippi, Paul greeted the “bishops and deacons” (Phil 1:1). The fact that there were numerous bishops at Philippi, as well as in Ephesus, shows that the episcopal office had not yet developed into what it later became: a single bishop governing one or more churches.<\/p>\n<p>Bishops obviously had positions of authority, but the duties of the office are not clearly defined in the NT. One task was to combat heresy (Ti 1:9) and to teach and expound the Scriptures (1 Tm 3:2). In addition, there is some evidence that a primary concern was with economic matters and the care of the poor, as well as with a general overseeing of the congregation. The lists of qualifications in Paul’s letters to Timothy and Titus indicate that a bishop was considered a leader in the congregation and a representative to the non-Christian world. <em>See<\/em> Elder; Pastor; Presbyter.<\/p>","summary_ro":"BISHOP* Official in the church whose qualifications are listed in 1 Timothy 3:2-7 and Titus 1:6-9. The Greek word from which the English title “bishop” and the adjective “episcopal” are derived is often translated in modern versions as “elder,” “overseer,” “shepherd,” or “guardian,” corresponding closely to the current term “pastor.” Jesus is called “the Shepherd and Bishop of your souls” (1 Pt 2:25, kjv). In the NT, “bishop,” and “elder” refer to the same office, as shown by the apostle Paul...","summary_en":"BISHOP* Official in the church whose qualifications are listed in 1 Timothy 3:2-7 and Titus 1:6-9. The Greek word from which the English title “bishop” and the adjective “episcopal” are derived is often translated in modern versions as “elder,” “overseer,” “shepherd,” or “guardian,” corresponding closely to the current term “pastor.” Jesus is called “the Shepherd and Bishop of your souls” (1 Pt 2:25, kjv). In the NT, “bishop,” and “elder” refer to the same office, as shown by the apostle Paul...","source":"Articles\/B.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":37456,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Letter to Titus","title_en":"Letter to Titus","content_ro":"<h3>TITUS, Letter to<\/h3>\n<p>Paul’s epistle to his coworker, Titus.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Recipient<\/p>\n<p>• Date<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose and Teaching<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>Though this letter begins with the name and greeting of Paul (Ti 1:1-3), Paul’s authorship has been questioned by modern scholars on the grounds of its language and style, the church situation it presents, and the way that it sets forth Christian teaching. But Pauline authorship has been stoutly defended by eminent scholars and careful students who have argued that there is no reason for supposing that this epistle was written by someone else using Paul’s name, after the apostle himself had died. The differences in this epistle and Paul’s other letters are explained previously in the section on “Author” in the article “Timothy, First Letter to.”<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Recipient\">Recipient<\/p>\n<p>Titus appears to have been one of Paul’s most trusted and valuable coworkers. Paul speaks of him (2 Cor 8:23) as “my partner and coworker.” According to Titus 1:4, he owed his conversion to Paul. It is clear from Galatians 2:1-4 that he was a Gentile, as his was a test case whether gentile Christians should be compelled to be circumcised. At that time Titus was with Paul and Barnabas in Jerusalem. Much later, at the time of Paul’s third missionary journey, he had two delicate missions to carry out for Paul in Corinth: the first pertained to the strained relationship between the apostle and the Corinthian Christians; the second related to the gentile collection for the Jerusalem church (2 Cor 2:12-13; 7:5-16; 8:1-24). If 2 Timothy 4:9-18 was written at the end of Paul’s life, then Titus went to Dalmatia after the time of this letter.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Date\">Date<\/p>\n<p>To date this letter with precision is difficult. Titus was left by the apostle in Crete to continue his work (Ti 1:5). Paul was in Crete briefly on his voyage to Rome (Acts 27:7-13), but that could not have been the occasion referred to. In 3:12 Titus is called to come to Nicopolis (probably the Nicopolis in Epirus in Greece), as Paul had decided to winter there. Many have favored the view that after Paul’s first imprisonment in Rome (Acts 28:16-31) he was released, carried out further ministry in various places (including Spain, Crete, and Greece), and then was arrested, imprisoned a second time, and finally put to death. Those who do not accept Pauline authorship of Titus, date this letter, like 1 and 2 Timothy, in the generation that followed Paul’s death.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeandTeaching\">Purpose and Teaching<\/p>\n<p>Although this letter is addressed to an individual colleague of the apostle, it has a minimum of personal references and exhortations. The growing and developing churches in Crete were Paul’s main concern. They were being bothered by false teachings that appear to have had Jewish elements, ascetic emphases, and a great deal of speculative discussion (Ti 1:10, 14-15: 3:9). In short, it seems that they were dealing with an early Jewish form of Gnosticism. Its advocates promoted this teaching “for base gain” (1:11, <span>rsv<\/span>). Titus and those whom he would appoint as elders were called upon to refute the wrong teaching and to provide the believers with healthy teaching (v 9). Though this healthy teaching is not specified, it must have pertained to the saving grace of God in Christ, the renewing work of the Holy Spirit, and the future coming of the Lord Jesus (2:11-13; 3:4-7). In this letter there is constant emphasis on the lifestyle that bears out the truth of the gospel—with application to different groups in the Christian community: older men and women, young women, young men, and slaves.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Salutation (1:1-4)<\/h5>\n<p>Greetings come from Paul—whose apostleship is described as a stewardship of the gospel that promotes faith and strengthens the knowledge of the truth, hope of eternal life, and godliness of living—to Titus, spoken of as “my true son in our common faith.”<\/p>\n<h5>Titus’s Work in Crete (1:5-9)<\/h5>\n<p>Titus was left behind in Crete to continue Paul’s work and to appoint elders in every church (cf. Acts 14:23). These elders are also called bishops (cf. 20:17, 28)—that is, those with oversight of the church. The necessary qualities of life for these positions are described (cf. 1 Tm 3:2-7).<\/p>\n<h5>Dealing with False Teachings (1:10-16)<\/h5>\n<p>The closing words of the previous section speak about the responsibility of elders “to encourage others with right teaching and show those who oppose it where they are wrong” (<span>nlt<\/span>). The opposers were upsetting people, indeed “whole families,” by teaching what was not true. These false teachers were described by Paul in terms disparaging of Cretans, and as people whose lives do not demonstrate the knowledge of God that they professed to have.<\/p>\n<h5>Promoting Right Teaching (2:1-10)<\/h5>\n<p>Titus had a particular responsibility to “promote the kind of living that reflects right teaching.” He was charged to exhort the older men to exercise self-control (2:2), and he was supposed to teach the older women to live godly lives (v 3). In turn, these women were supposed to train the younger women to live pure and loving lives in their homes so that no one will malign the word of God (vv 4-5). Younger men were to show self-control (v 6), and Titus himself was to be an example in word and life so that the opponents would have nothing bad to say about the Christians (vv 7-8). Finally, in this section slaves are taught to submit to their masters, to give good and honest service with the motivation that “then they will make the teaching about God our Savior attractive in every way” (v 10, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<h5>God’s Grace (2:11-15)<\/h5>\n<p>What has been said leads now to a great statement of the purpose of the revelation of the grace of God in Jesus Christ: to bring salvation to all people, who will make a complete break with godless and sensual living so that they may live upright lives with the constant expectancy of the coming again of “our great God and Savior Jesus Christ.” Their lives will show them to be a people who are God’s very own, always eager to do what is right.<\/p>\n<h5>Doing What Is Good (3:1-8)<\/h5>\n<p>In this section, Paul encourages Titus to tell the Christians at Crete that it is their duty to submit to rulers (cf. Rom 13:1-7; 1 Pt 2:13-17) and to be available in the community for honest work. Again, the quality of lifestyle is emphasized—in particular, courtesy and the desire for peace in relationships with others. This lifestyle comes from spiritual transformation. The means of that transformation is the saving work of Christ—not merited, but entirely of his mercy. He has brought cleansing from sin, “rebirth and renewal by the Holy Spirit.”<\/p>\n<h5>Paul’s Final Remarks and Greetings (3:9-15)<\/h5>\n<p>In this final section, Paul encourages Titus to avoid those who like to debate about religion for the sake of debating. And he tells Titus how to deal with those who cause divisions.<\/p>\n<p>Following this, Paul tells Titus that he will send him Artemas (not mentioned otherwise in the NT) or Tychicus. Then he encourages Titus to take care of Apollos and Zenas if they pass by Crete. Titus himself is supposed to come to Paul in Nicopolis before winter.<\/p>\n<p>The epistle closes with a final exhortation to “good deeds” and to a spiritually fruitful life.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Paul, The Apostle; Timothy, First Letter to; Timothy, Second Letter to; Titus (Person) #1.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>TITUS, Letter to<\/h3>\n<p>Paul’s epistle to his coworker, Titus.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Recipient<\/p>\n<p>• Date<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose and Teaching<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>Though this letter begins with the name and greeting of Paul (Ti 1:1-3), Paul’s authorship has been questioned by modern scholars on the grounds of its language and style, the church situation it presents, and the way that it sets forth Christian teaching. But Pauline authorship has been stoutly defended by eminent scholars and careful students who have argued that there is no reason for supposing that this epistle was written by someone else using Paul’s name, after the apostle himself had died. The differences in this epistle and Paul’s other letters are explained previously in the section on “Author” in the article “Timothy, First Letter to.”<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Recipient\">Recipient<\/p>\n<p>Titus appears to have been one of Paul’s most trusted and valuable coworkers. Paul speaks of him (2 Cor 8:23) as “my partner and coworker.” According to Titus 1:4, he owed his conversion to Paul. It is clear from Galatians 2:1-4 that he was a Gentile, as his was a test case whether gentile Christians should be compelled to be circumcised. At that time Titus was with Paul and Barnabas in Jerusalem. Much later, at the time of Paul’s third missionary journey, he had two delicate missions to carry out for Paul in Corinth: the first pertained to the strained relationship between the apostle and the Corinthian Christians; the second related to the gentile collection for the Jerusalem church (2 Cor 2:12-13; 7:5-16; 8:1-24). If 2 Timothy 4:9-18 was written at the end of Paul’s life, then Titus went to Dalmatia after the time of this letter.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Date\">Date<\/p>\n<p>To date this letter with precision is difficult. Titus was left by the apostle in Crete to continue his work (Ti 1:5). Paul was in Crete briefly on his voyage to Rome (Acts 27:7-13), but that could not have been the occasion referred to. In 3:12 Titus is called to come to Nicopolis (probably the Nicopolis in Epirus in Greece), as Paul had decided to winter there. Many have favored the view that after Paul’s first imprisonment in Rome (Acts 28:16-31) he was released, carried out further ministry in various places (including Spain, Crete, and Greece), and then was arrested, imprisoned a second time, and finally put to death. Those who do not accept Pauline authorship of Titus, date this letter, like 1 and 2 Timothy, in the generation that followed Paul’s death.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeandTeaching\">Purpose and Teaching<\/p>\n<p>Although this letter is addressed to an individual colleague of the apostle, it has a minimum of personal references and exhortations. The growing and developing churches in Crete were Paul’s main concern. They were being bothered by false teachings that appear to have had Jewish elements, ascetic emphases, and a great deal of speculative discussion (Ti 1:10, 14-15: 3:9). In short, it seems that they were dealing with an early Jewish form of Gnosticism. Its advocates promoted this teaching “for base gain” (1:11, <span>rsv<\/span>). Titus and those whom he would appoint as elders were called upon to refute the wrong teaching and to provide the believers with healthy teaching (v 9). Though this healthy teaching is not specified, it must have pertained to the saving grace of God in Christ, the renewing work of the Holy Spirit, and the future coming of the Lord Jesus (2:11-13; 3:4-7). In this letter there is constant emphasis on the lifestyle that bears out the truth of the gospel—with application to different groups in the Christian community: older men and women, young women, young men, and slaves.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Salutation (1:1-4)<\/h5>\n<p>Greetings come from Paul—whose apostleship is described as a stewardship of the gospel that promotes faith and strengthens the knowledge of the truth, hope of eternal life, and godliness of living—to Titus, spoken of as “my true son in our common faith.”<\/p>\n<h5>Titus’s Work in Crete (1:5-9)<\/h5>\n<p>Titus was left behind in Crete to continue Paul’s work and to appoint elders in every church (cf. Acts 14:23). These elders are also called bishops (cf. 20:17, 28)—that is, those with oversight of the church. The necessary qualities of life for these positions are described (cf. 1 Tm 3:2-7).<\/p>\n<h5>Dealing with False Teachings (1:10-16)<\/h5>\n<p>The closing words of the previous section speak about the responsibility of elders “to encourage others with right teaching and show those who oppose it where they are wrong” (<span>nlt<\/span>). The opposers were upsetting people, indeed “whole families,” by teaching what was not true. These false teachers were described by Paul in terms disparaging of Cretans, and as people whose lives do not demonstrate the knowledge of God that they professed to have.<\/p>\n<h5>Promoting Right Teaching (2:1-10)<\/h5>\n<p>Titus had a particular responsibility to “promote the kind of living that reflects right teaching.” He was charged to exhort the older men to exercise self-control (2:2), and he was supposed to teach the older women to live godly lives (v 3). In turn, these women were supposed to train the younger women to live pure and loving lives in their homes so that no one will malign the word of God (vv 4-5). Younger men were to show self-control (v 6), and Titus himself was to be an example in word and life so that the opponents would have nothing bad to say about the Christians (vv 7-8). Finally, in this section slaves are taught to submit to their masters, to give good and honest service with the motivation that “then they will make the teaching about God our Savior attractive in every way” (v 10, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<h5>God’s Grace (2:11-15)<\/h5>\n<p>What has been said leads now to a great statement of the purpose of the revelation of the grace of God in Jesus Christ: to bring salvation to all people, who will make a complete break with godless and sensual living so that they may live upright lives with the constant expectancy of the coming again of “our great God and Savior Jesus Christ.” Their lives will show them to be a people who are God’s very own, always eager to do what is right.<\/p>\n<h5>Doing What Is Good (3:1-8)<\/h5>\n<p>In this section, Paul encourages Titus to tell the Christians at Crete that it is their duty to submit to rulers (cf. Rom 13:1-7; 1 Pt 2:13-17) and to be available in the community for honest work. Again, the quality of lifestyle is emphasized—in particular, courtesy and the desire for peace in relationships with others. This lifestyle comes from spiritual transformation. The means of that transformation is the saving work of Christ—not merited, but entirely of his mercy. He has brought cleansing from sin, “rebirth and renewal by the Holy Spirit.”<\/p>\n<h5>Paul’s Final Remarks and Greetings (3:9-15)<\/h5>\n<p>In this final section, Paul encourages Titus to avoid those who like to debate about religion for the sake of debating. And he tells Titus how to deal with those who cause divisions.<\/p>\n<p>Following this, Paul tells Titus that he will send him Artemas (not mentioned otherwise in the NT) or Tychicus. Then he encourages Titus to take care of Apollos and Zenas if they pass by Crete. Titus himself is supposed to come to Paul in Nicopolis before winter.<\/p>\n<p>The epistle closes with a final exhortation to “good deeds” and to a spiritually fruitful life.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Paul, The Apostle; Timothy, First Letter to; Timothy, Second Letter to; Titus (Person) #1.<\/p>","summary_ro":"TITUS, Letter to Paul’s epistle to his coworker, Titus. Preview • Author • Recipient • Date • Purpose and Teaching • Content Author Though this letter begins with the name and greeting of Paul (Ti 1:1-3), Paul’s authorship has been questioned by modern scholars on the grounds of its language and style, the church situation it presents, and the way that it sets forth Christian teaching. But Pauline authorship has been stoutly defended by eminent scholars and careful students who have argued th...","summary_en":"TITUS, Letter to Paul’s epistle to his coworker, Titus. Preview • Author • Recipient • Date • Purpose and Teaching • Content Author Though this letter begins with the name and greeting of Paul (Ti 1:1-3), Paul’s authorship has been questioned by modern scholars on the grounds of its language and style, the church situation it presents, and the way that it sets forth Christian teaching. But Pauline authorship has been stoutly defended by eminent scholars and careful students who have argued th...","source":"Articles\/T.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":58659,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Tit 1:9","title_en":"Study Note: Tit 1:9","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:9<\/strong> The elders had a leading role in teaching the community. This may have been necessary in dealing with the immediate threat to these particular communities (as also in Ephesus; see 1 Tim 3:1). • Only with <em>a strong belief<\/em> in the Good News would an elder <em>be able to<\/em> provide <em>wholesome teaching<\/em>. Paul’s specific concerns are addressed in Titus 2:1–3:11, in light of the problems mentioned in 1:10-16 and 3:9-11 (see also 1 Tim 1:10). • Titus had a similar role (cp. Titus 1:13; 2:15; 3:10-11). The local leadership would carry on where Paul and his delegates left off. • <em>Those who oppose it<\/em> are described in 1:10-16.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:9<\/strong> The elders had a leading role in teaching the community. This may have been necessary in dealing with the immediate threat to these particular communities (as also in Ephesus; see 1 Tim 3:1). • Only with <em>a strong belief<\/em> in the Good News would an elder <em>be able to<\/em> provide <em>wholesome teaching<\/em>. Paul’s specific concerns are addressed in Titus 2:1–3:11, in light of the problems mentioned in 1:10-16 and 3:9-11 (see also 1 Tim 1:10). • Titus had a similar role (cp. Titus 1:13; 2:15; 3:10-11). The local leadership would carry on where Paul and his delegates left off. • <em>Those who oppose it<\/em> are described in 1:10-16.<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:9 The elders had a leading role in teaching the community. This may have been necessary in dealing with the immediate threat to these particular communities (as also in Ephesus; see 1 Tim 3:1). • Only with a strong belief in the Good News would an elder be able to provide wholesome teaching. Paul’s specific concerns are addressed in Titus 2:1–3:11, in light of the problems mentioned in 1:10-16 and 3:9-11 (see also 1 Tim 1:10). • Titus had a similar role (cp. Titus 1:13; 2:15; 3:10-11). The ...","summary_en":"1:9 The elders had a leading role in teaching the community. This may have been necessary in dealing with the immediate threat to these particular communities (as also in Ephesus; see 1 Tim 3:1). • Only with a strong belief in the Good News would an elder be able to provide wholesome teaching. Paul’s specific concerns are addressed in Titus 2:1–3:11, in light of the problems mentioned in 1:10-16 and 3:9-11 (see also 1 Tim 1:10). • Titus had a similar role (cp. Titus 1:13; 2:15; 3:10-11). The ...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":86285,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Tit 1:9","title_en":"Study Note: Tit 1:9","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:9<\/strong> The elders had a leading role in teaching the community. This may have been necessary in dealing with the immediate threat to these particular communities (as also in Ephesus; see 1 Tim 3:1). • Only with <em>a strong belief<\/em> in the Good News would an elder <em>be able to<\/em> provide <em>wholesome teaching<\/em>. Paul’s specific concerns are addressed in Titus 2:1–3:11, in light of the problems mentioned in 1:10-16 and 3:9-11 (see also 1 Tim 1:10). • Titus had a similar role (cp. Titus 1:13; 2:15; 3:10-11). The local leadership would carry on where Paul and his delegates left off. • <em>Those who oppose it<\/em> are described in 1:10-16.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:9<\/strong> The elders had a leading role in teaching the community. This may have been necessary in dealing with the immediate threat to these particular communities (as also in Ephesus; see 1 Tim 3:1). • Only with <em>a strong belief<\/em> in the Good News would an elder <em>be able to<\/em> provide <em>wholesome teaching<\/em>. Paul’s specific concerns are addressed in Titus 2:1–3:11, in light of the problems mentioned in 1:10-16 and 3:9-11 (see also 1 Tim 1:10). • Titus had a similar role (cp. Titus 1:13; 2:15; 3:10-11). The local leadership would carry on where Paul and his delegates left off. • <em>Those who oppose it<\/em> are described in 1:10-16.<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:9 The elders had a leading role in teaching the community. This may have been necessary in dealing with the immediate threat to these particular communities (as also in Ephesus; see 1 Tim 3:1). • Only with a strong belief in the Good News would an elder be able to provide wholesome teaching. Paul’s specific concerns are addressed in Titus 2:1–3:11, in light of the problems mentioned in 1:10-16 and 3:9-11 (see also 1 Tim 1:10). • Titus had a similar role (cp. Titus 1:13; 2:15; 3:10-11). The ...","summary_en":"1:9 The elders had a leading role in teaching the community. This may have been necessary in dealing with the immediate threat to these particular communities (as also in Ephesus; see 1 Tim 3:1). • Only with a strong belief in the Good News would an elder be able to provide wholesome teaching. Paul’s specific concerns are addressed in Titus 2:1–3:11, in light of the problems mentioned in 1:10-16 and 3:9-11 (see also 1 Tim 1:10). • Titus had a similar role (cp. Titus 1:13; 2:15; 3:10-11). The ...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":113911,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Tit 1:9","title_en":"Study Note: Tit 1:9","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:9<\/strong> The elders had a leading role in teaching the community. This may have been necessary in dealing with the immediate threat to these particular communities (as also in Ephesus; see 1 Tim 3:1). • Only with <em>a strong belief<\/em> in the Good News would an elder <em>be able to<\/em> provide <em>wholesome teaching<\/em>. Paul’s specific concerns are addressed in Titus 2:1–3:11, in light of the problems mentioned in 1:10-16 and 3:9-11 (see also 1 Tim 1:10). • Titus had a similar role (cp. Titus 1:13; 2:15; 3:10-11). The local leadership would carry on where Paul and his delegates left off. • <em>Those who oppose it<\/em> are described in 1:10-16.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:9<\/strong> The elders had a leading role in teaching the community. This may have been necessary in dealing with the immediate threat to these particular communities (as also in Ephesus; see 1 Tim 3:1). • Only with <em>a strong belief<\/em> in the Good News would an elder <em>be able to<\/em> provide <em>wholesome teaching<\/em>. Paul’s specific concerns are addressed in Titus 2:1–3:11, in light of the problems mentioned in 1:10-16 and 3:9-11 (see also 1 Tim 1:10). • Titus had a similar role (cp. Titus 1:13; 2:15; 3:10-11). The local leadership would carry on where Paul and his delegates left off. • <em>Those who oppose it<\/em> are described in 1:10-16.<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:9 The elders had a leading role in teaching the community. This may have been necessary in dealing with the immediate threat to these particular communities (as also in Ephesus; see 1 Tim 3:1). • Only with a strong belief in the Good News would an elder be able to provide wholesome teaching. Paul’s specific concerns are addressed in Titus 2:1–3:11, in light of the problems mentioned in 1:10-16 and 3:9-11 (see also 1 Tim 1:10). • Titus had a similar role (cp. Titus 1:13; 2:15; 3:10-11). The ...","summary_en":"1:9 The elders had a leading role in teaching the community. This may have been necessary in dealing with the immediate threat to these particular communities (as also in Ephesus; see 1 Tim 3:1). • Only with a strong belief in the Good News would an elder be able to provide wholesome teaching. Paul’s specific concerns are addressed in Titus 2:1–3:11, in light of the problems mentioned in 1:10-16 and 3:9-11 (see also 1 Tim 1:10). • Titus had a similar role (cp. Titus 1:13; 2:15; 3:10-11). The ...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":141537,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Tit 1:9","title_en":"Study Note: Tit 1:9","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:9<\/strong> The elders had a leading role in teaching the community. This may have been necessary in dealing with the immediate threat to these particular communities (as also in Ephesus; see 1 Tim 3:1). • Only with <em>a strong belief<\/em> in the Good News would an elder <em>be able to<\/em> provide <em>wholesome teaching<\/em>. Paul’s specific concerns are addressed in Titus 2:1–3:11, in light of the problems mentioned in 1:10-16 and 3:9-11 (see also 1 Tim 1:10). • Titus had a similar role (cp. Titus 1:13; 2:15; 3:10-11). The local leadership would carry on where Paul and his delegates left off. • <em>Those who oppose it<\/em> are described in 1:10-16.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:9<\/strong> The elders had a leading role in teaching the community. This may have been necessary in dealing with the immediate threat to these particular communities (as also in Ephesus; see 1 Tim 3:1). • Only with <em>a strong belief<\/em> in the Good News would an elder <em>be able to<\/em> provide <em>wholesome teaching<\/em>. Paul’s specific concerns are addressed in Titus 2:1–3:11, in light of the problems mentioned in 1:10-16 and 3:9-11 (see also 1 Tim 1:10). • Titus had a similar role (cp. Titus 1:13; 2:15; 3:10-11). The local leadership would carry on where Paul and his delegates left off. • <em>Those who oppose it<\/em> are described in 1:10-16.<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:9 The elders had a leading role in teaching the community. This may have been necessary in dealing with the immediate threat to these particular communities (as also in Ephesus; see 1 Tim 3:1). • Only with a strong belief in the Good News would an elder be able to provide wholesome teaching. Paul’s specific concerns are addressed in Titus 2:1–3:11, in light of the problems mentioned in 1:10-16 and 3:9-11 (see also 1 Tim 1:10). • Titus had a similar role (cp. Titus 1:13; 2:15; 3:10-11). The ...","summary_en":"1:9 The elders had a leading role in teaching the community. This may have been necessary in dealing with the immediate threat to these particular communities (as also in Ephesus; see 1 Tim 3:1). • Only with a strong belief in the Good News would an elder be able to provide wholesome teaching. Paul’s specific concerns are addressed in Titus 2:1–3:11, in light of the problems mentioned in 1:10-16 and 3:9-11 (see also 1 Tim 1:10). • Titus had a similar role (cp. Titus 1:13; 2:15; 3:10-11). The ...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"10":[{"id":6689,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Circumcision","title_en":"Circumcision","content_ro":"<h3>CIRCUMCISION<\/h3>\n<p>Surgical removal of the foreskin of the male reproductive organ. In Bible times circumcision was the seal of God’s covenant with Abraham (Gn 17:1-14). While circumcision originated as an ancient tribal or religious rite, since the early part of this century it has been practiced in Western nations for hygienic purposes. Many physicians believe that circumcision helps prevent genital cancers in both men and their wives, so that this minor operation is performed a few days after birth on nearly all newborn males in North America. Outside of Judaism the procedure no longer carries religious significance.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Circumcision in the Ancient World<\/p>\n<p>• Circumcision in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>• Circumcision in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CircumcisionintheAncientWorld\">Circumcision in the Ancient World<\/p>\n<p>The rite of circumcision is far older than the Hebrew people. Cave paintings give evidence that it was practiced in prehistoric times. Egyptian temple drawings show that the operation was common in 4000 <span>BC<\/span> and probably earlier. Peoples practicing circumcision lived on almost every continent. The rite was observed among Central and South American Indians, Polynesians, the peoples of New Guinea, many Australian and African tribes, Egyptians, and pre-Islamic Arabs. The rite is not mentioned in the Koran, but because Muhammad was circumcised, tradition dictates that male Muslims follow the ancient custom. Arab ancestry is traced to Abraham through Ishmael (Gn 17:20), so a common age for Muslim circumcisions is 13, because Ishmael was circumcised at that age (v 25).<\/p>\n<p>Among the West Semitic people, the Ammonites, Edomites, Midianites, Moabites, and Phoenicians all practiced circumcision (Jer 9:25-26). The Philistines, however, did not (Jgs 14:3; 15:18; 1 Sm 14:6; 17:26, 36; 18:25, 27; 31:4; 2 Sm 1:20; 3:14; 1 Chr 10:4).<\/p>\n<p>Young men were usually circumcised at puberty, evidently in preparation for marriage and entrance into full tribal responsibilities. The Hebrews were the only ancient practitioners of circumcision to observe the rite in infancy, thus freeing it from association with fertility rituals.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CircumcisionintheOldTestament\">Circumcision in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>In the Bible the practice of circumcision began in Genesis 17 as a sign of the covenant between God and Abraham. God promised Abraham a land and, through a son yet to be conceived, numerous descendants, from whom kings would come. Blessings would come upon Abraham and through him to all nations (Gn 12:1-3). After the covenant was formally inaugurated (ch 15), God sealed it, ordering Abraham to be circumcised along with all the males in his household (17:9-13).<\/p>\n<p>Circumcision was to be an expression of faith that God’s promises would be realized. Because Abraham’s faith had lapsed (Gn 16) even after he had seen the awesome display of God’s majesty (15:9-17), a permanent reminder of God’s covenant promises was placed on his body and the bodies of his male descendants (17:11). This sign was so closely related to God’s covenant promise that the rite itself could be termed the “covenant” (Gn 17:10; Acts 7:8).<\/p>\n<p>Circumcision was to be performed on the eighth day after birth (Gn 17:12; Lv 12:1-3; see Gn 21:4; Lk 1:59; 2:21; Acts 7:8; Phil 3:5), customarily by the boy’s father (Gn 17:23; 21:4; Acts 7:8), at which time a name would be given (Lk 1:59; 2:21). Flint knives were used in the early days (Ex 4:25; Jos 5:2-3). Later, the rite was carried out by a trained practitioner called a <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">mohel<\/span><em>.<\/em> Medical research has determined that prothrombin, a substance in the blood that aids in clotting, is present in greater quantity on the eighth day than at any other time in life.<\/p>\n<h5>Theological Meaning<\/h5>\n<p>Circumcision had to do with the fulfillment of God’s promise concerning Abraham’s descendants (Gn 17:9-12). Because it was applied to the reproductive organ, the sign involved the propagation of the race. Its application to the eight-day-old infant demonstrates the gracious character of God’s promise to Abraham’s descendants and indicates that God’s people are in need of cleansing grace from birth (Lv 12:1-3). The promises of the covenant were reaffirmed to each generation before the recipients were able to respond in either faith or unbelief; nothing in the hearts of the chosen people could either bring about or thwart the ultimate fulfillment of the promises given to Abraham and his posterity.<\/p>\n<p>Circumcision also had to do with the fulfillment of God’s promise concerning the land (Gn 17:8). The land was God’s holy possession, and the Israelites had to be holy to possess it. When Joseph and his descendants were in Egypt, they continued to circumcise their sons. But following the great sin at Mt Sinai after the exodus, the unbelieving Israelites failed to place the covenant sign upon their children as they wandered in the wilderness. Because the new generation had not been circumcised, the people were unprepared to enter the Promised Land. Therefore, God ordered Joshua to circumcise the men of Israel. The people’s obedient response was an act of faith, since the armies of the enemy were camped nearby as the Israelite warriors lay incapacitated by the surgery (Jos 5:2-9).<\/p>\n<p>From the beginning, participation in the covenant promises was open to persons outside Abraham’s household (Gn 17:12-13). Exodus 12:43-49 gives non-Israelites the opportunity to participate in the Passover if they are willing to fulfill the same stipulation placed upon the Jews—that of circumcision.<\/p>\n<p>The provision for admission to God’s people by reception of the covenant sign was abused by Jacob’s sons when circumcision was made a precondition for intermarriage with the Shechemites. While the Shechemites were disabled by their wounds, Simeon and Levi killed them, plundering the city to exact retribution for the rape of their sister Dinah (Gn 34).<\/p>\n<p>The sign of the covenant was not to be treated lightly. The penalty of excommunication rested upon the uncircumcised (Gn 17:14). The strange incident recorded in Exodus 4:24-26 seems to have been God’s reminder to Moses of the stipulations of the covenant made with Abraham. Moses had proved an unfaithful servant of the Lord by neglecting to circumcise his son but was rescued from judgment when his wife Zipporah took a flint rock and circumcised the boy, throwing the bloody foreskin at her husband’s feet.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CircumcisionintheNewTestament\">Circumcision in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>John the Baptist was circumcised, as were Jesus and Paul (Lk 1:59; 2:21; Phil 3:5). Jesus recognized the cleansing significance of circumcision (Jn 7:22-23), contrasting the rite with his healing ministry that made a man completely well and therefore ceremonially “clean.” Just before he was stoned, Stephen referred to the covenant of circumcision, charging that his Jewish accusers, like their ancestors, were stiff-necked and uncircumcised in heart and ears, always resisting the Holy Spirit (Acts 7:8, 51).<\/p>\n<p>For a time the first Christians continued to participate in the Jewish rites and customs, even attending the services of the temple (Acts 3:1; 5:21, 42). As Gentiles came to Christ, controversy arose between those who said that participation in the covenant community required circumcision and those who believed the rite was unnecessary. It was argued that since the covenant promise of the Messiah was given to the Jews, Gentiles must first be circumcised and become Jews before they could receive salvation in Christ.<\/p>\n<p>In the time of Christ, many Jews misunderstood the significance of circumcision, believing that the physical act was necessary for and a guarantee of salvation. Thus for Jews the observance became not only a symbol of religious privilege but also a source of racial pride (Phil 3:4-6). These Jews associated the ceremony with the Mosaic law rather than the promise to Abraham (Jn 7:22; Acts 15:1). Because Greeks and Romans did not practice circumcision, Jews had come to be called “the circumcision” (<span>kjv<\/span> Acts 10:45; 11:2; Rom 15:8; Gal 2:7-9; Eph 2:11; Ti 1:10), and following OT practice (Ez 28:10; 31:18; 32:19-32), Gentiles were termed “the uncircumcision” (<span>kjv<\/span> Gal 2:7; Eph 2:11).<\/p>\n<p>While visiting Caesarea, Jewish believers were amazed to realize that uncircumcised Gentiles received the purifying gift of the Holy Spirit (Acts 10:44-48). Moses had promised that God would circumcise the hearts of his people to love the Lord with heart and soul (Dt 30:6), and Ezekiel had prophesied that the Lord would sprinkle clean water on his people, giving them a new heart and putting his Spirit within them (Ez 36:25-27). As these Jewish believers saw the prophecy that God would pour out his Spirit upon all flesh (Jl 2:28; Acts 2:17) being fulfilled, they realized that the inward reality symbolized by circumcision could be accomplished without the physical sign. Thus, the gentile believers were immediately baptized.<\/p>\n<p>Not all the Jewish believers were immediately willing to accept Gentiles into the church. When Peter returned to Jerusalem after his visit to Caesarea, “the circumcision party” criticized him. But after telling how the Spirit had fallen upon the Gentiles, Peter declared that he could not stand against God. At this the Jewish believers were silenced and glorified God that repentance unto life had been granted to Gentiles (Acts 11:1-3, 15:8).<\/p>\n<p>Certain “Judaizers” of the Pharisaic party taught the Christians in Antioch that circumcision was necessary for salvation (Acts 15:1, 5). After debating these persons, Paul and Barnabas went to Jerusalem to consult with the other apostles and elders (v 2). Peter argued that God had given the Spirit to Gentiles and “cleansed their hearts by faith,” affirming that “we believe that we shall be saved through the grace of the Lord Jesus, just as they will” (vv 8-9, 11, <span>rsv<\/span>). Therefore, James and the other Jerusalem leaders agreed that circumcision should not be imposed on the Gentiles (vv 13-21).<\/p>\n<p>It was decided that Peter, James, and John would be entrusted with the gospel to “the circumcised,” while Paul and Barnabas would preach to “the uncircumcised” (Gal 2:7-9). Because of his evangelistic policy to be “all things to all people” with respect to spiritually indifferent matters of custom (1 Cor 9:19-23), Paul had Timothy circumcised. Timothy was reckoned by Jews as one of their race because his mother was Jewish (Acts 16:1-2). But Paul resisted attempts to have Titus circumcised, since he was a Gentile (Gal 2:3). Paul apparently allowed Jewish believers to circumcise their sons (Acts 21:21).<\/p>\n<p>Yet Paul charged that those who argued that the Galatian Christians must be circumcised and keep the law did not keep it themselves but wanted to boast in the Galatians’ flesh and avoid persecution for the cross of Christ (Gal 6:12-13)—persecution Paul was willing to bear (5:11). Granting for the sake of argument the Pharisaic assumption that salvation could be merited by keeping the law, Paul declared that those who received circumcision must obey every other Jewish law (vv 2-3). Christ would be “of no advantage” to those who “would be justified by the law”; this attempt at works righteousness would evidence that the Galatians were “severed from Christ,” having “fallen from grace” (vv 2-4). These Christians were being tempted to turn to “a different gospel” (1:6-7).<\/p>\n<p>Because of the serious threat the Judaizers posed to the gospel of free grace, Paul wished that those who unsettled the Galatians would “mutilate themselves” (Gal 5:12). He termed the Judaizers “dogs” and “evil workers” (<span>kjv<\/span> “concision”), asserting that Christians are “the true circumcision,” because they worship God in spirit and glory in Christ Jesus, putting no confidence in human works to merit salvation (Phil 3:2-3).<\/p>\n<p>Paul taught that circumcision was indeed of value to Jews, for it was the sign that to them had been committed the “oracles of God,” that is, God’s word concerning the promise of salvation (Rom 3:1-3). He reminded the prideful Ephesians that as Gentiles they had once been “strangers to the covenants of promise,” not bearing the covenant sign in their flesh (Eph 2:11-12; see Col 2:13). Likewise, Jews had no cause for pride, for disobedience could cause outward circumcision to be counted as uncircumcision (Rom 2:25).<\/p>\n<p>Paul and the other apostles followed Moses and the OT prophets in teaching that true circumcision was a matter of the heart. The teaching of the NT goes further to affirm that a faithful believer, though physically uncircumcised, is regarded by God as circumcised, “for he is not a real Jew who is one outwardly, nor is true circumcision something external and physical” (Rom 2:28, <span>rsv<\/span>). Both Jews and Gentiles are saved by grace (Acts 15:11), and circumcised and uncircumcised alike are justified on the ground of their faith, apart from works of the law (Rom 3:28-30).<\/p>\n<p>Abraham served as an example of a person whose faith was reckoned to him as righteousness (Rom 4:3; see Gn 15:6). Paul argued that both Gentiles and Jews are justified by faith, because Abraham was accounted righteous before he was circumcised. Abraham did not receive circumcision to obtain righteousness, but as a sign or seal of the righteousness that he had by faith while he was still uncircumcised. Thus, Abraham is the father of all who believe without being circumcised, as well as those who are circumcised but also follow the example of Abraham’s faith (Rom 4:9-12; see Gal 3:6-9).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Baptism; Cleanness and Uncleanness, Regulations Concerning; Uncircumcision.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>CIRCUMCISION<\/h3>\n<p>Surgical removal of the foreskin of the male reproductive organ. In Bible times circumcision was the seal of God’s covenant with Abraham (Gn 17:1-14). While circumcision originated as an ancient tribal or religious rite, since the early part of this century it has been practiced in Western nations for hygienic purposes. Many physicians believe that circumcision helps prevent genital cancers in both men and their wives, so that this minor operation is performed a few days after birth on nearly all newborn males in North America. Outside of Judaism the procedure no longer carries religious significance.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Circumcision in the Ancient World<\/p>\n<p>• Circumcision in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>• Circumcision in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CircumcisionintheAncientWorld\">Circumcision in the Ancient World<\/p>\n<p>The rite of circumcision is far older than the Hebrew people. Cave paintings give evidence that it was practiced in prehistoric times. Egyptian temple drawings show that the operation was common in 4000 <span>BC<\/span> and probably earlier. Peoples practicing circumcision lived on almost every continent. The rite was observed among Central and South American Indians, Polynesians, the peoples of New Guinea, many Australian and African tribes, Egyptians, and pre-Islamic Arabs. The rite is not mentioned in the Koran, but because Muhammad was circumcised, tradition dictates that male Muslims follow the ancient custom. Arab ancestry is traced to Abraham through Ishmael (Gn 17:20), so a common age for Muslim circumcisions is 13, because Ishmael was circumcised at that age (v 25).<\/p>\n<p>Among the West Semitic people, the Ammonites, Edomites, Midianites, Moabites, and Phoenicians all practiced circumcision (Jer 9:25-26). The Philistines, however, did not (Jgs 14:3; 15:18; 1 Sm 14:6; 17:26, 36; 18:25, 27; 31:4; 2 Sm 1:20; 3:14; 1 Chr 10:4).<\/p>\n<p>Young men were usually circumcised at puberty, evidently in preparation for marriage and entrance into full tribal responsibilities. The Hebrews were the only ancient practitioners of circumcision to observe the rite in infancy, thus freeing it from association with fertility rituals.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CircumcisionintheOldTestament\">Circumcision in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>In the Bible the practice of circumcision began in Genesis 17 as a sign of the covenant between God and Abraham. God promised Abraham a land and, through a son yet to be conceived, numerous descendants, from whom kings would come. Blessings would come upon Abraham and through him to all nations (Gn 12:1-3). After the covenant was formally inaugurated (ch 15), God sealed it, ordering Abraham to be circumcised along with all the males in his household (17:9-13).<\/p>\n<p>Circumcision was to be an expression of faith that God’s promises would be realized. Because Abraham’s faith had lapsed (Gn 16) even after he had seen the awesome display of God’s majesty (15:9-17), a permanent reminder of God’s covenant promises was placed on his body and the bodies of his male descendants (17:11). This sign was so closely related to God’s covenant promise that the rite itself could be termed the “covenant” (Gn 17:10; Acts 7:8).<\/p>\n<p>Circumcision was to be performed on the eighth day after birth (Gn 17:12; Lv 12:1-3; see Gn 21:4; Lk 1:59; 2:21; Acts 7:8; Phil 3:5), customarily by the boy’s father (Gn 17:23; 21:4; Acts 7:8), at which time a name would be given (Lk 1:59; 2:21). Flint knives were used in the early days (Ex 4:25; Jos 5:2-3). Later, the rite was carried out by a trained practitioner called a <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">mohel<\/span><em>.<\/em> Medical research has determined that prothrombin, a substance in the blood that aids in clotting, is present in greater quantity on the eighth day than at any other time in life.<\/p>\n<h5>Theological Meaning<\/h5>\n<p>Circumcision had to do with the fulfillment of God’s promise concerning Abraham’s descendants (Gn 17:9-12). Because it was applied to the reproductive organ, the sign involved the propagation of the race. Its application to the eight-day-old infant demonstrates the gracious character of God’s promise to Abraham’s descendants and indicates that God’s people are in need of cleansing grace from birth (Lv 12:1-3). The promises of the covenant were reaffirmed to each generation before the recipients were able to respond in either faith or unbelief; nothing in the hearts of the chosen people could either bring about or thwart the ultimate fulfillment of the promises given to Abraham and his posterity.<\/p>\n<p>Circumcision also had to do with the fulfillment of God’s promise concerning the land (Gn 17:8). The land was God’s holy possession, and the Israelites had to be holy to possess it. When Joseph and his descendants were in Egypt, they continued to circumcise their sons. But following the great sin at Mt Sinai after the exodus, the unbelieving Israelites failed to place the covenant sign upon their children as they wandered in the wilderness. Because the new generation had not been circumcised, the people were unprepared to enter the Promised Land. Therefore, God ordered Joshua to circumcise the men of Israel. The people’s obedient response was an act of faith, since the armies of the enemy were camped nearby as the Israelite warriors lay incapacitated by the surgery (Jos 5:2-9).<\/p>\n<p>From the beginning, participation in the covenant promises was open to persons outside Abraham’s household (Gn 17:12-13). Exodus 12:43-49 gives non-Israelites the opportunity to participate in the Passover if they are willing to fulfill the same stipulation placed upon the Jews—that of circumcision.<\/p>\n<p>The provision for admission to God’s people by reception of the covenant sign was abused by Jacob’s sons when circumcision was made a precondition for intermarriage with the Shechemites. While the Shechemites were disabled by their wounds, Simeon and Levi killed them, plundering the city to exact retribution for the rape of their sister Dinah (Gn 34).<\/p>\n<p>The sign of the covenant was not to be treated lightly. The penalty of excommunication rested upon the uncircumcised (Gn 17:14). The strange incident recorded in Exodus 4:24-26 seems to have been God’s reminder to Moses of the stipulations of the covenant made with Abraham. Moses had proved an unfaithful servant of the Lord by neglecting to circumcise his son but was rescued from judgment when his wife Zipporah took a flint rock and circumcised the boy, throwing the bloody foreskin at her husband’s feet.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CircumcisionintheNewTestament\">Circumcision in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>John the Baptist was circumcised, as were Jesus and Paul (Lk 1:59; 2:21; Phil 3:5). Jesus recognized the cleansing significance of circumcision (Jn 7:22-23), contrasting the rite with his healing ministry that made a man completely well and therefore ceremonially “clean.” Just before he was stoned, Stephen referred to the covenant of circumcision, charging that his Jewish accusers, like their ancestors, were stiff-necked and uncircumcised in heart and ears, always resisting the Holy Spirit (Acts 7:8, 51).<\/p>\n<p>For a time the first Christians continued to participate in the Jewish rites and customs, even attending the services of the temple (Acts 3:1; 5:21, 42). As Gentiles came to Christ, controversy arose between those who said that participation in the covenant community required circumcision and those who believed the rite was unnecessary. It was argued that since the covenant promise of the Messiah was given to the Jews, Gentiles must first be circumcised and become Jews before they could receive salvation in Christ.<\/p>\n<p>In the time of Christ, many Jews misunderstood the significance of circumcision, believing that the physical act was necessary for and a guarantee of salvation. Thus for Jews the observance became not only a symbol of religious privilege but also a source of racial pride (Phil 3:4-6). These Jews associated the ceremony with the Mosaic law rather than the promise to Abraham (Jn 7:22; Acts 15:1). Because Greeks and Romans did not practice circumcision, Jews had come to be called “the circumcision” (<span>kjv<\/span> Acts 10:45; 11:2; Rom 15:8; Gal 2:7-9; Eph 2:11; Ti 1:10), and following OT practice (Ez 28:10; 31:18; 32:19-32), Gentiles were termed “the uncircumcision” (<span>kjv<\/span> Gal 2:7; Eph 2:11).<\/p>\n<p>While visiting Caesarea, Jewish believers were amazed to realize that uncircumcised Gentiles received the purifying gift of the Holy Spirit (Acts 10:44-48). Moses had promised that God would circumcise the hearts of his people to love the Lord with heart and soul (Dt 30:6), and Ezekiel had prophesied that the Lord would sprinkle clean water on his people, giving them a new heart and putting his Spirit within them (Ez 36:25-27). As these Jewish believers saw the prophecy that God would pour out his Spirit upon all flesh (Jl 2:28; Acts 2:17) being fulfilled, they realized that the inward reality symbolized by circumcision could be accomplished without the physical sign. Thus, the gentile believers were immediately baptized.<\/p>\n<p>Not all the Jewish believers were immediately willing to accept Gentiles into the church. When Peter returned to Jerusalem after his visit to Caesarea, “the circumcision party” criticized him. But after telling how the Spirit had fallen upon the Gentiles, Peter declared that he could not stand against God. At this the Jewish believers were silenced and glorified God that repentance unto life had been granted to Gentiles (Acts 11:1-3, 15:8).<\/p>\n<p>Certain “Judaizers” of the Pharisaic party taught the Christians in Antioch that circumcision was necessary for salvation (Acts 15:1, 5). After debating these persons, Paul and Barnabas went to Jerusalem to consult with the other apostles and elders (v 2). Peter argued that God had given the Spirit to Gentiles and “cleansed their hearts by faith,” affirming that “we believe that we shall be saved through the grace of the Lord Jesus, just as they will” (vv 8-9, 11, <span>rsv<\/span>). Therefore, James and the other Jerusalem leaders agreed that circumcision should not be imposed on the Gentiles (vv 13-21).<\/p>\n<p>It was decided that Peter, James, and John would be entrusted with the gospel to “the circumcised,” while Paul and Barnabas would preach to “the uncircumcised” (Gal 2:7-9). Because of his evangelistic policy to be “all things to all people” with respect to spiritually indifferent matters of custom (1 Cor 9:19-23), Paul had Timothy circumcised. Timothy was reckoned by Jews as one of their race because his mother was Jewish (Acts 16:1-2). But Paul resisted attempts to have Titus circumcised, since he was a Gentile (Gal 2:3). Paul apparently allowed Jewish believers to circumcise their sons (Acts 21:21).<\/p>\n<p>Yet Paul charged that those who argued that the Galatian Christians must be circumcised and keep the law did not keep it themselves but wanted to boast in the Galatians’ flesh and avoid persecution for the cross of Christ (Gal 6:12-13)—persecution Paul was willing to bear (5:11). Granting for the sake of argument the Pharisaic assumption that salvation could be merited by keeping the law, Paul declared that those who received circumcision must obey every other Jewish law (vv 2-3). Christ would be “of no advantage” to those who “would be justified by the law”; this attempt at works righteousness would evidence that the Galatians were “severed from Christ,” having “fallen from grace” (vv 2-4). These Christians were being tempted to turn to “a different gospel” (1:6-7).<\/p>\n<p>Because of the serious threat the Judaizers posed to the gospel of free grace, Paul wished that those who unsettled the Galatians would “mutilate themselves” (Gal 5:12). He termed the Judaizers “dogs” and “evil workers” (<span>kjv<\/span> “concision”), asserting that Christians are “the true circumcision,” because they worship God in spirit and glory in Christ Jesus, putting no confidence in human works to merit salvation (Phil 3:2-3).<\/p>\n<p>Paul taught that circumcision was indeed of value to Jews, for it was the sign that to them had been committed the “oracles of God,” that is, God’s word concerning the promise of salvation (Rom 3:1-3). He reminded the prideful Ephesians that as Gentiles they had once been “strangers to the covenants of promise,” not bearing the covenant sign in their flesh (Eph 2:11-12; see Col 2:13). Likewise, Jews had no cause for pride, for disobedience could cause outward circumcision to be counted as uncircumcision (Rom 2:25).<\/p>\n<p>Paul and the other apostles followed Moses and the OT prophets in teaching that true circumcision was a matter of the heart. The teaching of the NT goes further to affirm that a faithful believer, though physically uncircumcised, is regarded by God as circumcised, “for he is not a real Jew who is one outwardly, nor is true circumcision something external and physical” (Rom 2:28, <span>rsv<\/span>). Both Jews and Gentiles are saved by grace (Acts 15:11), and circumcised and uncircumcised alike are justified on the ground of their faith, apart from works of the law (Rom 3:28-30).<\/p>\n<p>Abraham served as an example of a person whose faith was reckoned to him as righteousness (Rom 4:3; see Gn 15:6). Paul argued that both Gentiles and Jews are justified by faith, because Abraham was accounted righteous before he was circumcised. Abraham did not receive circumcision to obtain righteousness, but as a sign or seal of the righteousness that he had by faith while he was still uncircumcised. Thus, Abraham is the father of all who believe without being circumcised, as well as those who are circumcised but also follow the example of Abraham’s faith (Rom 4:9-12; see Gal 3:6-9).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Baptism; Cleanness and Uncleanness, Regulations Concerning; Uncircumcision.<\/p>","summary_ro":"CIRCUMCISION Surgical removal of the foreskin of the male reproductive organ. In Bible times circumcision was the seal of God’s covenant with Abraham (Gn 17:1-14). While circumcision originated as an ancient tribal or religious rite, since the early part of this century it has been practiced in Western nations for hygienic purposes. Many physicians believe that circumcision helps prevent genital cancers in both men and their wives, so that this minor operation is performed a few days after bi...","summary_en":"CIRCUMCISION Surgical removal of the foreskin of the male reproductive organ. In Bible times circumcision was the seal of God’s covenant with Abraham (Gn 17:1-14). While circumcision originated as an ancient tribal or religious rite, since the early part of this century it has been practiced in Western nations for hygienic purposes. Many physicians believe that circumcision helps prevent genital cancers in both men and their wives, so that this minor operation is performed a few days after bi...","source":"Articles\/C.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":37438,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Titus (Person)","title_en":"Titus (Person)","content_ro":"<h3>TITUS (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<li>1. One of Paul’s converts—“my true child in a common faith” (Ti 1:4, <span>nasb<\/span>)—who became an intimate and trusted associate of the apostle in his mission of planting Christianity throughout the Mediterranean world (2 Cor 8:23; 2 Tm 4:10; Ti 1:4-5). Mentioned frequently in Paul’s letters (eight times in 2 Corinthians, twice in Galatians, once each in 2 Timothy and Titus), his name occurs nowhere in Acts. This is a puzzling silence that some scholars have sought to explain with the fascinating, but uncertain, suggestion that he was a brother of Luke, the author of Acts.<\/li>\n<p>Unlike Timothy, who was half Jewish, Titus was born of gentile parents. Nothing is recorded of the circumstances surrounding his conversion and initial encounter with Paul. He is first introduced as a companion of Paul and Barnabas on a visit to Jerusalem (Gal 2:3). The occasion appears to have been the Jerusalem Council, about <span>AD<\/span> 50, which Paul and Barnabas attended as official delegates from the church at Antioch not long after the apostle’s first missionary journey (Acts 15).<\/p>\n<p>With the hotly contested issue of compulsory circumcision of gentile converts to Christianity before the council, Paul decided to make a test case of Titus. The council decided in Paul’s favor against the Judaizing party, and Titus was accepted by the other apostles and leaders of the Jerusalem church without submitting to the rite of circumcision. Thus, Titus became a key figure in the liberation of the infant church from the Judaizing party.<\/p>\n<p>Titus probably accompanied Paul from that time on, but he does not appear again until Paul’s crisis with the church at Corinth during his third missionary journey. According to 2 Corinthians, while Paul was conducting an extended ministry in Ephesus, he received word that the Corinthian church had turned hostile toward him and renounced his apostolic authority. Other attempts at reconciliation having failed, he sent Titus to Corinth to try to repair the breach. When Titus rejoined Paul somewhere in Macedonia, where the apostle had traveled from Ephesus to meet him, Titus brought the good news that the attitude of the Corinthians had changed and their former love and friendship were now restored (2 Cor 7:6-7). In view of this development Paul sent Titus back to Corinth, carrying 2 Corinthians, which included instructions to complete the collection of the relief offering for the Jewish Christians of Judea (8:6, 16). In this venture also Titus was apparently successful (Rom 15:25-26).<\/p>\n\n<p>Assuming that Paul was released after his first Roman imprisonment, it appears that Titus accompanied him on a mission to the island of Crete. On departing from Crete, Paul left Titus behind to consolidate the new Christian movement there (Ti 1:5). The assignment was difficult, for the Cretans were unruly and the struggling church was already invaded by false teachers (vv 10-16). His handling of the Corinthian problem some years before, however, demonstrated that Titus possessed the spiritual earnestness, skillful diplomacy, and loving concern required to meet the present challenge, and Paul was confident that this new commission was therefore safe in his hands.<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s letter to Titus, one of his three Pastoral Letters, was written somewhat later to encourage Titus in his Cretan ministry. The letter closes with the apostle’s request that Titus join him at Nicopolis, a town on the west coast of Greece, where he planned to spend the winter (Ti 3:12). Most likely it was from Nicopolis, or else later from Rome (where the apostle was imprisoned again and eventually martyred), that Paul sent Titus on the mission to Dalmatia, a Roman province in what is now Yugoslavia (see 2 Tm 4:10). If later tradition is correct, Titus returned to Crete, where he served as bishop until he was an old man.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Titus, Letter to.<\/p>\n<li>2. Variant spelling of a gentile proselyte in Corinth, to whose house Paul went after the Jewish community in general rejected his message (Acts 18:7). Better manuscript evidence names him as Titius Justus. <em>See<\/em> Justus #2.<\/li>\n<li>3. Vespasian’s son; the emperor of Rome from <span>AD<\/span> 79–81. <em>See<\/em> Caesars, The.<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>TITUS (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<li>1. One of Paul’s converts—“my true child in a common faith” (Ti 1:4, <span>nasb<\/span>)—who became an intimate and trusted associate of the apostle in his mission of planting Christianity throughout the Mediterranean world (2 Cor 8:23; 2 Tm 4:10; Ti 1:4-5). Mentioned frequently in Paul’s letters (eight times in 2 Corinthians, twice in Galatians, once each in 2 Timothy and Titus), his name occurs nowhere in Acts. This is a puzzling silence that some scholars have sought to explain with the fascinating, but uncertain, suggestion that he was a brother of Luke, the author of Acts.<\/li>\n<p>Unlike Timothy, who was half Jewish, Titus was born of gentile parents. Nothing is recorded of the circumstances surrounding his conversion and initial encounter with Paul. He is first introduced as a companion of Paul and Barnabas on a visit to Jerusalem (Gal 2:3). The occasion appears to have been the Jerusalem Council, about <span>AD<\/span> 50, which Paul and Barnabas attended as official delegates from the church at Antioch not long after the apostle’s first missionary journey (Acts 15).<\/p>\n<p>With the hotly contested issue of compulsory circumcision of gentile converts to Christianity before the council, Paul decided to make a test case of Titus. The council decided in Paul’s favor against the Judaizing party, and Titus was accepted by the other apostles and leaders of the Jerusalem church without submitting to the rite of circumcision. Thus, Titus became a key figure in the liberation of the infant church from the Judaizing party.<\/p>\n<p>Titus probably accompanied Paul from that time on, but he does not appear again until Paul’s crisis with the church at Corinth during his third missionary journey. According to 2 Corinthians, while Paul was conducting an extended ministry in Ephesus, he received word that the Corinthian church had turned hostile toward him and renounced his apostolic authority. Other attempts at reconciliation having failed, he sent Titus to Corinth to try to repair the breach. When Titus rejoined Paul somewhere in Macedonia, where the apostle had traveled from Ephesus to meet him, Titus brought the good news that the attitude of the Corinthians had changed and their former love and friendship were now restored (2 Cor 7:6-7). In view of this development Paul sent Titus back to Corinth, carrying 2 Corinthians, which included instructions to complete the collection of the relief offering for the Jewish Christians of Judea (8:6, 16). In this venture also Titus was apparently successful (Rom 15:25-26).<\/p>\n\n<p>Assuming that Paul was released after his first Roman imprisonment, it appears that Titus accompanied him on a mission to the island of Crete. On departing from Crete, Paul left Titus behind to consolidate the new Christian movement there (Ti 1:5). The assignment was difficult, for the Cretans were unruly and the struggling church was already invaded by false teachers (vv 10-16). His handling of the Corinthian problem some years before, however, demonstrated that Titus possessed the spiritual earnestness, skillful diplomacy, and loving concern required to meet the present challenge, and Paul was confident that this new commission was therefore safe in his hands.<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s letter to Titus, one of his three Pastoral Letters, was written somewhat later to encourage Titus in his Cretan ministry. The letter closes with the apostle’s request that Titus join him at Nicopolis, a town on the west coast of Greece, where he planned to spend the winter (Ti 3:12). Most likely it was from Nicopolis, or else later from Rome (where the apostle was imprisoned again and eventually martyred), that Paul sent Titus on the mission to Dalmatia, a Roman province in what is now Yugoslavia (see 2 Tm 4:10). If later tradition is correct, Titus returned to Crete, where he served as bishop until he was an old man.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Titus, Letter to.<\/p>\n<li>2. Variant spelling of a gentile proselyte in Corinth, to whose house Paul went after the Jewish community in general rejected his message (Acts 18:7). Better manuscript evidence names him as Titius Justus. <em>See<\/em> Justus #2.<\/li>\n<li>3. Vespasian’s son; the emperor of Rome from <span>AD<\/span> 79–81. <em>See<\/em> Caesars, The.<\/li>","summary_ro":"TITUS (Person) 1. One of Paul’s converts—“my true child in a common faith” (Ti 1:4, nasb)—who became an intimate and trusted associate of the apostle in his mission of planting Christianity throughout the Mediterranean world (2 Cor 8:23; 2 Tm 4:10; Ti 1:4-5). Mentioned frequently in Paul’s letters (eight times in 2 Corinthians, twice in Galatians, once each in 2 Timothy and Titus), his name occurs nowhere in Acts. This is a puzzling silence that some scholars have sought to explain with the f...","summary_en":"TITUS (Person) 1. One of Paul’s converts—“my true child in a common faith” (Ti 1:4, nasb)—who became an intimate and trusted associate of the apostle in his mission of planting Christianity throughout the Mediterranean world (2 Cor 8:23; 2 Tm 4:10; Ti 1:4-5). Mentioned frequently in Paul’s letters (eight times in 2 Corinthians, twice in Galatians, once each in 2 Timothy and Titus), his name occurs nowhere in Acts. This is a puzzling silence that some scholars have sought to explain with the f...","source":"Articles\/T.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":37453,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Letter to Titus","title_en":"Letter to Titus","content_ro":"<h3>TITUS, Letter to<\/h3>\n<p>Paul’s epistle to his coworker, Titus.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Recipient<\/p>\n<p>• Date<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose and Teaching<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>Though this letter begins with the name and greeting of Paul (Ti 1:1-3), Paul’s authorship has been questioned by modern scholars on the grounds of its language and style, the church situation it presents, and the way that it sets forth Christian teaching. But Pauline authorship has been stoutly defended by eminent scholars and careful students who have argued that there is no reason for supposing that this epistle was written by someone else using Paul’s name, after the apostle himself had died. The differences in this epistle and Paul’s other letters are explained previously in the section on “Author” in the article “Timothy, First Letter to.”<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Recipient\">Recipient<\/p>\n<p>Titus appears to have been one of Paul’s most trusted and valuable coworkers. Paul speaks of him (2 Cor 8:23) as “my partner and coworker.” According to Titus 1:4, he owed his conversion to Paul. It is clear from Galatians 2:1-4 that he was a Gentile, as his was a test case whether gentile Christians should be compelled to be circumcised. At that time Titus was with Paul and Barnabas in Jerusalem. Much later, at the time of Paul’s third missionary journey, he had two delicate missions to carry out for Paul in Corinth: the first pertained to the strained relationship between the apostle and the Corinthian Christians; the second related to the gentile collection for the Jerusalem church (2 Cor 2:12-13; 7:5-16; 8:1-24). If 2 Timothy 4:9-18 was written at the end of Paul’s life, then Titus went to Dalmatia after the time of this letter.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Date\">Date<\/p>\n<p>To date this letter with precision is difficult. Titus was left by the apostle in Crete to continue his work (Ti 1:5). Paul was in Crete briefly on his voyage to Rome (Acts 27:7-13), but that could not have been the occasion referred to. In 3:12 Titus is called to come to Nicopolis (probably the Nicopolis in Epirus in Greece), as Paul had decided to winter there. Many have favored the view that after Paul’s first imprisonment in Rome (Acts 28:16-31) he was released, carried out further ministry in various places (including Spain, Crete, and Greece), and then was arrested, imprisoned a second time, and finally put to death. Those who do not accept Pauline authorship of Titus, date this letter, like 1 and 2 Timothy, in the generation that followed Paul’s death.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeandTeaching\">Purpose and Teaching<\/p>\n<p>Although this letter is addressed to an individual colleague of the apostle, it has a minimum of personal references and exhortations. The growing and developing churches in Crete were Paul’s main concern. They were being bothered by false teachings that appear to have had Jewish elements, ascetic emphases, and a great deal of speculative discussion (Ti 1:10, 14-15: 3:9). In short, it seems that they were dealing with an early Jewish form of Gnosticism. Its advocates promoted this teaching “for base gain” (1:11, <span>rsv<\/span>). Titus and those whom he would appoint as elders were called upon to refute the wrong teaching and to provide the believers with healthy teaching (v 9). Though this healthy teaching is not specified, it must have pertained to the saving grace of God in Christ, the renewing work of the Holy Spirit, and the future coming of the Lord Jesus (2:11-13; 3:4-7). In this letter there is constant emphasis on the lifestyle that bears out the truth of the gospel—with application to different groups in the Christian community: older men and women, young women, young men, and slaves.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Salutation (1:1-4)<\/h5>\n<p>Greetings come from Paul—whose apostleship is described as a stewardship of the gospel that promotes faith and strengthens the knowledge of the truth, hope of eternal life, and godliness of living—to Titus, spoken of as “my true son in our common faith.”<\/p>\n<h5>Titus’s Work in Crete (1:5-9)<\/h5>\n<p>Titus was left behind in Crete to continue Paul’s work and to appoint elders in every church (cf. Acts 14:23). These elders are also called bishops (cf. 20:17, 28)—that is, those with oversight of the church. The necessary qualities of life for these positions are described (cf. 1 Tm 3:2-7).<\/p>\n<h5>Dealing with False Teachings (1:10-16)<\/h5>\n<p>The closing words of the previous section speak about the responsibility of elders “to encourage others with right teaching and show those who oppose it where they are wrong” (<span>nlt<\/span>). The opposers were upsetting people, indeed “whole families,” by teaching what was not true. These false teachers were described by Paul in terms disparaging of Cretans, and as people whose lives do not demonstrate the knowledge of God that they professed to have.<\/p>\n<h5>Promoting Right Teaching (2:1-10)<\/h5>\n<p>Titus had a particular responsibility to “promote the kind of living that reflects right teaching.” He was charged to exhort the older men to exercise self-control (2:2), and he was supposed to teach the older women to live godly lives (v 3). In turn, these women were supposed to train the younger women to live pure and loving lives in their homes so that no one will malign the word of God (vv 4-5). Younger men were to show self-control (v 6), and Titus himself was to be an example in word and life so that the opponents would have nothing bad to say about the Christians (vv 7-8). Finally, in this section slaves are taught to submit to their masters, to give good and honest service with the motivation that “then they will make the teaching about God our Savior attractive in every way” (v 10, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<h5>God’s Grace (2:11-15)<\/h5>\n<p>What has been said leads now to a great statement of the purpose of the revelation of the grace of God in Jesus Christ: to bring salvation to all people, who will make a complete break with godless and sensual living so that they may live upright lives with the constant expectancy of the coming again of “our great God and Savior Jesus Christ.” Their lives will show them to be a people who are God’s very own, always eager to do what is right.<\/p>\n<h5>Doing What Is Good (3:1-8)<\/h5>\n<p>In this section, Paul encourages Titus to tell the Christians at Crete that it is their duty to submit to rulers (cf. Rom 13:1-7; 1 Pt 2:13-17) and to be available in the community for honest work. Again, the quality of lifestyle is emphasized—in particular, courtesy and the desire for peace in relationships with others. This lifestyle comes from spiritual transformation. The means of that transformation is the saving work of Christ—not merited, but entirely of his mercy. He has brought cleansing from sin, “rebirth and renewal by the Holy Spirit.”<\/p>\n<h5>Paul’s Final Remarks and Greetings (3:9-15)<\/h5>\n<p>In this final section, Paul encourages Titus to avoid those who like to debate about religion for the sake of debating. And he tells Titus how to deal with those who cause divisions.<\/p>\n<p>Following this, Paul tells Titus that he will send him Artemas (not mentioned otherwise in the NT) or Tychicus. Then he encourages Titus to take care of Apollos and Zenas if they pass by Crete. Titus himself is supposed to come to Paul in Nicopolis before winter.<\/p>\n<p>The epistle closes with a final exhortation to “good deeds” and to a spiritually fruitful life.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Paul, The Apostle; Timothy, First Letter to; Timothy, Second Letter to; Titus (Person) #1.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>TITUS, Letter to<\/h3>\n<p>Paul’s epistle to his coworker, Titus.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Recipient<\/p>\n<p>• Date<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose and Teaching<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>Though this letter begins with the name and greeting of Paul (Ti 1:1-3), Paul’s authorship has been questioned by modern scholars on the grounds of its language and style, the church situation it presents, and the way that it sets forth Christian teaching. But Pauline authorship has been stoutly defended by eminent scholars and careful students who have argued that there is no reason for supposing that this epistle was written by someone else using Paul’s name, after the apostle himself had died. The differences in this epistle and Paul’s other letters are explained previously in the section on “Author” in the article “Timothy, First Letter to.”<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Recipient\">Recipient<\/p>\n<p>Titus appears to have been one of Paul’s most trusted and valuable coworkers. Paul speaks of him (2 Cor 8:23) as “my partner and coworker.” According to Titus 1:4, he owed his conversion to Paul. It is clear from Galatians 2:1-4 that he was a Gentile, as his was a test case whether gentile Christians should be compelled to be circumcised. At that time Titus was with Paul and Barnabas in Jerusalem. Much later, at the time of Paul’s third missionary journey, he had two delicate missions to carry out for Paul in Corinth: the first pertained to the strained relationship between the apostle and the Corinthian Christians; the second related to the gentile collection for the Jerusalem church (2 Cor 2:12-13; 7:5-16; 8:1-24). If 2 Timothy 4:9-18 was written at the end of Paul’s life, then Titus went to Dalmatia after the time of this letter.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Date\">Date<\/p>\n<p>To date this letter with precision is difficult. Titus was left by the apostle in Crete to continue his work (Ti 1:5). Paul was in Crete briefly on his voyage to Rome (Acts 27:7-13), but that could not have been the occasion referred to. In 3:12 Titus is called to come to Nicopolis (probably the Nicopolis in Epirus in Greece), as Paul had decided to winter there. Many have favored the view that after Paul’s first imprisonment in Rome (Acts 28:16-31) he was released, carried out further ministry in various places (including Spain, Crete, and Greece), and then was arrested, imprisoned a second time, and finally put to death. Those who do not accept Pauline authorship of Titus, date this letter, like 1 and 2 Timothy, in the generation that followed Paul’s death.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeandTeaching\">Purpose and Teaching<\/p>\n<p>Although this letter is addressed to an individual colleague of the apostle, it has a minimum of personal references and exhortations. The growing and developing churches in Crete were Paul’s main concern. They were being bothered by false teachings that appear to have had Jewish elements, ascetic emphases, and a great deal of speculative discussion (Ti 1:10, 14-15: 3:9). In short, it seems that they were dealing with an early Jewish form of Gnosticism. Its advocates promoted this teaching “for base gain” (1:11, <span>rsv<\/span>). Titus and those whom he would appoint as elders were called upon to refute the wrong teaching and to provide the believers with healthy teaching (v 9). Though this healthy teaching is not specified, it must have pertained to the saving grace of God in Christ, the renewing work of the Holy Spirit, and the future coming of the Lord Jesus (2:11-13; 3:4-7). In this letter there is constant emphasis on the lifestyle that bears out the truth of the gospel—with application to different groups in the Christian community: older men and women, young women, young men, and slaves.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Salutation (1:1-4)<\/h5>\n<p>Greetings come from Paul—whose apostleship is described as a stewardship of the gospel that promotes faith and strengthens the knowledge of the truth, hope of eternal life, and godliness of living—to Titus, spoken of as “my true son in our common faith.”<\/p>\n<h5>Titus’s Work in Crete (1:5-9)<\/h5>\n<p>Titus was left behind in Crete to continue Paul’s work and to appoint elders in every church (cf. Acts 14:23). These elders are also called bishops (cf. 20:17, 28)—that is, those with oversight of the church. The necessary qualities of life for these positions are described (cf. 1 Tm 3:2-7).<\/p>\n<h5>Dealing with False Teachings (1:10-16)<\/h5>\n<p>The closing words of the previous section speak about the responsibility of elders “to encourage others with right teaching and show those who oppose it where they are wrong” (<span>nlt<\/span>). The opposers were upsetting people, indeed “whole families,” by teaching what was not true. These false teachers were described by Paul in terms disparaging of Cretans, and as people whose lives do not demonstrate the knowledge of God that they professed to have.<\/p>\n<h5>Promoting Right Teaching (2:1-10)<\/h5>\n<p>Titus had a particular responsibility to “promote the kind of living that reflects right teaching.” He was charged to exhort the older men to exercise self-control (2:2), and he was supposed to teach the older women to live godly lives (v 3). In turn, these women were supposed to train the younger women to live pure and loving lives in their homes so that no one will malign the word of God (vv 4-5). Younger men were to show self-control (v 6), and Titus himself was to be an example in word and life so that the opponents would have nothing bad to say about the Christians (vv 7-8). Finally, in this section slaves are taught to submit to their masters, to give good and honest service with the motivation that “then they will make the teaching about God our Savior attractive in every way” (v 10, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<h5>God’s Grace (2:11-15)<\/h5>\n<p>What has been said leads now to a great statement of the purpose of the revelation of the grace of God in Jesus Christ: to bring salvation to all people, who will make a complete break with godless and sensual living so that they may live upright lives with the constant expectancy of the coming again of “our great God and Savior Jesus Christ.” Their lives will show them to be a people who are God’s very own, always eager to do what is right.<\/p>\n<h5>Doing What Is Good (3:1-8)<\/h5>\n<p>In this section, Paul encourages Titus to tell the Christians at Crete that it is their duty to submit to rulers (cf. Rom 13:1-7; 1 Pt 2:13-17) and to be available in the community for honest work. Again, the quality of lifestyle is emphasized—in particular, courtesy and the desire for peace in relationships with others. This lifestyle comes from spiritual transformation. The means of that transformation is the saving work of Christ—not merited, but entirely of his mercy. He has brought cleansing from sin, “rebirth and renewal by the Holy Spirit.”<\/p>\n<h5>Paul’s Final Remarks and Greetings (3:9-15)<\/h5>\n<p>In this final section, Paul encourages Titus to avoid those who like to debate about religion for the sake of debating. And he tells Titus how to deal with those who cause divisions.<\/p>\n<p>Following this, Paul tells Titus that he will send him Artemas (not mentioned otherwise in the NT) or Tychicus. Then he encourages Titus to take care of Apollos and Zenas if they pass by Crete. Titus himself is supposed to come to Paul in Nicopolis before winter.<\/p>\n<p>The epistle closes with a final exhortation to “good deeds” and to a spiritually fruitful life.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Paul, The Apostle; Timothy, First Letter to; Timothy, Second Letter to; Titus (Person) #1.<\/p>","summary_ro":"TITUS, Letter to Paul’s epistle to his coworker, Titus. Preview • Author • Recipient • Date • Purpose and Teaching • Content Author Though this letter begins with the name and greeting of Paul (Ti 1:1-3), Paul’s authorship has been questioned by modern scholars on the grounds of its language and style, the church situation it presents, and the way that it sets forth Christian teaching. But Pauline authorship has been stoutly defended by eminent scholars and careful students who have argued th...","summary_en":"TITUS, Letter to Paul’s epistle to his coworker, Titus. Preview • Author • Recipient • Date • Purpose and Teaching • Content Author Though this letter begins with the name and greeting of Paul (Ti 1:1-3), Paul’s authorship has been questioned by modern scholars on the grounds of its language and style, the church situation it presents, and the way that it sets forth Christian teaching. But Pauline authorship has been stoutly defended by eminent scholars and careful students who have argued th...","source":"Articles\/T.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":58660,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Tit 1:10","title_en":"Study Note: Tit 1:10","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:10-16<\/strong> In a native population of troublemakers, Titus would need to exercise a firm hand to rid these Christian communities of corruption and make them healthy in the faith (1:13-16).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:10-16<\/strong> In a native population of troublemakers, Titus would need to exercise a firm hand to rid these Christian communities of corruption and make them healthy in the faith (1:13-16).<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:10-16 In a native population of troublemakers, Titus would need to exercise a firm hand to rid these Christian communities of corruption and make them healthy in the faith (1:13-16).","summary_en":"1:10-16 In a native population of troublemakers, Titus would need to exercise a firm hand to rid these Christian communities of corruption and make them healthy in the faith (1:13-16).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":58661,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Tit 1:10","title_en":"Study Note: Tit 1:10","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:10<\/strong> <em>rebellious people:<\/em> The same Greek word is used of children in 1:6. • <em>those who insist on circumcision for salvation<\/em> (literally <em>those of the circumcision<\/em>): This probably refers to Jewish Christians; the Greek phrase leaves open whether or not they required circumcision of Gentiles. The Jewish flavor of this false teaching is suggested in 1:14-15 and 3:9.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:10<\/strong> <em>rebellious people:<\/em> The same Greek word is used of children in 1:6. • <em>those who insist on circumcision for salvation<\/em> (literally <em>those of the circumcision<\/em>): This probably refers to Jewish Christians; the Greek phrase leaves open whether or not they required circumcision of Gentiles. The Jewish flavor of this false teaching is suggested in 1:14-15 and 3:9.<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:10 rebellious people: The same Greek word is used of children in 1:6. • those who insist on circumcision for salvation (literally those of the circumcision): This probably refers to Jewish Christians; the Greek phrase leaves open whether or not they required circumcision of Gentiles. The Jewish flavor of this false teaching is suggested in 1:14-15 and 3:9.","summary_en":"1:10 rebellious people: The same Greek word is used of children in 1:6. • those who insist on circumcision for salvation (literally those of the circumcision): This probably refers to Jewish Christians; the Greek phrase leaves open whether or not they required circumcision of Gentiles. The Jewish flavor of this false teaching is suggested in 1:14-15 and 3:9.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":86286,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Tit 1:10","title_en":"Study Note: Tit 1:10","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:10-16<\/strong> In a native population of troublemakers, Titus would need to exercise a firm hand to rid these Christian communities of corruption and make them healthy in the faith (1:13-16).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:10-16<\/strong> In a native population of troublemakers, Titus would need to exercise a firm hand to rid these Christian communities of corruption and make them healthy in the faith (1:13-16).<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:10-16 In a native population of troublemakers, Titus would need to exercise a firm hand to rid these Christian communities of corruption and make them healthy in the faith (1:13-16).","summary_en":"1:10-16 In a native population of troublemakers, Titus would need to exercise a firm hand to rid these Christian communities of corruption and make them healthy in the faith (1:13-16).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":86287,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Tit 1:10","title_en":"Study Note: Tit 1:10","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:10<\/strong> <em>rebellious people:<\/em> The same Greek word is used of children in 1:6. • <em>those who insist on circumcision for salvation<\/em> (literally <em>those of the circumcision<\/em>): This probably refers to Jewish Christians; the Greek phrase leaves open whether or not they required circumcision of Gentiles. The Jewish flavor of this false teaching is suggested in 1:14-15 and 3:9.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:10<\/strong> <em>rebellious people:<\/em> The same Greek word is used of children in 1:6. • <em>those who insist on circumcision for salvation<\/em> (literally <em>those of the circumcision<\/em>): This probably refers to Jewish Christians; the Greek phrase leaves open whether or not they required circumcision of Gentiles. The Jewish flavor of this false teaching is suggested in 1:14-15 and 3:9.<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:10 rebellious people: The same Greek word is used of children in 1:6. • those who insist on circumcision for salvation (literally those of the circumcision): This probably refers to Jewish Christians; the Greek phrase leaves open whether or not they required circumcision of Gentiles. The Jewish flavor of this false teaching is suggested in 1:14-15 and 3:9.","summary_en":"1:10 rebellious people: The same Greek word is used of children in 1:6. • those who insist on circumcision for salvation (literally those of the circumcision): This probably refers to Jewish Christians; the Greek phrase leaves open whether or not they required circumcision of Gentiles. The Jewish flavor of this false teaching is suggested in 1:14-15 and 3:9.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":113912,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Tit 1:10","title_en":"Study Note: Tit 1:10","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:10-16<\/strong> In a native population of troublemakers, Titus would need to exercise a firm hand to rid these Christian communities of corruption and make them healthy in the faith (1:13-16).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:10-16<\/strong> In a native population of troublemakers, Titus would need to exercise a firm hand to rid these Christian communities of corruption and make them healthy in the faith (1:13-16).<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:10-16 In a native population of troublemakers, Titus would need to exercise a firm hand to rid these Christian communities of corruption and make them healthy in the faith (1:13-16).","summary_en":"1:10-16 In a native population of troublemakers, Titus would need to exercise a firm hand to rid these Christian communities of corruption and make them healthy in the faith (1:13-16).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":113913,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Tit 1:10","title_en":"Study Note: Tit 1:10","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:10<\/strong> <em>rebellious people:<\/em> The same Greek word is used of children in 1:6. • <em>those who insist on circumcision for salvation<\/em> (literally <em>those of the circumcision<\/em>): This probably refers to Jewish Christians; the Greek phrase leaves open whether or not they required circumcision of Gentiles. The Jewish flavor of this false teaching is suggested in 1:14-15 and 3:9.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:10<\/strong> <em>rebellious people:<\/em> The same Greek word is used of children in 1:6. • <em>those who insist on circumcision for salvation<\/em> (literally <em>those of the circumcision<\/em>): This probably refers to Jewish Christians; the Greek phrase leaves open whether or not they required circumcision of Gentiles. The Jewish flavor of this false teaching is suggested in 1:14-15 and 3:9.<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:10 rebellious people: The same Greek word is used of children in 1:6. • those who insist on circumcision for salvation (literally those of the circumcision): This probably refers to Jewish Christians; the Greek phrase leaves open whether or not they required circumcision of Gentiles. The Jewish flavor of this false teaching is suggested in 1:14-15 and 3:9.","summary_en":"1:10 rebellious people: The same Greek word is used of children in 1:6. • those who insist on circumcision for salvation (literally those of the circumcision): This probably refers to Jewish Christians; the Greek phrase leaves open whether or not they required circumcision of Gentiles. The Jewish flavor of this false teaching is suggested in 1:14-15 and 3:9.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":141538,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Tit 1:10","title_en":"Study Note: Tit 1:10","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:10-16<\/strong> In a native population of troublemakers, Titus would need to exercise a firm hand to rid these Christian communities of corruption and make them healthy in the faith (1:13-16).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:10-16<\/strong> In a native population of troublemakers, Titus would need to exercise a firm hand to rid these Christian communities of corruption and make them healthy in the faith (1:13-16).<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:10-16 In a native population of troublemakers, Titus would need to exercise a firm hand to rid these Christian communities of corruption and make them healthy in the faith (1:13-16).","summary_en":"1:10-16 In a native population of troublemakers, Titus would need to exercise a firm hand to rid these Christian communities of corruption and make them healthy in the faith (1:13-16).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":141539,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Tit 1:10","title_en":"Study Note: Tit 1:10","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:10<\/strong> <em>rebellious people:<\/em> The same Greek word is used of children in 1:6. • <em>those who insist on circumcision for salvation<\/em> (literally <em>those of the circumcision<\/em>): This probably refers to Jewish Christians; the Greek phrase leaves open whether or not they required circumcision of Gentiles. The Jewish flavor of this false teaching is suggested in 1:14-15 and 3:9.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:10<\/strong> <em>rebellious people:<\/em> The same Greek word is used of children in 1:6. • <em>those who insist on circumcision for salvation<\/em> (literally <em>those of the circumcision<\/em>): This probably refers to Jewish Christians; the Greek phrase leaves open whether or not they required circumcision of Gentiles. The Jewish flavor of this false teaching is suggested in 1:14-15 and 3:9.<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:10 rebellious people: The same Greek word is used of children in 1:6. • those who insist on circumcision for salvation (literally those of the circumcision): This probably refers to Jewish Christians; the Greek phrase leaves open whether or not they required circumcision of Gentiles. The Jewish flavor of this false teaching is suggested in 1:14-15 and 3:9.","summary_en":"1:10 rebellious people: The same Greek word is used of children in 1:6. • those who insist on circumcision for salvation (literally those of the circumcision): This probably refers to Jewish Christians; the Greek phrase leaves open whether or not they required circumcision of Gentiles. The Jewish flavor of this false teaching is suggested in 1:14-15 and 3:9.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"11":[{"id":4778,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"and Text of the (New Testament) Bible*, Manuscripts","title_en":"and Text of the (New Testament) Bible*, Manuscripts","content_ro":"<h3>BIBLE*, M<span>anuscripts and Text of the (New Testament)<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Copies of the NT books produced by scribes and editions made from these copies. In the centuries prior to the simultaneous-multiple production of copies via dictation (wherein many scribes in a scriptorium transcribed a text dictated to them by one reader), all manuscript copies were made singly—each scribe producing a copy from an exemplar.<\/p>\n<p>Prior to the 15th century, when Johannes Gutenberg invented movable type for the printing press, all copies of any work of literature were made by hand (hence, the name “manuscript”). According to a current tabulation, there are 99 papyrus manuscripts, 257 uncial manuscripts, and 2,795 minuscule manuscripts. We can add 2,209 Greek lectionaries to this list. Therefore, we have over 5,350 manuscript copies of the Greek NT or portions thereof. No other work of Greek literature can boast of such numbers.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Important Papyrus Manuscripts<\/p>\n<p>• Important Uncial Manuscripts<\/p>\n<p>• The Text of the New Testament<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ImportantPapyrusManuscripts\">Important Papyrus Manuscripts<\/p>\n<p>Papyrus is a tall, aquatic reed, the pith of which is cut into strips, laid in a crosswork pattern and glued together to make a page for writing. The papyrus rolls of Egypt have been used as a writing surface since the early third millennium <span>BC<\/span>. The Greeks adopted papyrus around 900 <span>BC<\/span>, and later the Romans adopted its use. However, the oldest extant Greek rolls of papyrus date from the fourth century <span>BC<\/span>. Unfortunately, papyrus is perishable, requiring a dry climate for its preservation. That is why so many papyri have been discovered in the desert sands of Egypt.<\/p>\n<p>The NT papyrus manuscripts (abbreviated as “P”) are generally the earliest manuscripts of the NT. Broadly speaking, the most important ones can be categorized in three groups: the Oxyrhynchus Papyri (from Oxyrhynchus, Egypt), (2) the Beatty Papyri (named after the owner); and (3) the Bodmer Papyri (named after the owner).<\/p>\n<h5>The Oxyrhynchus Papyri<\/h5>\n<p>Beginning in 1898 B. P. Grenfell and A. S. Hunt discovered thousands of papyrus fragments in the ancient rubbish heaps of Oxyrhynchus, Egypt. This site yielded volumes of papyrus fragments containing all sorts of written material (literature, business and legal contracts, letters, etc.) as well as over 40 manuscripts containing portions of the NT. Some of the more noteworthy papyrus manuscripts from Oxyrhynchus are as follows:<\/p>\n<h6>P1 (P. Oxy. 2)<\/h6>\n<p>This late second-century manuscript contains Matthew 1:1-9, 12, 14-20. Grenfell and Hunt in the winter of 1896–97 went to Oxyrhynchus (now called El Bahnasa) in search of ancient Christian documents. P1 was discovered on the second day of the dig. At the time of this discovery, this was the earliest extant copy of any NT portion—at least 100 years earlier than Codex Vaticanus. The copyist of P1 seems to have faithfully followed a very reliable exemplar. Where there are major variants, P1 agrees with the best Alexandrian witnesses, especially B (Codex Vaticanus), from which it rarely varies.<\/p>\n<h6>P5 (P. Oxy. 208 and 1781)<\/h6>\n<p>Two separate portions of this third-century manuscript were unearthed from Oxyrhynchus by Grenfell and Hunt, both from the same papyrus manuscript. The first portion contains John 1:23-31, 33-40 on one fragment and John 20:11-17 on another—probably on the first and last quires of a manuscript containing only the Gospel of John. This portion was published in volume II of <em>Oxyrhynchus Papyri<\/em> in 1899; the second portion—containing John 16:14-30—was not published until 1922 in volume XV of <em>Oxyrhynchus Papyri.<\/em><\/p>\n<p>After examining the first portion, Grenfell and Hunt said, “The text is a good one, and appears to have affinities with that of Codex Sinaiticus, with which the papyrus agrees in several readings not found elsewhere.” The papyrus, written in a documentary hand, is marked for its brevity.<\/p>\n<h6>P13 (P. Oxy. 657 and PSI 1292)<\/h6>\n<p>This manuscript, dated between 175 and 225, contains 12 columns from a roll preserving the text of Hebrews 2:14–5:5; 10:8-22; 10:29–11:13; 11:28–12:7. The text of Hebrews was written in a reformed documentary hand on the back of the papyrus containing the new epitome of Livy. For this reason, some scholars think the manuscript was possibly brought to Egpyt by a Roman official and left behind when he left his post. P13 very often agrees with B, and it supplements B where it is lacking—namely, from Hebrews 9:14 to the end of Hebrews. P13 and P46 display nearly the same text. Out of a total of 88 variation-units, there are 71 agreements and only 17 disagreements.<\/p>\n<h6>P77 (P. Oxy. 2683 + 4405)<\/h6>\n<p>Dated c. 150–75, this is the earliest manuscript of Matthew (23:30-39). The manuscript is clearly a literary production. It was written in an elegant hand and has what was or became a standard system of chapter division, as well as punctuation and breathing marks. P77 has close textual affinities with Codex Sinaiticus.<\/p>\n<h6>P90 (P. Oxy. 3523)<\/h6>\n<p>This second-century manuscript (c. 150–75) contains John 18:36–19:7. The handwriting (an upright, rounded, elegant script) is much like that found in P66. Furthermore, P90 has more affinity with P66 than with any other single manuscript, though it does not concur with P66 in its entirety.<\/p>\n\n<h6>P. Oxy. 4404<\/h6>\n<p>Containing Matthew 21:34-37, 43, 45, this manuscript could be the earliest extant manuscript of the NT in that the script is early Roman and therefore could be dated to the early second century.<\/p>\n<h5>The Chester Beatty Papyri<\/h5>\n<p>These manuscripts were purchased from a dealer in Egypt during the 1930s by Chester Beatty and by the University of Michigan. The three manuscripts in this collection are very early and contain a large portion of the NT text. P45 (c. 200) contains portions of all four Gospels and Acts; P46 (c. 125) has almost all of Paul’s epistles and Hebrews; and P47 (third century) contains Revelation 9–17.<\/p>\n<h6>P45 (Chester Beatty Papyrus I)<\/h6>\n<p>This codex has the four Gospels and Acts (Mt 20:24-32; 21:13-19; 25:41–26:39; Mk 4:36–9:31; 11:27–12:28; Lk 6:31–7:7; 9:26–14:33; Jn 4:51–5:2, 21-25; 10:7-25; 10:30–11:10, 18-36, 42-57; Acts 4:27–17:17). The order of books in the original intact manuscript was probably as follows: Matthew, John, Luke, Mark, Acts (the so-called Western order). This manuscript was dated by Kenyon to the early third century, a date that was confirmed by the papyrologists W. Schubart and H. I. Bell. This continues to be the date assigned to this manuscript in modern handbooks on textual criticism and critical editions of the Greek NT, but the consistent formation of certain letters suggests an earlier date—maybe sometime in the late second century.<\/p>\n<p>The scribe of P45 worked without any intention of exactly reproducing his source. He wrote with a great amount of freedom—harmonizing, smoothing out, substituting at will. In short, the scribe did not actually copy words. He saw through the language to its idea-content, and copied that in words of his own choosing, or in rearranged order. Thus, in the scribe of P45 we see an exegete and a paraphraser.<\/p>\n<h6>P46 (Chester Beatty Papyrus II)<\/h6>\n<p>This codex has most of Paul’s epistles (excluding the Pastorals) in this order: Romans 5:17–6:14; 8:15–15:9; 15:11–16:27; Hebrews 1:1–13:25; 1 Corinthians 1:1–16:22; 2 Corinthians 1:1–13:13; Ephesians 1:1–6:24; Galatians 1:1–6:18; Philippians 1:1–4:23; Colossians 1:1–4:18; 1 Thessalonians 1:1; 1:9–2:3; 5:5-9, 23-28 (with minor lacunae in each of the books).<\/p>\n<p>The manuscript was originally dated to the early third century. But others, since, have dated the manuscript earlier in the second century. The scribe who produced this manuscript used an early, excellent exemplar. He was a professional scribe because there are stichoi notations at the end of several books (see the conclusion of Romans, 2 Corinthians, Ephesians, Philippians). The stichoi were used by professionals to note how many lines had been copied for commensurate pay. Most likely, the ex officio of the scriptorium (perhaps connected with a church library) paginated the codex and indicated the stichoi. The scribe himself made a few corrections as he went, and then several other readers made corrections here and there.<\/p>\n<p>The text of P46 shows a strong affinity with B (especially in Ephesians, Colossians, and Hebrews) and next with א (Codex Sinaiticus). P46 agrees much less with the later representatives of the Alexandrian text. In short, P46 is proto-Alexandrian. In Hebrews, P46 and P13 display nearly the same text. Out of a total of 88 variation-units, there are 71 agreements and only 17 disagreements.<\/p>\n<h6>P47 (Chester Beatty Papyrus III)<\/h6>\n<p>This third-century codex contains Revelation 9:10–17:2. The text of P47 agrees more often with that of Codex Sinaiticus than with any other manuscript (including Codex Alexandrinus and Codex Ephraemi Rescriptus), though it often shows independence.<\/p>\n<h5>The Bodmer Papyri<\/h5>\n<p>These manuscripts were purchased by M. Martin Bodmer from a dealer in Egypt during the 1950s and 1960s. The three important papyri in this collection are P66 (c. 175, containing almost all of John), P72 (third century, having all of 1 and 2 Peter and Jude), and P75 (c. 200, containing large parts of Luke 3—John 15).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h4\" id=\"P66\">P66 (Papyrus Bodmer II)<\/p>\n<p>This manuscript contains most of John’s Gospel (1:1–6:11; 6:35–14:26, 29-30; 15:2-26; 16:2-4, 6-7; 16:10–20:20, 22-23; 20:25–21:9). The manuscript does not include the pericope of the adulteress (7:53–8:11), making it the earliest witness to not include this spurious passage. The manuscript is usually dated as c. 200, but the renowned paleographer Herbert Hunger has argued that P66 should be dated to the first half, if not the first quarter, of the second century.<\/p>\n<p>According to recent studies, it seems evident that P66 has preserved the work of three individuals: the original scribe, a thoroughgoing corrector, and a minor corrector. With a practiced calligraphic hand, the original scribe of P66 wrote in larger print as he went along in order to fill out the codex. The large print throughout indicates that it was written to be read aloud to a Christian congregation. The text exhibits the scribe’s knowledge of other portions of Scripture (inasmuch as he harmonized John 6:69 to Matthew 16:16 and John 21:6 to Luke 5:5), his use of standard <em>nomina sacra<\/em> (a way of writing divine names), and his special use of <em>nomina sacra<\/em> for the words “cross” and “crucify.”<\/p>\n<p>The original scribe was quite free in his interaction with the text; he produced several singular readings that reveal his independent interpretation of the text. While the numerous scribal mistakes would seem to indicate that the scribe was inattentive, many of the singular readings—prior to correction—reveal that he was not detached from the narrative of the text. Rather, he became so absorbed in his reading that he often forgot the exact words he was copying. His task as a copyist was to duplicate the exemplar word for word, but this was frustrated by the fact that he was reading the text in logical semantic chunks and often became a coproducer of a new text. As a result, he continually had to stop his reading and make many in-process corrections. But he left several places uncorrected, which were later fixed by the <em>diorthotes<\/em> (official corrector). The finished product is quite good, presenting a text that is very close to the Alexandrian witnesses.<\/p>\n<h6>P72 (Papyrus Bodmer VII–VIII)<\/h6>\n<p>This manuscript, dated late third century, has an interesting collection of writings in one codex: 1 Peter 1:1–5:14; 2 Peter 1:1–3:18; Jude 1:1-25; the Nativity of Mary, the apocryphal correspondence of Paul to the Corinthians, the eleventh ode of Solomon, Melito’s Homily on the Passover, a fragment of a hymn, the Apology of Phileas, and Psalms 33 and 34.<\/p>\n<p>Scholars think that four scribes took part in producing the entire manuscript. First Peter has clear Alexandrian affinities—especially with B. Second Peter and (especially) Jude display more of an uncontrolled type text (usually associated with the “Western” text), with several independent readings.<\/p>\n<h6>P75 (Papyrus Bodmer XIV–XV)<\/h6>\n<p>This codex contains most of Luke and John (Lk 3:18–4:2; 4:34–5:10; 5:37–18:18; 22:4–24:53; Jn 1:1–11:45, 48-57; 12:3–13:1, 8-9; 14:8-30; 15:7-8.) The manuscript does not include the pericope of the adulteress (7:53–8:11). The manuscript can be dated to the late second or early third century.<\/p>\n<p>The copyist of P75 was a literate scribe trained in making books. His craftsmanship shows through in his tight calligraphy and controlled copying. The handwriting displayed in this manuscript is typically called by paleographers the common angular type of the late second to early third century. The scribe’s Christianity shows in his abbreviations of the <em>nomina sacra<\/em><em>,<\/em> as well as in his abbreviation of the word “cross.” These are telltale signs of a scribe who belonged to the Christian community. Furthermore, the large typeface indicates that the manuscript was composed to be read aloud to a Christian congregation. The scribe even added a system of sectional divisions to aid any would-be lector. Thus, we have a manuscript written by a Christian for other Christians.<\/p>\n<p>There are several indications of the scribe’s Alexandrian orientation. First and foremost is his scriptoral acumen. He is the best of all the early Christian scribes, and his manuscript is an extremely accurate copy. P75 is the work of an extremely disciplined scribe who copied with the intention of being careful and accurate. Scholars generally agree that P75 displays the kind of text that was used in making Codex Vaticanus (there is 87 percent agreement between P75 and B). As such, textual scholars have a high regard for P75’s textual fidelity.<\/p>\n\n<h5>Other Papyrus Manuscripts<\/h5>\n<h6>P4 + P64 + P67<\/h6>\n<p>These three papyrus manuscripts are part of one codex dated <span>AD<\/span> 150–175. The manuscript was the work of a professional scribe, and the text is extremely accurate.<\/p>\n<h6>P32 (Rylands Papyrus 5)<\/h6>\n<p>This manuscript, preserving Titus 1:11-15; 2:3-8, is dated c. 175, making it the earliest extant copy of any of the Pastoral Epistles. P32 shows agreement with א and with F and G. Since F and G (nearly identical manuscripts) go back to the same archetype, it is possible that P32 could be linked to the same source.<\/p>\n<h6>P52 (Rylands Papyrus 457)<\/h6>\n<p>This fragment, containing John 18:31-34, 37-38, is noteworthy because of its date: c. 110–125. Many scholars (F. Kenyon, H. I. Bell, A. Deissmann, and W. H. P. Hatch) have confirmed this dating. The manuscript came from the Fayum or Oxyrhynchus site. It was acquired in 1920 by Grenfell, but it remained unnoticed among hundreds of papyri until 1934, when C. H. Roberts recognized that this fragment preserves a few verses from John’s Gospel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ImportantUncialManuscripts\">Important Uncial Manuscripts<\/p>\n<p>The manuscripts typically classified as “uncial” are so designated to differentiate them from papyrus manuscripts. In a sense, this is a misnomer because the real difference has to do with the material they are written on—vellum (treated animal hide) as compared to papyrus—not the kind of letters used. Indeed, the papyri are also written in uncials (capital letters), but the term “uncial” typically describes the majuscule lettering that was prominent in fourth-century biblical texts, such as in א, A, B, C.<\/p>\n<h5>Codex Sinaiticus (or א)<\/h5>\n<p>This codex contains the entire OT and the NT in this order: the four Gospels, the Pauline Epistles (including Hebrews), Acts, the General Epistles, Revelation. It also includes the Epistle of Barnabas and the Shepherd of Hermas. The codex cannot be earlier than 340 (the year Eusebius died) because the Eusebian sections of the text are indicated in the margins of the Gospels by a contemporary hand. Most scholars date it 350–375.<\/p>\n<p>This codex was discovered by Constantin von Tischendorf in St Catherine’s Monastery (situated at the foot of Mt Sinai). On a visit to the monastery in 1844 he noticed in a wastebasket some parchment leaves that were being used to light the lamps. He was allowed to take this waste paper, which proved to be 43 leaves from various parts of the Greek translation of the OT.<\/p>\n<p>In 1853 he made a second trip to the monastery and found nothing. In 1859, however, on his third trip, he found not only other parts of the OT but also the complete NT. He was finally able to persuade the monastery authorities to present the manuscript to the czar, the great patron of the Greek Catholic Church, who placed it in the Imperial Library in St Petersburg. The czar gave great honors to the monastery and its authorities, and everybody seemed well pleased. Later Tischendorf was charged with having stolen the manuscript from its lawful owners, but the better textual scholars do not accept that story.<\/p>\n\n<p>The manuscript remained in the Imperial Library until 1933, when it was purchased by the British Museum for the huge sum of £100,000 (about $500,000). Textual criticism made the headlines because one manuscript was bought for this much money, raised largely by public subscription during the Great Depression. The manuscript is now on display in the manuscript room of the museum, where it is considered one of its most prized possessions.<\/p>\n<p>The text of Sinaiticus is very closely related to that of Codex Vaticanus. They agree in presenting the purest type of text, usually called the Alexandrian text type. Tischendorf greatly used the textual evidence of Codex Sinaiticus in preparing his critical editions of the Greek NT. Tischendorf thought four scribes had originally produced the codex, whom he named scribes A, B, C, D. After reinvestigation, H. J. Milne and T. C. Skeat identified only three scribes: A (who wrote the historical and poetical books of the OT, as well as most of the NT), B (who wrote the Prophets and the Shepherd of Hermas), and D (who wrote some Psalms, Tobit, Judith, and 4 Maccabees, and redid small sections of the NT). Milne and Skeat demonstrated that scribe A of Codex Vaticanus was likely the same scribe as scribe D of Codex Sinaiticus. If this true, then א is contemporary with B—perhaps produced in the same scriptorium in Alexandria. Codex Sinaiticus provides a fairly reliable witness to the NT; however, the scribe was not as careful as the scribe of B.<\/p>\n<h5>Codex Alexandrinus (A)<\/h5>\n<p>This is one of the three most important codices containing early copies of the whole Bible in Greek (the other two being the Vaticanus and Sinaiticus codexes). The name Alexandrinus comes from ancient records suggesting that it was copied in Egypt during the early part of the fifth century <span>AD<\/span>. The early history of this manuscript and its Egyptian provenance is partially revealed by its flyleaves. A note by Cyril of Lucar (patriarch of Alexandria and then of Constantinople in the 1620s) states that, according to tradition, it was written by Thecla, a noble lady of Egypt shortly after the Council of Nicaea (325) and that her name was originally inscribed at the end of the volume but the last page was lost due to mutilation. An Arabic note of the 13th or 14th century also says that the manuscript was written by “Thecla the martyr.” Another Arabic note says that is was presented to the patriarchal cell of Alexandria (c. 1098). Cyril of Lucar took the manuscript from Alexandria to Constantinople in 1621 and then gave it to Charles I of England in 1627, where it became part of the Royal Library, then later the British Museum.<\/p>\n<p>Only 773 of the original 820 or so pages still exist. The rest were lost as the book was passed down through the centuries. The surviving parts of Alexandrinus contain a Greek translation of the whole OT, the Apocrypha (including four books of Maccabees and Psalm 151), most of the NT, and some early Christian writings (of which the First and Second Epistles of Clement to the Corinthians are the most important).<\/p>\n<p>Frederick Kenyon thought the codex was the work of five scribes, to each of whom he designated a Roman numeral. According to Kenyon, scribes I and II copied the OT; scribe III did Matthew, Mark, 1 Corinthians 10:8—Philemon 1:25; scribe IV did Luke—Acts, General Epistles, Romans 1:1—1 Corinthians 10:8; and scribe V did Revelation. Milne and Skeat, however, argued that the whole codex was the work of two copyists (I and II). W. H. P. Hatch noted that many corrections have been made in the manuscript, most of them at an early date. Some of these corrections were introduced by the scribe himself, and others came from later hands.<\/p>\n<p>Evidently, the scribes of this codex used exemplars of varying quality for various sections of the NT. The exemplar used for the Gospels was of poor quality, reflecting a Byzantine text type. Its testimony in the Epistles is much better, and in Revelation it provides the best witness to the original text.<\/p>\n\n<h5>Codex Vaticanus (B)<\/h5>\n<p>Codex Vaticanus is the Vatican Manuscript, so named because it is the most famous manuscript in the Vatican Library in Rome. This manuscript has been in the Vatican’s library since at least 1475, but it was not made available to scholars, such as Constantin von Tischendorf and Samuel Tregelles, until the middle of the 19th century.<\/p>\n<p>At one time, the codex contained the whole Greek Bible, including most of the books of the Apocrypha, but it has lost many of its leaves. Originally it must have had about 820 leaves (1,640 pp), but now it has 759—617 in the OT and 142 in the NT. The major gaps of the manuscript are Genesis 1:1–46:28; 2 Samuel 2:5-7, 10-13; Psalms 106:27–138:6; Hebrews 9:14–13:25; the Pastoral Epistles; and Revelation. Each leaf measures ten and a half by ten inches (26.7 by 25.4 centimeters). Each page has three columns (two for the poetical books) with 40 to 44 lines to the column. The manuscript was written by two different scribes. It is dated in the early to middle part of the fourth century. It is not known where the manuscript originated, but it has been in the Vatican Library from the time of its earliest catalog in 1475.<\/p>\n\n<p>When Napoleon conquered Rome, he brought its treasures to Paris, including this manuscript. The scholar Hug identified it and called the attention of other scholars to it. After the downfall of Napoleon, the manuscript was returned to the Vatican Library. Competent textual scholars were not allowed to do careful work on it until a photographic edition was published in 1890. It is now on exhibit in the Vatican Library.<\/p>\n<p>The text of the Vatican Manuscript is much like that of Codex Sinaiticus. These are generally recognized as the two finest examples of the Alexandrian type of Greek text of the NT. The Greek text of the OT is very fine too, but it is not quite so important, as the original language of the OT was Hebrew. Virtually all the textual scholars since the days of Brooke Westcott and Fenton Hort (who brought out their Greek Testament, including their theory of textual criticism, in 1881), recognize this neutral type of text as a very early text and a very pure text, an extremely accurate reproduction of what the original text must have been. Westcott and Hort called it a second-century text accurate in 999 out of 1,000 words so far as any matter of translatable difference was concerned. א and B are the finest examples of this type of text, but it is also found in a few other Greek uncial manuscripts, a few of the early translations, and in the writings of a few of the early church fathers. Since the days of Westcott and Hort, their theory has been confirmed by the discovery of some papyrus manuscripts, notably the Bodmer Papyri, discovered in the 1950s.<\/p>\n<h5>Codex Ephraemi Rescriptus (C)<\/h5>\n<p>This codex is a palimpsest (the original writing was erased and different words written on the same material). It originally contained the entire Bible but now has only parts of six OT books and portions of all NT books except 2 Thessalonians and 2 John. The single-column Bible text, written in the 5th century <span>AD<\/span>, was erased in the 12th century and replaced by a two-column text of a Greek translation of sermons or treatises by a certain Ephraem, a 4th-century Syrian church leader. Such a practice was common in periods of economic depression or when parchment was scarce. The original writing was scraped from the writing surface and the surface smoothed. Then new compositions could be written on the prepared surface. Using chemicals Tischendorf was able to read much of the erased document.<\/p>\n<p>The manuscript may have been brought from the east to Florence by a learned Greek named Andrew John Lascar in the time of Lorenzo de’Medici. Since Lascar was known as Rhyndacenus (from the river Rhyndacus), he probably came from the region of Phrygia (site of ancient Laodicea). Where the manuscript was prior to this is not known. The Ephraemi manuscript was brought to Italy in the early sixth century, where it became the property of the Medici family. Catherine de’Medici took it to France, where it remains today.<\/p>\n<p>The text of this manuscript is mixed—it is compounded from all the major text types, agreeing frequently with the later koine of Byzantine type, which most scholars regard as the least valuable type of NT text.<\/p>\n<h5>Codex Bezae (D)<\/h5>\n<p>This is a Greek-Latin diglot containing Matthew—Acts, 3 John, with lacunae. Most scholars date it late fourth or early fifth century (c. 400). Some scholars think the codex was produced in either Egypt or North Africa by a scribe whose mother tongue was Latin. Another scholar (D. C. Parker) has argued that it was copied in Beirut, a center of Latin legal studies during the fifth century, where both Latin and Greek were used. Evidently, it was produced by a scribe who knew Latin better than Greek, and then was corrected by several scribes. In any event, the codex somehow came into the hands of Theodore Beza, French scholar and successor to Calvin. Beza gave it to the Cambridge University Library in 1581.<\/p>\n<p>This codex is probably the most controversial of the NT uncials because of its marked independence. Its many additions, omissions, and alterations (especially in Luke and Acts) are the work of a significant theologian. A few earlier manuscripts (P29, P38, P48, and 0171) appear to be precursors to the type of text found in D, which is considered the principal witness of the Western text-type. Thus, Codex Bezae could be a copy of an earlier revised edition. This reviser must have been a scholar who had a propensity for adding historical, biographical, and geographical details. More than anything, he was intent on filling in gaps in the narrative by adding circumstantial details.<\/p>\n<h5>Codex Washingtonianus, or The Freer Gospels (W)<\/h5>\n<p>This codex, dated around 400, has the four Gospels and Acts. It is often referred to as the Freer Gospels—named after its owner, Charles Freer. The codex likely came from the ruins of a monastery near Giza. The handwriting is quite similar to that found in a fifth-century fragment of the book of Enoch found at Akhmim in 1886.<\/p>\n<p>Codex W was copied from a parent manuscript (exemplar) that had been pieced together from several different manuscripts. This is obvious because the textual presentation of W is noticeably variegated and even the stratification of the text is matched by similar variations in paragraphing. The scribe who collated the parent manuscript drew upon various sources to put together his Gospel codex. It is likely that the scribe of the parent manuscript used a text that came from North Africa (the “Western” text) for the first part of Mark, and the scribe of W used manuscripts from Antioch for Matthew and the second part of Luke to fill the gaps in the more ancient manuscript he was copying. Detailed textual analysis reveals the variegated textual stratifications of W, as follows: in Matthew the text is Byzantine; in Mark the text is first Western (1:1–5:30), then Caesarean in Mark 5:31–16:20 (akin to P45); in Luke the text is first Alexandrian (1:1–8:12), then Byzantine. John is more complicated because the first part of John (1:1–5:11), which fills a quire, was the work of a seventh-century scribe who must have replaced a damaged quire. (W<span>s<\/span> designates the work of this scribe.) This first section has a mixture of Alexandrian and Western readings, as does the rest of John.<\/p>\n<h5>Codex 1739<\/h5>\n<p>This tenth-century codex has Acts and the Epistles. The manuscript was discovered at Mt Athos in 1879 by E. von der Goltz. The manuscript has strong textual affinities with P46, B, 1739, Coptic Sahidic, Coptic Boharic, Clement, and Origen. The relationship between P46, B, and 1739 is remarkable because 1739 is a tenth-century manuscript that was copied from a fourth-century manuscript of excellent quality. According to a colophon, the scribe of 1739 for the Pauline Epistles followed a manuscript that came from Caesarea in the library of Pamphilus and that contained an Origenian text. The three manuscripts, P46, B, and 1739, form a clear textual line: from P46 (early second century) to B (early fourth century) to 1739 (tenth century based on fourth century).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheTextoftheNewTestament\">The Text of the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>The original text of the NT is the “published” text—that is, the text as it was in its final edited form and released for circulation in the Christian community. For some books of the NT, there is little difference between the original composition and the published text. After the author wrote or dictated his work, he (or an associate) made the final editorial corrections and then released it for distribution. As is the case for books published in modern times, so in ancient times, the original writing of the author is not always the same as what is published—due to the editorial process. Nonetheless, the author is credited with the final edited text, and the published book is attributed to the author and considered the autograph. This autograph is the original published text. Of course, in this case the autographs do not exist, so scholars have to rely on copies to recover or reconstruct the original wording.<\/p>\n<p>Some scholars think it is impossible to recover the original text of the Greek NT because they have not been able to reconstruct the early history of textual transmission. Other modern scholars are less pessimistic but still quite guarded in affirming the possiblity. And yet others are optimistic because we possess many early manuscripts of excellent quality and because our view of the early period of textual transmission has been getting clearer and clearer.<\/p>\n<p>When we speak of recovering the text of the NT, we are referring to individual books of the NT, not to the entire volume per se, because each book (or group of books—such as the Pauline Epistles) had its own unique history of textual transmission. The earliest extant copy of an entire NT text is the one preserved in Codex Sinaiticus (written about <span>AD<\/span> 375). (Codex Vaticanus lacks the Pastoral Epistles and Revelation.) Prior to the fourth century, the NT was circulated in its various parts: as a single book or a group of books (such as the four Gospels or the Pauline Epistles). Manuscripts from the late first century to the third century have been found with individual books such as Matthew (P1, P77), Mark (P88), Luke (P69), John (P5, 22, 52, 66), Acts (P91), Revelation (P18, 47), or containing groups of books, such as the four Gospels with Acts (P45), the Pauline Epistles (P30, P46, P92), the Petrine Epistles and Jude (P72). Each of the books of the NT has had its own textual history and has been preserved with varying degrees of accuracy. Nonetheless, all of the books were altered from the original state due to the process of manual copying decade after decade and century after century. And the text of each of the books needs to be recovered.<\/p>\n<p>The NT text was affected with many variations in its early history. In the late first and early second century, the oral traditions and the written word existed side by side with equal status—especially with respect to the material of the Gospels. Often, the text was changed by scribes attempting to conform the written message to the oral tradition or attempting to conform one Gospel account to another. By the end of the second century and into the third century, many of the significant variant readings entered into the textual stream.<\/p>\n<p>The early period of textual transmission, however, was not completely marred by textual infidelity and scribal liberty. There were those scribes who copied the text faithfully and reverently—that is, they recognized that they were copying a sacred text written by an apostle. The formalization of canonization did not ascribe this sacredness to the text. Canonization came about as the result of common, historical recognition of the sacredness of various NT books. Certain NT books, such as the four Gospels, Acts, and Paul’s epistles were considered inspired literature from the onset. As such, certain scribes copied them with reverential fidelity.<\/p>\n<p>Other scribes, however, felt free to make “improvements” in the text—either in the interest of doctrine and harmonization or due to the influence of a competitive oral tradition. The manuscripts produced in such a manner created a kind of “popular text”—i.e., an uncontrolled text. (This text type used to be called the “Western text,” but scholars now recognize this as a misnomer.)<\/p>\n<p>During the second century, there were a few men who produced recensions of the NT text. According to Eusebius, Theodotus (and his followers) altered the text for their own purposes. In the middle of the second century, Marcion expunged his copies of the Gospel according to Luke of all references to the Jewish background of Jesus, and Tatian’s harmony of the Gospels contains several textual alterations that gave support to ascetic views. And yet another recendor created the D-type text for the Gospels and Acts. This theologically minded redactor, living in the late second or third century, created a text that had short-lived popularity. Three third-century papyri, P29, P38, P48, each containing a portion from the book of Acts, may be precursors to the D-type text in Acts. But there are other papyri containing portions of Acts that provide even earlier testimony to a purer form of Acts—namely, P45 (c. 150) and P91 (c. 200), thereby showing that the D-type text of Acts did not necessarily antedate the purer form.<\/p>\n<p>Besides these endeavors—which are all noted for creating textual impurities—there was no recension of the NT text in the second century. Rather, it was a period in which there were scribes who exercised freedom in copying and those who demonstrated acumen. The manuscripts produced by the latter are those that come closest to preserving the original text. A prime example of an accurate late-second-century manuscript is P75.<\/p>\n<p>It is a well-known fact that the text produced by the scribe of P75 is a very accurate manuscript. It is also well-known that P75 was the kind of manuscript used in formulating Codex Vaticanus—the readings of P75 and B are remarkably similar. Prior to the discovery of P75, certain scholars thought Codex Vaticanus was the work of a fourth-century recension; others (chiefly Hort) thought it must trace back to a very early and accurate copy. Hort said that Codex Vaticanus preserves “not only a very ancient text, but a very pure line of a very ancient text” (Westcott and Hort, <em>The<\/em> <em>Introduction to the New Testament in the Original Greek,<\/em> pp 250–51). P75 appears to have shown that Hort was right.<\/p>\n<p>Prior to the discovery of P75, many textual scholars were convinced that the second- and third-century papyri displayed a text in flux, a text characterized only by individual independence. The Chester Beatty Papyrus, P45, and the Bodmer Papyri, P66 and P72 (in 2 Peter and Jude), show this kind of independence. Scholars thought that scribes at Alexandria must have used several such texts to produce a good recension—as is exhibited in Codex Vaticanus. But we now know that Codex Vaticanus was not the result of a scholarly recension, resulting from editorial selection across the various textual histories. Rather, it is now quite clear that Codex Vaticanus was simply a copy (with some modifications) of a manuscript much like P75, not a fourth-century recension.<\/p>\n<p>Some scholars may point out that this does not automatically mean that P75 and B represent the original text. What it does mean, they say, is that we have a second-century manuscript showing great affinity with a fourth-century manuscript whose quality has been highly esteemed. But various scholars have demonstrated that there was no Alexandrian recension before the time of P75 (late second century) and B (early fourth) and that both these manuscripts represent a relatively pure form of preservation of a relatively pure line of descent from the original text.<\/p>\n<p>The current view about the early text is that certain scribes in Alexandria and\/or scribes familiar with Alexandrian scriptoral practices (perhaps those in Oxyrhynchus) were probably responsible for maintaining a relatively pure text throughout the second, third, and fourth centuries. The Alexandrian scribes, associated with or actually employed by the scriptorium of the great Alexandrian library and\/or members of the scriptorium associated with the catechetical school at Alexandria (called the <em>Didaskelion<\/em>), were trained philologists, grammarians, and textual critics. Their work on the NT was not recensional—that is, it was not an organized emendation of the text. Rather, the work of purification and preservation was probably done here and there by various individuals trained in text criticism. This is apparent in the production of P66, which contains the Gospel of John. This manuscript was probably produced in an Egyptian scriptorium by a novice scribe who made many blunders, which were subsequently corrected by another scribe working in the same scriptorium. The first text produced by the novice could be classified as being very “free,” but the corrected text is far more accurate. (See the discussion on this manuscript above.)<\/p>\n<p>What appears to have happened with the copying of the NT text in the early period in Egypt has been poignantly characterized by Zuntz. He said that when a book was immensely popular (such as Homer’s <em>Iliad<\/em> and <em>Odyssey,<\/em> or Plato’s writings), it was copied with wild enthusiasm by novice and scholar alike. But when grammarians and scribes got ahold of it, they tried to rid it of textual corruption. In the process, however, they may have obliterated some authentic readings, but not many. Thus, the popular text (also known as the “Western text”) could have preserved the original wording in some cases. The popular or free kind of text is displayed in several third-century manuscripts: P9, P37, P40, P45, P72, and P78.<\/p>\n<p>In brief, this popular text is usually displayed in any kind of manuscript that was not produced by Alexandrian influences. This text, given to independence, is not as trustworthy as the Alexandrian text type. But because the Alexandrian text is known as a polished text, the popular text sometimes preserved the original wording. When a variant reading has the support of “Western” and Alexandrian texts, it is very likely original; but when the two are divided, the Alexandrian witnesses more often preserve the original wording.<\/p>\n<p>One dilemma still remains for some textual critics. They cannot explain how a P75\/B-type text coexisted with a Western-type text in the second century. All that can be said is that the Western text generally appears to be inferior to the P75\/B-type text. Of course, this kind of judgment troubles certain scholars, who point out that the esteem given to B and P75 is based on a subjective appreciation of the kind of text they contain (as over against the Western text) rather than on any kind of theoretical reconstruction of the early transmission of the text. This same subjective estimation was at work when Westcott and Hort decided that B was intrinsically superior to D (see their <em>Introduction,<\/em> pp 32–42). Yet the praxis of textual criticism time and again demonstrates that the P75\/B-type text is intrinsically superior to the Western text.<\/p>\n<p>In the final analysis, the manuscripts that represent a pure preservation of the original text are usually those called “Alexandrian.” Some scholars, such as Bruce Metzger, have called the earlier manuscripts “protoAlexandrian,” for they (or manuscripts like them) are thought of as being used to compose an Alexandrian-type text. However, this is looking at things from the perspective of the fourth century. We should look at things from the second century onward and then compare fourth-century manuscripts to those of the second. The second-century manuscripts could still be called “Alexandrian” in the sense that they were produced under Alexandrian influences. Perhaps a distinguishing terminology could be “early Alexandrian” (pre-Constantine) and “later Alexandrian” (post-Constantine). Manuscripts designated as “early Alexandrian” would generally be purer, less editorialized. Manuscripts designated “later Alexandrian” would display editorialization, as well as the influence of other textual traditions.<\/p>\n<p>The “early Alexandrian” text is reflected in many second- and third-century manuscripts. On the top of the list is P75 (c. 175), the work of a competent and careful scribe. Not far behind in quality is P4+P64+P67 (c. 150), the work of an excellent copyist. Other extremely good copies are P1 (c. 200), P20 (early third century), P23 (c. 200), P27 (third century), P28 (third century), P32 (c. 150), P39 (third century), P46 (c. 125), P65 (third century), P66 (in its corrected form—P66<span>c<\/span>; c. 150), P70 (third century), P77 (c. 150), P87 (c. 125), P90 (c. 175), and P91 (c. 200). Several of these manuscripts have been placed in the “strict” category by textual critics Kurt and Barbara Aland—that is, they exhibit “strict” scribal control and therefore are accurate copies of an exemplar, if not the original. These manuscripts are P1, P23, P35, P37, P39, P64\/67, P65, P70, and P75.<\/p>\n<p>The “later Alexandrian” text, which displays editorial polishing, is exhibited in a few manuscripts, such as א (fourth century), T (fifth century), ע (seventh century), L (eighth century), 33 (ninth century), 1739 (a tenth-century manuscript copied from a fourth-century Alexandrian manuscript much like P46), and 579 (13th century). Beginning in the fifth century, Byzantine-type manuscripts began to make their influence in Egypt. Some manuscripts dated around 400 that came from Egypt clearly reflect this influence; Codex Alexandrinus (A) is probably the best example. Other Egyptian manuscripts of this era, such as Codex Sinaiticus (א) and Codex Washingtonianus (W) display large-scale harmonization, which cannot be directly linked to any kind of recension.<\/p>\n<p>At the end of the third century, another kind of Greek text came into being and then grew in popularity until it became the dominant text-type throughout Christendom. This is the text-type first instigated by Lucian of Antioch, according to Jerome (in his introduction to his Latin translation of the Gospels). Lucian’s text was a definite recension (i.e., a purposely created edition)—as opposed to the Alexandrian text-type that came about as the result of a process wherein the Alexandrian scribes, upon comparing many manuscripts, attempted to preserve the best text—thereby serving more as textual critics than editors. Of course, the Alexandrians did do some editing—such as we would call copy-editing. The Lucianic text is the outgrowth and culmination of the popular text; it is characterized by smoothness of language, which is achieved by the removal of obscurities and awkward grammatical constructions and by the conflation of variant readings. Lucian (and\/or his associates) must have used many different kinds of manuscripts of varying qualities to produce a harmonized, edited NT text. The kind of editorial work that went into the Lucianic text is what we would call substantive editing.<\/p>\n<p>Lucian’s text was produced prior to the Diocletian persecution (c. 303), during which time many copies of the NT were confiscated and destroyed. Not long after this period of devastation, Constantine came to power and then recognized Christianity as the state religion. There was, of course, a great need for copies of the NT to be made and distributed to churches throughout the Mediterranean world. It was at this time that Lucian’s text began to be propagated by bishops going out from the Antiochan school to churches throughout the East, taking the text with them. Lucian’s text soon became the standard text of the Eastern church and formed the basis for the Byzantine text—and is thus the ultimate authority for the Textus Receptus.<\/p>\n<p>While Lucian was forming his recension of the NT text, the Alexandrian text was taking on its final shape. As was mentioned earlier, the formation of the Alexandrian text-type was the result of a process (as opposed to a single editorial recension). The formation of the Alexandrian text involved minor textual criticism (i.e., selecting variant readings among various manuscripts) and copyediting (i.e., producing a readable text). There was far less tampering with the text in the Alexandrian text-type than in the Lucian, and the underlying manuscripts for the Alexandrian text-type were superior to those used by Lucian. Perhaps Hesychius was responsible for giving the Alexandrian text its final shape, and Athanasius of Alexandria may have been the one who made this text the archetypal text for Egypt.<\/p>\n<p>As the years went by, there were fewer and fewer Alexandrian manuscripts produced, and more and more Byzantine manuscripts manufactured. Very few Egyptians continued to read Greek (with the exception of those in St Catherine’s Monastery, the site of the discovery of Codex Sinaiticus), and the rest of the Mediterranean world turned to Latin. It was only those in the Greek-speaking churches in Greece and Byzantium that continued to make copies of the Greek text. For century after century—from the 6th to the 14th—the great majority of NT manuscripts were produced in Byzantium, all bearing the same kind of text. When the first Greek NT was printed (c. 1525), it was based on a Greek text that Erasmus had compiled, using a few late Byzantine manuscripts. This printed text, with minor revisions, became the Textus Receptus.<\/p>\n<p>Beginning in the 17th century, earlier manuscripts began to be discovered—manuscripts with a text that differed from that found in the Textus Receptus. Around 1630, Codex Alexandrinus was brought to England. An early fifth-century manuscript, containing the entire NT, it provided a good, early witness to the NT text (it is an especially good witness to the original text of Revelation). Two hundred years later, a German scholar named Constantin von Tischendorf discovered Codex Sinaiticus in St Catherine’s Monastery (located near Mt Sinai). The manuscript, dated around <span>AD<\/span> 360, is one of the two oldest vellum (treated animal hide) manuscripts of the Greek NT. The earliest vellum manuscript, Codex Vaticanus, had been in the Vatican’s library since at least 1481, but it had not been made available to scholars until the middle of the 19th century. This manuscript, dated slightly earlier (<span>AD<\/span> 350) than Codex Sinaiticus, had both the OT and NT in Greek, excluding the last part of the NT (Hebrews 9:15 to Revelation 22:21 and the Pastoral Epistles). A hundred years of textual criticism has determined that this manuscript is one of the most accurate and reliable witnesses to the original text.<\/p>\n<p>Other early and important manuscripts were discovered in the 19th century. Through the tireless labors of men like Constantin von Tischendorf, Samuel Tregelles, and F. H. A. Scrivener, manuscripts such as Codex Ephraemi Rescriptus, Codex Zacynthius, and Codex Augiensis were deciphered, collated, and published.<\/p>\n<p>As the various manuscripts were discovered and made public, certain scholars labored to compile a Greek text that would more closely represent the original text than did the Textus Receptus. Around 1700 John Mill produced an improved Textus Receptus, and in the 1730s Johannes Albert Bengel (known as the father of modern textual and philological studies in the NT) published a text that deviated from the Textus Receptus according to the evidence of earlier manuscripts.<\/p>\n<p>In the 1800s certain scholars began to abandon the Textus Receptus. Karl Lachman, a classical philologist, produced a fresh text (in 1831) that represented the fourth-century manuscripts. Samuel Tregelles (self-taught in Latin, Hebrew, and Greek), laboring throughout his entire lifetime, concentrated all of his efforts in publishing one Greek text (which came out in six parts, from 1857 to 1872). As is stated in the introduction to this work, Tregelles’s goal was “to exhibit the text of the NT in the very words in which it has been transmitted on the evidence of ancient authority.” Henry Alford also compiled a Greek text based upon the best and earliest manuscripts. In his preface to <em>The Greek New Testament<\/em> (a multivolume commentary on the Greek NT, published in 1849), Alford said he labored for the “demolition of the unworthy and pedantic reverence for the received text, which stood in the way of all chance of discovering the genuine word of God.”<\/p>\n<p>During this same era, Tischendorf was devoting a lifetime of labor to discovering manuscripts and producing accurate editions of the Greek NT. In a letter to his fiancé he wrote, “I am confronted with a sacred task, the struggle to regain the original form of the NT.” In fulfillment of his desire, he discovered Codex Sinaiticus, deciphered the palimpsest Codex Ephraemi Rescriptus, collated countless manuscripts, and produced several editions of the Greek NT (the eighth edition is considered the best).<\/p>\n<p>Aided by the work of the previous scholars, two British men, Brooke Westcott and Fenton Hort, worked together for 28 years to produce a volume entitled <em>The New Testament in the Original Greek<\/em> (1881). Along with this publication, they made known their theory (which was chiefly Hort’s) that Codex Vaticanus and Codex Sinaiticus (along with a few other early manuscripts) represented a text that most closely replicated the original writing. They called this text the Neutral Text. (According to their studies, the Neutral Text described certain manuscripts that had the least amount of textual corruption.) This is the text that Westcott and Hort relied upon for compiling their volume.<\/p>\n<p>The 19th century was a fruitful era for the recovery of the Greek NT; the 20th century, no less so. Those living in the 20th century have witnessed the discovery of the Oxyrhynchus Papyri, the Chester Beatty Papyri, and the Bodmer Papyri. To date, there are nearly 100 papyri containing portions of the NT—several of which date from the late first century to the early fourth century. These significant discoveries, providing scholars with many ancient manuscripts, have greatly enhanced the effort to recover the original wording of the NT.<\/p>\n<p>At the beginning of the 20th century, Eberhard Nestle used the best editions of the Greek NT produced in the 19th century to compile a text that represented the majority consensus. The work of making new editions was carried on by his son for several years, and then came under the care of Kurt Aland. The latest edition (the 27th) of Nestle-Aland’s <em>Novum Testamentum Graece<\/em> appeared in 1993. The same Greek text appears in another popular volume published by the United Bible Societies, called the <em>Greek New Testament<\/em> (fourth edition). Aland has argued that the Nestle-Aland text, 27th edition (NA<span>27<\/span>), comes closer to the original text of the NT than did Tischendorf or Westcott and Hort. And in several writings he intimates that NA<span>27<\/span> may very well be the original text. Though few, if any, scholars would agree with this, the 27th edition of the Nestle-Aland text is regarded by many as representing the latest and best in textual scholarship.<\/p>\n<h5>New Testament Textual Criticism<\/h5>\n<p>Textual critics working with ancient literature universally acknowledge the supremacy of earlier manuscripts over later ones. Textual critics not working with the NT would love to have the same kind of early witnesses that biblical scholars possess. In fact, many of them work with manuscripts written 1,000 years after the autographs were composed! We all marvel that the Dead Sea Scrolls have provided a text that is nearly 800 years closer to the originals than the Masoretic manuscripts, and yet many of the Dead Sea manuscripts are still over 600 to 800 years removed from the time of original composition. NT textual critics have a great advantage!<\/p>\n<p>The 19th-century NT textual scholars—such as Lachmann, Tregelles, Tischendorf, Westcott and Hort—worked on the basis that the earliest witnesses are the best witnesses. Some textual scholars have continued this line of recovery using the testimony of the earlier witnesses. But many textual scholars since the time of Westcott and Hort have been less inclined to produce editions based on the theory that the earliest reading is the best. Most present-day textual critics are more inclined to endorse the maxim: the reading that is most likely original is the one that best explains the variants.<\/p>\n<p>This maxim (or “canon” as it is sometimes called), as good as it is, produces conflicting results. For example, two scholars, using this same principle to examine the same variant unit, will not agree. One will argue that one variant was produced by a copyist attempting to emulate the author’s style; the other will claim the same variant has to be original because it accords with the author’s style. One will argue that one variant was produced by an orthodox scribe attempting to rid the text of a reading that could be used to promote heterodoxy or heresy; another will claim that the same variant has to be original because it is orthodox and accords with Christian doctrine (thus a heterodox or heretical scribe must have changed it). Furthermore, this principle allows for the possibility that the reading selected for the text can be taken from any manuscript of any date. This can lead to subjective eclecticism.<\/p>\n<p>Modern textual scholars have attempted to temper the subjectivism by employing a method called “reasoned eclecticism.” This kind of eclecticism applies a combination of internal and external considerations, whereby the character of the variants is evaluated in light of the manuscripts’ evidence and vice versa. This is supposed to produce a balanced view and serve as a check against purely subjective tendencies.<\/p>\n<p>The Alands favor the same kind of approach, calling it the local-genealogical method, which is defined as follows:<\/p>\n<blockquote><p>It is impossible to proceed from the assumption of a manuscript stemma, and on the basis of a full review and analysis of the relationships obtaining among the variety of interrelated branches in the manuscript tradition, to undertake a recension of the data as one would do with other Greek texts. Decisions must be made one by one, instance by instance. This method has been characterized as eclecticism, but wrongly so. After carefully establishing the variety of readings offered in a passage and the possibilities of their interpretation, it must always then be determined afresh on the basis of external and internal criteria which of these readings (and frequently they are quite numerous) is the original, from which the others may be regarded as derivative. From the perspective of our present knowledge, this “local-genealogical” method (if it must be given a name) is the only one which meets the requirements of the NT textual tradition. (Introduction to <em>Novum Testamentum Graece,<\/em> 26th edition)<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<p>The “local-genealogical” method assumes that for any given variation unit any manuscript (or manuscripts) may have preserved the original text. Applying this method produces an extremely uneven documentary presentation of the text. Anyone studying the critical apparatus of NA<span>27<\/span> will detect that there is not an even documentary presentation. The eclecticism is dispersed throughout the text.<\/p>\n<p>“Reasoned eclecticism” and\/or the “local-genealogical” method tend to give priority to internal evidence over external evidence. But it has to be the other way around if we are going to recover the original text. This was Westcott and Hort’s opinion. With respect to their compilation of <em>The New Testament in the Original Greek,<\/em> Hort wrote, “Documentary evidence has been in most cases allowed to confer the place of honour against internal evidence” (<em>The Introduction to the New Testament in the Original Greek,<\/em> p 17).<\/p>\n<p>In this respect, Westcott and Hort need to be revived. Earnest Colwell was of the same mind when he wrote “Hort Redivivus: A Plea and a Program.” Colwell decried the growing tendency to rely entirely on the internal evidence of readings, without serious consideration of documentary evidence. He called upon scholars to make an attempt to reconstruct a history of the manuscript tradition. The abundance of manuscripts—several of which are very early—will aid scholars in this ongoing task.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>BIBLE*, M<span>anuscripts and Text of the (New Testament)<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Copies of the NT books produced by scribes and editions made from these copies. In the centuries prior to the simultaneous-multiple production of copies via dictation (wherein many scribes in a scriptorium transcribed a text dictated to them by one reader), all manuscript copies were made singly—each scribe producing a copy from an exemplar.<\/p>\n<p>Prior to the 15th century, when Johannes Gutenberg invented movable type for the printing press, all copies of any work of literature were made by hand (hence, the name “manuscript”). According to a current tabulation, there are 99 papyrus manuscripts, 257 uncial manuscripts, and 2,795 minuscule manuscripts. We can add 2,209 Greek lectionaries to this list. Therefore, we have over 5,350 manuscript copies of the Greek NT or portions thereof. No other work of Greek literature can boast of such numbers.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Important Papyrus Manuscripts<\/p>\n<p>• Important Uncial Manuscripts<\/p>\n<p>• The Text of the New Testament<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ImportantPapyrusManuscripts\">Important Papyrus Manuscripts<\/p>\n<p>Papyrus is a tall, aquatic reed, the pith of which is cut into strips, laid in a crosswork pattern and glued together to make a page for writing. The papyrus rolls of Egypt have been used as a writing surface since the early third millennium <span>BC<\/span>. The Greeks adopted papyrus around 900 <span>BC<\/span>, and later the Romans adopted its use. However, the oldest extant Greek rolls of papyrus date from the fourth century <span>BC<\/span>. Unfortunately, papyrus is perishable, requiring a dry climate for its preservation. That is why so many papyri have been discovered in the desert sands of Egypt.<\/p>\n<p>The NT papyrus manuscripts (abbreviated as “P”) are generally the earliest manuscripts of the NT. Broadly speaking, the most important ones can be categorized in three groups: the Oxyrhynchus Papyri (from Oxyrhynchus, Egypt), (2) the Beatty Papyri (named after the owner); and (3) the Bodmer Papyri (named after the owner).<\/p>\n<h5>The Oxyrhynchus Papyri<\/h5>\n<p>Beginning in 1898 B. P. Grenfell and A. S. Hunt discovered thousands of papyrus fragments in the ancient rubbish heaps of Oxyrhynchus, Egypt. This site yielded volumes of papyrus fragments containing all sorts of written material (literature, business and legal contracts, letters, etc.) as well as over 40 manuscripts containing portions of the NT. Some of the more noteworthy papyrus manuscripts from Oxyrhynchus are as follows:<\/p>\n<h6>P1 (P. Oxy. 2)<\/h6>\n<p>This late second-century manuscript contains Matthew 1:1-9, 12, 14-20. Grenfell and Hunt in the winter of 1896–97 went to Oxyrhynchus (now called El Bahnasa) in search of ancient Christian documents. P1 was discovered on the second day of the dig. At the time of this discovery, this was the earliest extant copy of any NT portion—at least 100 years earlier than Codex Vaticanus. The copyist of P1 seems to have faithfully followed a very reliable exemplar. Where there are major variants, P1 agrees with the best Alexandrian witnesses, especially B (Codex Vaticanus), from which it rarely varies.<\/p>\n<h6>P5 (P. Oxy. 208 and 1781)<\/h6>\n<p>Two separate portions of this third-century manuscript were unearthed from Oxyrhynchus by Grenfell and Hunt, both from the same papyrus manuscript. The first portion contains John 1:23-31, 33-40 on one fragment and John 20:11-17 on another—probably on the first and last quires of a manuscript containing only the Gospel of John. This portion was published in volume II of <em>Oxyrhynchus Papyri<\/em> in 1899; the second portion—containing John 16:14-30—was not published until 1922 in volume XV of <em>Oxyrhynchus Papyri.<\/em><\/p>\n<p>After examining the first portion, Grenfell and Hunt said, “The text is a good one, and appears to have affinities with that of Codex Sinaiticus, with which the papyrus agrees in several readings not found elsewhere.” The papyrus, written in a documentary hand, is marked for its brevity.<\/p>\n<h6>P13 (P. Oxy. 657 and PSI 1292)<\/h6>\n<p>This manuscript, dated between 175 and 225, contains 12 columns from a roll preserving the text of Hebrews 2:14–5:5; 10:8-22; 10:29–11:13; 11:28–12:7. The text of Hebrews was written in a reformed documentary hand on the back of the papyrus containing the new epitome of Livy. For this reason, some scholars think the manuscript was possibly brought to Egpyt by a Roman official and left behind when he left his post. P13 very often agrees with B, and it supplements B where it is lacking—namely, from Hebrews 9:14 to the end of Hebrews. P13 and P46 display nearly the same text. Out of a total of 88 variation-units, there are 71 agreements and only 17 disagreements.<\/p>\n<h6>P77 (P. Oxy. 2683 + 4405)<\/h6>\n<p>Dated c. 150–75, this is the earliest manuscript of Matthew (23:30-39). The manuscript is clearly a literary production. It was written in an elegant hand and has what was or became a standard system of chapter division, as well as punctuation and breathing marks. P77 has close textual affinities with Codex Sinaiticus.<\/p>\n<h6>P90 (P. Oxy. 3523)<\/h6>\n<p>This second-century manuscript (c. 150–75) contains John 18:36–19:7. The handwriting (an upright, rounded, elegant script) is much like that found in P66. Furthermore, P90 has more affinity with P66 than with any other single manuscript, though it does not concur with P66 in its entirety.<\/p>\n\n<h6>P. Oxy. 4404<\/h6>\n<p>Containing Matthew 21:34-37, 43, 45, this manuscript could be the earliest extant manuscript of the NT in that the script is early Roman and therefore could be dated to the early second century.<\/p>\n<h5>The Chester Beatty Papyri<\/h5>\n<p>These manuscripts were purchased from a dealer in Egypt during the 1930s by Chester Beatty and by the University of Michigan. The three manuscripts in this collection are very early and contain a large portion of the NT text. P45 (c. 200) contains portions of all four Gospels and Acts; P46 (c. 125) has almost all of Paul’s epistles and Hebrews; and P47 (third century) contains Revelation 9–17.<\/p>\n<h6>P45 (Chester Beatty Papyrus I)<\/h6>\n<p>This codex has the four Gospels and Acts (Mt 20:24-32; 21:13-19; 25:41–26:39; Mk 4:36–9:31; 11:27–12:28; Lk 6:31–7:7; 9:26–14:33; Jn 4:51–5:2, 21-25; 10:7-25; 10:30–11:10, 18-36, 42-57; Acts 4:27–17:17). The order of books in the original intact manuscript was probably as follows: Matthew, John, Luke, Mark, Acts (the so-called Western order). This manuscript was dated by Kenyon to the early third century, a date that was confirmed by the papyrologists W. Schubart and H. I. Bell. This continues to be the date assigned to this manuscript in modern handbooks on textual criticism and critical editions of the Greek NT, but the consistent formation of certain letters suggests an earlier date—maybe sometime in the late second century.<\/p>\n<p>The scribe of P45 worked without any intention of exactly reproducing his source. He wrote with a great amount of freedom—harmonizing, smoothing out, substituting at will. In short, the scribe did not actually copy words. He saw through the language to its idea-content, and copied that in words of his own choosing, or in rearranged order. Thus, in the scribe of P45 we see an exegete and a paraphraser.<\/p>\n<h6>P46 (Chester Beatty Papyrus II)<\/h6>\n<p>This codex has most of Paul’s epistles (excluding the Pastorals) in this order: Romans 5:17–6:14; 8:15–15:9; 15:11–16:27; Hebrews 1:1–13:25; 1 Corinthians 1:1–16:22; 2 Corinthians 1:1–13:13; Ephesians 1:1–6:24; Galatians 1:1–6:18; Philippians 1:1–4:23; Colossians 1:1–4:18; 1 Thessalonians 1:1; 1:9–2:3; 5:5-9, 23-28 (with minor lacunae in each of the books).<\/p>\n<p>The manuscript was originally dated to the early third century. But others, since, have dated the manuscript earlier in the second century. The scribe who produced this manuscript used an early, excellent exemplar. He was a professional scribe because there are stichoi notations at the end of several books (see the conclusion of Romans, 2 Corinthians, Ephesians, Philippians). The stichoi were used by professionals to note how many lines had been copied for commensurate pay. Most likely, the ex officio of the scriptorium (perhaps connected with a church library) paginated the codex and indicated the stichoi. The scribe himself made a few corrections as he went, and then several other readers made corrections here and there.<\/p>\n<p>The text of P46 shows a strong affinity with B (especially in Ephesians, Colossians, and Hebrews) and next with א (Codex Sinaiticus). P46 agrees much less with the later representatives of the Alexandrian text. In short, P46 is proto-Alexandrian. In Hebrews, P46 and P13 display nearly the same text. Out of a total of 88 variation-units, there are 71 agreements and only 17 disagreements.<\/p>\n<h6>P47 (Chester Beatty Papyrus III)<\/h6>\n<p>This third-century codex contains Revelation 9:10–17:2. The text of P47 agrees more often with that of Codex Sinaiticus than with any other manuscript (including Codex Alexandrinus and Codex Ephraemi Rescriptus), though it often shows independence.<\/p>\n<h5>The Bodmer Papyri<\/h5>\n<p>These manuscripts were purchased by M. Martin Bodmer from a dealer in Egypt during the 1950s and 1960s. The three important papyri in this collection are P66 (c. 175, containing almost all of John), P72 (third century, having all of 1 and 2 Peter and Jude), and P75 (c. 200, containing large parts of Luke 3—John 15).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h4\" id=\"P66\">P66 (Papyrus Bodmer II)<\/p>\n<p>This manuscript contains most of John’s Gospel (1:1–6:11; 6:35–14:26, 29-30; 15:2-26; 16:2-4, 6-7; 16:10–20:20, 22-23; 20:25–21:9). The manuscript does not include the pericope of the adulteress (7:53–8:11), making it the earliest witness to not include this spurious passage. The manuscript is usually dated as c. 200, but the renowned paleographer Herbert Hunger has argued that P66 should be dated to the first half, if not the first quarter, of the second century.<\/p>\n<p>According to recent studies, it seems evident that P66 has preserved the work of three individuals: the original scribe, a thoroughgoing corrector, and a minor corrector. With a practiced calligraphic hand, the original scribe of P66 wrote in larger print as he went along in order to fill out the codex. The large print throughout indicates that it was written to be read aloud to a Christian congregation. The text exhibits the scribe’s knowledge of other portions of Scripture (inasmuch as he harmonized John 6:69 to Matthew 16:16 and John 21:6 to Luke 5:5), his use of standard <em>nomina sacra<\/em> (a way of writing divine names), and his special use of <em>nomina sacra<\/em> for the words “cross” and “crucify.”<\/p>\n<p>The original scribe was quite free in his interaction with the text; he produced several singular readings that reveal his independent interpretation of the text. While the numerous scribal mistakes would seem to indicate that the scribe was inattentive, many of the singular readings—prior to correction—reveal that he was not detached from the narrative of the text. Rather, he became so absorbed in his reading that he often forgot the exact words he was copying. His task as a copyist was to duplicate the exemplar word for word, but this was frustrated by the fact that he was reading the text in logical semantic chunks and often became a coproducer of a new text. As a result, he continually had to stop his reading and make many in-process corrections. But he left several places uncorrected, which were later fixed by the <em>diorthotes<\/em> (official corrector). The finished product is quite good, presenting a text that is very close to the Alexandrian witnesses.<\/p>\n<h6>P72 (Papyrus Bodmer VII–VIII)<\/h6>\n<p>This manuscript, dated late third century, has an interesting collection of writings in one codex: 1 Peter 1:1–5:14; 2 Peter 1:1–3:18; Jude 1:1-25; the Nativity of Mary, the apocryphal correspondence of Paul to the Corinthians, the eleventh ode of Solomon, Melito’s Homily on the Passover, a fragment of a hymn, the Apology of Phileas, and Psalms 33 and 34.<\/p>\n<p>Scholars think that four scribes took part in producing the entire manuscript. First Peter has clear Alexandrian affinities—especially with B. Second Peter and (especially) Jude display more of an uncontrolled type text (usually associated with the “Western” text), with several independent readings.<\/p>\n<h6>P75 (Papyrus Bodmer XIV–XV)<\/h6>\n<p>This codex contains most of Luke and John (Lk 3:18–4:2; 4:34–5:10; 5:37–18:18; 22:4–24:53; Jn 1:1–11:45, 48-57; 12:3–13:1, 8-9; 14:8-30; 15:7-8.) The manuscript does not include the pericope of the adulteress (7:53–8:11). The manuscript can be dated to the late second or early third century.<\/p>\n<p>The copyist of P75 was a literate scribe trained in making books. His craftsmanship shows through in his tight calligraphy and controlled copying. The handwriting displayed in this manuscript is typically called by paleographers the common angular type of the late second to early third century. The scribe’s Christianity shows in his abbreviations of the <em>nomina sacra<\/em><em>,<\/em> as well as in his abbreviation of the word “cross.” These are telltale signs of a scribe who belonged to the Christian community. Furthermore, the large typeface indicates that the manuscript was composed to be read aloud to a Christian congregation. The scribe even added a system of sectional divisions to aid any would-be lector. Thus, we have a manuscript written by a Christian for other Christians.<\/p>\n<p>There are several indications of the scribe’s Alexandrian orientation. First and foremost is his scriptoral acumen. He is the best of all the early Christian scribes, and his manuscript is an extremely accurate copy. P75 is the work of an extremely disciplined scribe who copied with the intention of being careful and accurate. Scholars generally agree that P75 displays the kind of text that was used in making Codex Vaticanus (there is 87 percent agreement between P75 and B). As such, textual scholars have a high regard for P75’s textual fidelity.<\/p>\n\n<h5>Other Papyrus Manuscripts<\/h5>\n<h6>P4 + P64 + P67<\/h6>\n<p>These three papyrus manuscripts are part of one codex dated <span>AD<\/span> 150–175. The manuscript was the work of a professional scribe, and the text is extremely accurate.<\/p>\n<h6>P32 (Rylands Papyrus 5)<\/h6>\n<p>This manuscript, preserving Titus 1:11-15; 2:3-8, is dated c. 175, making it the earliest extant copy of any of the Pastoral Epistles. P32 shows agreement with א and with F and G. Since F and G (nearly identical manuscripts) go back to the same archetype, it is possible that P32 could be linked to the same source.<\/p>\n<h6>P52 (Rylands Papyrus 457)<\/h6>\n<p>This fragment, containing John 18:31-34, 37-38, is noteworthy because of its date: c. 110–125. Many scholars (F. Kenyon, H. I. Bell, A. Deissmann, and W. H. P. Hatch) have confirmed this dating. The manuscript came from the Fayum or Oxyrhynchus site. It was acquired in 1920 by Grenfell, but it remained unnoticed among hundreds of papyri until 1934, when C. H. Roberts recognized that this fragment preserves a few verses from John’s Gospel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ImportantUncialManuscripts\">Important Uncial Manuscripts<\/p>\n<p>The manuscripts typically classified as “uncial” are so designated to differentiate them from papyrus manuscripts. In a sense, this is a misnomer because the real difference has to do with the material they are written on—vellum (treated animal hide) as compared to papyrus—not the kind of letters used. Indeed, the papyri are also written in uncials (capital letters), but the term “uncial” typically describes the majuscule lettering that was prominent in fourth-century biblical texts, such as in א, A, B, C.<\/p>\n<h5>Codex Sinaiticus (or א)<\/h5>\n<p>This codex contains the entire OT and the NT in this order: the four Gospels, the Pauline Epistles (including Hebrews), Acts, the General Epistles, Revelation. It also includes the Epistle of Barnabas and the Shepherd of Hermas. The codex cannot be earlier than 340 (the year Eusebius died) because the Eusebian sections of the text are indicated in the margins of the Gospels by a contemporary hand. Most scholars date it 350–375.<\/p>\n<p>This codex was discovered by Constantin von Tischendorf in St Catherine’s Monastery (situated at the foot of Mt Sinai). On a visit to the monastery in 1844 he noticed in a wastebasket some parchment leaves that were being used to light the lamps. He was allowed to take this waste paper, which proved to be 43 leaves from various parts of the Greek translation of the OT.<\/p>\n<p>In 1853 he made a second trip to the monastery and found nothing. In 1859, however, on his third trip, he found not only other parts of the OT but also the complete NT. He was finally able to persuade the monastery authorities to present the manuscript to the czar, the great patron of the Greek Catholic Church, who placed it in the Imperial Library in St Petersburg. The czar gave great honors to the monastery and its authorities, and everybody seemed well pleased. Later Tischendorf was charged with having stolen the manuscript from its lawful owners, but the better textual scholars do not accept that story.<\/p>\n\n<p>The manuscript remained in the Imperial Library until 1933, when it was purchased by the British Museum for the huge sum of £100,000 (about $500,000). Textual criticism made the headlines because one manuscript was bought for this much money, raised largely by public subscription during the Great Depression. The manuscript is now on display in the manuscript room of the museum, where it is considered one of its most prized possessions.<\/p>\n<p>The text of Sinaiticus is very closely related to that of Codex Vaticanus. They agree in presenting the purest type of text, usually called the Alexandrian text type. Tischendorf greatly used the textual evidence of Codex Sinaiticus in preparing his critical editions of the Greek NT. Tischendorf thought four scribes had originally produced the codex, whom he named scribes A, B, C, D. After reinvestigation, H. J. Milne and T. C. Skeat identified only three scribes: A (who wrote the historical and poetical books of the OT, as well as most of the NT), B (who wrote the Prophets and the Shepherd of Hermas), and D (who wrote some Psalms, Tobit, Judith, and 4 Maccabees, and redid small sections of the NT). Milne and Skeat demonstrated that scribe A of Codex Vaticanus was likely the same scribe as scribe D of Codex Sinaiticus. If this true, then א is contemporary with B—perhaps produced in the same scriptorium in Alexandria. Codex Sinaiticus provides a fairly reliable witness to the NT; however, the scribe was not as careful as the scribe of B.<\/p>\n<h5>Codex Alexandrinus (A)<\/h5>\n<p>This is one of the three most important codices containing early copies of the whole Bible in Greek (the other two being the Vaticanus and Sinaiticus codexes). The name Alexandrinus comes from ancient records suggesting that it was copied in Egypt during the early part of the fifth century <span>AD<\/span>. The early history of this manuscript and its Egyptian provenance is partially revealed by its flyleaves. A note by Cyril of Lucar (patriarch of Alexandria and then of Constantinople in the 1620s) states that, according to tradition, it was written by Thecla, a noble lady of Egypt shortly after the Council of Nicaea (325) and that her name was originally inscribed at the end of the volume but the last page was lost due to mutilation. An Arabic note of the 13th or 14th century also says that the manuscript was written by “Thecla the martyr.” Another Arabic note says that is was presented to the patriarchal cell of Alexandria (c. 1098). Cyril of Lucar took the manuscript from Alexandria to Constantinople in 1621 and then gave it to Charles I of England in 1627, where it became part of the Royal Library, then later the British Museum.<\/p>\n<p>Only 773 of the original 820 or so pages still exist. The rest were lost as the book was passed down through the centuries. The surviving parts of Alexandrinus contain a Greek translation of the whole OT, the Apocrypha (including four books of Maccabees and Psalm 151), most of the NT, and some early Christian writings (of which the First and Second Epistles of Clement to the Corinthians are the most important).<\/p>\n<p>Frederick Kenyon thought the codex was the work of five scribes, to each of whom he designated a Roman numeral. According to Kenyon, scribes I and II copied the OT; scribe III did Matthew, Mark, 1 Corinthians 10:8—Philemon 1:25; scribe IV did Luke—Acts, General Epistles, Romans 1:1—1 Corinthians 10:8; and scribe V did Revelation. Milne and Skeat, however, argued that the whole codex was the work of two copyists (I and II). W. H. P. Hatch noted that many corrections have been made in the manuscript, most of them at an early date. Some of these corrections were introduced by the scribe himself, and others came from later hands.<\/p>\n<p>Evidently, the scribes of this codex used exemplars of varying quality for various sections of the NT. The exemplar used for the Gospels was of poor quality, reflecting a Byzantine text type. Its testimony in the Epistles is much better, and in Revelation it provides the best witness to the original text.<\/p>\n\n<h5>Codex Vaticanus (B)<\/h5>\n<p>Codex Vaticanus is the Vatican Manuscript, so named because it is the most famous manuscript in the Vatican Library in Rome. This manuscript has been in the Vatican’s library since at least 1475, but it was not made available to scholars, such as Constantin von Tischendorf and Samuel Tregelles, until the middle of the 19th century.<\/p>\n<p>At one time, the codex contained the whole Greek Bible, including most of the books of the Apocrypha, but it has lost many of its leaves. Originally it must have had about 820 leaves (1,640 pp), but now it has 759—617 in the OT and 142 in the NT. The major gaps of the manuscript are Genesis 1:1–46:28; 2 Samuel 2:5-7, 10-13; Psalms 106:27–138:6; Hebrews 9:14–13:25; the Pastoral Epistles; and Revelation. Each leaf measures ten and a half by ten inches (26.7 by 25.4 centimeters). Each page has three columns (two for the poetical books) with 40 to 44 lines to the column. The manuscript was written by two different scribes. It is dated in the early to middle part of the fourth century. It is not known where the manuscript originated, but it has been in the Vatican Library from the time of its earliest catalog in 1475.<\/p>\n\n<p>When Napoleon conquered Rome, he brought its treasures to Paris, including this manuscript. The scholar Hug identified it and called the attention of other scholars to it. After the downfall of Napoleon, the manuscript was returned to the Vatican Library. Competent textual scholars were not allowed to do careful work on it until a photographic edition was published in 1890. It is now on exhibit in the Vatican Library.<\/p>\n<p>The text of the Vatican Manuscript is much like that of Codex Sinaiticus. These are generally recognized as the two finest examples of the Alexandrian type of Greek text of the NT. The Greek text of the OT is very fine too, but it is not quite so important, as the original language of the OT was Hebrew. Virtually all the textual scholars since the days of Brooke Westcott and Fenton Hort (who brought out their Greek Testament, including their theory of textual criticism, in 1881), recognize this neutral type of text as a very early text and a very pure text, an extremely accurate reproduction of what the original text must have been. Westcott and Hort called it a second-century text accurate in 999 out of 1,000 words so far as any matter of translatable difference was concerned. א and B are the finest examples of this type of text, but it is also found in a few other Greek uncial manuscripts, a few of the early translations, and in the writings of a few of the early church fathers. Since the days of Westcott and Hort, their theory has been confirmed by the discovery of some papyrus manuscripts, notably the Bodmer Papyri, discovered in the 1950s.<\/p>\n<h5>Codex Ephraemi Rescriptus (C)<\/h5>\n<p>This codex is a palimpsest (the original writing was erased and different words written on the same material). It originally contained the entire Bible but now has only parts of six OT books and portions of all NT books except 2 Thessalonians and 2 John. The single-column Bible text, written in the 5th century <span>AD<\/span>, was erased in the 12th century and replaced by a two-column text of a Greek translation of sermons or treatises by a certain Ephraem, a 4th-century Syrian church leader. Such a practice was common in periods of economic depression or when parchment was scarce. The original writing was scraped from the writing surface and the surface smoothed. Then new compositions could be written on the prepared surface. Using chemicals Tischendorf was able to read much of the erased document.<\/p>\n<p>The manuscript may have been brought from the east to Florence by a learned Greek named Andrew John Lascar in the time of Lorenzo de’Medici. Since Lascar was known as Rhyndacenus (from the river Rhyndacus), he probably came from the region of Phrygia (site of ancient Laodicea). Where the manuscript was prior to this is not known. The Ephraemi manuscript was brought to Italy in the early sixth century, where it became the property of the Medici family. Catherine de’Medici took it to France, where it remains today.<\/p>\n<p>The text of this manuscript is mixed—it is compounded from all the major text types, agreeing frequently with the later koine of Byzantine type, which most scholars regard as the least valuable type of NT text.<\/p>\n<h5>Codex Bezae (D)<\/h5>\n<p>This is a Greek-Latin diglot containing Matthew—Acts, 3 John, with lacunae. Most scholars date it late fourth or early fifth century (c. 400). Some scholars think the codex was produced in either Egypt or North Africa by a scribe whose mother tongue was Latin. Another scholar (D. C. Parker) has argued that it was copied in Beirut, a center of Latin legal studies during the fifth century, where both Latin and Greek were used. Evidently, it was produced by a scribe who knew Latin better than Greek, and then was corrected by several scribes. In any event, the codex somehow came into the hands of Theodore Beza, French scholar and successor to Calvin. Beza gave it to the Cambridge University Library in 1581.<\/p>\n<p>This codex is probably the most controversial of the NT uncials because of its marked independence. Its many additions, omissions, and alterations (especially in Luke and Acts) are the work of a significant theologian. A few earlier manuscripts (P29, P38, P48, and 0171) appear to be precursors to the type of text found in D, which is considered the principal witness of the Western text-type. Thus, Codex Bezae could be a copy of an earlier revised edition. This reviser must have been a scholar who had a propensity for adding historical, biographical, and geographical details. More than anything, he was intent on filling in gaps in the narrative by adding circumstantial details.<\/p>\n<h5>Codex Washingtonianus, or The Freer Gospels (W)<\/h5>\n<p>This codex, dated around 400, has the four Gospels and Acts. It is often referred to as the Freer Gospels—named after its owner, Charles Freer. The codex likely came from the ruins of a monastery near Giza. The handwriting is quite similar to that found in a fifth-century fragment of the book of Enoch found at Akhmim in 1886.<\/p>\n<p>Codex W was copied from a parent manuscript (exemplar) that had been pieced together from several different manuscripts. This is obvious because the textual presentation of W is noticeably variegated and even the stratification of the text is matched by similar variations in paragraphing. The scribe who collated the parent manuscript drew upon various sources to put together his Gospel codex. It is likely that the scribe of the parent manuscript used a text that came from North Africa (the “Western” text) for the first part of Mark, and the scribe of W used manuscripts from Antioch for Matthew and the second part of Luke to fill the gaps in the more ancient manuscript he was copying. Detailed textual analysis reveals the variegated textual stratifications of W, as follows: in Matthew the text is Byzantine; in Mark the text is first Western (1:1–5:30), then Caesarean in Mark 5:31–16:20 (akin to P45); in Luke the text is first Alexandrian (1:1–8:12), then Byzantine. John is more complicated because the first part of John (1:1–5:11), which fills a quire, was the work of a seventh-century scribe who must have replaced a damaged quire. (W<span>s<\/span> designates the work of this scribe.) This first section has a mixture of Alexandrian and Western readings, as does the rest of John.<\/p>\n<h5>Codex 1739<\/h5>\n<p>This tenth-century codex has Acts and the Epistles. The manuscript was discovered at Mt Athos in 1879 by E. von der Goltz. The manuscript has strong textual affinities with P46, B, 1739, Coptic Sahidic, Coptic Boharic, Clement, and Origen. The relationship between P46, B, and 1739 is remarkable because 1739 is a tenth-century manuscript that was copied from a fourth-century manuscript of excellent quality. According to a colophon, the scribe of 1739 for the Pauline Epistles followed a manuscript that came from Caesarea in the library of Pamphilus and that contained an Origenian text. The three manuscripts, P46, B, and 1739, form a clear textual line: from P46 (early second century) to B (early fourth century) to 1739 (tenth century based on fourth century).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheTextoftheNewTestament\">The Text of the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>The original text of the NT is the “published” text—that is, the text as it was in its final edited form and released for circulation in the Christian community. For some books of the NT, there is little difference between the original composition and the published text. After the author wrote or dictated his work, he (or an associate) made the final editorial corrections and then released it for distribution. As is the case for books published in modern times, so in ancient times, the original writing of the author is not always the same as what is published—due to the editorial process. Nonetheless, the author is credited with the final edited text, and the published book is attributed to the author and considered the autograph. This autograph is the original published text. Of course, in this case the autographs do not exist, so scholars have to rely on copies to recover or reconstruct the original wording.<\/p>\n<p>Some scholars think it is impossible to recover the original text of the Greek NT because they have not been able to reconstruct the early history of textual transmission. Other modern scholars are less pessimistic but still quite guarded in affirming the possiblity. And yet others are optimistic because we possess many early manuscripts of excellent quality and because our view of the early period of textual transmission has been getting clearer and clearer.<\/p>\n<p>When we speak of recovering the text of the NT, we are referring to individual books of the NT, not to the entire volume per se, because each book (or group of books—such as the Pauline Epistles) had its own unique history of textual transmission. The earliest extant copy of an entire NT text is the one preserved in Codex Sinaiticus (written about <span>AD<\/span> 375). (Codex Vaticanus lacks the Pastoral Epistles and Revelation.) Prior to the fourth century, the NT was circulated in its various parts: as a single book or a group of books (such as the four Gospels or the Pauline Epistles). Manuscripts from the late first century to the third century have been found with individual books such as Matthew (P1, P77), Mark (P88), Luke (P69), John (P5, 22, 52, 66), Acts (P91), Revelation (P18, 47), or containing groups of books, such as the four Gospels with Acts (P45), the Pauline Epistles (P30, P46, P92), the Petrine Epistles and Jude (P72). Each of the books of the NT has had its own textual history and has been preserved with varying degrees of accuracy. Nonetheless, all of the books were altered from the original state due to the process of manual copying decade after decade and century after century. And the text of each of the books needs to be recovered.<\/p>\n<p>The NT text was affected with many variations in its early history. In the late first and early second century, the oral traditions and the written word existed side by side with equal status—especially with respect to the material of the Gospels. Often, the text was changed by scribes attempting to conform the written message to the oral tradition or attempting to conform one Gospel account to another. By the end of the second century and into the third century, many of the significant variant readings entered into the textual stream.<\/p>\n<p>The early period of textual transmission, however, was not completely marred by textual infidelity and scribal liberty. There were those scribes who copied the text faithfully and reverently—that is, they recognized that they were copying a sacred text written by an apostle. The formalization of canonization did not ascribe this sacredness to the text. Canonization came about as the result of common, historical recognition of the sacredness of various NT books. Certain NT books, such as the four Gospels, Acts, and Paul’s epistles were considered inspired literature from the onset. As such, certain scribes copied them with reverential fidelity.<\/p>\n<p>Other scribes, however, felt free to make “improvements” in the text—either in the interest of doctrine and harmonization or due to the influence of a competitive oral tradition. The manuscripts produced in such a manner created a kind of “popular text”—i.e., an uncontrolled text. (This text type used to be called the “Western text,” but scholars now recognize this as a misnomer.)<\/p>\n<p>During the second century, there were a few men who produced recensions of the NT text. According to Eusebius, Theodotus (and his followers) altered the text for their own purposes. In the middle of the second century, Marcion expunged his copies of the Gospel according to Luke of all references to the Jewish background of Jesus, and Tatian’s harmony of the Gospels contains several textual alterations that gave support to ascetic views. And yet another recendor created the D-type text for the Gospels and Acts. This theologically minded redactor, living in the late second or third century, created a text that had short-lived popularity. Three third-century papyri, P29, P38, P48, each containing a portion from the book of Acts, may be precursors to the D-type text in Acts. But there are other papyri containing portions of Acts that provide even earlier testimony to a purer form of Acts—namely, P45 (c. 150) and P91 (c. 200), thereby showing that the D-type text of Acts did not necessarily antedate the purer form.<\/p>\n<p>Besides these endeavors—which are all noted for creating textual impurities—there was no recension of the NT text in the second century. Rather, it was a period in which there were scribes who exercised freedom in copying and those who demonstrated acumen. The manuscripts produced by the latter are those that come closest to preserving the original text. A prime example of an accurate late-second-century manuscript is P75.<\/p>\n<p>It is a well-known fact that the text produced by the scribe of P75 is a very accurate manuscript. It is also well-known that P75 was the kind of manuscript used in formulating Codex Vaticanus—the readings of P75 and B are remarkably similar. Prior to the discovery of P75, certain scholars thought Codex Vaticanus was the work of a fourth-century recension; others (chiefly Hort) thought it must trace back to a very early and accurate copy. Hort said that Codex Vaticanus preserves “not only a very ancient text, but a very pure line of a very ancient text” (Westcott and Hort, <em>The<\/em> <em>Introduction to the New Testament in the Original Greek,<\/em> pp 250–51). P75 appears to have shown that Hort was right.<\/p>\n<p>Prior to the discovery of P75, many textual scholars were convinced that the second- and third-century papyri displayed a text in flux, a text characterized only by individual independence. The Chester Beatty Papyrus, P45, and the Bodmer Papyri, P66 and P72 (in 2 Peter and Jude), show this kind of independence. Scholars thought that scribes at Alexandria must have used several such texts to produce a good recension—as is exhibited in Codex Vaticanus. But we now know that Codex Vaticanus was not the result of a scholarly recension, resulting from editorial selection across the various textual histories. Rather, it is now quite clear that Codex Vaticanus was simply a copy (with some modifications) of a manuscript much like P75, not a fourth-century recension.<\/p>\n<p>Some scholars may point out that this does not automatically mean that P75 and B represent the original text. What it does mean, they say, is that we have a second-century manuscript showing great affinity with a fourth-century manuscript whose quality has been highly esteemed. But various scholars have demonstrated that there was no Alexandrian recension before the time of P75 (late second century) and B (early fourth) and that both these manuscripts represent a relatively pure form of preservation of a relatively pure line of descent from the original text.<\/p>\n<p>The current view about the early text is that certain scribes in Alexandria and\/or scribes familiar with Alexandrian scriptoral practices (perhaps those in Oxyrhynchus) were probably responsible for maintaining a relatively pure text throughout the second, third, and fourth centuries. The Alexandrian scribes, associated with or actually employed by the scriptorium of the great Alexandrian library and\/or members of the scriptorium associated with the catechetical school at Alexandria (called the <em>Didaskelion<\/em>), were trained philologists, grammarians, and textual critics. Their work on the NT was not recensional—that is, it was not an organized emendation of the text. Rather, the work of purification and preservation was probably done here and there by various individuals trained in text criticism. This is apparent in the production of P66, which contains the Gospel of John. This manuscript was probably produced in an Egyptian scriptorium by a novice scribe who made many blunders, which were subsequently corrected by another scribe working in the same scriptorium. The first text produced by the novice could be classified as being very “free,” but the corrected text is far more accurate. (See the discussion on this manuscript above.)<\/p>\n<p>What appears to have happened with the copying of the NT text in the early period in Egypt has been poignantly characterized by Zuntz. He said that when a book was immensely popular (such as Homer’s <em>Iliad<\/em> and <em>Odyssey,<\/em> or Plato’s writings), it was copied with wild enthusiasm by novice and scholar alike. But when grammarians and scribes got ahold of it, they tried to rid it of textual corruption. In the process, however, they may have obliterated some authentic readings, but not many. Thus, the popular text (also known as the “Western text”) could have preserved the original wording in some cases. The popular or free kind of text is displayed in several third-century manuscripts: P9, P37, P40, P45, P72, and P78.<\/p>\n<p>In brief, this popular text is usually displayed in any kind of manuscript that was not produced by Alexandrian influences. This text, given to independence, is not as trustworthy as the Alexandrian text type. But because the Alexandrian text is known as a polished text, the popular text sometimes preserved the original wording. When a variant reading has the support of “Western” and Alexandrian texts, it is very likely original; but when the two are divided, the Alexandrian witnesses more often preserve the original wording.<\/p>\n<p>One dilemma still remains for some textual critics. They cannot explain how a P75\/B-type text coexisted with a Western-type text in the second century. All that can be said is that the Western text generally appears to be inferior to the P75\/B-type text. Of course, this kind of judgment troubles certain scholars, who point out that the esteem given to B and P75 is based on a subjective appreciation of the kind of text they contain (as over against the Western text) rather than on any kind of theoretical reconstruction of the early transmission of the text. This same subjective estimation was at work when Westcott and Hort decided that B was intrinsically superior to D (see their <em>Introduction,<\/em> pp 32–42). Yet the praxis of textual criticism time and again demonstrates that the P75\/B-type text is intrinsically superior to the Western text.<\/p>\n<p>In the final analysis, the manuscripts that represent a pure preservation of the original text are usually those called “Alexandrian.” Some scholars, such as Bruce Metzger, have called the earlier manuscripts “protoAlexandrian,” for they (or manuscripts like them) are thought of as being used to compose an Alexandrian-type text. However, this is looking at things from the perspective of the fourth century. We should look at things from the second century onward and then compare fourth-century manuscripts to those of the second. The second-century manuscripts could still be called “Alexandrian” in the sense that they were produced under Alexandrian influences. Perhaps a distinguishing terminology could be “early Alexandrian” (pre-Constantine) and “later Alexandrian” (post-Constantine). Manuscripts designated as “early Alexandrian” would generally be purer, less editorialized. Manuscripts designated “later Alexandrian” would display editorialization, as well as the influence of other textual traditions.<\/p>\n<p>The “early Alexandrian” text is reflected in many second- and third-century manuscripts. On the top of the list is P75 (c. 175), the work of a competent and careful scribe. Not far behind in quality is P4+P64+P67 (c. 150), the work of an excellent copyist. Other extremely good copies are P1 (c. 200), P20 (early third century), P23 (c. 200), P27 (third century), P28 (third century), P32 (c. 150), P39 (third century), P46 (c. 125), P65 (third century), P66 (in its corrected form—P66<span>c<\/span>; c. 150), P70 (third century), P77 (c. 150), P87 (c. 125), P90 (c. 175), and P91 (c. 200). Several of these manuscripts have been placed in the “strict” category by textual critics Kurt and Barbara Aland—that is, they exhibit “strict” scribal control and therefore are accurate copies of an exemplar, if not the original. These manuscripts are P1, P23, P35, P37, P39, P64\/67, P65, P70, and P75.<\/p>\n<p>The “later Alexandrian” text, which displays editorial polishing, is exhibited in a few manuscripts, such as א (fourth century), T (fifth century), ע (seventh century), L (eighth century), 33 (ninth century), 1739 (a tenth-century manuscript copied from a fourth-century Alexandrian manuscript much like P46), and 579 (13th century). Beginning in the fifth century, Byzantine-type manuscripts began to make their influence in Egypt. Some manuscripts dated around 400 that came from Egypt clearly reflect this influence; Codex Alexandrinus (A) is probably the best example. Other Egyptian manuscripts of this era, such as Codex Sinaiticus (א) and Codex Washingtonianus (W) display large-scale harmonization, which cannot be directly linked to any kind of recension.<\/p>\n<p>At the end of the third century, another kind of Greek text came into being and then grew in popularity until it became the dominant text-type throughout Christendom. This is the text-type first instigated by Lucian of Antioch, according to Jerome (in his introduction to his Latin translation of the Gospels). Lucian’s text was a definite recension (i.e., a purposely created edition)—as opposed to the Alexandrian text-type that came about as the result of a process wherein the Alexandrian scribes, upon comparing many manuscripts, attempted to preserve the best text—thereby serving more as textual critics than editors. Of course, the Alexandrians did do some editing—such as we would call copy-editing. The Lucianic text is the outgrowth and culmination of the popular text; it is characterized by smoothness of language, which is achieved by the removal of obscurities and awkward grammatical constructions and by the conflation of variant readings. Lucian (and\/or his associates) must have used many different kinds of manuscripts of varying qualities to produce a harmonized, edited NT text. The kind of editorial work that went into the Lucianic text is what we would call substantive editing.<\/p>\n<p>Lucian’s text was produced prior to the Diocletian persecution (c. 303), during which time many copies of the NT were confiscated and destroyed. Not long after this period of devastation, Constantine came to power and then recognized Christianity as the state religion. There was, of course, a great need for copies of the NT to be made and distributed to churches throughout the Mediterranean world. It was at this time that Lucian’s text began to be propagated by bishops going out from the Antiochan school to churches throughout the East, taking the text with them. Lucian’s text soon became the standard text of the Eastern church and formed the basis for the Byzantine text—and is thus the ultimate authority for the Textus Receptus.<\/p>\n<p>While Lucian was forming his recension of the NT text, the Alexandrian text was taking on its final shape. As was mentioned earlier, the formation of the Alexandrian text-type was the result of a process (as opposed to a single editorial recension). The formation of the Alexandrian text involved minor textual criticism (i.e., selecting variant readings among various manuscripts) and copyediting (i.e., producing a readable text). There was far less tampering with the text in the Alexandrian text-type than in the Lucian, and the underlying manuscripts for the Alexandrian text-type were superior to those used by Lucian. Perhaps Hesychius was responsible for giving the Alexandrian text its final shape, and Athanasius of Alexandria may have been the one who made this text the archetypal text for Egypt.<\/p>\n<p>As the years went by, there were fewer and fewer Alexandrian manuscripts produced, and more and more Byzantine manuscripts manufactured. Very few Egyptians continued to read Greek (with the exception of those in St Catherine’s Monastery, the site of the discovery of Codex Sinaiticus), and the rest of the Mediterranean world turned to Latin. It was only those in the Greek-speaking churches in Greece and Byzantium that continued to make copies of the Greek text. For century after century—from the 6th to the 14th—the great majority of NT manuscripts were produced in Byzantium, all bearing the same kind of text. When the first Greek NT was printed (c. 1525), it was based on a Greek text that Erasmus had compiled, using a few late Byzantine manuscripts. This printed text, with minor revisions, became the Textus Receptus.<\/p>\n<p>Beginning in the 17th century, earlier manuscripts began to be discovered—manuscripts with a text that differed from that found in the Textus Receptus. Around 1630, Codex Alexandrinus was brought to England. An early fifth-century manuscript, containing the entire NT, it provided a good, early witness to the NT text (it is an especially good witness to the original text of Revelation). Two hundred years later, a German scholar named Constantin von Tischendorf discovered Codex Sinaiticus in St Catherine’s Monastery (located near Mt Sinai). The manuscript, dated around <span>AD<\/span> 360, is one of the two oldest vellum (treated animal hide) manuscripts of the Greek NT. The earliest vellum manuscript, Codex Vaticanus, had been in the Vatican’s library since at least 1481, but it had not been made available to scholars until the middle of the 19th century. This manuscript, dated slightly earlier (<span>AD<\/span> 350) than Codex Sinaiticus, had both the OT and NT in Greek, excluding the last part of the NT (Hebrews 9:15 to Revelation 22:21 and the Pastoral Epistles). A hundred years of textual criticism has determined that this manuscript is one of the most accurate and reliable witnesses to the original text.<\/p>\n<p>Other early and important manuscripts were discovered in the 19th century. Through the tireless labors of men like Constantin von Tischendorf, Samuel Tregelles, and F. H. A. Scrivener, manuscripts such as Codex Ephraemi Rescriptus, Codex Zacynthius, and Codex Augiensis were deciphered, collated, and published.<\/p>\n<p>As the various manuscripts were discovered and made public, certain scholars labored to compile a Greek text that would more closely represent the original text than did the Textus Receptus. Around 1700 John Mill produced an improved Textus Receptus, and in the 1730s Johannes Albert Bengel (known as the father of modern textual and philological studies in the NT) published a text that deviated from the Textus Receptus according to the evidence of earlier manuscripts.<\/p>\n<p>In the 1800s certain scholars began to abandon the Textus Receptus. Karl Lachman, a classical philologist, produced a fresh text (in 1831) that represented the fourth-century manuscripts. Samuel Tregelles (self-taught in Latin, Hebrew, and Greek), laboring throughout his entire lifetime, concentrated all of his efforts in publishing one Greek text (which came out in six parts, from 1857 to 1872). As is stated in the introduction to this work, Tregelles’s goal was “to exhibit the text of the NT in the very words in which it has been transmitted on the evidence of ancient authority.” Henry Alford also compiled a Greek text based upon the best and earliest manuscripts. In his preface to <em>The Greek New Testament<\/em> (a multivolume commentary on the Greek NT, published in 1849), Alford said he labored for the “demolition of the unworthy and pedantic reverence for the received text, which stood in the way of all chance of discovering the genuine word of God.”<\/p>\n<p>During this same era, Tischendorf was devoting a lifetime of labor to discovering manuscripts and producing accurate editions of the Greek NT. In a letter to his fiancé he wrote, “I am confronted with a sacred task, the struggle to regain the original form of the NT.” In fulfillment of his desire, he discovered Codex Sinaiticus, deciphered the palimpsest Codex Ephraemi Rescriptus, collated countless manuscripts, and produced several editions of the Greek NT (the eighth edition is considered the best).<\/p>\n<p>Aided by the work of the previous scholars, two British men, Brooke Westcott and Fenton Hort, worked together for 28 years to produce a volume entitled <em>The New Testament in the Original Greek<\/em> (1881). Along with this publication, they made known their theory (which was chiefly Hort’s) that Codex Vaticanus and Codex Sinaiticus (along with a few other early manuscripts) represented a text that most closely replicated the original writing. They called this text the Neutral Text. (According to their studies, the Neutral Text described certain manuscripts that had the least amount of textual corruption.) This is the text that Westcott and Hort relied upon for compiling their volume.<\/p>\n<p>The 19th century was a fruitful era for the recovery of the Greek NT; the 20th century, no less so. Those living in the 20th century have witnessed the discovery of the Oxyrhynchus Papyri, the Chester Beatty Papyri, and the Bodmer Papyri. To date, there are nearly 100 papyri containing portions of the NT—several of which date from the late first century to the early fourth century. These significant discoveries, providing scholars with many ancient manuscripts, have greatly enhanced the effort to recover the original wording of the NT.<\/p>\n<p>At the beginning of the 20th century, Eberhard Nestle used the best editions of the Greek NT produced in the 19th century to compile a text that represented the majority consensus. The work of making new editions was carried on by his son for several years, and then came under the care of Kurt Aland. The latest edition (the 27th) of Nestle-Aland’s <em>Novum Testamentum Graece<\/em> appeared in 1993. The same Greek text appears in another popular volume published by the United Bible Societies, called the <em>Greek New Testament<\/em> (fourth edition). Aland has argued that the Nestle-Aland text, 27th edition (NA<span>27<\/span>), comes closer to the original text of the NT than did Tischendorf or Westcott and Hort. And in several writings he intimates that NA<span>27<\/span> may very well be the original text. Though few, if any, scholars would agree with this, the 27th edition of the Nestle-Aland text is regarded by many as representing the latest and best in textual scholarship.<\/p>\n<h5>New Testament Textual Criticism<\/h5>\n<p>Textual critics working with ancient literature universally acknowledge the supremacy of earlier manuscripts over later ones. Textual critics not working with the NT would love to have the same kind of early witnesses that biblical scholars possess. In fact, many of them work with manuscripts written 1,000 years after the autographs were composed! We all marvel that the Dead Sea Scrolls have provided a text that is nearly 800 years closer to the originals than the Masoretic manuscripts, and yet many of the Dead Sea manuscripts are still over 600 to 800 years removed from the time of original composition. NT textual critics have a great advantage!<\/p>\n<p>The 19th-century NT textual scholars—such as Lachmann, Tregelles, Tischendorf, Westcott and Hort—worked on the basis that the earliest witnesses are the best witnesses. Some textual scholars have continued this line of recovery using the testimony of the earlier witnesses. But many textual scholars since the time of Westcott and Hort have been less inclined to produce editions based on the theory that the earliest reading is the best. Most present-day textual critics are more inclined to endorse the maxim: the reading that is most likely original is the one that best explains the variants.<\/p>\n<p>This maxim (or “canon” as it is sometimes called), as good as it is, produces conflicting results. For example, two scholars, using this same principle to examine the same variant unit, will not agree. One will argue that one variant was produced by a copyist attempting to emulate the author’s style; the other will claim the same variant has to be original because it accords with the author’s style. One will argue that one variant was produced by an orthodox scribe attempting to rid the text of a reading that could be used to promote heterodoxy or heresy; another will claim that the same variant has to be original because it is orthodox and accords with Christian doctrine (thus a heterodox or heretical scribe must have changed it). Furthermore, this principle allows for the possibility that the reading selected for the text can be taken from any manuscript of any date. This can lead to subjective eclecticism.<\/p>\n<p>Modern textual scholars have attempted to temper the subjectivism by employing a method called “reasoned eclecticism.” This kind of eclecticism applies a combination of internal and external considerations, whereby the character of the variants is evaluated in light of the manuscripts’ evidence and vice versa. This is supposed to produce a balanced view and serve as a check against purely subjective tendencies.<\/p>\n<p>The Alands favor the same kind of approach, calling it the local-genealogical method, which is defined as follows:<\/p>\n<blockquote><p>It is impossible to proceed from the assumption of a manuscript stemma, and on the basis of a full review and analysis of the relationships obtaining among the variety of interrelated branches in the manuscript tradition, to undertake a recension of the data as one would do with other Greek texts. Decisions must be made one by one, instance by instance. This method has been characterized as eclecticism, but wrongly so. After carefully establishing the variety of readings offered in a passage and the possibilities of their interpretation, it must always then be determined afresh on the basis of external and internal criteria which of these readings (and frequently they are quite numerous) is the original, from which the others may be regarded as derivative. From the perspective of our present knowledge, this “local-genealogical” method (if it must be given a name) is the only one which meets the requirements of the NT textual tradition. (Introduction to <em>Novum Testamentum Graece,<\/em> 26th edition)<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<p>The “local-genealogical” method assumes that for any given variation unit any manuscript (or manuscripts) may have preserved the original text. Applying this method produces an extremely uneven documentary presentation of the text. Anyone studying the critical apparatus of NA<span>27<\/span> will detect that there is not an even documentary presentation. The eclecticism is dispersed throughout the text.<\/p>\n<p>“Reasoned eclecticism” and\/or the “local-genealogical” method tend to give priority to internal evidence over external evidence. But it has to be the other way around if we are going to recover the original text. This was Westcott and Hort’s opinion. With respect to their compilation of <em>The New Testament in the Original Greek,<\/em> Hort wrote, “Documentary evidence has been in most cases allowed to confer the place of honour against internal evidence” (<em>The Introduction to the New Testament in the Original Greek,<\/em> p 17).<\/p>\n<p>In this respect, Westcott and Hort need to be revived. Earnest Colwell was of the same mind when he wrote “Hort Redivivus: A Plea and a Program.” Colwell decried the growing tendency to rely entirely on the internal evidence of readings, without serious consideration of documentary evidence. He called upon scholars to make an attempt to reconstruct a history of the manuscript tradition. The abundance of manuscripts—several of which are very early—will aid scholars in this ongoing task.<\/p>","summary_ro":"BIBLE*, Manuscripts and Text of the (New Testament) Copies of the NT books produced by scribes and editions made from these copies. In the centuries prior to the simultaneous-multiple production of copies via dictation (wherein many scribes in a scriptorium transcribed a text dictated to them by one reader), all manuscript copies were made singly—each scribe producing a copy from an exemplar. Prior to the 15th century, when Johannes Gutenberg invented movable type for the printing press, all ...","summary_en":"BIBLE*, Manuscripts and Text of the (New Testament) Copies of the NT books produced by scribes and editions made from these copies. In the centuries prior to the simultaneous-multiple production of copies via dictation (wherein many scribes in a scriptorium transcribed a text dictated to them by one reader), all manuscript copies were made singly—each scribe producing a copy from an exemplar. Prior to the 15th century, when Johannes Gutenberg invented movable type for the printing press, all ...","source":"Articles\/B.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":37455,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Letter to Titus","title_en":"Letter to Titus","content_ro":"<h3>TITUS, Letter to<\/h3>\n<p>Paul’s epistle to his coworker, Titus.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Recipient<\/p>\n<p>• Date<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose and Teaching<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>Though this letter begins with the name and greeting of Paul (Ti 1:1-3), Paul’s authorship has been questioned by modern scholars on the grounds of its language and style, the church situation it presents, and the way that it sets forth Christian teaching. But Pauline authorship has been stoutly defended by eminent scholars and careful students who have argued that there is no reason for supposing that this epistle was written by someone else using Paul’s name, after the apostle himself had died. The differences in this epistle and Paul’s other letters are explained previously in the section on “Author” in the article “Timothy, First Letter to.”<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Recipient\">Recipient<\/p>\n<p>Titus appears to have been one of Paul’s most trusted and valuable coworkers. Paul speaks of him (2 Cor 8:23) as “my partner and coworker.” According to Titus 1:4, he owed his conversion to Paul. It is clear from Galatians 2:1-4 that he was a Gentile, as his was a test case whether gentile Christians should be compelled to be circumcised. At that time Titus was with Paul and Barnabas in Jerusalem. Much later, at the time of Paul’s third missionary journey, he had two delicate missions to carry out for Paul in Corinth: the first pertained to the strained relationship between the apostle and the Corinthian Christians; the second related to the gentile collection for the Jerusalem church (2 Cor 2:12-13; 7:5-16; 8:1-24). If 2 Timothy 4:9-18 was written at the end of Paul’s life, then Titus went to Dalmatia after the time of this letter.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Date\">Date<\/p>\n<p>To date this letter with precision is difficult. Titus was left by the apostle in Crete to continue his work (Ti 1:5). Paul was in Crete briefly on his voyage to Rome (Acts 27:7-13), but that could not have been the occasion referred to. In 3:12 Titus is called to come to Nicopolis (probably the Nicopolis in Epirus in Greece), as Paul had decided to winter there. Many have favored the view that after Paul’s first imprisonment in Rome (Acts 28:16-31) he was released, carried out further ministry in various places (including Spain, Crete, and Greece), and then was arrested, imprisoned a second time, and finally put to death. Those who do not accept Pauline authorship of Titus, date this letter, like 1 and 2 Timothy, in the generation that followed Paul’s death.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeandTeaching\">Purpose and Teaching<\/p>\n<p>Although this letter is addressed to an individual colleague of the apostle, it has a minimum of personal references and exhortations. The growing and developing churches in Crete were Paul’s main concern. They were being bothered by false teachings that appear to have had Jewish elements, ascetic emphases, and a great deal of speculative discussion (Ti 1:10, 14-15: 3:9). In short, it seems that they were dealing with an early Jewish form of Gnosticism. Its advocates promoted this teaching “for base gain” (1:11, <span>rsv<\/span>). Titus and those whom he would appoint as elders were called upon to refute the wrong teaching and to provide the believers with healthy teaching (v 9). Though this healthy teaching is not specified, it must have pertained to the saving grace of God in Christ, the renewing work of the Holy Spirit, and the future coming of the Lord Jesus (2:11-13; 3:4-7). In this letter there is constant emphasis on the lifestyle that bears out the truth of the gospel—with application to different groups in the Christian community: older men and women, young women, young men, and slaves.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Salutation (1:1-4)<\/h5>\n<p>Greetings come from Paul—whose apostleship is described as a stewardship of the gospel that promotes faith and strengthens the knowledge of the truth, hope of eternal life, and godliness of living—to Titus, spoken of as “my true son in our common faith.”<\/p>\n<h5>Titus’s Work in Crete (1:5-9)<\/h5>\n<p>Titus was left behind in Crete to continue Paul’s work and to appoint elders in every church (cf. Acts 14:23). These elders are also called bishops (cf. 20:17, 28)—that is, those with oversight of the church. The necessary qualities of life for these positions are described (cf. 1 Tm 3:2-7).<\/p>\n<h5>Dealing with False Teachings (1:10-16)<\/h5>\n<p>The closing words of the previous section speak about the responsibility of elders “to encourage others with right teaching and show those who oppose it where they are wrong” (<span>nlt<\/span>). The opposers were upsetting people, indeed “whole families,” by teaching what was not true. These false teachers were described by Paul in terms disparaging of Cretans, and as people whose lives do not demonstrate the knowledge of God that they professed to have.<\/p>\n<h5>Promoting Right Teaching (2:1-10)<\/h5>\n<p>Titus had a particular responsibility to “promote the kind of living that reflects right teaching.” He was charged to exhort the older men to exercise self-control (2:2), and he was supposed to teach the older women to live godly lives (v 3). In turn, these women were supposed to train the younger women to live pure and loving lives in their homes so that no one will malign the word of God (vv 4-5). Younger men were to show self-control (v 6), and Titus himself was to be an example in word and life so that the opponents would have nothing bad to say about the Christians (vv 7-8). Finally, in this section slaves are taught to submit to their masters, to give good and honest service with the motivation that “then they will make the teaching about God our Savior attractive in every way” (v 10, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<h5>God’s Grace (2:11-15)<\/h5>\n<p>What has been said leads now to a great statement of the purpose of the revelation of the grace of God in Jesus Christ: to bring salvation to all people, who will make a complete break with godless and sensual living so that they may live upright lives with the constant expectancy of the coming again of “our great God and Savior Jesus Christ.” Their lives will show them to be a people who are God’s very own, always eager to do what is right.<\/p>\n<h5>Doing What Is Good (3:1-8)<\/h5>\n<p>In this section, Paul encourages Titus to tell the Christians at Crete that it is their duty to submit to rulers (cf. Rom 13:1-7; 1 Pt 2:13-17) and to be available in the community for honest work. Again, the quality of lifestyle is emphasized—in particular, courtesy and the desire for peace in relationships with others. This lifestyle comes from spiritual transformation. The means of that transformation is the saving work of Christ—not merited, but entirely of his mercy. He has brought cleansing from sin, “rebirth and renewal by the Holy Spirit.”<\/p>\n<h5>Paul’s Final Remarks and Greetings (3:9-15)<\/h5>\n<p>In this final section, Paul encourages Titus to avoid those who like to debate about religion for the sake of debating. And he tells Titus how to deal with those who cause divisions.<\/p>\n<p>Following this, Paul tells Titus that he will send him Artemas (not mentioned otherwise in the NT) or Tychicus. Then he encourages Titus to take care of Apollos and Zenas if they pass by Crete. Titus himself is supposed to come to Paul in Nicopolis before winter.<\/p>\n<p>The epistle closes with a final exhortation to “good deeds” and to a spiritually fruitful life.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Paul, The Apostle; Timothy, First Letter to; Timothy, Second Letter to; Titus (Person) #1.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>TITUS, Letter to<\/h3>\n<p>Paul’s epistle to his coworker, Titus.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Recipient<\/p>\n<p>• Date<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose and Teaching<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>Though this letter begins with the name and greeting of Paul (Ti 1:1-3), Paul’s authorship has been questioned by modern scholars on the grounds of its language and style, the church situation it presents, and the way that it sets forth Christian teaching. But Pauline authorship has been stoutly defended by eminent scholars and careful students who have argued that there is no reason for supposing that this epistle was written by someone else using Paul’s name, after the apostle himself had died. The differences in this epistle and Paul’s other letters are explained previously in the section on “Author” in the article “Timothy, First Letter to.”<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Recipient\">Recipient<\/p>\n<p>Titus appears to have been one of Paul’s most trusted and valuable coworkers. Paul speaks of him (2 Cor 8:23) as “my partner and coworker.” According to Titus 1:4, he owed his conversion to Paul. It is clear from Galatians 2:1-4 that he was a Gentile, as his was a test case whether gentile Christians should be compelled to be circumcised. At that time Titus was with Paul and Barnabas in Jerusalem. Much later, at the time of Paul’s third missionary journey, he had two delicate missions to carry out for Paul in Corinth: the first pertained to the strained relationship between the apostle and the Corinthian Christians; the second related to the gentile collection for the Jerusalem church (2 Cor 2:12-13; 7:5-16; 8:1-24). If 2 Timothy 4:9-18 was written at the end of Paul’s life, then Titus went to Dalmatia after the time of this letter.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Date\">Date<\/p>\n<p>To date this letter with precision is difficult. Titus was left by the apostle in Crete to continue his work (Ti 1:5). Paul was in Crete briefly on his voyage to Rome (Acts 27:7-13), but that could not have been the occasion referred to. In 3:12 Titus is called to come to Nicopolis (probably the Nicopolis in Epirus in Greece), as Paul had decided to winter there. Many have favored the view that after Paul’s first imprisonment in Rome (Acts 28:16-31) he was released, carried out further ministry in various places (including Spain, Crete, and Greece), and then was arrested, imprisoned a second time, and finally put to death. Those who do not accept Pauline authorship of Titus, date this letter, like 1 and 2 Timothy, in the generation that followed Paul’s death.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeandTeaching\">Purpose and Teaching<\/p>\n<p>Although this letter is addressed to an individual colleague of the apostle, it has a minimum of personal references and exhortations. The growing and developing churches in Crete were Paul’s main concern. They were being bothered by false teachings that appear to have had Jewish elements, ascetic emphases, and a great deal of speculative discussion (Ti 1:10, 14-15: 3:9). In short, it seems that they were dealing with an early Jewish form of Gnosticism. Its advocates promoted this teaching “for base gain” (1:11, <span>rsv<\/span>). Titus and those whom he would appoint as elders were called upon to refute the wrong teaching and to provide the believers with healthy teaching (v 9). Though this healthy teaching is not specified, it must have pertained to the saving grace of God in Christ, the renewing work of the Holy Spirit, and the future coming of the Lord Jesus (2:11-13; 3:4-7). In this letter there is constant emphasis on the lifestyle that bears out the truth of the gospel—with application to different groups in the Christian community: older men and women, young women, young men, and slaves.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Salutation (1:1-4)<\/h5>\n<p>Greetings come from Paul—whose apostleship is described as a stewardship of the gospel that promotes faith and strengthens the knowledge of the truth, hope of eternal life, and godliness of living—to Titus, spoken of as “my true son in our common faith.”<\/p>\n<h5>Titus’s Work in Crete (1:5-9)<\/h5>\n<p>Titus was left behind in Crete to continue Paul’s work and to appoint elders in every church (cf. Acts 14:23). These elders are also called bishops (cf. 20:17, 28)—that is, those with oversight of the church. The necessary qualities of life for these positions are described (cf. 1 Tm 3:2-7).<\/p>\n<h5>Dealing with False Teachings (1:10-16)<\/h5>\n<p>The closing words of the previous section speak about the responsibility of elders “to encourage others with right teaching and show those who oppose it where they are wrong” (<span>nlt<\/span>). The opposers were upsetting people, indeed “whole families,” by teaching what was not true. These false teachers were described by Paul in terms disparaging of Cretans, and as people whose lives do not demonstrate the knowledge of God that they professed to have.<\/p>\n<h5>Promoting Right Teaching (2:1-10)<\/h5>\n<p>Titus had a particular responsibility to “promote the kind of living that reflects right teaching.” He was charged to exhort the older men to exercise self-control (2:2), and he was supposed to teach the older women to live godly lives (v 3). In turn, these women were supposed to train the younger women to live pure and loving lives in their homes so that no one will malign the word of God (vv 4-5). Younger men were to show self-control (v 6), and Titus himself was to be an example in word and life so that the opponents would have nothing bad to say about the Christians (vv 7-8). Finally, in this section slaves are taught to submit to their masters, to give good and honest service with the motivation that “then they will make the teaching about God our Savior attractive in every way” (v 10, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<h5>God’s Grace (2:11-15)<\/h5>\n<p>What has been said leads now to a great statement of the purpose of the revelation of the grace of God in Jesus Christ: to bring salvation to all people, who will make a complete break with godless and sensual living so that they may live upright lives with the constant expectancy of the coming again of “our great God and Savior Jesus Christ.” Their lives will show them to be a people who are God’s very own, always eager to do what is right.<\/p>\n<h5>Doing What Is Good (3:1-8)<\/h5>\n<p>In this section, Paul encourages Titus to tell the Christians at Crete that it is their duty to submit to rulers (cf. Rom 13:1-7; 1 Pt 2:13-17) and to be available in the community for honest work. Again, the quality of lifestyle is emphasized—in particular, courtesy and the desire for peace in relationships with others. This lifestyle comes from spiritual transformation. The means of that transformation is the saving work of Christ—not merited, but entirely of his mercy. He has brought cleansing from sin, “rebirth and renewal by the Holy Spirit.”<\/p>\n<h5>Paul’s Final Remarks and Greetings (3:9-15)<\/h5>\n<p>In this final section, Paul encourages Titus to avoid those who like to debate about religion for the sake of debating. And he tells Titus how to deal with those who cause divisions.<\/p>\n<p>Following this, Paul tells Titus that he will send him Artemas (not mentioned otherwise in the NT) or Tychicus. Then he encourages Titus to take care of Apollos and Zenas if they pass by Crete. Titus himself is supposed to come to Paul in Nicopolis before winter.<\/p>\n<p>The epistle closes with a final exhortation to “good deeds” and to a spiritually fruitful life.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Paul, The Apostle; Timothy, First Letter to; Timothy, Second Letter to; Titus (Person) #1.<\/p>","summary_ro":"TITUS, Letter to Paul’s epistle to his coworker, Titus. Preview • Author • Recipient • Date • Purpose and Teaching • Content Author Though this letter begins with the name and greeting of Paul (Ti 1:1-3), Paul’s authorship has been questioned by modern scholars on the grounds of its language and style, the church situation it presents, and the way that it sets forth Christian teaching. But Pauline authorship has been stoutly defended by eminent scholars and careful students who have argued th...","summary_en":"TITUS, Letter to Paul’s epistle to his coworker, Titus. Preview • Author • Recipient • Date • Purpose and Teaching • Content Author Though this letter begins with the name and greeting of Paul (Ti 1:1-3), Paul’s authorship has been questioned by modern scholars on the grounds of its language and style, the church situation it presents, and the way that it sets forth Christian teaching. But Pauline authorship has been stoutly defended by eminent scholars and careful students who have argued th...","source":"Articles\/T.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":58662,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Tit 1:11","title_en":"Study Note: Tit 1:11","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:11<\/strong> <em>turning whole families away:<\/em> This also happened in Ephesus (cp. 1 Tim 4:3; 2 Tim 2:18; 3:6). • <em>only for money:<\/em> Elders must not have this characteristic (Titus 1:7; see also 1 Tim 6:5-10; 2 Cor 2:17; 1 Pet 5:2).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:11<\/strong> <em>turning whole families away:<\/em> This also happened in Ephesus (cp. 1 Tim 4:3; 2 Tim 2:18; 3:6). • <em>only for money:<\/em> Elders must not have this characteristic (Titus 1:7; see also 1 Tim 6:5-10; 2 Cor 2:17; 1 Pet 5:2).<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:11 turning whole families away: This also happened in Ephesus (cp. 1 Tim 4:3; 2 Tim 2:18; 3:6). • only for money: Elders must not have this characteristic (Titus 1:7; see also 1 Tim 6:5-10; 2 Cor 2:17; 1 Pet 5:2).","summary_en":"1:11 turning whole families away: This also happened in Ephesus (cp. 1 Tim 4:3; 2 Tim 2:18; 3:6). • only for money: Elders must not have this characteristic (Titus 1:7; see also 1 Tim 6:5-10; 2 Cor 2:17; 1 Pet 5:2).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":86288,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Tit 1:11","title_en":"Study Note: Tit 1:11","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:11<\/strong> <em>turning whole families away:<\/em> This also happened in Ephesus (cp. 1 Tim 4:3; 2 Tim 2:18; 3:6). • <em>only for money:<\/em> Elders must not have this characteristic (Titus 1:7; see also 1 Tim 6:5-10; 2 Cor 2:17; 1 Pet 5:2).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:11<\/strong> <em>turning whole families away:<\/em> This also happened in Ephesus (cp. 1 Tim 4:3; 2 Tim 2:18; 3:6). • <em>only for money:<\/em> Elders must not have this characteristic (Titus 1:7; see also 1 Tim 6:5-10; 2 Cor 2:17; 1 Pet 5:2).<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:11 turning whole families away: This also happened in Ephesus (cp. 1 Tim 4:3; 2 Tim 2:18; 3:6). • only for money: Elders must not have this characteristic (Titus 1:7; see also 1 Tim 6:5-10; 2 Cor 2:17; 1 Pet 5:2).","summary_en":"1:11 turning whole families away: This also happened in Ephesus (cp. 1 Tim 4:3; 2 Tim 2:18; 3:6). • only for money: Elders must not have this characteristic (Titus 1:7; see also 1 Tim 6:5-10; 2 Cor 2:17; 1 Pet 5:2).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":113914,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Tit 1:11","title_en":"Study Note: Tit 1:11","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:11<\/strong> <em>turning whole families away:<\/em> This also happened in Ephesus (cp. 1 Tim 4:3; 2 Tim 2:18; 3:6). • <em>only for money:<\/em> Elders must not have this characteristic (Titus 1:7; see also 1 Tim 6:5-10; 2 Cor 2:17; 1 Pet 5:2).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:11<\/strong> <em>turning whole families away:<\/em> This also happened in Ephesus (cp. 1 Tim 4:3; 2 Tim 2:18; 3:6). • <em>only for money:<\/em> Elders must not have this characteristic (Titus 1:7; see also 1 Tim 6:5-10; 2 Cor 2:17; 1 Pet 5:2).<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:11 turning whole families away: This also happened in Ephesus (cp. 1 Tim 4:3; 2 Tim 2:18; 3:6). • only for money: Elders must not have this characteristic (Titus 1:7; see also 1 Tim 6:5-10; 2 Cor 2:17; 1 Pet 5:2).","summary_en":"1:11 turning whole families away: This also happened in Ephesus (cp. 1 Tim 4:3; 2 Tim 2:18; 3:6). • only for money: Elders must not have this characteristic (Titus 1:7; see also 1 Tim 6:5-10; 2 Cor 2:17; 1 Pet 5:2).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":141540,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Tit 1:11","title_en":"Study Note: Tit 1:11","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:11<\/strong> <em>turning whole families away:<\/em> This also happened in Ephesus (cp. 1 Tim 4:3; 2 Tim 2:18; 3:6). • <em>only for money:<\/em> Elders must not have this characteristic (Titus 1:7; see also 1 Tim 6:5-10; 2 Cor 2:17; 1 Pet 5:2).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:11<\/strong> <em>turning whole families away:<\/em> This also happened in Ephesus (cp. 1 Tim 4:3; 2 Tim 2:18; 3:6). • <em>only for money:<\/em> Elders must not have this characteristic (Titus 1:7; see also 1 Tim 6:5-10; 2 Cor 2:17; 1 Pet 5:2).<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:11 turning whole families away: This also happened in Ephesus (cp. 1 Tim 4:3; 2 Tim 2:18; 3:6). • only for money: Elders must not have this characteristic (Titus 1:7; see also 1 Tim 6:5-10; 2 Cor 2:17; 1 Pet 5:2).","summary_en":"1:11 turning whole families away: This also happened in Ephesus (cp. 1 Tim 4:3; 2 Tim 2:18; 3:6). • only for money: Elders must not have this characteristic (Titus 1:7; see also 1 Tim 6:5-10; 2 Cor 2:17; 1 Pet 5:2).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":67493,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Women’s Roles in the New Testament Church","title_en":"Women’s Roles in the New Testament Church","content_ro":"<h3>Women’s Roles in the New Testament Church<\/h3>\n<p>Paul’s words in 1 Timothy regarding women’s roles in the church were intended to correct what was happening in Ephesus, but the extent to which this passage applies to other situations is a subject of discussion. The possible understandings include the following three:<\/p>\n<p><em>Universal Interpretation.<\/em> Galatians 3:28 (“There is no longer . . . male and female”) does not negate creational gender distinctions and roles. Even if Galatians 3:28 represents the ideal of equality in God’s eternal Kingdom, gender roles should still be ordered as outlined in 1 Timothy 2:11-15 for as long as this creation continues. By way of comparison, Matthew 22:30 discusses the status of marriage in the new creation—it differs from the structure of this creation outlined in Genesis 2:23-24, and it applies to the present life only in a special and limited sense (see 1 Tim 4:3-5; Matt 19:11-12; 1 Cor 7:29-35). The structure of the new creation will be fully realized in the coming age, and it is not the ideal for the present time. Therefore, Christian women in all times and places must recognize their role in the created order of God. They must not teach men or exercise authority over men in the church (see also 1 Cor 11:2-16; 14:34-35).<\/p>\n<p><em>Polemical Interpretation.<\/em> Paul was addressing a particular situation created by the false teaching within the Ephesian church (see 1 Tim 1:18-20; 4:1-5; cp. 2 Tim 3:6-9). Evidence suggests that this teaching was disturbing family relationships (see 1 Tim 4:3; Titus 1:11). It is possible that Ephesian women, caught up in the local heresy, were abusing Genesis 1–3 in their teaching. They might have been asserting female domination in the final resurrection (which, according to some of the Ephesians, had already occurred; 2 Tim 2:18) and accentuated Adam’s blame for the Fall. Paul corrects their misreadings by alluding to the biblical text, but his point is not to make a universal statement about the status of women in the church. His concern is merely to silence the false teachers in Ephesus, including the women among them. First Timothy 2:11-15 entails a rebuke with loss of privilege specifically for those false teachers.<\/p>\n<p><em>Cultural Interpretation.<\/em> Paul’s argument was not necessarily directed to a local problem in Ephesus, but it presupposes a strongly patriarchal society, both in concern for public decorum (women in their place, showing proper honor to men) and in handling Genesis 2:7, 22. This shows that Christians must respect cultural norms insofar as possible in their evangelistic mission (1 Cor 9:19-23). In addition, most women in that society had limited training as teachers. Their society, in contrast to many twenty-first-century societies, usually educated women poorly. Because of that culture’s patriarchal structure, women would not normally have qualified as teachers and leaders. First Timothy 2:11-15, therefore, reflects the notion that properly qualified people should lead and teach. At the same time, there are examples in Paul’s writings and in the early church of women participating in various facets of ministry (e.g., Acts 18:26; Rom 16:1-7; 1 Cor 11:5). This leads to questions about the universal applicability of Paul’s statements on women in the church.<\/p>\n<p>Christians continue to discuss these complex issues. Many Christians today subscribe to a complementarian viewpoint, affirming distinct gender roles in the church, while many others take an egalitarian position, supporting the notion that men and women share equal roles in the church. All Christians affirm, however, the equality of men and women with respect to their identity as beloved children of God (see Galatians 3:26-28).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 2:23-24; Acts 18:26; Rom 16:1-7; 1 Cor 11:2-16; 14:34-35; Gal 3:28; 1 Tim 2:11-15<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Women’s Roles in the New Testament Church<\/h3>\n<p>Paul’s words in 1 Timothy regarding women’s roles in the church were intended to correct what was happening in Ephesus, but the extent to which this passage applies to other situations is a subject of discussion. The possible understandings include the following three:<\/p>\n<p><em>Universal Interpretation.<\/em> Galatians 3:28 (“There is no longer . . . male and female”) does not negate creational gender distinctions and roles. Even if Galatians 3:28 represents the ideal of equality in God’s eternal Kingdom, gender roles should still be ordered as outlined in 1 Timothy 2:11-15 for as long as this creation continues. By way of comparison, Matthew 22:30 discusses the status of marriage in the new creation—it differs from the structure of this creation outlined in Genesis 2:23-24, and it applies to the present life only in a special and limited sense (see 1 Tim 4:3-5; Matt 19:11-12; 1 Cor 7:29-35). The structure of the new creation will be fully realized in the coming age, and it is not the ideal for the present time. Therefore, Christian women in all times and places must recognize their role in the created order of God. They must not teach men or exercise authority over men in the church (see also 1 Cor 11:2-16; 14:34-35).<\/p>\n<p><em>Polemical Interpretation.<\/em> Paul was addressing a particular situation created by the false teaching within the Ephesian church (see 1 Tim 1:18-20; 4:1-5; cp. 2 Tim 3:6-9). Evidence suggests that this teaching was disturbing family relationships (see 1 Tim 4:3; Titus 1:11). It is possible that Ephesian women, caught up in the local heresy, were abusing Genesis 1–3 in their teaching. They might have been asserting female domination in the final resurrection (which, according to some of the Ephesians, had already occurred; 2 Tim 2:18) and accentuated Adam’s blame for the Fall. Paul corrects their misreadings by alluding to the biblical text, but his point is not to make a universal statement about the status of women in the church. His concern is merely to silence the false teachers in Ephesus, including the women among them. First Timothy 2:11-15 entails a rebuke with loss of privilege specifically for those false teachers.<\/p>\n<p><em>Cultural Interpretation.<\/em> Paul’s argument was not necessarily directed to a local problem in Ephesus, but it presupposes a strongly patriarchal society, both in concern for public decorum (women in their place, showing proper honor to men) and in handling Genesis 2:7, 22. This shows that Christians must respect cultural norms insofar as possible in their evangelistic mission (1 Cor 9:19-23). In addition, most women in that society had limited training as teachers. Their society, in contrast to many twenty-first-century societies, usually educated women poorly. Because of that culture’s patriarchal structure, women would not normally have qualified as teachers and leaders. First Timothy 2:11-15, therefore, reflects the notion that properly qualified people should lead and teach. At the same time, there are examples in Paul’s writings and in the early church of women participating in various facets of ministry (e.g., Acts 18:26; Rom 16:1-7; 1 Cor 11:5). This leads to questions about the universal applicability of Paul’s statements on women in the church.<\/p>\n<p>Christians continue to discuss these complex issues. Many Christians today subscribe to a complementarian viewpoint, affirming distinct gender roles in the church, while many others take an egalitarian position, supporting the notion that men and women share equal roles in the church. All Christians affirm, however, the equality of men and women with respect to their identity as beloved children of God (see Galatians 3:26-28).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 2:23-24; Acts 18:26; Rom 16:1-7; 1 Cor 11:2-16; 14:34-35; Gal 3:28; 1 Tim 2:11-15<\/p>","summary_ro":"Women’s Roles in the New Testament Church Paul’s words in 1 Timothy regarding women’s roles in the church were intended to correct what was happening in Ephesus, but the extent to which this passage applies to other situations is a subject of discussion. The possible understandings include the following three: Universal Interpretation. Galatians 3:28 (“There is no longer . . . male and female”) does not negate creational gender distinctions and roles. Even if Galatians 3:28 represents the ide...","summary_en":"Women’s Roles in the New Testament Church Paul’s words in 1 Timothy regarding women’s roles in the church were intended to correct what was happening in Ephesus, but the extent to which this passage applies to other situations is a subject of discussion. The possible understandings include the following three: Universal Interpretation. Galatians 3:28 (“There is no longer . . . male and female”) does not negate creational gender distinctions and roles. Even if Galatians 3:28 represents the ide...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":95119,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Women’s Roles in the New Testament Church","title_en":"Women’s Roles in the New Testament Church","content_ro":"<h3>Women’s Roles in the New Testament Church<\/h3>\n<p>Paul’s words in 1 Timothy regarding women’s roles in the church were intended to correct what was happening in Ephesus, but the extent to which this passage applies to other situations is a subject of discussion. The possible understandings include the following three:<\/p>\n<p><em>Universal Interpretation.<\/em> Galatians 3:28 (“There is no longer . . . male and female”) does not negate creational gender distinctions and roles. Even if Galatians 3:28 represents the ideal of equality in God’s eternal Kingdom, gender roles should still be ordered as outlined in 1 Timothy 2:11-15 for as long as this creation continues. By way of comparison, Matthew 22:30 discusses the status of marriage in the new creation—it differs from the structure of this creation outlined in Genesis 2:23-24, and it applies to the present life only in a special and limited sense (see 1 Tim 4:3-5; Matt 19:11-12; 1 Cor 7:29-35). The structure of the new creation will be fully realized in the coming age, and it is not the ideal for the present time. Therefore, Christian women in all times and places must recognize their role in the created order of God. They must not teach men or exercise authority over men in the church (see also 1 Cor 11:2-16; 14:34-35).<\/p>\n<p><em>Polemical Interpretation.<\/em> Paul was addressing a particular situation created by the false teaching within the Ephesian church (see 1 Tim 1:18-20; 4:1-5; cp. 2 Tim 3:6-9). Evidence suggests that this teaching was disturbing family relationships (see 1 Tim 4:3; Titus 1:11). It is possible that Ephesian women, caught up in the local heresy, were abusing Genesis 1–3 in their teaching. They might have been asserting female domination in the final resurrection (which, according to some of the Ephesians, had already occurred; 2 Tim 2:18) and accentuated Adam’s blame for the Fall. Paul corrects their misreadings by alluding to the biblical text, but his point is not to make a universal statement about the status of women in the church. His concern is merely to silence the false teachers in Ephesus, including the women among them. First Timothy 2:11-15 entails a rebuke with loss of privilege specifically for those false teachers.<\/p>\n<p><em>Cultural Interpretation.<\/em> Paul’s argument was not necessarily directed to a local problem in Ephesus, but it presupposes a strongly patriarchal society, both in concern for public decorum (women in their place, showing proper honor to men) and in handling Genesis 2:7, 22. This shows that Christians must respect cultural norms insofar as possible in their evangelistic mission (1 Cor 9:19-23). In addition, most women in that society had limited training as teachers. Their society, in contrast to many twenty-first-century societies, usually educated women poorly. Because of that culture’s patriarchal structure, women would not normally have qualified as teachers and leaders. First Timothy 2:11-15, therefore, reflects the notion that properly qualified people should lead and teach. At the same time, there are examples in Paul’s writings and in the early church of women participating in various facets of ministry (e.g., Acts 18:26; Rom 16:1-7; 1 Cor 11:5). This leads to questions about the universal applicability of Paul’s statements on women in the church.<\/p>\n<p>Christians continue to discuss these complex issues. Many Christians today subscribe to a complementarian viewpoint, affirming distinct gender roles in the church, while many others take an egalitarian position, supporting the notion that men and women share equal roles in the church. All Christians affirm, however, the equality of men and women with respect to their identity as beloved children of God (see Galatians 3:26-28).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 2:23-24; Acts 18:26; Rom 16:1-7; 1 Cor 11:2-16; 14:34-35; Gal 3:28; 1 Tim 2:11-15<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Women’s Roles in the New Testament Church<\/h3>\n<p>Paul’s words in 1 Timothy regarding women’s roles in the church were intended to correct what was happening in Ephesus, but the extent to which this passage applies to other situations is a subject of discussion. The possible understandings include the following three:<\/p>\n<p><em>Universal Interpretation.<\/em> Galatians 3:28 (“There is no longer . . . male and female”) does not negate creational gender distinctions and roles. Even if Galatians 3:28 represents the ideal of equality in God’s eternal Kingdom, gender roles should still be ordered as outlined in 1 Timothy 2:11-15 for as long as this creation continues. By way of comparison, Matthew 22:30 discusses the status of marriage in the new creation—it differs from the structure of this creation outlined in Genesis 2:23-24, and it applies to the present life only in a special and limited sense (see 1 Tim 4:3-5; Matt 19:11-12; 1 Cor 7:29-35). The structure of the new creation will be fully realized in the coming age, and it is not the ideal for the present time. Therefore, Christian women in all times and places must recognize their role in the created order of God. They must not teach men or exercise authority over men in the church (see also 1 Cor 11:2-16; 14:34-35).<\/p>\n<p><em>Polemical Interpretation.<\/em> Paul was addressing a particular situation created by the false teaching within the Ephesian church (see 1 Tim 1:18-20; 4:1-5; cp. 2 Tim 3:6-9). Evidence suggests that this teaching was disturbing family relationships (see 1 Tim 4:3; Titus 1:11). It is possible that Ephesian women, caught up in the local heresy, were abusing Genesis 1–3 in their teaching. They might have been asserting female domination in the final resurrection (which, according to some of the Ephesians, had already occurred; 2 Tim 2:18) and accentuated Adam’s blame for the Fall. Paul corrects their misreadings by alluding to the biblical text, but his point is not to make a universal statement about the status of women in the church. His concern is merely to silence the false teachers in Ephesus, including the women among them. First Timothy 2:11-15 entails a rebuke with loss of privilege specifically for those false teachers.<\/p>\n<p><em>Cultural Interpretation.<\/em> Paul’s argument was not necessarily directed to a local problem in Ephesus, but it presupposes a strongly patriarchal society, both in concern for public decorum (women in their place, showing proper honor to men) and in handling Genesis 2:7, 22. This shows that Christians must respect cultural norms insofar as possible in their evangelistic mission (1 Cor 9:19-23). In addition, most women in that society had limited training as teachers. Their society, in contrast to many twenty-first-century societies, usually educated women poorly. Because of that culture’s patriarchal structure, women would not normally have qualified as teachers and leaders. First Timothy 2:11-15, therefore, reflects the notion that properly qualified people should lead and teach. At the same time, there are examples in Paul’s writings and in the early church of women participating in various facets of ministry (e.g., Acts 18:26; Rom 16:1-7; 1 Cor 11:5). This leads to questions about the universal applicability of Paul’s statements on women in the church.<\/p>\n<p>Christians continue to discuss these complex issues. Many Christians today subscribe to a complementarian viewpoint, affirming distinct gender roles in the church, while many others take an egalitarian position, supporting the notion that men and women share equal roles in the church. All Christians affirm, however, the equality of men and women with respect to their identity as beloved children of God (see Galatians 3:26-28).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 2:23-24; Acts 18:26; Rom 16:1-7; 1 Cor 11:2-16; 14:34-35; Gal 3:28; 1 Tim 2:11-15<\/p>","summary_ro":"Women’s Roles in the New Testament Church Paul’s words in 1 Timothy regarding women’s roles in the church were intended to correct what was happening in Ephesus, but the extent to which this passage applies to other situations is a subject of discussion. The possible understandings include the following three: Universal Interpretation. Galatians 3:28 (“There is no longer . . . male and female”) does not negate creational gender distinctions and roles. Even if Galatians 3:28 represents the ide...","summary_en":"Women’s Roles in the New Testament Church Paul’s words in 1 Timothy regarding women’s roles in the church were intended to correct what was happening in Ephesus, but the extent to which this passage applies to other situations is a subject of discussion. The possible understandings include the following three: Universal Interpretation. Galatians 3:28 (“There is no longer . . . male and female”) does not negate creational gender distinctions and roles. Even if Galatians 3:28 represents the ide...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":122745,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Women’s Roles in the New Testament Church","title_en":"Women’s Roles in the New Testament Church","content_ro":"<h3>Women’s Roles in the New Testament Church<\/h3>\n<p>Paul’s words in 1 Timothy regarding women’s roles in the church were intended to correct what was happening in Ephesus, but the extent to which this passage applies to other situations is a subject of discussion. The possible understandings include the following three:<\/p>\n<p><em>Universal Interpretation.<\/em> Galatians 3:28 (“There is no longer . . . male and female”) does not negate creational gender distinctions and roles. Even if Galatians 3:28 represents the ideal of equality in God’s eternal Kingdom, gender roles should still be ordered as outlined in 1 Timothy 2:11-15 for as long as this creation continues. By way of comparison, Matthew 22:30 discusses the status of marriage in the new creation—it differs from the structure of this creation outlined in Genesis 2:23-24, and it applies to the present life only in a special and limited sense (see 1 Tim 4:3-5; Matt 19:11-12; 1 Cor 7:29-35). The structure of the new creation will be fully realized in the coming age, and it is not the ideal for the present time. Therefore, Christian women in all times and places must recognize their role in the created order of God. They must not teach men or exercise authority over men in the church (see also 1 Cor 11:2-16; 14:34-35).<\/p>\n<p><em>Polemical Interpretation.<\/em> Paul was addressing a particular situation created by the false teaching within the Ephesian church (see 1 Tim 1:18-20; 4:1-5; cp. 2 Tim 3:6-9). Evidence suggests that this teaching was disturbing family relationships (see 1 Tim 4:3; Titus 1:11). It is possible that Ephesian women, caught up in the local heresy, were abusing Genesis 1–3 in their teaching. They might have been asserting female domination in the final resurrection (which, according to some of the Ephesians, had already occurred; 2 Tim 2:18) and accentuated Adam’s blame for the Fall. Paul corrects their misreadings by alluding to the biblical text, but his point is not to make a universal statement about the status of women in the church. His concern is merely to silence the false teachers in Ephesus, including the women among them. First Timothy 2:11-15 entails a rebuke with loss of privilege specifically for those false teachers.<\/p>\n<p><em>Cultural Interpretation.<\/em> Paul’s argument was not necessarily directed to a local problem in Ephesus, but it presupposes a strongly patriarchal society, both in concern for public decorum (women in their place, showing proper honor to men) and in handling Genesis 2:7, 22. This shows that Christians must respect cultural norms insofar as possible in their evangelistic mission (1 Cor 9:19-23). In addition, most women in that society had limited training as teachers. Their society, in contrast to many twenty-first-century societies, usually educated women poorly. Because of that culture’s patriarchal structure, women would not normally have qualified as teachers and leaders. First Timothy 2:11-15, therefore, reflects the notion that properly qualified people should lead and teach. At the same time, there are examples in Paul’s writings and in the early church of women participating in various facets of ministry (e.g., Acts 18:26; Rom 16:1-7; 1 Cor 11:5). This leads to questions about the universal applicability of Paul’s statements on women in the church.<\/p>\n<p>Christians continue to discuss these complex issues. Many Christians today subscribe to a complementarian viewpoint, affirming distinct gender roles in the church, while many others take an egalitarian position, supporting the notion that men and women share equal roles in the church. All Christians affirm, however, the equality of men and women with respect to their identity as beloved children of God (see Galatians 3:26-28).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 2:23-24; Acts 18:26; Rom 16:1-7; 1 Cor 11:2-16; 14:34-35; Gal 3:28; 1 Tim 2:11-15<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Women’s Roles in the New Testament Church<\/h3>\n<p>Paul’s words in 1 Timothy regarding women’s roles in the church were intended to correct what was happening in Ephesus, but the extent to which this passage applies to other situations is a subject of discussion. The possible understandings include the following three:<\/p>\n<p><em>Universal Interpretation.<\/em> Galatians 3:28 (“There is no longer . . . male and female”) does not negate creational gender distinctions and roles. Even if Galatians 3:28 represents the ideal of equality in God’s eternal Kingdom, gender roles should still be ordered as outlined in 1 Timothy 2:11-15 for as long as this creation continues. By way of comparison, Matthew 22:30 discusses the status of marriage in the new creation—it differs from the structure of this creation outlined in Genesis 2:23-24, and it applies to the present life only in a special and limited sense (see 1 Tim 4:3-5; Matt 19:11-12; 1 Cor 7:29-35). The structure of the new creation will be fully realized in the coming age, and it is not the ideal for the present time. Therefore, Christian women in all times and places must recognize their role in the created order of God. They must not teach men or exercise authority over men in the church (see also 1 Cor 11:2-16; 14:34-35).<\/p>\n<p><em>Polemical Interpretation.<\/em> Paul was addressing a particular situation created by the false teaching within the Ephesian church (see 1 Tim 1:18-20; 4:1-5; cp. 2 Tim 3:6-9). Evidence suggests that this teaching was disturbing family relationships (see 1 Tim 4:3; Titus 1:11). It is possible that Ephesian women, caught up in the local heresy, were abusing Genesis 1–3 in their teaching. They might have been asserting female domination in the final resurrection (which, according to some of the Ephesians, had already occurred; 2 Tim 2:18) and accentuated Adam’s blame for the Fall. Paul corrects their misreadings by alluding to the biblical text, but his point is not to make a universal statement about the status of women in the church. His concern is merely to silence the false teachers in Ephesus, including the women among them. First Timothy 2:11-15 entails a rebuke with loss of privilege specifically for those false teachers.<\/p>\n<p><em>Cultural Interpretation.<\/em> Paul’s argument was not necessarily directed to a local problem in Ephesus, but it presupposes a strongly patriarchal society, both in concern for public decorum (women in their place, showing proper honor to men) and in handling Genesis 2:7, 22. This shows that Christians must respect cultural norms insofar as possible in their evangelistic mission (1 Cor 9:19-23). In addition, most women in that society had limited training as teachers. Their society, in contrast to many twenty-first-century societies, usually educated women poorly. Because of that culture’s patriarchal structure, women would not normally have qualified as teachers and leaders. First Timothy 2:11-15, therefore, reflects the notion that properly qualified people should lead and teach. At the same time, there are examples in Paul’s writings and in the early church of women participating in various facets of ministry (e.g., Acts 18:26; Rom 16:1-7; 1 Cor 11:5). This leads to questions about the universal applicability of Paul’s statements on women in the church.<\/p>\n<p>Christians continue to discuss these complex issues. Many Christians today subscribe to a complementarian viewpoint, affirming distinct gender roles in the church, while many others take an egalitarian position, supporting the notion that men and women share equal roles in the church. All Christians affirm, however, the equality of men and women with respect to their identity as beloved children of God (see Galatians 3:26-28).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 2:23-24; Acts 18:26; Rom 16:1-7; 1 Cor 11:2-16; 14:34-35; Gal 3:28; 1 Tim 2:11-15<\/p>","summary_ro":"Women’s Roles in the New Testament Church Paul’s words in 1 Timothy regarding women’s roles in the church were intended to correct what was happening in Ephesus, but the extent to which this passage applies to other situations is a subject of discussion. The possible understandings include the following three: Universal Interpretation. Galatians 3:28 (“There is no longer . . . male and female”) does not negate creational gender distinctions and roles. Even if Galatians 3:28 represents the ide...","summary_en":"Women’s Roles in the New Testament Church Paul’s words in 1 Timothy regarding women’s roles in the church were intended to correct what was happening in Ephesus, but the extent to which this passage applies to other situations is a subject of discussion. The possible understandings include the following three: Universal Interpretation. Galatians 3:28 (“There is no longer . . . male and female”) does not negate creational gender distinctions and roles. Even if Galatians 3:28 represents the ide...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":150371,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Women’s Roles in the New Testament Church","title_en":"Women’s Roles in the New Testament Church","content_ro":"<h3>Women’s Roles in the New Testament Church<\/h3>\n<p>Paul’s words in 1 Timothy regarding women’s roles in the church were intended to correct what was happening in Ephesus, but the extent to which this passage applies to other situations is a subject of discussion. The possible understandings include the following three:<\/p>\n<p><em>Universal Interpretation.<\/em> Galatians 3:28 (“There is no longer . . . male and female”) does not negate creational gender distinctions and roles. Even if Galatians 3:28 represents the ideal of equality in God’s eternal Kingdom, gender roles should still be ordered as outlined in 1 Timothy 2:11-15 for as long as this creation continues. By way of comparison, Matthew 22:30 discusses the status of marriage in the new creation—it differs from the structure of this creation outlined in Genesis 2:23-24, and it applies to the present life only in a special and limited sense (see 1 Tim 4:3-5; Matt 19:11-12; 1 Cor 7:29-35). The structure of the new creation will be fully realized in the coming age, and it is not the ideal for the present time. Therefore, Christian women in all times and places must recognize their role in the created order of God. They must not teach men or exercise authority over men in the church (see also 1 Cor 11:2-16; 14:34-35).<\/p>\n<p><em>Polemical Interpretation.<\/em> Paul was addressing a particular situation created by the false teaching within the Ephesian church (see 1 Tim 1:18-20; 4:1-5; cp. 2 Tim 3:6-9). Evidence suggests that this teaching was disturbing family relationships (see 1 Tim 4:3; Titus 1:11). It is possible that Ephesian women, caught up in the local heresy, were abusing Genesis 1–3 in their teaching. They might have been asserting female domination in the final resurrection (which, according to some of the Ephesians, had already occurred; 2 Tim 2:18) and accentuated Adam’s blame for the Fall. Paul corrects their misreadings by alluding to the biblical text, but his point is not to make a universal statement about the status of women in the church. His concern is merely to silence the false teachers in Ephesus, including the women among them. First Timothy 2:11-15 entails a rebuke with loss of privilege specifically for those false teachers.<\/p>\n<p><em>Cultural Interpretation.<\/em> Paul’s argument was not necessarily directed to a local problem in Ephesus, but it presupposes a strongly patriarchal society, both in concern for public decorum (women in their place, showing proper honor to men) and in handling Genesis 2:7, 22. This shows that Christians must respect cultural norms insofar as possible in their evangelistic mission (1 Cor 9:19-23). In addition, most women in that society had limited training as teachers. Their society, in contrast to many twenty-first-century societies, usually educated women poorly. Because of that culture’s patriarchal structure, women would not normally have qualified as teachers and leaders. First Timothy 2:11-15, therefore, reflects the notion that properly qualified people should lead and teach. At the same time, there are examples in Paul’s writings and in the early church of women participating in various facets of ministry (e.g., Acts 18:26; Rom 16:1-7; 1 Cor 11:5). This leads to questions about the universal applicability of Paul’s statements on women in the church.<\/p>\n<p>Christians continue to discuss these complex issues. Many Christians today subscribe to a complementarian viewpoint, affirming distinct gender roles in the church, while many others take an egalitarian position, supporting the notion that men and women share equal roles in the church. All Christians affirm, however, the equality of men and women with respect to their identity as beloved children of God (see Galatians 3:26-28).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 2:23-24; Acts 18:26; Rom 16:1-7; 1 Cor 11:2-16; 14:34-35; Gal 3:28; 1 Tim 2:11-15<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Women’s Roles in the New Testament Church<\/h3>\n<p>Paul’s words in 1 Timothy regarding women’s roles in the church were intended to correct what was happening in Ephesus, but the extent to which this passage applies to other situations is a subject of discussion. The possible understandings include the following three:<\/p>\n<p><em>Universal Interpretation.<\/em> Galatians 3:28 (“There is no longer . . . male and female”) does not negate creational gender distinctions and roles. Even if Galatians 3:28 represents the ideal of equality in God’s eternal Kingdom, gender roles should still be ordered as outlined in 1 Timothy 2:11-15 for as long as this creation continues. By way of comparison, Matthew 22:30 discusses the status of marriage in the new creation—it differs from the structure of this creation outlined in Genesis 2:23-24, and it applies to the present life only in a special and limited sense (see 1 Tim 4:3-5; Matt 19:11-12; 1 Cor 7:29-35). The structure of the new creation will be fully realized in the coming age, and it is not the ideal for the present time. Therefore, Christian women in all times and places must recognize their role in the created order of God. They must not teach men or exercise authority over men in the church (see also 1 Cor 11:2-16; 14:34-35).<\/p>\n<p><em>Polemical Interpretation.<\/em> Paul was addressing a particular situation created by the false teaching within the Ephesian church (see 1 Tim 1:18-20; 4:1-5; cp. 2 Tim 3:6-9). Evidence suggests that this teaching was disturbing family relationships (see 1 Tim 4:3; Titus 1:11). It is possible that Ephesian women, caught up in the local heresy, were abusing Genesis 1–3 in their teaching. They might have been asserting female domination in the final resurrection (which, according to some of the Ephesians, had already occurred; 2 Tim 2:18) and accentuated Adam’s blame for the Fall. Paul corrects their misreadings by alluding to the biblical text, but his point is not to make a universal statement about the status of women in the church. His concern is merely to silence the false teachers in Ephesus, including the women among them. First Timothy 2:11-15 entails a rebuke with loss of privilege specifically for those false teachers.<\/p>\n<p><em>Cultural Interpretation.<\/em> Paul’s argument was not necessarily directed to a local problem in Ephesus, but it presupposes a strongly patriarchal society, both in concern for public decorum (women in their place, showing proper honor to men) and in handling Genesis 2:7, 22. This shows that Christians must respect cultural norms insofar as possible in their evangelistic mission (1 Cor 9:19-23). In addition, most women in that society had limited training as teachers. Their society, in contrast to many twenty-first-century societies, usually educated women poorly. Because of that culture’s patriarchal structure, women would not normally have qualified as teachers and leaders. First Timothy 2:11-15, therefore, reflects the notion that properly qualified people should lead and teach. At the same time, there are examples in Paul’s writings and in the early church of women participating in various facets of ministry (e.g., Acts 18:26; Rom 16:1-7; 1 Cor 11:5). This leads to questions about the universal applicability of Paul’s statements on women in the church.<\/p>\n<p>Christians continue to discuss these complex issues. Many Christians today subscribe to a complementarian viewpoint, affirming distinct gender roles in the church, while many others take an egalitarian position, supporting the notion that men and women share equal roles in the church. All Christians affirm, however, the equality of men and women with respect to their identity as beloved children of God (see Galatians 3:26-28).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 2:23-24; Acts 18:26; Rom 16:1-7; 1 Cor 11:2-16; 14:34-35; Gal 3:28; 1 Tim 2:11-15<\/p>","summary_ro":"Women’s Roles in the New Testament Church Paul’s words in 1 Timothy regarding women’s roles in the church were intended to correct what was happening in Ephesus, but the extent to which this passage applies to other situations is a subject of discussion. The possible understandings include the following three: Universal Interpretation. Galatians 3:28 (“There is no longer . . . male and female”) does not negate creational gender distinctions and roles. Even if Galatians 3:28 represents the ide...","summary_en":"Women’s Roles in the New Testament Church Paul’s words in 1 Timothy regarding women’s roles in the church were intended to correct what was happening in Ephesus, but the extent to which this passage applies to other situations is a subject of discussion. The possible understandings include the following three: Universal Interpretation. Galatians 3:28 (“There is no longer . . . male and female”) does not negate creational gender distinctions and roles. Even if Galatians 3:28 represents the ide...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"12":[{"id":8043,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Crete","title_en":"Crete","content_ro":"<h3>CRETE<\/h3>\n<p>Fourth largest island in the Mediterranean, lying approximately 60 miles (97 kilometers) southeast of Greece and 110 miles (177 kilometers) southwest of Turkey. It is 160 miles (257.4 kilometers) long from east to west, with a width of approximately 36 miles (58 kilometers), an area of 3,200 square miles (5,149 square kilometers). Through the island stretches a mountain range dominated in the center by the sacred Mt Ida (altitude 9,000 feet or 2,742 meters). These mountains slope down sharply to the southern coast, with the result that most of the inhabitants live on the more gradual northern slopes.<\/p>\n<p>Civilization in ancient Crete reached its climax with the Minoan era (3000–1100 <span>BC<\/span>). The spectacular remnants of this high civilization may be seen best at Knossos, thanks to the labors of British archaeologist Arthur Evans. About 1950–1900 <span>BC<\/span>, beautiful pottery was produced and exported. Metallurgy was highly developed, and hieroglyphic writing was introduced. This civilization was suddenly and dramatically destroyed in a mysterious manner about 1700 <span>BC<\/span>, perhaps by volcanic eruption or earthquake. Following this, the towns and palaces were rebuilt, and the island enjoyed its greatest prosperity. The partially restored palace of Knossos amazes today’s visitor with superb frescoes, stairways, and pillars. All this ended in destruction about 1450 <span>BC<\/span>. Some think it was caused by the volcanic explosion at the nearby island of Santorini.<\/p>\n<p>Crete is important in the history of the Christian church. When Paul went to Rome as a prisoner, the ship sought refuge from a storm at Fair Havens (Acts 27:8). The ship tried in vain to reach the more commodious harbor at Phoenix (v 12) but was blown off course and sought refuge at an island off the southwest coast of Crete, called Cauda (v 16). Paul may have visited Crete after imprisonment in Rome, for in his Letter to Titus, he said, “I left you on the island of Crete” (Ti 1:5, <span>nlt<\/span>). On the basis of this and other evidence, many scholars conclude that Paul was released and had an extended ministry before his second imprisonment and execution (2 Tm 4:6). Paul had little good to say about the people of Crete, quoting one of their own poets as saying they were “liars, cruel animals, and lazy gluttons” (Ti 1:12). But the gospel must have made quite a difference there, for today the name of Titus is honored in many villages, churches, and monasteries.<\/p>\n<p>Because of its location and its relative fertility, Crete has been a prize of war and of commerce. The island was conquered by Rome in 67 <span>BC<\/span> and became a separate province. The inhabitants prospered under the Romans and later under the Greek Christians (Byzantines). The Saracens (Muslims) occupied the island for over a century (<span>AD<\/span> 823–960). After centuries of Christian leadership, it was conquered by the Turkish sultan, and civilization languished (1669–1898). In the 20th century Crete has been a part of Greece, except for a period of German occupancy during World War II.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>CRETE<\/h3>\n<p>Fourth largest island in the Mediterranean, lying approximately 60 miles (97 kilometers) southeast of Greece and 110 miles (177 kilometers) southwest of Turkey. It is 160 miles (257.4 kilometers) long from east to west, with a width of approximately 36 miles (58 kilometers), an area of 3,200 square miles (5,149 square kilometers). Through the island stretches a mountain range dominated in the center by the sacred Mt Ida (altitude 9,000 feet or 2,742 meters). These mountains slope down sharply to the southern coast, with the result that most of the inhabitants live on the more gradual northern slopes.<\/p>\n<p>Civilization in ancient Crete reached its climax with the Minoan era (3000–1100 <span>BC<\/span>). The spectacular remnants of this high civilization may be seen best at Knossos, thanks to the labors of British archaeologist Arthur Evans. About 1950–1900 <span>BC<\/span>, beautiful pottery was produced and exported. Metallurgy was highly developed, and hieroglyphic writing was introduced. This civilization was suddenly and dramatically destroyed in a mysterious manner about 1700 <span>BC<\/span>, perhaps by volcanic eruption or earthquake. Following this, the towns and palaces were rebuilt, and the island enjoyed its greatest prosperity. The partially restored palace of Knossos amazes today’s visitor with superb frescoes, stairways, and pillars. All this ended in destruction about 1450 <span>BC<\/span>. Some think it was caused by the volcanic explosion at the nearby island of Santorini.<\/p>\n<p>Crete is important in the history of the Christian church. When Paul went to Rome as a prisoner, the ship sought refuge from a storm at Fair Havens (Acts 27:8). The ship tried in vain to reach the more commodious harbor at Phoenix (v 12) but was blown off course and sought refuge at an island off the southwest coast of Crete, called Cauda (v 16). Paul may have visited Crete after imprisonment in Rome, for in his Letter to Titus, he said, “I left you on the island of Crete” (Ti 1:5, <span>nlt<\/span>). On the basis of this and other evidence, many scholars conclude that Paul was released and had an extended ministry before his second imprisonment and execution (2 Tm 4:6). Paul had little good to say about the people of Crete, quoting one of their own poets as saying they were “liars, cruel animals, and lazy gluttons” (Ti 1:12). But the gospel must have made quite a difference there, for today the name of Titus is honored in many villages, churches, and monasteries.<\/p>\n<p>Because of its location and its relative fertility, Crete has been a prize of war and of commerce. The island was conquered by Rome in 67 <span>BC<\/span> and became a separate province. The inhabitants prospered under the Romans and later under the Greek Christians (Byzantines). The Saracens (Muslims) occupied the island for over a century (<span>AD<\/span> 823–960). After centuries of Christian leadership, it was conquered by the Turkish sultan, and civilization languished (1669–1898). In the 20th century Crete has been a part of Greece, except for a period of German occupancy during World War II.<\/p>","summary_ro":"CRETE Fourth largest island in the Mediterranean, lying approximately 60 miles (97 kilometers) southeast of Greece and 110 miles (177 kilometers) southwest of Turkey. It is 160 miles (257.4 kilometers) long from east to west, with a width of approximately 36 miles (58 kilometers), an area of 3,200 square miles (5,149 square kilometers). Through the island stretches a mountain range dominated in the center by the sacred Mt Ida (altitude 9,000 feet or 2,742 meters). These mountains slope down s...","summary_en":"CRETE Fourth largest island in the Mediterranean, lying approximately 60 miles (97 kilometers) southeast of Greece and 110 miles (177 kilometers) southwest of Turkey. It is 160 miles (257.4 kilometers) long from east to west, with a width of approximately 36 miles (58 kilometers), an area of 3,200 square miles (5,149 square kilometers). Through the island stretches a mountain range dominated in the center by the sacred Mt Ida (altitude 9,000 feet or 2,742 meters). These mountains slope down s...","source":"Articles\/C.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":14829,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Greek Language","title_en":"Greek Language","content_ro":"<h3>GREEK LANGUAGE<\/h3>\n<p>Language of the Greek people.<\/p>\n<p>The Greek language is a beautiful, rich, and well-tuned instrument of communication. It is a fitting tool both for vigorous thought and for religious devotion. During its classical period, Greek was the language of one of the world’s greatest cultures. During that cultural period, language, literature, and art flourished more than war. The Greek mind was preoccupied with ideals of beauty. The Greek language reflected artistry in its philosophical dialogues, its poetry, and its stately orations.<\/p>\n<p>The Greek language was also characterized by strength and vigor. It was capable of variety and striking effects. Greek was a language of argument, with a vocabulary and style that could penetrate and clarify phenomena rather than simply tell stories. Classical Greek elaborately developed many forms from a few word roots. Its complex syntax allowed intricate word arrangements to express fine nuances of meaning.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"AncientHistory\">Ancient History<\/p>\n<p>Although the antecedents of Greek are obscure, the first traces of what could be called antecedents of ancient Greek appear in Mycenaean and Minoan documents (1400–1200 <span>BC<\/span>) that use three different scripts: Minoan hieroglyphic (the earliest), linear A, and linear B (the latest). Linear B, generally considered “pre-Greek,” is written in a syllabic script found on clay tablets discovered on the island of Crete and on the Greek mainland.<\/p>\n<p>The Mycenaean civilization and script ended suddenly with the Dorian invasions (1200 <span>BC<\/span>), and writing seems to have disappeared for several centuries. Later, about the eighth century <span>BC<\/span>, Greek writing appeared in a different script. That script was based on an alphabet presumably borrowed from the Phoenicians and then adapted to the Greek speech sound system and direction of writing. Greek was first written from right to left, like the West Semitic languages, then in a back-and-forth pattern, finally from left to right. Several dialects appeared during the archaic period (8th to 6th centuries <span>BC<\/span>): Dorian, Eonian, Achaean, and Aeolic.<\/p>\n<p>During the classical period (5th to 4th centuries <span>BC<\/span>), Greek culture reached its literary and artistic zenith. Classical (or Attic) Greek was characterized by subtlety of syntax and an expressive use of particles (short, uninflected parts of speech, often untranslatable). As the city of Athens attained cultural and political control, the Attic dialect also gained in prestige. With the Macedonian conquests, Attic Greek, combined with influences from other dialects (especially Ionic), became the international language of the eastern Mediterranean area.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"HellenismandtheKoineDialect\">Hellenism and the Koine Dialect<\/p>\n<p>The conquests of Alexander the Great encouraged the spread of Greek language and culture. Regional dialects were largely replaced by “Hellenistic” or “koine” (common) Greek. Koine Greek is a dialect preserved and known through thousands of inscriptions reflecting all aspects of daily life. The koine dialect added many vernacular expressions to Attic Greek, thus making it more cosmopolitan. Simplifying the grammar also better adapted it to a worldwide culture. The new language, reflecting simple, popular speech, became the common language of commerce and diplomacy. The Greek language lost much of its elegance and finely shaded nuance as a result of its evolution from classic to koine. Nevertheless, it retained its distinguishing characteristics of strength, beauty, clarity, and logical rhetorical power.<\/p>\n<p>It is significant that the apostle Paul wrote his letter to Christians in Rome in the Greek language rather than in Latin. The Roman Empire of that time was culturally a Greek world, except for governmental transactions.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheSeptuagint\">The Septuagint<\/p>\n<p>During the centuries immediately before Christ, the eastern Mediterranean had been undergoing not only Hellenization but also Semitization. Both influences can be observed in the Greek translation of the OT.<\/p>\n<p>Translation of the Hebrew Scriptures into Greek was an epochal event. The Septuagint (the earliest Greek translation of the OT) later had a strong influence on Christian thought. A necessary consequence of Hebrew writers using the Greek language was that a Greek spirit and Greek forms of thought influenced Jewish culture. The Jews soon appropriated from the rich and refined Greek vocabulary some expressions for ideas that were beyond the scope of Hebrew terminology. Also, old Greek expressions acquired new and extended meanings in this translation of the OT by Greek-speaking Jews.<\/p>\n<p>The Greek OT has been very significant in the development of Christian thought. Often the usage of a Greek word in the Septuagint provides a key to its meaning in the NT. The OT dialect of “Jewish Greek” is at times seen in NT passages translated very literally; at other times, the NT translation of OT texts is very loose.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"NewTestamentGreek\">New Testament Greek<\/p>\n<p>Although most NT authors were Jewish, they wrote in Greek, the universal language of their time. In addition, the apostle John seems to have been acquainted with some Greek philosophy, which influenced his style. John used “word” (Greek <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">logos<\/span>) in reference to Christ (Jn 1:1), and several other abstract expressions. John may have been influenced by the Egyptian center of Alexandria, where Greek philosophy and Hebrew learning had merged in a unique way.<\/p>\n<p>The apostle Paul also was acquainted with Greek authors (Acts 17:28; 1 Cor 15:33; Ti 1:12). Thus, Greek orators and philosophers influenced Paul’s language as well as Hebrew prophets and scholars.<\/p>\n<p>Exactly which dialect of Hebrew or Aramaic Jesus spoke is debated. It is certainly possible that Jesus also spoke Greek. The fact remains that the Gospels were originally written as Greek texts. The records in Greek of Jesus’ teachings and accomplishments prepared the way for the gospel to spread throughout a Greek-speaking culture.<\/p>\n<p>The dignity and restraint of koine Greek used by Christian writers was neither so artificial and pedantic as some classical writings nor so trivial and vulgar as spoken koine.<\/p>\n<p>Greek words took on richer, more spiritual meaning in the context of Scripture. Influenced by the simplicity and rich vividness of Semitic style, the NT was not written in a peculiar “Holy Ghost” language (as some medieval scholars believed) but in koine (common) Greek, largely by Semitic-thinking authors. Tens of thousands of papyri unearthed in Egypt in the early 20th century furnish lexical and grammatical parallels to biblical language, revealing that it was part of the linguistic warp and woof of that era. Yet NT Greek was nevertheless “free,” often creating its own idiom. Christian writers influenced Greek thought by introducing new expressions in order to convey their message about Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<h5>Semitic Influence<\/h5>\n<p>Because NT Greek combines the directness of Hebrew thought with the precision of Greek expression, Greek’s subtle delicacy often interprets Hebrew concepts. The Semitic influence is strongest in the Gospels, the book of Revelation, and the Letter of James. Books like Luke and Hebrews exhibit a more typically Greek style. The NT epistles blend the wisdom of Hebrew and the dialectic philosophy of Greek. Sermons recorded in the NT combine the Hebrew prophetic message with Greek oratorical force.<\/p>\n<p>In addition to direct quotes and allusions from the Septuagint, a pervasive Semitic influence on NT Greek has been noted in many areas. For example, the syntax of NT Greek contains many examples of Semitic style.<\/p>\n<h5>Vocabulary<\/h5>\n<p>The Greek NT vocabulary is abundant and sufficient to convey just the shade of meaning the author desires. For example, the NT uses two different words for “love” (for two kinds of love), two words for “another” (another of the same, or another of a different kind), and several words for various kinds of knowledge. Significantly, some words are omitted, such as <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">eros<\/span> (a third kind of love) and other words commonly employed in the Hellenistic culture of that time.<\/p>\n<p>Moreover, Greek words often took on new meanings in the context of the gospel, arising from a combination of new teachings with an exalted morality. The writers did not hesitate to use such words as “life,” “death,” “glory,” and “wrath” in new ways to express new thoughts. Sometimes the literal meaning of a word almost disappears, as when the authors use “water,” “washing,” and “baptism” for Christ’s spiritually purifying power. NT vocabulary also contains words found elsewhere only in the Greek OT, such as “circumcision,” “idolatry,” “anathema,” “diaspora,” and “Pentecost.” Loan words from Hebrew or Aramaic include <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">alleluia<\/span> and <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">amen<\/span> (Hebrew), and <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">abba<\/span><em>,<\/em> <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">mammon<\/span><em>,<\/em> and <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">corban<\/span> (Aramaic).<\/p>\n<p>For understanding the meaning of a NT word, then, a lexicon of classical Greek is helpful but not sufficient. One must also know how the word is used in the Greek OT, in Hellenistic writings, and in the inscriptions and documents representing the language of everyday life. Papyrus documents provide many illustrations of the meaning of NT words. For example, the Greek word for “contribution” (1 Cor 16:1), at one time thought to be limited to the NT, is commonly used with the same meaning in the papyri. Many Greek words once defined on the basis of classical Greek have been given sharper meaning in the light of their use in the papyri.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Grammar\">Grammar<\/p>\n<p>As in other Indo-European languages, the meaning of Greek words is affected by the addition and alteration of various prefixes and suffixes (the process known as inflection). Although its system of inflection is simplified compared to classical Greek, NT Greek is more inflected than are many languages. Greek meaning is thus much less susceptible to ambiguity than English.<\/p>\n<p>In contrast to Hebrew, Greek has a neuter gender as well as masculine and feminine. The many and precise Greek prepositions are subtle, having various meanings depending on their context. NT Greek uses only about half of the particles used in classical Greek.<\/p>\n<p>The Greek verb system, much more complicated than that of Hebrew, is capable of nuances of meaning difficult to express even in English. Each Greek verb has five aspects, which grammarians call tense, mood, voice, person, and number.<\/p>\n<h5>Tense<\/h5>\n<p>Greek verb tense deals primarily with <em>kind of action<\/em> rather than <em>time of action<\/em> as in English. In Greek there are three basic kinds of action: <em>durative,<\/em> expressed by the present, imperfect, and (sometimes) future tenses; <em>simple<\/em> or punctiliar, expressed by the aorist and (often) future tenses; and <em>completed,<\/em> expressed by the perfect tense (results of past action continue into the present) and pluperfect tense (results are confined to the past).<\/p>\n<p>Greek tenses are often hard to translate into English; the time of action as well as the verb stem’s basic meaning (such as whether it takes an object) must be subtly blended with the kind of action into a single idea.<\/p>\n<h5>Mood<\/h5>\n<p>The mood shows how a verb’s action should be understood. Is the action real? (Use the indicative mood.) Is the action demanded by someone? (Use the imperative mood.) Does the action depend on other conditions? (Use the subjunctive or optative mood.) Is the action basically descriptive of another substantive? (Use a participle.) Is the action basically substantive? (Use an infinitive.) In grammar, a substantive is a word or group of words functioning as a noun; the last two examples are not strictly moods, but they are used that way by grammarians. The moods give a Greek writer a rich choice of verbal expression.<\/p>\n<h5>Voice<\/h5>\n<p>A verb’s voice describes whether action is directed outward (active), inward (middle), or back upon the sentence’s subject (passive).<\/p>\n<h5>Person<\/h5>\n<p>The person of a verb tells who is doing the acting, whether I (first person), you (second person), or another (third person).<\/p>\n<h5>Number<\/h5>\n<p>Verb number shows whether the action is performed by one person (singular) or more than one person (plural).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Style\">Style<\/p>\n<p>The NT contains a variety of writing styles in its use of Greek. The Gospels especially exhibit Semitic features. Matthew uses a style less picturesque than Mark’s and in some respects close to the style of Luke, Acts, Hebrews, James, and 1 Peter. Luke’s style varies from that of both Mark and Matthew; it is elegant. The rather simple style of John contains many Semitisms.<\/p>\n<p>Among the apostle Paul’s letters, differences of style have been noted. The least literary and most direct in expression are his Letters to the Thessalonians. The Pastorals (1—2 Timothy, Titus) have a style nearer to the koine than most of the other epistles—not so Jewish, and not so much influenced by the Septuagint as his other letters.<\/p>\n<p>The Letter to the Hebrews combines elegance with Jewish-Greek style. James’s letter, though high in cultural quality, is not as sensitive in style as Hebrews. Less elegant is 1 Peter, which is strongly influenced by the Septuagint and thus reflects Semitic style.<\/p>\n<p>The Letter of Jude contains elevated, somewhat ponderous diction, and shows the influence of Jewish style. Second Peter, resembling Jude in its high style, is even more influenced by the Septuagint.<\/p>\n<p>The book of Revelation has a generally simple style but shows considerable Semitic influence in its use of parallelism and redundancy. Linguistic scholars have identified a number of apparent grammatical mistakes in the Greek of Revelation.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>GREEK LANGUAGE<\/h3>\n<p>Language of the Greek people.<\/p>\n<p>The Greek language is a beautiful, rich, and well-tuned instrument of communication. It is a fitting tool both for vigorous thought and for religious devotion. During its classical period, Greek was the language of one of the world’s greatest cultures. During that cultural period, language, literature, and art flourished more than war. The Greek mind was preoccupied with ideals of beauty. The Greek language reflected artistry in its philosophical dialogues, its poetry, and its stately orations.<\/p>\n<p>The Greek language was also characterized by strength and vigor. It was capable of variety and striking effects. Greek was a language of argument, with a vocabulary and style that could penetrate and clarify phenomena rather than simply tell stories. Classical Greek elaborately developed many forms from a few word roots. Its complex syntax allowed intricate word arrangements to express fine nuances of meaning.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"AncientHistory\">Ancient History<\/p>\n<p>Although the antecedents of Greek are obscure, the first traces of what could be called antecedents of ancient Greek appear in Mycenaean and Minoan documents (1400–1200 <span>BC<\/span>) that use three different scripts: Minoan hieroglyphic (the earliest), linear A, and linear B (the latest). Linear B, generally considered “pre-Greek,” is written in a syllabic script found on clay tablets discovered on the island of Crete and on the Greek mainland.<\/p>\n<p>The Mycenaean civilization and script ended suddenly with the Dorian invasions (1200 <span>BC<\/span>), and writing seems to have disappeared for several centuries. Later, about the eighth century <span>BC<\/span>, Greek writing appeared in a different script. That script was based on an alphabet presumably borrowed from the Phoenicians and then adapted to the Greek speech sound system and direction of writing. Greek was first written from right to left, like the West Semitic languages, then in a back-and-forth pattern, finally from left to right. Several dialects appeared during the archaic period (8th to 6th centuries <span>BC<\/span>): Dorian, Eonian, Achaean, and Aeolic.<\/p>\n<p>During the classical period (5th to 4th centuries <span>BC<\/span>), Greek culture reached its literary and artistic zenith. Classical (or Attic) Greek was characterized by subtlety of syntax and an expressive use of particles (short, uninflected parts of speech, often untranslatable). As the city of Athens attained cultural and political control, the Attic dialect also gained in prestige. With the Macedonian conquests, Attic Greek, combined with influences from other dialects (especially Ionic), became the international language of the eastern Mediterranean area.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"HellenismandtheKoineDialect\">Hellenism and the Koine Dialect<\/p>\n<p>The conquests of Alexander the Great encouraged the spread of Greek language and culture. Regional dialects were largely replaced by “Hellenistic” or “koine” (common) Greek. Koine Greek is a dialect preserved and known through thousands of inscriptions reflecting all aspects of daily life. The koine dialect added many vernacular expressions to Attic Greek, thus making it more cosmopolitan. Simplifying the grammar also better adapted it to a worldwide culture. The new language, reflecting simple, popular speech, became the common language of commerce and diplomacy. The Greek language lost much of its elegance and finely shaded nuance as a result of its evolution from classic to koine. Nevertheless, it retained its distinguishing characteristics of strength, beauty, clarity, and logical rhetorical power.<\/p>\n<p>It is significant that the apostle Paul wrote his letter to Christians in Rome in the Greek language rather than in Latin. The Roman Empire of that time was culturally a Greek world, except for governmental transactions.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheSeptuagint\">The Septuagint<\/p>\n<p>During the centuries immediately before Christ, the eastern Mediterranean had been undergoing not only Hellenization but also Semitization. Both influences can be observed in the Greek translation of the OT.<\/p>\n<p>Translation of the Hebrew Scriptures into Greek was an epochal event. The Septuagint (the earliest Greek translation of the OT) later had a strong influence on Christian thought. A necessary consequence of Hebrew writers using the Greek language was that a Greek spirit and Greek forms of thought influenced Jewish culture. The Jews soon appropriated from the rich and refined Greek vocabulary some expressions for ideas that were beyond the scope of Hebrew terminology. Also, old Greek expressions acquired new and extended meanings in this translation of the OT by Greek-speaking Jews.<\/p>\n<p>The Greek OT has been very significant in the development of Christian thought. Often the usage of a Greek word in the Septuagint provides a key to its meaning in the NT. The OT dialect of “Jewish Greek” is at times seen in NT passages translated very literally; at other times, the NT translation of OT texts is very loose.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"NewTestamentGreek\">New Testament Greek<\/p>\n<p>Although most NT authors were Jewish, they wrote in Greek, the universal language of their time. In addition, the apostle John seems to have been acquainted with some Greek philosophy, which influenced his style. John used “word” (Greek <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">logos<\/span>) in reference to Christ (Jn 1:1), and several other abstract expressions. John may have been influenced by the Egyptian center of Alexandria, where Greek philosophy and Hebrew learning had merged in a unique way.<\/p>\n<p>The apostle Paul also was acquainted with Greek authors (Acts 17:28; 1 Cor 15:33; Ti 1:12). Thus, Greek orators and philosophers influenced Paul’s language as well as Hebrew prophets and scholars.<\/p>\n<p>Exactly which dialect of Hebrew or Aramaic Jesus spoke is debated. It is certainly possible that Jesus also spoke Greek. The fact remains that the Gospels were originally written as Greek texts. The records in Greek of Jesus’ teachings and accomplishments prepared the way for the gospel to spread throughout a Greek-speaking culture.<\/p>\n<p>The dignity and restraint of koine Greek used by Christian writers was neither so artificial and pedantic as some classical writings nor so trivial and vulgar as spoken koine.<\/p>\n<p>Greek words took on richer, more spiritual meaning in the context of Scripture. Influenced by the simplicity and rich vividness of Semitic style, the NT was not written in a peculiar “Holy Ghost” language (as some medieval scholars believed) but in koine (common) Greek, largely by Semitic-thinking authors. Tens of thousands of papyri unearthed in Egypt in the early 20th century furnish lexical and grammatical parallels to biblical language, revealing that it was part of the linguistic warp and woof of that era. Yet NT Greek was nevertheless “free,” often creating its own idiom. Christian writers influenced Greek thought by introducing new expressions in order to convey their message about Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<h5>Semitic Influence<\/h5>\n<p>Because NT Greek combines the directness of Hebrew thought with the precision of Greek expression, Greek’s subtle delicacy often interprets Hebrew concepts. The Semitic influence is strongest in the Gospels, the book of Revelation, and the Letter of James. Books like Luke and Hebrews exhibit a more typically Greek style. The NT epistles blend the wisdom of Hebrew and the dialectic philosophy of Greek. Sermons recorded in the NT combine the Hebrew prophetic message with Greek oratorical force.<\/p>\n<p>In addition to direct quotes and allusions from the Septuagint, a pervasive Semitic influence on NT Greek has been noted in many areas. For example, the syntax of NT Greek contains many examples of Semitic style.<\/p>\n<h5>Vocabulary<\/h5>\n<p>The Greek NT vocabulary is abundant and sufficient to convey just the shade of meaning the author desires. For example, the NT uses two different words for “love” (for two kinds of love), two words for “another” (another of the same, or another of a different kind), and several words for various kinds of knowledge. Significantly, some words are omitted, such as <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">eros<\/span> (a third kind of love) and other words commonly employed in the Hellenistic culture of that time.<\/p>\n<p>Moreover, Greek words often took on new meanings in the context of the gospel, arising from a combination of new teachings with an exalted morality. The writers did not hesitate to use such words as “life,” “death,” “glory,” and “wrath” in new ways to express new thoughts. Sometimes the literal meaning of a word almost disappears, as when the authors use “water,” “washing,” and “baptism” for Christ’s spiritually purifying power. NT vocabulary also contains words found elsewhere only in the Greek OT, such as “circumcision,” “idolatry,” “anathema,” “diaspora,” and “Pentecost.” Loan words from Hebrew or Aramaic include <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">alleluia<\/span> and <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">amen<\/span> (Hebrew), and <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">abba<\/span><em>,<\/em> <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">mammon<\/span><em>,<\/em> and <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">corban<\/span> (Aramaic).<\/p>\n<p>For understanding the meaning of a NT word, then, a lexicon of classical Greek is helpful but not sufficient. One must also know how the word is used in the Greek OT, in Hellenistic writings, and in the inscriptions and documents representing the language of everyday life. Papyrus documents provide many illustrations of the meaning of NT words. For example, the Greek word for “contribution” (1 Cor 16:1), at one time thought to be limited to the NT, is commonly used with the same meaning in the papyri. Many Greek words once defined on the basis of classical Greek have been given sharper meaning in the light of their use in the papyri.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Grammar\">Grammar<\/p>\n<p>As in other Indo-European languages, the meaning of Greek words is affected by the addition and alteration of various prefixes and suffixes (the process known as inflection). Although its system of inflection is simplified compared to classical Greek, NT Greek is more inflected than are many languages. Greek meaning is thus much less susceptible to ambiguity than English.<\/p>\n<p>In contrast to Hebrew, Greek has a neuter gender as well as masculine and feminine. The many and precise Greek prepositions are subtle, having various meanings depending on their context. NT Greek uses only about half of the particles used in classical Greek.<\/p>\n<p>The Greek verb system, much more complicated than that of Hebrew, is capable of nuances of meaning difficult to express even in English. Each Greek verb has five aspects, which grammarians call tense, mood, voice, person, and number.<\/p>\n<h5>Tense<\/h5>\n<p>Greek verb tense deals primarily with <em>kind of action<\/em> rather than <em>time of action<\/em> as in English. In Greek there are three basic kinds of action: <em>durative,<\/em> expressed by the present, imperfect, and (sometimes) future tenses; <em>simple<\/em> or punctiliar, expressed by the aorist and (often) future tenses; and <em>completed,<\/em> expressed by the perfect tense (results of past action continue into the present) and pluperfect tense (results are confined to the past).<\/p>\n<p>Greek tenses are often hard to translate into English; the time of action as well as the verb stem’s basic meaning (such as whether it takes an object) must be subtly blended with the kind of action into a single idea.<\/p>\n<h5>Mood<\/h5>\n<p>The mood shows how a verb’s action should be understood. Is the action real? (Use the indicative mood.) Is the action demanded by someone? (Use the imperative mood.) Does the action depend on other conditions? (Use the subjunctive or optative mood.) Is the action basically descriptive of another substantive? (Use a participle.) Is the action basically substantive? (Use an infinitive.) In grammar, a substantive is a word or group of words functioning as a noun; the last two examples are not strictly moods, but they are used that way by grammarians. The moods give a Greek writer a rich choice of verbal expression.<\/p>\n<h5>Voice<\/h5>\n<p>A verb’s voice describes whether action is directed outward (active), inward (middle), or back upon the sentence’s subject (passive).<\/p>\n<h5>Person<\/h5>\n<p>The person of a verb tells who is doing the acting, whether I (first person), you (second person), or another (third person).<\/p>\n<h5>Number<\/h5>\n<p>Verb number shows whether the action is performed by one person (singular) or more than one person (plural).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Style\">Style<\/p>\n<p>The NT contains a variety of writing styles in its use of Greek. The Gospels especially exhibit Semitic features. Matthew uses a style less picturesque than Mark’s and in some respects close to the style of Luke, Acts, Hebrews, James, and 1 Peter. Luke’s style varies from that of both Mark and Matthew; it is elegant. The rather simple style of John contains many Semitisms.<\/p>\n<p>Among the apostle Paul’s letters, differences of style have been noted. The least literary and most direct in expression are his Letters to the Thessalonians. The Pastorals (1—2 Timothy, Titus) have a style nearer to the koine than most of the other epistles—not so Jewish, and not so much influenced by the Septuagint as his other letters.<\/p>\n<p>The Letter to the Hebrews combines elegance with Jewish-Greek style. James’s letter, though high in cultural quality, is not as sensitive in style as Hebrews. Less elegant is 1 Peter, which is strongly influenced by the Septuagint and thus reflects Semitic style.<\/p>\n<p>The Letter of Jude contains elevated, somewhat ponderous diction, and shows the influence of Jewish style. Second Peter, resembling Jude in its high style, is even more influenced by the Septuagint.<\/p>\n<p>The book of Revelation has a generally simple style but shows considerable Semitic influence in its use of parallelism and redundancy. Linguistic scholars have identified a number of apparent grammatical mistakes in the Greek of Revelation.<\/p>","summary_ro":"GREEK LANGUAGE Language of the Greek people. The Greek language is a beautiful, rich, and well-tuned instrument of communication. It is a fitting tool both for vigorous thought and for religious devotion. During its classical period, Greek was the language of one of the world’s greatest cultures. During that cultural period, language, literature, and art flourished more than war. The Greek mind was preoccupied with ideals of beauty. The Greek language reflected artistry in its philosophical d...","summary_en":"GREEK LANGUAGE Language of the Greek people. The Greek language is a beautiful, rich, and well-tuned instrument of communication. It is a fitting tool both for vigorous thought and for religious devotion. During its classical period, Greek was the language of one of the world’s greatest cultures. During that cultural period, language, literature, and art flourished more than war. The Greek mind was preoccupied with ideals of beauty. The Greek language reflected artistry in its philosophical d...","source":"Articles\/G.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":21154,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Letter of Jude","title_en":"Letter of Jude","content_ro":"<h3>JUDE, Letter of<\/h3>\n<p>Short, hard-hitting letter to a church being infiltrated by teachers who practiced all types of moral evil. Jude reveals the inner situation of a Jewish-Christian community and also presents some great difficulties for the Christian interpreter.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date, Origin, and Destination<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>The Letter of Jude states that it was written by “Jude . . . [the] brother of James” (1:1). Many scholars understand this nomenclature to designate Jude (Greek “Judas”), Jesus’ brother, whose brother James became the leader of the Jerusalem church. But other scholars think that perhaps another Jude wrote it, or some later author wrote it in the spirit of the leader whom he revered. The hypothesis that another Jude wrote it seems unlikely, for the apostle Jude (Lk 6:16; Acts 1:13) is the son of a certain James, not a brother of James; besides, Jude 1:17 appears to distinguish Jude from the apostles. And since there was only one James who was prominent in the early church, James the Lord’s brother, it would be hard to believe that some other Jude would have a brother named James and would use such an identification in the title; it would have been too confusing. The title “brother of James” most likely means that Jude was James of Jerusalem’s brother and therefore Jesus’ brother; he did not use the title “brother of our Lord,” perhaps, as Clement of Alexandria said, out of modesty.<\/p>\n<p>The idea that a later author wrote using Jude’s name presents a major problem: Why would he pick such an obscure name, instead of Paul or Peter or James, and why would he not use a more exalted and authoritative title? We must conclude that, despite the difficulties of date and background, Judas the Lord’s brother wrote this letter.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DateOriginandDestination\">Date, Origin, and Destination<\/p>\n<p>About date, origin, and destination, the letter says nothing directly. Since the content of the faith is clearly fixed (Jude 1:3) and the recipients have personally heard the apostles (who may have died already, v 17), the date is probably between <span>AD<\/span> 60 and 100.<\/p>\n<p>Presumably, Jude traveled (with his wife and family) to promote the faith (1 Cor 9:5). Throughout his travels, he may have established some churches—or, at least, he probably taught at various local churches. It may be that he heard of false teachers infiltrating these churches and was prompted to write them this epistle.<\/p>\n<p>Jude may have written from Galilee in his old age, or perhaps he had returned to Jerusalem. The best guess we can make about the recipients would be that they were members of Jewish-Christian churches in Syria. Still, these locations remain little more than guesses.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>Three facts about the Letter of Jude make its background difficult to reconstruct. First, it is hard to be sure what type of heresy it was combating. Some scholars believe that this was early Gnosticism, and others that it was simply teaching infiltrated with ethical error. If the heretics were Gnostics, they believed in a hierarchy of angels or demigods. In this case they probably saw Jesus as a lower rung on the way to salvation. Perhaps they also considered God to be the lower creator (the demiurge) and spoke of wanting to serve the true God (Jude 1:4). This might explain the interest in angels and demons (v 8) and the stress on the unity of God (v 25). But probably these were simply people who had found a way to rationalize immoral behavior and were unwisely mocking the evil powers. There is no clear evidence that they were Gnostic, while there is plenty of evidence that people turned the freedom of the gospel into an excuse for sin (e.g., Rom 6; 1 Cor 5–6). These teachers probably denied Christ by failing to follow his ethical teaching, and their blasphemy of angels (while they themselves were deep in sin) was another ethical sin. Such depravity is enough to explain the letter; however, knowing that doctrinal and ethical error often go hand in hand, we must not discount the possibility that some doctrinal error was also involved.<\/p>\n<p>Second, Jude surprises us by quoting from two apocryphal books, the Assumption of Moses (Jude 1:4) and 1 Enoch (Jude 1:14-15 quotes 1 Enoch 1:9). This fact and other allusions in the book reveal that Jude and probably his readers were well read in Jewish apocryphal literature. Moreover, it also shows that Jude regarded books outside the canon of the OT as transmitting true traditions and authoritative prophecy. That Jude accepted these books is not surprising, since many apocryphal books were used by Jews of that period, alongside the OT, as a type of devotional literature. Early Christians often included apocryphal literature along with canonical books as part of their Bibles (sometimes they would also omit NT books that were not yet considered authentic). The canon of NT Scripture was not firmly established until the third century, long after Jude’s epistle was written.<\/p>\n<p>It is important to realize that while Jude probably believed in the historicity of these citations, the teaching of the letter does not depend on that historicity. Jude wrote about neither Moses nor Enoch but about how one should behave toward authorities (Jude 1:8) and what God will do to ungodly people (v 13). The citations illustrate Jude’s teaching and probably carried weight with his first readers, but the fact that they are apocryphal should bother us no more than Paul’s quotations from pagan writers or the writer of Hebrews’ allusions to 2 Maccabees (Acts 17; Ti 1:12; Heb 11:35). The authority of Scripture rests in the point the author is making.<\/p>\n<p>Third, Jude shows such a close relationship to 2 Peter 2 that either Jude is an expansion of 2 Peter 2 or else 2 Peter 2 is an abbreviation of Jude. Words, phrases, and illustrations are essentially identical in the two works. While it is hard to determine who borrowed from whom, probably the author of 2 Peter has adapted the strong denunciations of Jude to the more instructive tone of his work. It would be hard to imagine anyone writing Jude if 2 Peter already existed. Christians should have no problem with this borrowing, for no writer of Scripture believed himself so original that he could not borrow from other Scriptures, from hymns, or from noncanonical literature. It is no more a problem for God to inspire a quotation or adaptation from another writing than for him to inspire a new composition. Indeed, some passages in Scripture are total repetitions of others (e.g., Ps 18 and 2 Sm 22).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeandTheologicalTeaching\">Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>Jude describes his work in terms of exhortation or encouragement (Jude 1:3). Obviously he wanted to strengthen the churches against false teachers who were perverting the gospel. Thus, he repeatedly urged the believers to hold fast or guard their purity and the gospel (vv 3, 20-21, 24). Yet he did not want the teachers simply kicked out, for he had hopes that the believers would be able to rescue some from this danger, although the rescue itself would be dangerous work (v 23).<\/p>\n<p>In framing his exhortation the author did not produce any new doctrines; rather, he underlined some old ones: (1) He stressed the ethical nature of the gospel and the need to maintain purity in life and speech. (2) He showed a high regard for salvation through Christ and a strong belief in one God. (3) He demanded respect for authority, both temporal and spiritual (vv 8-11). (4) He had a clear apocalyptic belief, stressing the coming last judgment (vv 14-15) and affirming that the last days had already come (v 18). (5) He warned of the necessity to persevere in the faith both doctrinally and ethically (vv 19-21). (6) He demonstrated zeal to reclaim those who had erred, for they were outside the grace of God (v 23).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Salutation (1:1-2)<\/h5>\n<p>The author identifies himself humbly as a servant of Jesus Christ and addresses his letter to the faithful in the church—those who are loved, guarded, and called by God and Christ.<\/p>\n<h5>Called to Hold to the Faith (1:3-4)<\/h5>\n<p>Jude had been planning to write these Christians about “the salvation we all share” (v 3). We will never know what instruction he had planned to give, for in the middle of his preparations he heard news that forced him to change his plans. Instead, he penned an epistle in defense of “the faith”—that is, the true apostolic teachings concerning Jesus Christ that all genuine believers embrace. Some people had joined the church, perhaps with ulterior motives, who were dangerous to the church. The Christians must fight hard to keep pure the body of doctrine (meaning ethics as well as theology) that they had received from Jude and the apostles. Jude makes two charges against these false believers: (1) they had perverted God’s grace into licentiousness, perhaps openly flaunting sexual sins as a sign of freedom they had in Christ (cf. Rom 6; 1 Cor 5–6); and (2) they denied the Lord Jesus (by failing to follow his teachings).<\/p>\n<h5>Reminder of God’s Judgment (1:5-7)<\/h5>\n<p>Since the recipients were probably Jewish Christians, they had learned the OT and Jewish tradition well. The author chose three illustrations of the results of apostasy: (1) Judgment can come to those once considered as God’s people (as it did to those “saved” from Egypt, Ex 32:28; Nm 11:33-34; 14:29-35). (2) The consequence of apostasy is eternal damnation (as in the case of the fallen angels of 1 Enoch 6–16—these ideas appear in other Jewish traditions as well). (3) Ethical corruption is in fact a type of apostasy and thus merits damnation (as in the case of Sodom—Gn 19; 2 Pt 2:4-6). The author stressed the homosexuality of Sodom rather than its injustice, which Ezekiel 16:49 condemns, so perhaps sexual misbehavior was a problem with the false teachers. These three illustrations drive home the seriousness of the problems that the church was facing.<\/p>\n<h5>Denunciation of the False Teachers (1:8-16; cf. 2 Pt 2:10-17)<\/h5>\n<p>The false teachers claimed to have received revelations in dreams as the basis of their evil behavior. Their sins were (1) sexual impurity (including, but not limited to, homosexuality); (2) rejection of Christ’s authority (as embodied in his ethical teaching); and (3) evil speech about angels (whether good ones, which is probably the case, or evil). This latter practice is shown to be sin by an example from the Assumption of Moses: even an archangel rebuking the devil himself would not use the language these teachers used about angels. But since these people were unspiritual, they were totally ignorant of what they insulted (cf. 1 Cor 2:7-16), yet they were experts in bodily sin—like savage animals. Their sin was destroying them.<\/p>\n<p>Therefore, the teachers were just like Cain (the embodiment of violence, lust, greed, and rebellion against God in Jewish tradition), Balaam (who tried to make money by leading people into sin—Nm 31:16; Dt 23:4), and Korah (who rebelled against God’s authority in Moses—Nm 16). They were also dangerous to the believers, for they were turning the meal, which was part of the love feast and Lord’s Table (Eucharist), into an orgy (cf. 1 Cor 11:20-22), and would thereby corrupt the practice of the rest of the church. They cared only for themselves and were devoid of real spiritual gifts from God (like waterless clouds or the dead trees of winter, cf. Lk 13:6-9), being ready for the second death (their fate was so sure that it is seen as having already happened). They produced only evil deeds; in this they are like the fallen angels (stars are considered angels in Jewish tradition—1 Enoch 18:13-16; 21:1-10).<\/p>\n<p>The prophecy of Enoch in 1 Enoch 1:9 shows the certainty of their doom. Originally, the prophecy spoke of God coming in judgment, but Jude made it refer to Christ, who for Christians is the coming judge (Mt 25:31). Christ will come with the angelic hosts and execute justice on sinners for their sins (both evil deeds and evil words). That prophecy pertains to people who grumble or accuse God, as Israel did (Ex 16:7-12; 17:3); it also applies to people who do whatever they desire, are loud-mouthed, yet flatter when it is to their advantage.<\/p>\n<h5>Instructions for the Faithful (1:17-23)<\/h5>\n<p>Faithful Christians must remember that the apostles (here meaning the Twelve, not the wider circle of apostles that included Paul, Barnabas, and others) had predicted just such a situation when they were alive: in the last days there would be scoffers, who would do any ungodly act they desired (2 Pt 3:3). These false teachers are such people. They divide the church, and although they claim to be spiritual and receive dreams, they are totally worldly, for they do not possess the Holy Spirit. The faithful must watch out that they remain in the love of God and do not drift into rebellion as these heretics have. This is done by (1) building themselves up (as opposed to causing divisions) on the basis of the faith, the apostolic teaching, and example; (2) praying in the Holy Spirit (Eph 6:18), which sets them off from those not having the Spirit; and (3) waiting expectantly for the mercy Jesus would show them in the soon-coming Last Judgment (1 Enoch 27:3-4).<\/p>\n<p>Yet the Christians must still deal with those influenced by the false teaching. While the Greek text here is very uncertain (it is not clear whether Jude had two or three groups in mind), Jude probably intended that the church should act mercifully toward those who were wavering over whether to follow the false teaching, restore those it could from the followers of the false teaching as if snatching them from hell, and while keeping a merciful attitude (a readiness to accept them back quickly if they repented), strictly avoid any social contact with the unrepentant out of fear of God’s judgment.<\/p>\n<h5>Benediction (1:24-25)<\/h5>\n<p>Jude closes with a doxology very much like that found in Romans 16:25-27. In the midst of many who have fallen from the faith, God is praised as the one who is able to keep the believers from falling and to bring them safely into his very presence. It is to this one who is alone God our Savior through Jesus Christ (meaning God saves us by means of Jesus) that the four attributes—glory, majesty, dominion, and authority—belong, now and forever.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Apostasy; Brothers of Jesus.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>JUDE, Letter of<\/h3>\n<p>Short, hard-hitting letter to a church being infiltrated by teachers who practiced all types of moral evil. Jude reveals the inner situation of a Jewish-Christian community and also presents some great difficulties for the Christian interpreter.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date, Origin, and Destination<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>The Letter of Jude states that it was written by “Jude . . . [the] brother of James” (1:1). Many scholars understand this nomenclature to designate Jude (Greek “Judas”), Jesus’ brother, whose brother James became the leader of the Jerusalem church. But other scholars think that perhaps another Jude wrote it, or some later author wrote it in the spirit of the leader whom he revered. The hypothesis that another Jude wrote it seems unlikely, for the apostle Jude (Lk 6:16; Acts 1:13) is the son of a certain James, not a brother of James; besides, Jude 1:17 appears to distinguish Jude from the apostles. And since there was only one James who was prominent in the early church, James the Lord’s brother, it would be hard to believe that some other Jude would have a brother named James and would use such an identification in the title; it would have been too confusing. The title “brother of James” most likely means that Jude was James of Jerusalem’s brother and therefore Jesus’ brother; he did not use the title “brother of our Lord,” perhaps, as Clement of Alexandria said, out of modesty.<\/p>\n<p>The idea that a later author wrote using Jude’s name presents a major problem: Why would he pick such an obscure name, instead of Paul or Peter or James, and why would he not use a more exalted and authoritative title? We must conclude that, despite the difficulties of date and background, Judas the Lord’s brother wrote this letter.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DateOriginandDestination\">Date, Origin, and Destination<\/p>\n<p>About date, origin, and destination, the letter says nothing directly. Since the content of the faith is clearly fixed (Jude 1:3) and the recipients have personally heard the apostles (who may have died already, v 17), the date is probably between <span>AD<\/span> 60 and 100.<\/p>\n<p>Presumably, Jude traveled (with his wife and family) to promote the faith (1 Cor 9:5). Throughout his travels, he may have established some churches—or, at least, he probably taught at various local churches. It may be that he heard of false teachers infiltrating these churches and was prompted to write them this epistle.<\/p>\n<p>Jude may have written from Galilee in his old age, or perhaps he had returned to Jerusalem. The best guess we can make about the recipients would be that they were members of Jewish-Christian churches in Syria. Still, these locations remain little more than guesses.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>Three facts about the Letter of Jude make its background difficult to reconstruct. First, it is hard to be sure what type of heresy it was combating. Some scholars believe that this was early Gnosticism, and others that it was simply teaching infiltrated with ethical error. If the heretics were Gnostics, they believed in a hierarchy of angels or demigods. In this case they probably saw Jesus as a lower rung on the way to salvation. Perhaps they also considered God to be the lower creator (the demiurge) and spoke of wanting to serve the true God (Jude 1:4). This might explain the interest in angels and demons (v 8) and the stress on the unity of God (v 25). But probably these were simply people who had found a way to rationalize immoral behavior and were unwisely mocking the evil powers. There is no clear evidence that they were Gnostic, while there is plenty of evidence that people turned the freedom of the gospel into an excuse for sin (e.g., Rom 6; 1 Cor 5–6). These teachers probably denied Christ by failing to follow his ethical teaching, and their blasphemy of angels (while they themselves were deep in sin) was another ethical sin. Such depravity is enough to explain the letter; however, knowing that doctrinal and ethical error often go hand in hand, we must not discount the possibility that some doctrinal error was also involved.<\/p>\n<p>Second, Jude surprises us by quoting from two apocryphal books, the Assumption of Moses (Jude 1:4) and 1 Enoch (Jude 1:14-15 quotes 1 Enoch 1:9). This fact and other allusions in the book reveal that Jude and probably his readers were well read in Jewish apocryphal literature. Moreover, it also shows that Jude regarded books outside the canon of the OT as transmitting true traditions and authoritative prophecy. That Jude accepted these books is not surprising, since many apocryphal books were used by Jews of that period, alongside the OT, as a type of devotional literature. Early Christians often included apocryphal literature along with canonical books as part of their Bibles (sometimes they would also omit NT books that were not yet considered authentic). The canon of NT Scripture was not firmly established until the third century, long after Jude’s epistle was written.<\/p>\n<p>It is important to realize that while Jude probably believed in the historicity of these citations, the teaching of the letter does not depend on that historicity. Jude wrote about neither Moses nor Enoch but about how one should behave toward authorities (Jude 1:8) and what God will do to ungodly people (v 13). The citations illustrate Jude’s teaching and probably carried weight with his first readers, but the fact that they are apocryphal should bother us no more than Paul’s quotations from pagan writers or the writer of Hebrews’ allusions to 2 Maccabees (Acts 17; Ti 1:12; Heb 11:35). The authority of Scripture rests in the point the author is making.<\/p>\n<p>Third, Jude shows such a close relationship to 2 Peter 2 that either Jude is an expansion of 2 Peter 2 or else 2 Peter 2 is an abbreviation of Jude. Words, phrases, and illustrations are essentially identical in the two works. While it is hard to determine who borrowed from whom, probably the author of 2 Peter has adapted the strong denunciations of Jude to the more instructive tone of his work. It would be hard to imagine anyone writing Jude if 2 Peter already existed. Christians should have no problem with this borrowing, for no writer of Scripture believed himself so original that he could not borrow from other Scriptures, from hymns, or from noncanonical literature. It is no more a problem for God to inspire a quotation or adaptation from another writing than for him to inspire a new composition. Indeed, some passages in Scripture are total repetitions of others (e.g., Ps 18 and 2 Sm 22).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeandTheologicalTeaching\">Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>Jude describes his work in terms of exhortation or encouragement (Jude 1:3). Obviously he wanted to strengthen the churches against false teachers who were perverting the gospel. Thus, he repeatedly urged the believers to hold fast or guard their purity and the gospel (vv 3, 20-21, 24). Yet he did not want the teachers simply kicked out, for he had hopes that the believers would be able to rescue some from this danger, although the rescue itself would be dangerous work (v 23).<\/p>\n<p>In framing his exhortation the author did not produce any new doctrines; rather, he underlined some old ones: (1) He stressed the ethical nature of the gospel and the need to maintain purity in life and speech. (2) He showed a high regard for salvation through Christ and a strong belief in one God. (3) He demanded respect for authority, both temporal and spiritual (vv 8-11). (4) He had a clear apocalyptic belief, stressing the coming last judgment (vv 14-15) and affirming that the last days had already come (v 18). (5) He warned of the necessity to persevere in the faith both doctrinally and ethically (vv 19-21). (6) He demonstrated zeal to reclaim those who had erred, for they were outside the grace of God (v 23).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Salutation (1:1-2)<\/h5>\n<p>The author identifies himself humbly as a servant of Jesus Christ and addresses his letter to the faithful in the church—those who are loved, guarded, and called by God and Christ.<\/p>\n<h5>Called to Hold to the Faith (1:3-4)<\/h5>\n<p>Jude had been planning to write these Christians about “the salvation we all share” (v 3). We will never know what instruction he had planned to give, for in the middle of his preparations he heard news that forced him to change his plans. Instead, he penned an epistle in defense of “the faith”—that is, the true apostolic teachings concerning Jesus Christ that all genuine believers embrace. Some people had joined the church, perhaps with ulterior motives, who were dangerous to the church. The Christians must fight hard to keep pure the body of doctrine (meaning ethics as well as theology) that they had received from Jude and the apostles. Jude makes two charges against these false believers: (1) they had perverted God’s grace into licentiousness, perhaps openly flaunting sexual sins as a sign of freedom they had in Christ (cf. Rom 6; 1 Cor 5–6); and (2) they denied the Lord Jesus (by failing to follow his teachings).<\/p>\n<h5>Reminder of God’s Judgment (1:5-7)<\/h5>\n<p>Since the recipients were probably Jewish Christians, they had learned the OT and Jewish tradition well. The author chose three illustrations of the results of apostasy: (1) Judgment can come to those once considered as God’s people (as it did to those “saved” from Egypt, Ex 32:28; Nm 11:33-34; 14:29-35). (2) The consequence of apostasy is eternal damnation (as in the case of the fallen angels of 1 Enoch 6–16—these ideas appear in other Jewish traditions as well). (3) Ethical corruption is in fact a type of apostasy and thus merits damnation (as in the case of Sodom—Gn 19; 2 Pt 2:4-6). The author stressed the homosexuality of Sodom rather than its injustice, which Ezekiel 16:49 condemns, so perhaps sexual misbehavior was a problem with the false teachers. These three illustrations drive home the seriousness of the problems that the church was facing.<\/p>\n<h5>Denunciation of the False Teachers (1:8-16; cf. 2 Pt 2:10-17)<\/h5>\n<p>The false teachers claimed to have received revelations in dreams as the basis of their evil behavior. Their sins were (1) sexual impurity (including, but not limited to, homosexuality); (2) rejection of Christ’s authority (as embodied in his ethical teaching); and (3) evil speech about angels (whether good ones, which is probably the case, or evil). This latter practice is shown to be sin by an example from the Assumption of Moses: even an archangel rebuking the devil himself would not use the language these teachers used about angels. But since these people were unspiritual, they were totally ignorant of what they insulted (cf. 1 Cor 2:7-16), yet they were experts in bodily sin—like savage animals. Their sin was destroying them.<\/p>\n<p>Therefore, the teachers were just like Cain (the embodiment of violence, lust, greed, and rebellion against God in Jewish tradition), Balaam (who tried to make money by leading people into sin—Nm 31:16; Dt 23:4), and Korah (who rebelled against God’s authority in Moses—Nm 16). They were also dangerous to the believers, for they were turning the meal, which was part of the love feast and Lord’s Table (Eucharist), into an orgy (cf. 1 Cor 11:20-22), and would thereby corrupt the practice of the rest of the church. They cared only for themselves and were devoid of real spiritual gifts from God (like waterless clouds or the dead trees of winter, cf. Lk 13:6-9), being ready for the second death (their fate was so sure that it is seen as having already happened). They produced only evil deeds; in this they are like the fallen angels (stars are considered angels in Jewish tradition—1 Enoch 18:13-16; 21:1-10).<\/p>\n<p>The prophecy of Enoch in 1 Enoch 1:9 shows the certainty of their doom. Originally, the prophecy spoke of God coming in judgment, but Jude made it refer to Christ, who for Christians is the coming judge (Mt 25:31). Christ will come with the angelic hosts and execute justice on sinners for their sins (both evil deeds and evil words). That prophecy pertains to people who grumble or accuse God, as Israel did (Ex 16:7-12; 17:3); it also applies to people who do whatever they desire, are loud-mouthed, yet flatter when it is to their advantage.<\/p>\n<h5>Instructions for the Faithful (1:17-23)<\/h5>\n<p>Faithful Christians must remember that the apostles (here meaning the Twelve, not the wider circle of apostles that included Paul, Barnabas, and others) had predicted just such a situation when they were alive: in the last days there would be scoffers, who would do any ungodly act they desired (2 Pt 3:3). These false teachers are such people. They divide the church, and although they claim to be spiritual and receive dreams, they are totally worldly, for they do not possess the Holy Spirit. The faithful must watch out that they remain in the love of God and do not drift into rebellion as these heretics have. This is done by (1) building themselves up (as opposed to causing divisions) on the basis of the faith, the apostolic teaching, and example; (2) praying in the Holy Spirit (Eph 6:18), which sets them off from those not having the Spirit; and (3) waiting expectantly for the mercy Jesus would show them in the soon-coming Last Judgment (1 Enoch 27:3-4).<\/p>\n<p>Yet the Christians must still deal with those influenced by the false teaching. While the Greek text here is very uncertain (it is not clear whether Jude had two or three groups in mind), Jude probably intended that the church should act mercifully toward those who were wavering over whether to follow the false teaching, restore those it could from the followers of the false teaching as if snatching them from hell, and while keeping a merciful attitude (a readiness to accept them back quickly if they repented), strictly avoid any social contact with the unrepentant out of fear of God’s judgment.<\/p>\n<h5>Benediction (1:24-25)<\/h5>\n<p>Jude closes with a doxology very much like that found in Romans 16:25-27. In the midst of many who have fallen from the faith, God is praised as the one who is able to keep the believers from falling and to bring them safely into his very presence. It is to this one who is alone God our Savior through Jesus Christ (meaning God saves us by means of Jesus) that the four attributes—glory, majesty, dominion, and authority—belong, now and forever.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Apostasy; Brothers of Jesus.<\/p>","summary_ro":"JUDE, Letter of Short, hard-hitting letter to a church being infiltrated by teachers who practiced all types of moral evil. Jude reveals the inner situation of a Jewish-Christian community and also presents some great difficulties for the Christian interpreter. Preview • Author • Date, Origin, and Destination • Background • Purpose and Theological Teaching • Content Author The Letter of Jude states that it was written by “Jude . . . [the] brother of James” (1:1). Many scholars understand this...","summary_en":"JUDE, Letter of Short, hard-hitting letter to a church being infiltrated by teachers who practiced all types of moral evil. Jude reveals the inner situation of a Jewish-Christian community and also presents some great difficulties for the Christian interpreter. Preview • Author • Date, Origin, and Destination • Background • Purpose and Theological Teaching • Content Author The Letter of Jude states that it was written by “Jude . . . [the] brother of James” (1:1). Many scholars understand this...","source":"Articles\/J.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":58663,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Tit 1:12","title_en":"Study Note: Tit 1:12","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:12<\/strong> <em>one of their own men, a prophet from Crete, has said:<\/em> This quotation is from Epimenides of Knossos, a philosopher who lived on Crete around the 500s <span>BC<\/span>. • <em>all liars:<\/em> This charge was directed specifically at the Cretan claim to have Zeus’s tomb on the island. According to Cretan mythology, the god Zeus was once a mere human who lived and died on Crete (his tomb was said to be there) but who had achieved godhood through his patronage (i.e., gifts and benefits) to humans. Some Greek moralists opposed this legend and characterized it as a lie. A quote from Alexandria in the 200s <span>BC<\/span> reads: “Cretans are always liars. For a tomb, O Lord, Cretans build for you; but you do not die, for you are forever.” One of Crete’s own prophets (Epimenides) had the same assessment, and Paul cites his voice of conscience approvingly (1:13; see Acts 17:28), for the God who does not lie (Titus 1:2) stands in opposition to the lies of such myths. • <em>liars . . . animals . . . gluttons:<\/em> It was believed that Cretan immorality resulted from their belief about Zeus; religious lies had given rise to moral corruption. Paul later counters these vices by presenting the contrasting virtues (2:12). He calls the Cretans to reach ethical ideals that are extolled in human society generally but were absent on Crete, as bemoaned by their own prophet. They would reach these ideals only through the gospel of Jesus Christ (2:11-14). • <em>lazy gluttons:<\/em> Cretans were known to do anything for a little cash. They were famous as mercenaries and as insatiate consumers. They reputedly saw no shame in greed (see Phil 3:19). • Paul applies the quotation more directly to the current false teachers than to Cretan culture generally; the false teachers carried on this Cretan tradition of immorality built on falsehood.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:12<\/strong> <em>one of their own men, a prophet from Crete, has said:<\/em> This quotation is from Epimenides of Knossos, a philosopher who lived on Crete around the 500s <span>BC<\/span>. • <em>all liars:<\/em> This charge was directed specifically at the Cretan claim to have Zeus’s tomb on the island. According to Cretan mythology, the god Zeus was once a mere human who lived and died on Crete (his tomb was said to be there) but who had achieved godhood through his patronage (i.e., gifts and benefits) to humans. Some Greek moralists opposed this legend and characterized it as a lie. A quote from Alexandria in the 200s <span>BC<\/span> reads: “Cretans are always liars. For a tomb, O Lord, Cretans build for you; but you do not die, for you are forever.” One of Crete’s own prophets (Epimenides) had the same assessment, and Paul cites his voice of conscience approvingly (1:13; see Acts 17:28), for the God who does not lie (Titus 1:2) stands in opposition to the lies of such myths. • <em>liars . . . animals . . . gluttons:<\/em> It was believed that Cretan immorality resulted from their belief about Zeus; religious lies had given rise to moral corruption. Paul later counters these vices by presenting the contrasting virtues (2:12). He calls the Cretans to reach ethical ideals that are extolled in human society generally but were absent on Crete, as bemoaned by their own prophet. They would reach these ideals only through the gospel of Jesus Christ (2:11-14). • <em>lazy gluttons:<\/em> Cretans were known to do anything for a little cash. They were famous as mercenaries and as insatiate consumers. They reputedly saw no shame in greed (see Phil 3:19). • Paul applies the quotation more directly to the current false teachers than to Cretan culture generally; the false teachers carried on this Cretan tradition of immorality built on falsehood.<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:12 one of their own men, a prophet from Crete, has said: This quotation is from Epimenides of Knossos, a philosopher who lived on Crete around the 500s BC. • all liars: This charge was directed specifically at the Cretan claim to have Zeus’s tomb on the island. According to Cretan mythology, the god Zeus was once a mere human who lived and died on Crete (his tomb was said to be there) but who had achieved godhood through his patronage (i.e., gifts and benefits) to humans. Some Greek moralis...","summary_en":"1:12 one of their own men, a prophet from Crete, has said: This quotation is from Epimenides of Knossos, a philosopher who lived on Crete around the 500s BC. • all liars: This charge was directed specifically at the Cretan claim to have Zeus’s tomb on the island. According to Cretan mythology, the god Zeus was once a mere human who lived and died on Crete (his tomb was said to be there) but who had achieved godhood through his patronage (i.e., gifts and benefits) to humans. Some Greek moralis...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":86289,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Tit 1:12","title_en":"Study Note: Tit 1:12","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:12<\/strong> <em>one of their own men, a prophet from Crete, has said:<\/em> This quotation is from Epimenides of Knossos, a philosopher who lived on Crete around the 500s <span>BC<\/span>. • <em>all liars:<\/em> This charge was directed specifically at the Cretan claim to have Zeus’s tomb on the island. According to Cretan mythology, the god Zeus was once a mere human who lived and died on Crete (his tomb was said to be there) but who had achieved godhood through his patronage (i.e., gifts and benefits) to humans. Some Greek moralists opposed this legend and characterized it as a lie. A quote from Alexandria in the 200s <span>BC<\/span> reads: “Cretans are always liars. For a tomb, O Lord, Cretans build for you; but you do not die, for you are forever.” One of Crete’s own prophets (Epimenides) had the same assessment, and Paul cites his voice of conscience approvingly (1:13; see Acts 17:28), for the God who does not lie (Titus 1:2) stands in opposition to the lies of such myths. • <em>liars . . . animals . . . gluttons:<\/em> It was believed that Cretan immorality resulted from their belief about Zeus; religious lies had given rise to moral corruption. Paul later counters these vices by presenting the contrasting virtues (2:12). He calls the Cretans to reach ethical ideals that are extolled in human society generally but were absent on Crete, as bemoaned by their own prophet. They would reach these ideals only through the gospel of Jesus Christ (2:11-14). • <em>lazy gluttons:<\/em> Cretans were known to do anything for a little cash. They were famous as mercenaries and as insatiate consumers. They reputedly saw no shame in greed (see Phil 3:19). • Paul applies the quotation more directly to the current false teachers than to Cretan culture generally; the false teachers carried on this Cretan tradition of immorality built on falsehood.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:12<\/strong> <em>one of their own men, a prophet from Crete, has said:<\/em> This quotation is from Epimenides of Knossos, a philosopher who lived on Crete around the 500s <span>BC<\/span>. • <em>all liars:<\/em> This charge was directed specifically at the Cretan claim to have Zeus’s tomb on the island. According to Cretan mythology, the god Zeus was once a mere human who lived and died on Crete (his tomb was said to be there) but who had achieved godhood through his patronage (i.e., gifts and benefits) to humans. Some Greek moralists opposed this legend and characterized it as a lie. A quote from Alexandria in the 200s <span>BC<\/span> reads: “Cretans are always liars. For a tomb, O Lord, Cretans build for you; but you do not die, for you are forever.” One of Crete’s own prophets (Epimenides) had the same assessment, and Paul cites his voice of conscience approvingly (1:13; see Acts 17:28), for the God who does not lie (Titus 1:2) stands in opposition to the lies of such myths. • <em>liars . . . animals . . . gluttons:<\/em> It was believed that Cretan immorality resulted from their belief about Zeus; religious lies had given rise to moral corruption. Paul later counters these vices by presenting the contrasting virtues (2:12). He calls the Cretans to reach ethical ideals that are extolled in human society generally but were absent on Crete, as bemoaned by their own prophet. They would reach these ideals only through the gospel of Jesus Christ (2:11-14). • <em>lazy gluttons:<\/em> Cretans were known to do anything for a little cash. They were famous as mercenaries and as insatiate consumers. They reputedly saw no shame in greed (see Phil 3:19). • Paul applies the quotation more directly to the current false teachers than to Cretan culture generally; the false teachers carried on this Cretan tradition of immorality built on falsehood.<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:12 one of their own men, a prophet from Crete, has said: This quotation is from Epimenides of Knossos, a philosopher who lived on Crete around the 500s BC. • all liars: This charge was directed specifically at the Cretan claim to have Zeus’s tomb on the island. According to Cretan mythology, the god Zeus was once a mere human who lived and died on Crete (his tomb was said to be there) but who had achieved godhood through his patronage (i.e., gifts and benefits) to humans. Some Greek moralis...","summary_en":"1:12 one of their own men, a prophet from Crete, has said: This quotation is from Epimenides of Knossos, a philosopher who lived on Crete around the 500s BC. • all liars: This charge was directed specifically at the Cretan claim to have Zeus’s tomb on the island. According to Cretan mythology, the god Zeus was once a mere human who lived and died on Crete (his tomb was said to be there) but who had achieved godhood through his patronage (i.e., gifts and benefits) to humans. Some Greek moralis...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":113915,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Tit 1:12","title_en":"Study Note: Tit 1:12","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:12<\/strong> <em>one of their own men, a prophet from Crete, has said:<\/em> This quotation is from Epimenides of Knossos, a philosopher who lived on Crete around the 500s <span>BC<\/span>. • <em>all liars:<\/em> This charge was directed specifically at the Cretan claim to have Zeus’s tomb on the island. According to Cretan mythology, the god Zeus was once a mere human who lived and died on Crete (his tomb was said to be there) but who had achieved godhood through his patronage (i.e., gifts and benefits) to humans. Some Greek moralists opposed this legend and characterized it as a lie. A quote from Alexandria in the 200s <span>BC<\/span> reads: “Cretans are always liars. For a tomb, O Lord, Cretans build for you; but you do not die, for you are forever.” One of Crete’s own prophets (Epimenides) had the same assessment, and Paul cites his voice of conscience approvingly (1:13; see Acts 17:28), for the God who does not lie (Titus 1:2) stands in opposition to the lies of such myths. • <em>liars . . . animals . . . gluttons:<\/em> It was believed that Cretan immorality resulted from their belief about Zeus; religious lies had given rise to moral corruption. Paul later counters these vices by presenting the contrasting virtues (2:12). He calls the Cretans to reach ethical ideals that are extolled in human society generally but were absent on Crete, as bemoaned by their own prophet. They would reach these ideals only through the gospel of Jesus Christ (2:11-14). • <em>lazy gluttons:<\/em> Cretans were known to do anything for a little cash. They were famous as mercenaries and as insatiate consumers. They reputedly saw no shame in greed (see Phil 3:19). • Paul applies the quotation more directly to the current false teachers than to Cretan culture generally; the false teachers carried on this Cretan tradition of immorality built on falsehood.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:12<\/strong> <em>one of their own men, a prophet from Crete, has said:<\/em> This quotation is from Epimenides of Knossos, a philosopher who lived on Crete around the 500s <span>BC<\/span>. • <em>all liars:<\/em> This charge was directed specifically at the Cretan claim to have Zeus’s tomb on the island. According to Cretan mythology, the god Zeus was once a mere human who lived and died on Crete (his tomb was said to be there) but who had achieved godhood through his patronage (i.e., gifts and benefits) to humans. Some Greek moralists opposed this legend and characterized it as a lie. A quote from Alexandria in the 200s <span>BC<\/span> reads: “Cretans are always liars. For a tomb, O Lord, Cretans build for you; but you do not die, for you are forever.” One of Crete’s own prophets (Epimenides) had the same assessment, and Paul cites his voice of conscience approvingly (1:13; see Acts 17:28), for the God who does not lie (Titus 1:2) stands in opposition to the lies of such myths. • <em>liars . . . animals . . . gluttons:<\/em> It was believed that Cretan immorality resulted from their belief about Zeus; religious lies had given rise to moral corruption. Paul later counters these vices by presenting the contrasting virtues (2:12). He calls the Cretans to reach ethical ideals that are extolled in human society generally but were absent on Crete, as bemoaned by their own prophet. They would reach these ideals only through the gospel of Jesus Christ (2:11-14). • <em>lazy gluttons:<\/em> Cretans were known to do anything for a little cash. They were famous as mercenaries and as insatiate consumers. They reputedly saw no shame in greed (see Phil 3:19). • Paul applies the quotation more directly to the current false teachers than to Cretan culture generally; the false teachers carried on this Cretan tradition of immorality built on falsehood.<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:12 one of their own men, a prophet from Crete, has said: This quotation is from Epimenides of Knossos, a philosopher who lived on Crete around the 500s BC. • all liars: This charge was directed specifically at the Cretan claim to have Zeus’s tomb on the island. According to Cretan mythology, the god Zeus was once a mere human who lived and died on Crete (his tomb was said to be there) but who had achieved godhood through his patronage (i.e., gifts and benefits) to humans. Some Greek moralis...","summary_en":"1:12 one of their own men, a prophet from Crete, has said: This quotation is from Epimenides of Knossos, a philosopher who lived on Crete around the 500s BC. • all liars: This charge was directed specifically at the Cretan claim to have Zeus’s tomb on the island. According to Cretan mythology, the god Zeus was once a mere human who lived and died on Crete (his tomb was said to be there) but who had achieved godhood through his patronage (i.e., gifts and benefits) to humans. Some Greek moralis...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":141541,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Tit 1:12","title_en":"Study Note: Tit 1:12","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:12<\/strong> <em>one of their own men, a prophet from Crete, has said:<\/em> This quotation is from Epimenides of Knossos, a philosopher who lived on Crete around the 500s <span>BC<\/span>. • <em>all liars:<\/em> This charge was directed specifically at the Cretan claim to have Zeus’s tomb on the island. According to Cretan mythology, the god Zeus was once a mere human who lived and died on Crete (his tomb was said to be there) but who had achieved godhood through his patronage (i.e., gifts and benefits) to humans. Some Greek moralists opposed this legend and characterized it as a lie. A quote from Alexandria in the 200s <span>BC<\/span> reads: “Cretans are always liars. For a tomb, O Lord, Cretans build for you; but you do not die, for you are forever.” One of Crete’s own prophets (Epimenides) had the same assessment, and Paul cites his voice of conscience approvingly (1:13; see Acts 17:28), for the God who does not lie (Titus 1:2) stands in opposition to the lies of such myths. • <em>liars . . . animals . . . gluttons:<\/em> It was believed that Cretan immorality resulted from their belief about Zeus; religious lies had given rise to moral corruption. Paul later counters these vices by presenting the contrasting virtues (2:12). He calls the Cretans to reach ethical ideals that are extolled in human society generally but were absent on Crete, as bemoaned by their own prophet. They would reach these ideals only through the gospel of Jesus Christ (2:11-14). • <em>lazy gluttons:<\/em> Cretans were known to do anything for a little cash. They were famous as mercenaries and as insatiate consumers. They reputedly saw no shame in greed (see Phil 3:19). • Paul applies the quotation more directly to the current false teachers than to Cretan culture generally; the false teachers carried on this Cretan tradition of immorality built on falsehood.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:12<\/strong> <em>one of their own men, a prophet from Crete, has said:<\/em> This quotation is from Epimenides of Knossos, a philosopher who lived on Crete around the 500s <span>BC<\/span>. • <em>all liars:<\/em> This charge was directed specifically at the Cretan claim to have Zeus’s tomb on the island. According to Cretan mythology, the god Zeus was once a mere human who lived and died on Crete (his tomb was said to be there) but who had achieved godhood through his patronage (i.e., gifts and benefits) to humans. Some Greek moralists opposed this legend and characterized it as a lie. A quote from Alexandria in the 200s <span>BC<\/span> reads: “Cretans are always liars. For a tomb, O Lord, Cretans build for you; but you do not die, for you are forever.” One of Crete’s own prophets (Epimenides) had the same assessment, and Paul cites his voice of conscience approvingly (1:13; see Acts 17:28), for the God who does not lie (Titus 1:2) stands in opposition to the lies of such myths. • <em>liars . . . animals . . . gluttons:<\/em> It was believed that Cretan immorality resulted from their belief about Zeus; religious lies had given rise to moral corruption. Paul later counters these vices by presenting the contrasting virtues (2:12). He calls the Cretans to reach ethical ideals that are extolled in human society generally but were absent on Crete, as bemoaned by their own prophet. They would reach these ideals only through the gospel of Jesus Christ (2:11-14). • <em>lazy gluttons:<\/em> Cretans were known to do anything for a little cash. They were famous as mercenaries and as insatiate consumers. They reputedly saw no shame in greed (see Phil 3:19). • Paul applies the quotation more directly to the current false teachers than to Cretan culture generally; the false teachers carried on this Cretan tradition of immorality built on falsehood.<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:12 one of their own men, a prophet from Crete, has said: This quotation is from Epimenides of Knossos, a philosopher who lived on Crete around the 500s BC. • all liars: This charge was directed specifically at the Cretan claim to have Zeus’s tomb on the island. According to Cretan mythology, the god Zeus was once a mere human who lived and died on Crete (his tomb was said to be there) but who had achieved godhood through his patronage (i.e., gifts and benefits) to humans. Some Greek moralis...","summary_en":"1:12 one of their own men, a prophet from Crete, has said: This quotation is from Epimenides of Knossos, a philosopher who lived on Crete around the 500s BC. • all liars: This charge was directed specifically at the Cretan claim to have Zeus’s tomb on the island. According to Cretan mythology, the god Zeus was once a mere human who lived and died on Crete (his tomb was said to be there) but who had achieved godhood through his patronage (i.e., gifts and benefits) to humans. Some Greek moralis...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"13":[{"id":58664,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Tit 1:13","title_en":"Study Note: Tit 1:13","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:13<\/strong> <em>This is true:<\/em> See study note on 1:12. • Being <em>strong in the faith<\/em> is here defined as rejecting false teachings (cp. 1:9).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:13<\/strong> <em>This is true:<\/em> See study note on 1:12. • Being <em>strong in the faith<\/em> is here defined as rejecting false teachings (cp. 1:9).<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:13 This is true: See study note on 1:12. • Being strong in the faith is here defined as rejecting false teachings (cp. 1:9).","summary_en":"1:13 This is true: See study note on 1:12. • Being strong in the faith is here defined as rejecting false teachings (cp. 1:9).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":86290,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Tit 1:13","title_en":"Study Note: Tit 1:13","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:13<\/strong> <em>This is true:<\/em> See study note on 1:12. • Being <em>strong in the faith<\/em> is here defined as rejecting false teachings (cp. 1:9).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:13<\/strong> <em>This is true:<\/em> See study note on 1:12. • Being <em>strong in the faith<\/em> is here defined as rejecting false teachings (cp. 1:9).<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:13 This is true: See study note on 1:12. • Being strong in the faith is here defined as rejecting false teachings (cp. 1:9).","summary_en":"1:13 This is true: See study note on 1:12. • Being strong in the faith is here defined as rejecting false teachings (cp. 1:9).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":113916,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Tit 1:13","title_en":"Study Note: Tit 1:13","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:13<\/strong> <em>This is true:<\/em> See study note on 1:12. • Being <em>strong in the faith<\/em> is here defined as rejecting false teachings (cp. 1:9).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:13<\/strong> <em>This is true:<\/em> See study note on 1:12. • Being <em>strong in the faith<\/em> is here defined as rejecting false teachings (cp. 1:9).<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:13 This is true: See study note on 1:12. • Being strong in the faith is here defined as rejecting false teachings (cp. 1:9).","summary_en":"1:13 This is true: See study note on 1:12. • Being strong in the faith is here defined as rejecting false teachings (cp. 1:9).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":141542,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Tit 1:13","title_en":"Study Note: Tit 1:13","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:13<\/strong> <em>This is true:<\/em> See study note on 1:12. • Being <em>strong in the faith<\/em> is here defined as rejecting false teachings (cp. 1:9).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:13<\/strong> <em>This is true:<\/em> See study note on 1:12. • Being <em>strong in the faith<\/em> is here defined as rejecting false teachings (cp. 1:9).<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:13 This is true: See study note on 1:12. • Being strong in the faith is here defined as rejecting false teachings (cp. 1:9).","summary_en":"1:13 This is true: See study note on 1:12. • Being strong in the faith is here defined as rejecting false teachings (cp. 1:9).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"14":[{"id":58665,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Tit 1:14","title_en":"Study Note: Tit 1:14","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:14<\/strong> <em>Jewish myths:<\/em> See 3:9; 1 Tim 1:4; 4:7; 2 Tim 4:4. • <em>have turned away from the truth:<\/em> This was apostasy, not mere unbelief. See 1 Tim 1:6-7.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:14<\/strong> <em>Jewish myths:<\/em> See 3:9; 1 Tim 1:4; 4:7; 2 Tim 4:4. • <em>have turned away from the truth:<\/em> This was apostasy, not mere unbelief. See 1 Tim 1:6-7.<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:14 Jewish myths: See 3:9; 1 Tim 1:4; 4:7; 2 Tim 4:4. • have turned away from the truth: This was apostasy, not mere unbelief. See 1 Tim 1:6-7.","summary_en":"1:14 Jewish myths: See 3:9; 1 Tim 1:4; 4:7; 2 Tim 4:4. • have turned away from the truth: This was apostasy, not mere unbelief. See 1 Tim 1:6-7.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":86291,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Tit 1:14","title_en":"Study Note: Tit 1:14","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:14<\/strong> <em>Jewish myths:<\/em> See 3:9; 1 Tim 1:4; 4:7; 2 Tim 4:4. • <em>have turned away from the truth:<\/em> This was apostasy, not mere unbelief. See 1 Tim 1:6-7.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:14<\/strong> <em>Jewish myths:<\/em> See 3:9; 1 Tim 1:4; 4:7; 2 Tim 4:4. • <em>have turned away from the truth:<\/em> This was apostasy, not mere unbelief. See 1 Tim 1:6-7.<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:14 Jewish myths: See 3:9; 1 Tim 1:4; 4:7; 2 Tim 4:4. • have turned away from the truth: This was apostasy, not mere unbelief. See 1 Tim 1:6-7.","summary_en":"1:14 Jewish myths: See 3:9; 1 Tim 1:4; 4:7; 2 Tim 4:4. • have turned away from the truth: This was apostasy, not mere unbelief. See 1 Tim 1:6-7.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":113917,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Tit 1:14","title_en":"Study Note: Tit 1:14","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:14<\/strong> <em>Jewish myths:<\/em> See 3:9; 1 Tim 1:4; 4:7; 2 Tim 4:4. • <em>have turned away from the truth:<\/em> This was apostasy, not mere unbelief. See 1 Tim 1:6-7.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:14<\/strong> <em>Jewish myths:<\/em> See 3:9; 1 Tim 1:4; 4:7; 2 Tim 4:4. • <em>have turned away from the truth:<\/em> This was apostasy, not mere unbelief. See 1 Tim 1:6-7.<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:14 Jewish myths: See 3:9; 1 Tim 1:4; 4:7; 2 Tim 4:4. • have turned away from the truth: This was apostasy, not mere unbelief. See 1 Tim 1:6-7.","summary_en":"1:14 Jewish myths: See 3:9; 1 Tim 1:4; 4:7; 2 Tim 4:4. • have turned away from the truth: This was apostasy, not mere unbelief. See 1 Tim 1:6-7.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":141543,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Tit 1:14","title_en":"Study Note: Tit 1:14","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:14<\/strong> <em>Jewish myths:<\/em> See 3:9; 1 Tim 1:4; 4:7; 2 Tim 4:4. • <em>have turned away from the truth:<\/em> This was apostasy, not mere unbelief. See 1 Tim 1:6-7.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:14<\/strong> <em>Jewish myths:<\/em> See 3:9; 1 Tim 1:4; 4:7; 2 Tim 4:4. • <em>have turned away from the truth:<\/em> This was apostasy, not mere unbelief. See 1 Tim 1:6-7.<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:14 Jewish myths: See 3:9; 1 Tim 1:4; 4:7; 2 Tim 4:4. • have turned away from the truth: This was apostasy, not mere unbelief. See 1 Tim 1:6-7.","summary_en":"1:14 Jewish myths: See 3:9; 1 Tim 1:4; 4:7; 2 Tim 4:4. • have turned away from the truth: This was apostasy, not mere unbelief. See 1 Tim 1:6-7.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"15":[{"id":58666,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Tit 1:15","title_en":"Study Note: Tit 1:15","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:15-16<\/strong> These two verses comment on the people of 1:14 and their commands, while transitioning to a discussion of wholesome teaching (2:1–3:11).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:15-16<\/strong> These two verses comment on the people of 1:14 and their commands, while transitioning to a discussion of wholesome teaching (2:1–3:11).<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:15-16 These two verses comment on the people of 1:14 and their commands, while transitioning to a discussion of wholesome teaching (2:1–3:11).","summary_en":"1:15-16 These two verses comment on the people of 1:14 and their commands, while transitioning to a discussion of wholesome teaching (2:1–3:11).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":58667,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Tit 1:15","title_en":"Study Note: Tit 1:15","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:15<\/strong> Cp. 1 Tim 4:3-5.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:15<\/strong> Cp. 1 Tim 4:3-5.<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:15 Cp. 1 Tim 4:3-5.","summary_en":"1:15 Cp. 1 Tim 4:3-5.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":86292,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Tit 1:15","title_en":"Study Note: Tit 1:15","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:15-16<\/strong> These two verses comment on the people of 1:14 and their commands, while transitioning to a discussion of wholesome teaching (2:1–3:11).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:15-16<\/strong> These two verses comment on the people of 1:14 and their commands, while transitioning to a discussion of wholesome teaching (2:1–3:11).<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:15-16 These two verses comment on the people of 1:14 and their commands, while transitioning to a discussion of wholesome teaching (2:1–3:11).","summary_en":"1:15-16 These two verses comment on the people of 1:14 and their commands, while transitioning to a discussion of wholesome teaching (2:1–3:11).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":86293,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Tit 1:15","title_en":"Study Note: Tit 1:15","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:15<\/strong> Cp. 1 Tim 4:3-5.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:15<\/strong> Cp. 1 Tim 4:3-5.<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:15 Cp. 1 Tim 4:3-5.","summary_en":"1:15 Cp. 1 Tim 4:3-5.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":113918,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Tit 1:15","title_en":"Study Note: Tit 1:15","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:15-16<\/strong> These two verses comment on the people of 1:14 and their commands, while transitioning to a discussion of wholesome teaching (2:1–3:11).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:15-16<\/strong> These two verses comment on the people of 1:14 and their commands, while transitioning to a discussion of wholesome teaching (2:1–3:11).<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:15-16 These two verses comment on the people of 1:14 and their commands, while transitioning to a discussion of wholesome teaching (2:1–3:11).","summary_en":"1:15-16 These two verses comment on the people of 1:14 and their commands, while transitioning to a discussion of wholesome teaching (2:1–3:11).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":113919,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Tit 1:15","title_en":"Study Note: Tit 1:15","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:15<\/strong> Cp. 1 Tim 4:3-5.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:15<\/strong> Cp. 1 Tim 4:3-5.<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:15 Cp. 1 Tim 4:3-5.","summary_en":"1:15 Cp. 1 Tim 4:3-5.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":141544,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Tit 1:15","title_en":"Study Note: Tit 1:15","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:15-16<\/strong> These two verses comment on the people of 1:14 and their commands, while transitioning to a discussion of wholesome teaching (2:1–3:11).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:15-16<\/strong> These two verses comment on the people of 1:14 and their commands, while transitioning to a discussion of wholesome teaching (2:1–3:11).<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:15-16 These two verses comment on the people of 1:14 and their commands, while transitioning to a discussion of wholesome teaching (2:1–3:11).","summary_en":"1:15-16 These two verses comment on the people of 1:14 and their commands, while transitioning to a discussion of wholesome teaching (2:1–3:11).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":141545,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Tit 1:15","title_en":"Study Note: Tit 1:15","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:15<\/strong> Cp. 1 Tim 4:3-5.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:15<\/strong> Cp. 1 Tim 4:3-5.<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:15 Cp. 1 Tim 4:3-5.","summary_en":"1:15 Cp. 1 Tim 4:3-5.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":63759,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Religious Hypocrisy","title_en":"Religious Hypocrisy","content_ro":"<h3>Religious Hypocrisy<\/h3>\n<p>Religious hypocrisy can result from selective obedience, from lip service to God’s law without a change of heart and life to back it up. People who parade their piety for others to see often have little desire to truly obey God.<\/p>\n<p>Isaiah preached to what seemed to be a very religious people. They fasted, said prayers, celebrated holy days, and brought their sacrifices to Jerusalem. Yet God rejected these practices. Why? These acts had value—the Lord himself had prescribed them! But the people’s worship was not from the heart, and it was not accompanied by the personal holiness and social justice that God requires (see, e.g., Lev 19:13-17). The people of Judah had fallen into the trap of religious hypocrisy.<\/p>\n<p>Many years after Isaiah, Jesus confronted this kind of hypocrisy in the Pharisees. He challenged them to be better doers of God’s <em>whole<\/em> revelation rather than just the parts that brought them acclaim (Matt 23:1-36, especially Matt 23:23). The apostles Paul and James also distinguished between mere religiosity and true spirituality (1 Cor 3:1-23; Jas 1:21–2:13). Jesus’ rebuke of the Pharisees also serves as a warning to us: We are not to be like them (see Matt 6:1-18; 1 Pet 2:1). Instead, Jesus calls us to be authentic before God and with others, to obey his entire word, and to go beyond mere formalities and appearances in our devotion to God.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Ps 50:16-23; Prov 15:8; 26:23; Isa 1:11-15; 29:13-15; 58:2-7; Jer 7:4-10; 12:2; Ezek 33:30-31; Hos 8:13; Amos 5:21-24; Mic 3:11; Zech 7:5-6; Mal 2:13-14; Matt 6:1-18; 23:1-36; Titus 1:15-16; Jas 1:21-27; 1 Pet 2:1; 1 Jn 2:4, 9; 4:20<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Religious Hypocrisy<\/h3>\n<p>Religious hypocrisy can result from selective obedience, from lip service to God’s law without a change of heart and life to back it up. People who parade their piety for others to see often have little desire to truly obey God.<\/p>\n<p>Isaiah preached to what seemed to be a very religious people. They fasted, said prayers, celebrated holy days, and brought their sacrifices to Jerusalem. Yet God rejected these practices. Why? These acts had value—the Lord himself had prescribed them! But the people’s worship was not from the heart, and it was not accompanied by the personal holiness and social justice that God requires (see, e.g., Lev 19:13-17). The people of Judah had fallen into the trap of religious hypocrisy.<\/p>\n<p>Many years after Isaiah, Jesus confronted this kind of hypocrisy in the Pharisees. He challenged them to be better doers of God’s <em>whole<\/em> revelation rather than just the parts that brought them acclaim (Matt 23:1-36, especially Matt 23:23). The apostles Paul and James also distinguished between mere religiosity and true spirituality (1 Cor 3:1-23; Jas 1:21–2:13). Jesus’ rebuke of the Pharisees also serves as a warning to us: We are not to be like them (see Matt 6:1-18; 1 Pet 2:1). Instead, Jesus calls us to be authentic before God and with others, to obey his entire word, and to go beyond mere formalities and appearances in our devotion to God.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Ps 50:16-23; Prov 15:8; 26:23; Isa 1:11-15; 29:13-15; 58:2-7; Jer 7:4-10; 12:2; Ezek 33:30-31; Hos 8:13; Amos 5:21-24; Mic 3:11; Zech 7:5-6; Mal 2:13-14; Matt 6:1-18; 23:1-36; Titus 1:15-16; Jas 1:21-27; 1 Pet 2:1; 1 Jn 2:4, 9; 4:20<\/p>","summary_ro":"Religious Hypocrisy Religious hypocrisy can result from selective obedience, from lip service to God’s law without a change of heart and life to back it up. People who parade their piety for others to see often have little desire to truly obey God. Isaiah preached to what seemed to be a very religious people. They fasted, said prayers, celebrated holy days, and brought their sacrifices to Jerusalem. Yet God rejected these practices. Why? These acts had value—the Lord himself had prescribed th...","summary_en":"Religious Hypocrisy Religious hypocrisy can result from selective obedience, from lip service to God’s law without a change of heart and life to back it up. People who parade their piety for others to see often have little desire to truly obey God. Isaiah preached to what seemed to be a very religious people. They fasted, said prayers, celebrated holy days, and brought their sacrifices to Jerusalem. Yet God rejected these practices. Why? These acts had value—the Lord himself had prescribed th...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":91385,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Religious Hypocrisy","title_en":"Religious Hypocrisy","content_ro":"<h3>Religious Hypocrisy<\/h3>\n<p>Religious hypocrisy can result from selective obedience, from lip service to God’s law without a change of heart and life to back it up. People who parade their piety for others to see often have little desire to truly obey God.<\/p>\n<p>Isaiah preached to what seemed to be a very religious people. They fasted, said prayers, celebrated holy days, and brought their sacrifices to Jerusalem. Yet God rejected these practices. Why? These acts had value—the Lord himself had prescribed them! But the people’s worship was not from the heart, and it was not accompanied by the personal holiness and social justice that God requires (see, e.g., Lev 19:13-17). The people of Judah had fallen into the trap of religious hypocrisy.<\/p>\n<p>Many years after Isaiah, Jesus confronted this kind of hypocrisy in the Pharisees. He challenged them to be better doers of God’s <em>whole<\/em> revelation rather than just the parts that brought them acclaim (Matt 23:1-36, especially Matt 23:23). The apostles Paul and James also distinguished between mere religiosity and true spirituality (1 Cor 3:1-23; Jas 1:21–2:13). Jesus’ rebuke of the Pharisees also serves as a warning to us: We are not to be like them (see Matt 6:1-18; 1 Pet 2:1). Instead, Jesus calls us to be authentic before God and with others, to obey his entire word, and to go beyond mere formalities and appearances in our devotion to God.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Ps 50:16-23; Prov 15:8; 26:23; Isa 1:11-15; 29:13-15; 58:2-7; Jer 7:4-10; 12:2; Ezek 33:30-31; Hos 8:13; Amos 5:21-24; Mic 3:11; Zech 7:5-6; Mal 2:13-14; Matt 6:1-18; 23:1-36; Titus 1:15-16; Jas 1:21-27; 1 Pet 2:1; 1 Jn 2:4, 9; 4:20<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Religious Hypocrisy<\/h3>\n<p>Religious hypocrisy can result from selective obedience, from lip service to God’s law without a change of heart and life to back it up. People who parade their piety for others to see often have little desire to truly obey God.<\/p>\n<p>Isaiah preached to what seemed to be a very religious people. They fasted, said prayers, celebrated holy days, and brought their sacrifices to Jerusalem. Yet God rejected these practices. Why? These acts had value—the Lord himself had prescribed them! But the people’s worship was not from the heart, and it was not accompanied by the personal holiness and social justice that God requires (see, e.g., Lev 19:13-17). The people of Judah had fallen into the trap of religious hypocrisy.<\/p>\n<p>Many years after Isaiah, Jesus confronted this kind of hypocrisy in the Pharisees. He challenged them to be better doers of God’s <em>whole<\/em> revelation rather than just the parts that brought them acclaim (Matt 23:1-36, especially Matt 23:23). The apostles Paul and James also distinguished between mere religiosity and true spirituality (1 Cor 3:1-23; Jas 1:21–2:13). Jesus’ rebuke of the Pharisees also serves as a warning to us: We are not to be like them (see Matt 6:1-18; 1 Pet 2:1). Instead, Jesus calls us to be authentic before God and with others, to obey his entire word, and to go beyond mere formalities and appearances in our devotion to God.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Ps 50:16-23; Prov 15:8; 26:23; Isa 1:11-15; 29:13-15; 58:2-7; Jer 7:4-10; 12:2; Ezek 33:30-31; Hos 8:13; Amos 5:21-24; Mic 3:11; Zech 7:5-6; Mal 2:13-14; Matt 6:1-18; 23:1-36; Titus 1:15-16; Jas 1:21-27; 1 Pet 2:1; 1 Jn 2:4, 9; 4:20<\/p>","summary_ro":"Religious Hypocrisy Religious hypocrisy can result from selective obedience, from lip service to God’s law without a change of heart and life to back it up. People who parade their piety for others to see often have little desire to truly obey God. Isaiah preached to what seemed to be a very religious people. They fasted, said prayers, celebrated holy days, and brought their sacrifices to Jerusalem. Yet God rejected these practices. Why? These acts had value—the Lord himself had prescribed th...","summary_en":"Religious Hypocrisy Religious hypocrisy can result from selective obedience, from lip service to God’s law without a change of heart and life to back it up. People who parade their piety for others to see often have little desire to truly obey God. Isaiah preached to what seemed to be a very religious people. They fasted, said prayers, celebrated holy days, and brought their sacrifices to Jerusalem. Yet God rejected these practices. Why? These acts had value—the Lord himself had prescribed th...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":119011,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Religious Hypocrisy","title_en":"Religious Hypocrisy","content_ro":"<h3>Religious Hypocrisy<\/h3>\n<p>Religious hypocrisy can result from selective obedience, from lip service to God’s law without a change of heart and life to back it up. People who parade their piety for others to see often have little desire to truly obey God.<\/p>\n<p>Isaiah preached to what seemed to be a very religious people. They fasted, said prayers, celebrated holy days, and brought their sacrifices to Jerusalem. Yet God rejected these practices. Why? These acts had value—the Lord himself had prescribed them! But the people’s worship was not from the heart, and it was not accompanied by the personal holiness and social justice that God requires (see, e.g., Lev 19:13-17). The people of Judah had fallen into the trap of religious hypocrisy.<\/p>\n<p>Many years after Isaiah, Jesus confronted this kind of hypocrisy in the Pharisees. He challenged them to be better doers of God’s <em>whole<\/em> revelation rather than just the parts that brought them acclaim (Matt 23:1-36, especially Matt 23:23). The apostles Paul and James also distinguished between mere religiosity and true spirituality (1 Cor 3:1-23; Jas 1:21–2:13). Jesus’ rebuke of the Pharisees also serves as a warning to us: We are not to be like them (see Matt 6:1-18; 1 Pet 2:1). Instead, Jesus calls us to be authentic before God and with others, to obey his entire word, and to go beyond mere formalities and appearances in our devotion to God.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Ps 50:16-23; Prov 15:8; 26:23; Isa 1:11-15; 29:13-15; 58:2-7; Jer 7:4-10; 12:2; Ezek 33:30-31; Hos 8:13; Amos 5:21-24; Mic 3:11; Zech 7:5-6; Mal 2:13-14; Matt 6:1-18; 23:1-36; Titus 1:15-16; Jas 1:21-27; 1 Pet 2:1; 1 Jn 2:4, 9; 4:20<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Religious Hypocrisy<\/h3>\n<p>Religious hypocrisy can result from selective obedience, from lip service to God’s law without a change of heart and life to back it up. People who parade their piety for others to see often have little desire to truly obey God.<\/p>\n<p>Isaiah preached to what seemed to be a very religious people. They fasted, said prayers, celebrated holy days, and brought their sacrifices to Jerusalem. Yet God rejected these practices. Why? These acts had value—the Lord himself had prescribed them! But the people’s worship was not from the heart, and it was not accompanied by the personal holiness and social justice that God requires (see, e.g., Lev 19:13-17). The people of Judah had fallen into the trap of religious hypocrisy.<\/p>\n<p>Many years after Isaiah, Jesus confronted this kind of hypocrisy in the Pharisees. He challenged them to be better doers of God’s <em>whole<\/em> revelation rather than just the parts that brought them acclaim (Matt 23:1-36, especially Matt 23:23). The apostles Paul and James also distinguished between mere religiosity and true spirituality (1 Cor 3:1-23; Jas 1:21–2:13). Jesus’ rebuke of the Pharisees also serves as a warning to us: We are not to be like them (see Matt 6:1-18; 1 Pet 2:1). Instead, Jesus calls us to be authentic before God and with others, to obey his entire word, and to go beyond mere formalities and appearances in our devotion to God.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Ps 50:16-23; Prov 15:8; 26:23; Isa 1:11-15; 29:13-15; 58:2-7; Jer 7:4-10; 12:2; Ezek 33:30-31; Hos 8:13; Amos 5:21-24; Mic 3:11; Zech 7:5-6; Mal 2:13-14; Matt 6:1-18; 23:1-36; Titus 1:15-16; Jas 1:21-27; 1 Pet 2:1; 1 Jn 2:4, 9; 4:20<\/p>","summary_ro":"Religious Hypocrisy Religious hypocrisy can result from selective obedience, from lip service to God’s law without a change of heart and life to back it up. People who parade their piety for others to see often have little desire to truly obey God. Isaiah preached to what seemed to be a very religious people. They fasted, said prayers, celebrated holy days, and brought their sacrifices to Jerusalem. Yet God rejected these practices. Why? These acts had value—the Lord himself had prescribed th...","summary_en":"Religious Hypocrisy Religious hypocrisy can result from selective obedience, from lip service to God’s law without a change of heart and life to back it up. People who parade their piety for others to see often have little desire to truly obey God. Isaiah preached to what seemed to be a very religious people. They fasted, said prayers, celebrated holy days, and brought their sacrifices to Jerusalem. Yet God rejected these practices. Why? These acts had value—the Lord himself had prescribed th...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":146637,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Religious Hypocrisy","title_en":"Religious Hypocrisy","content_ro":"<h3>Religious Hypocrisy<\/h3>\n<p>Religious hypocrisy can result from selective obedience, from lip service to God’s law without a change of heart and life to back it up. People who parade their piety for others to see often have little desire to truly obey God.<\/p>\n<p>Isaiah preached to what seemed to be a very religious people. They fasted, said prayers, celebrated holy days, and brought their sacrifices to Jerusalem. Yet God rejected these practices. Why? These acts had value—the Lord himself had prescribed them! But the people’s worship was not from the heart, and it was not accompanied by the personal holiness and social justice that God requires (see, e.g., Lev 19:13-17). The people of Judah had fallen into the trap of religious hypocrisy.<\/p>\n<p>Many years after Isaiah, Jesus confronted this kind of hypocrisy in the Pharisees. He challenged them to be better doers of God’s <em>whole<\/em> revelation rather than just the parts that brought them acclaim (Matt 23:1-36, especially Matt 23:23). The apostles Paul and James also distinguished between mere religiosity and true spirituality (1 Cor 3:1-23; Jas 1:21–2:13). Jesus’ rebuke of the Pharisees also serves as a warning to us: We are not to be like them (see Matt 6:1-18; 1 Pet 2:1). Instead, Jesus calls us to be authentic before God and with others, to obey his entire word, and to go beyond mere formalities and appearances in our devotion to God.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Ps 50:16-23; Prov 15:8; 26:23; Isa 1:11-15; 29:13-15; 58:2-7; Jer 7:4-10; 12:2; Ezek 33:30-31; Hos 8:13; Amos 5:21-24; Mic 3:11; Zech 7:5-6; Mal 2:13-14; Matt 6:1-18; 23:1-36; Titus 1:15-16; Jas 1:21-27; 1 Pet 2:1; 1 Jn 2:4, 9; 4:20<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Religious Hypocrisy<\/h3>\n<p>Religious hypocrisy can result from selective obedience, from lip service to God’s law without a change of heart and life to back it up. People who parade their piety for others to see often have little desire to truly obey God.<\/p>\n<p>Isaiah preached to what seemed to be a very religious people. They fasted, said prayers, celebrated holy days, and brought their sacrifices to Jerusalem. Yet God rejected these practices. Why? These acts had value—the Lord himself had prescribed them! But the people’s worship was not from the heart, and it was not accompanied by the personal holiness and social justice that God requires (see, e.g., Lev 19:13-17). The people of Judah had fallen into the trap of religious hypocrisy.<\/p>\n<p>Many years after Isaiah, Jesus confronted this kind of hypocrisy in the Pharisees. He challenged them to be better doers of God’s <em>whole<\/em> revelation rather than just the parts that brought them acclaim (Matt 23:1-36, especially Matt 23:23). The apostles Paul and James also distinguished between mere religiosity and true spirituality (1 Cor 3:1-23; Jas 1:21–2:13). Jesus’ rebuke of the Pharisees also serves as a warning to us: We are not to be like them (see Matt 6:1-18; 1 Pet 2:1). Instead, Jesus calls us to be authentic before God and with others, to obey his entire word, and to go beyond mere formalities and appearances in our devotion to God.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Ps 50:16-23; Prov 15:8; 26:23; Isa 1:11-15; 29:13-15; 58:2-7; Jer 7:4-10; 12:2; Ezek 33:30-31; Hos 8:13; Amos 5:21-24; Mic 3:11; Zech 7:5-6; Mal 2:13-14; Matt 6:1-18; 23:1-36; Titus 1:15-16; Jas 1:21-27; 1 Pet 2:1; 1 Jn 2:4, 9; 4:20<\/p>","summary_ro":"Religious Hypocrisy Religious hypocrisy can result from selective obedience, from lip service to God’s law without a change of heart and life to back it up. People who parade their piety for others to see often have little desire to truly obey God. Isaiah preached to what seemed to be a very religious people. They fasted, said prayers, celebrated holy days, and brought their sacrifices to Jerusalem. Yet God rejected these practices. Why? These acts had value—the Lord himself had prescribed th...","summary_en":"Religious Hypocrisy Religious hypocrisy can result from selective obedience, from lip service to God’s law without a change of heart and life to back it up. People who parade their piety for others to see often have little desire to truly obey God. Isaiah preached to what seemed to be a very religious people. They fasted, said prayers, celebrated holy days, and brought their sacrifices to Jerusalem. Yet God rejected these practices. Why? These acts had value—the Lord himself had prescribed th...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"16":[{"id":265,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Abomination","title_en":"Abomination","content_ro":"<h3>ABOMINATION<\/h3>\n<p>Repugnant or detestable act, person, or thing. The idea of abomination derives from the specific demands God’s holiness makes upon his people. Adjectives frequently used for abominations in the OT are “abhorrent,” “loathsome,” “unclean,” and “rejected.”<\/p>\n<p>Of the four major Hebrew words translated “abomination,” the one most frequently used indicates violation of an established custom or ritual that, in turn, brings the judgment of God. Examples range from defective sacrifices (Dt 17:1) to magic and divination (Dt 18:12) or idolatrous practices (2 Kgs 16:3). A second Hebrew word refers to the meat of certain kinds of animals that was ritually defiling, whether touched or eaten (Lv 11:10-13). A third word designates three-day-old sacrificial meat (Lv 7:18). A fourth word refers almost exclusively to idolatrous objects of pagan origin (Jer 4:1; 7:30). Apart from the specialized usage of “abomination of desolation,” the Greek word for “abomination” is used infrequently in the NT (Lk 16:15; Rom 2:22; Ti 1:16; Rv 17:4-5; 21:8, 27) and is translated by many English words. The primary connotation is anything that is abhorrent to a holy God.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Cleanness and Uncleanness, Regulations Concerning; Dietary Laws (After Moses).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ABOMINATION<\/h3>\n<p>Repugnant or detestable act, person, or thing. The idea of abomination derives from the specific demands God’s holiness makes upon his people. Adjectives frequently used for abominations in the OT are “abhorrent,” “loathsome,” “unclean,” and “rejected.”<\/p>\n<p>Of the four major Hebrew words translated “abomination,” the one most frequently used indicates violation of an established custom or ritual that, in turn, brings the judgment of God. Examples range from defective sacrifices (Dt 17:1) to magic and divination (Dt 18:12) or idolatrous practices (2 Kgs 16:3). A second Hebrew word refers to the meat of certain kinds of animals that was ritually defiling, whether touched or eaten (Lv 11:10-13). A third word designates three-day-old sacrificial meat (Lv 7:18). A fourth word refers almost exclusively to idolatrous objects of pagan origin (Jer 4:1; 7:30). Apart from the specialized usage of “abomination of desolation,” the Greek word for “abomination” is used infrequently in the NT (Lk 16:15; Rom 2:22; Ti 1:16; Rv 17:4-5; 21:8, 27) and is translated by many English words. The primary connotation is anything that is abhorrent to a holy God.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Cleanness and Uncleanness, Regulations Concerning; Dietary Laws (After Moses).<\/p>","summary_ro":"ABOMINATION Repugnant or detestable act, person, or thing. The idea of abomination derives from the specific demands God’s holiness makes upon his people. Adjectives frequently used for abominations in the OT are “abhorrent,” “loathsome,” “unclean,” and “rejected.” Of the four major Hebrew words translated “abomination,” the one most frequently used indicates violation of an established custom or ritual that, in turn, brings the judgment of God. Examples range from defective sacrifices (Dt 17...","summary_en":"ABOMINATION Repugnant or detestable act, person, or thing. The idea of abomination derives from the specific demands God’s holiness makes upon his people. Adjectives frequently used for abominations in the OT are “abhorrent,” “loathsome,” “unclean,” and “rejected.” Of the four major Hebrew words translated “abomination,” the one most frequently used indicates violation of an established custom or ritual that, in turn, brings the judgment of God. Examples range from defective sacrifices (Dt 17...","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":58668,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Tit 1:16","title_en":"Study Note: Tit 1:16","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:16<\/strong> Sound teaching and godliness are always linked together in the letters to Timothy and Titus (see 1 Tim 1:7-11; 3:15-16; 5:24-25; 2 Tim 3:5, 9). Similarly, the ungodly <em>way they live<\/em> is connected with false teaching. • <em>anything good:<\/em> This contrasts with Titus 3:1.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:16<\/strong> Sound teaching and godliness are always linked together in the letters to Timothy and Titus (see 1 Tim 1:7-11; 3:15-16; 5:24-25; 2 Tim 3:5, 9). Similarly, the ungodly <em>way they live<\/em> is connected with false teaching. • <em>anything good:<\/em> This contrasts with Titus 3:1.<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:16 Sound teaching and godliness are always linked together in the letters to Timothy and Titus (see 1 Tim 1:7-11; 3:15-16; 5:24-25; 2 Tim 3:5, 9). Similarly, the ungodly way they live is connected with false teaching. • anything good: This contrasts with Titus 3:1.","summary_en":"1:16 Sound teaching and godliness are always linked together in the letters to Timothy and Titus (see 1 Tim 1:7-11; 3:15-16; 5:24-25; 2 Tim 3:5, 9). Similarly, the ungodly way they live is connected with false teaching. • anything good: This contrasts with Titus 3:1.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":86294,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Tit 1:16","title_en":"Study Note: Tit 1:16","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:16<\/strong> Sound teaching and godliness are always linked together in the letters to Timothy and Titus (see 1 Tim 1:7-11; 3:15-16; 5:24-25; 2 Tim 3:5, 9). Similarly, the ungodly <em>way they live<\/em> is connected with false teaching. • <em>anything good:<\/em> This contrasts with Titus 3:1.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:16<\/strong> Sound teaching and godliness are always linked together in the letters to Timothy and Titus (see 1 Tim 1:7-11; 3:15-16; 5:24-25; 2 Tim 3:5, 9). Similarly, the ungodly <em>way they live<\/em> is connected with false teaching. • <em>anything good:<\/em> This contrasts with Titus 3:1.<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:16 Sound teaching and godliness are always linked together in the letters to Timothy and Titus (see 1 Tim 1:7-11; 3:15-16; 5:24-25; 2 Tim 3:5, 9). Similarly, the ungodly way they live is connected with false teaching. • anything good: This contrasts with Titus 3:1.","summary_en":"1:16 Sound teaching and godliness are always linked together in the letters to Timothy and Titus (see 1 Tim 1:7-11; 3:15-16; 5:24-25; 2 Tim 3:5, 9). Similarly, the ungodly way they live is connected with false teaching. • anything good: This contrasts with Titus 3:1.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":113920,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Tit 1:16","title_en":"Study Note: Tit 1:16","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:16<\/strong> Sound teaching and godliness are always linked together in the letters to Timothy and Titus (see 1 Tim 1:7-11; 3:15-16; 5:24-25; 2 Tim 3:5, 9). Similarly, the ungodly <em>way they live<\/em> is connected with false teaching. • <em>anything good:<\/em> This contrasts with Titus 3:1.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:16<\/strong> Sound teaching and godliness are always linked together in the letters to Timothy and Titus (see 1 Tim 1:7-11; 3:15-16; 5:24-25; 2 Tim 3:5, 9). Similarly, the ungodly <em>way they live<\/em> is connected with false teaching. • <em>anything good:<\/em> This contrasts with Titus 3:1.<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:16 Sound teaching and godliness are always linked together in the letters to Timothy and Titus (see 1 Tim 1:7-11; 3:15-16; 5:24-25; 2 Tim 3:5, 9). Similarly, the ungodly way they live is connected with false teaching. • anything good: This contrasts with Titus 3:1.","summary_en":"1:16 Sound teaching and godliness are always linked together in the letters to Timothy and Titus (see 1 Tim 1:7-11; 3:15-16; 5:24-25; 2 Tim 3:5, 9). Similarly, the ungodly way they live is connected with false teaching. • anything good: This contrasts with Titus 3:1.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":141546,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Tit 1:16","title_en":"Study Note: Tit 1:16","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:16<\/strong> Sound teaching and godliness are always linked together in the letters to Timothy and Titus (see 1 Tim 1:7-11; 3:15-16; 5:24-25; 2 Tim 3:5, 9). Similarly, the ungodly <em>way they live<\/em> is connected with false teaching. • <em>anything good:<\/em> This contrasts with Titus 3:1.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:16<\/strong> Sound teaching and godliness are always linked together in the letters to Timothy and Titus (see 1 Tim 1:7-11; 3:15-16; 5:24-25; 2 Tim 3:5, 9). Similarly, the ungodly <em>way they live<\/em> is connected with false teaching. • <em>anything good:<\/em> This contrasts with Titus 3:1.<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:16 Sound teaching and godliness are always linked together in the letters to Timothy and Titus (see 1 Tim 1:7-11; 3:15-16; 5:24-25; 2 Tim 3:5, 9). Similarly, the ungodly way they live is connected with false teaching. • anything good: This contrasts with Titus 3:1.","summary_en":"1:16 Sound teaching and godliness are always linked together in the letters to Timothy and Titus (see 1 Tim 1:7-11; 3:15-16; 5:24-25; 2 Tim 3:5, 9). Similarly, the ungodly way they live is connected with false teaching. • anything good: This contrasts with Titus 3:1.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":64619,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Knowing God","title_en":"Knowing God","content_ro":"<h3>Knowing God<\/h3>\n<p>From our perspective, knowledge tends to mean information, facts, and concepts. But in biblical times, knowledge was centered in personal relationships. To know someone is to enter into a close relationship with that person. Knowing God involves much more than simply mastering facts and information about him. It even transcends discussions about the nature and character of God, as important as those are. Knowing God means entering into a close relationship with him. It means viewing everything as God does and learning to imitate him. Knowing God will transform our thoughts and actions, our priorities and values, and our relationships with fellow human beings. It is far more important than religious rites, sacrifices and burnt offerings, or any other religious activities (see Jer 9:23-24; 31:34).<\/p>\n<p>The prophet Hosea strongly emphasizes the importance of knowing God. He demonstrates that Israel would ultimately be destroyed (Hos 4:6) because they did not know God (4:1). This theme of knowing God is also prevalent in the New Testament Gospel of John. Jesus repeatedly stresses the need to know God, affirming that people can be heavily involved in religious practice but have no genuine relationship with God (see John 7:25-29; 8:14-19, 54-55; 14:6-11; 17:1-3).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 33:8, 11; Num 12:6-8; Isa 11:9; 43:10; Jer 9:24; 31:33-34; Hos 6:3, 6; John 17:3; Phil 3:10; Titus 1:16; Heb 8:10-13; 1 Jn 2:4; 4:6, 8; 3 Jn 1:11<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Knowing God<\/h3>\n<p>From our perspective, knowledge tends to mean information, facts, and concepts. But in biblical times, knowledge was centered in personal relationships. To know someone is to enter into a close relationship with that person. Knowing God involves much more than simply mastering facts and information about him. It even transcends discussions about the nature and character of God, as important as those are. Knowing God means entering into a close relationship with him. It means viewing everything as God does and learning to imitate him. Knowing God will transform our thoughts and actions, our priorities and values, and our relationships with fellow human beings. It is far more important than religious rites, sacrifices and burnt offerings, or any other religious activities (see Jer 9:23-24; 31:34).<\/p>\n<p>The prophet Hosea strongly emphasizes the importance of knowing God. He demonstrates that Israel would ultimately be destroyed (Hos 4:6) because they did not know God (4:1). This theme of knowing God is also prevalent in the New Testament Gospel of John. Jesus repeatedly stresses the need to know God, affirming that people can be heavily involved in religious practice but have no genuine relationship with God (see John 7:25-29; 8:14-19, 54-55; 14:6-11; 17:1-3).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 33:8, 11; Num 12:6-8; Isa 11:9; 43:10; Jer 9:24; 31:33-34; Hos 6:3, 6; John 17:3; Phil 3:10; Titus 1:16; Heb 8:10-13; 1 Jn 2:4; 4:6, 8; 3 Jn 1:11<\/p>","summary_ro":"Knowing God From our perspective, knowledge tends to mean information, facts, and concepts. But in biblical times, knowledge was centered in personal relationships. To know someone is to enter into a close relationship with that person. Knowing God involves much more than simply mastering facts and information about him. It even transcends discussions about the nature and character of God, as important as those are. Knowing God means entering into a close relationship with him. It means viewi...","summary_en":"Knowing God From our perspective, knowledge tends to mean information, facts, and concepts. But in biblical times, knowledge was centered in personal relationships. To know someone is to enter into a close relationship with that person. Knowing God involves much more than simply mastering facts and information about him. It even transcends discussions about the nature and character of God, as important as those are. Knowing God means entering into a close relationship with him. It means viewi...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":92245,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Knowing God","title_en":"Knowing God","content_ro":"<h3>Knowing God<\/h3>\n<p>From our perspective, knowledge tends to mean information, facts, and concepts. But in biblical times, knowledge was centered in personal relationships. To know someone is to enter into a close relationship with that person. Knowing God involves much more than simply mastering facts and information about him. It even transcends discussions about the nature and character of God, as important as those are. Knowing God means entering into a close relationship with him. It means viewing everything as God does and learning to imitate him. Knowing God will transform our thoughts and actions, our priorities and values, and our relationships with fellow human beings. It is far more important than religious rites, sacrifices and burnt offerings, or any other religious activities (see Jer 9:23-24; 31:34).<\/p>\n<p>The prophet Hosea strongly emphasizes the importance of knowing God. He demonstrates that Israel would ultimately be destroyed (Hos 4:6) because they did not know God (4:1). This theme of knowing God is also prevalent in the New Testament Gospel of John. Jesus repeatedly stresses the need to know God, affirming that people can be heavily involved in religious practice but have no genuine relationship with God (see John 7:25-29; 8:14-19, 54-55; 14:6-11; 17:1-3).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 33:8, 11; Num 12:6-8; Isa 11:9; 43:10; Jer 9:24; 31:33-34; Hos 6:3, 6; John 17:3; Phil 3:10; Titus 1:16; Heb 8:10-13; 1 Jn 2:4; 4:6, 8; 3 Jn 1:11<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Knowing God<\/h3>\n<p>From our perspective, knowledge tends to mean information, facts, and concepts. But in biblical times, knowledge was centered in personal relationships. To know someone is to enter into a close relationship with that person. Knowing God involves much more than simply mastering facts and information about him. It even transcends discussions about the nature and character of God, as important as those are. Knowing God means entering into a close relationship with him. It means viewing everything as God does and learning to imitate him. Knowing God will transform our thoughts and actions, our priorities and values, and our relationships with fellow human beings. It is far more important than religious rites, sacrifices and burnt offerings, or any other religious activities (see Jer 9:23-24; 31:34).<\/p>\n<p>The prophet Hosea strongly emphasizes the importance of knowing God. He demonstrates that Israel would ultimately be destroyed (Hos 4:6) because they did not know God (4:1). This theme of knowing God is also prevalent in the New Testament Gospel of John. Jesus repeatedly stresses the need to know God, affirming that people can be heavily involved in religious practice but have no genuine relationship with God (see John 7:25-29; 8:14-19, 54-55; 14:6-11; 17:1-3).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 33:8, 11; Num 12:6-8; Isa 11:9; 43:10; Jer 9:24; 31:33-34; Hos 6:3, 6; John 17:3; Phil 3:10; Titus 1:16; Heb 8:10-13; 1 Jn 2:4; 4:6, 8; 3 Jn 1:11<\/p>","summary_ro":"Knowing God From our perspective, knowledge tends to mean information, facts, and concepts. But in biblical times, knowledge was centered in personal relationships. To know someone is to enter into a close relationship with that person. Knowing God involves much more than simply mastering facts and information about him. It even transcends discussions about the nature and character of God, as important as those are. Knowing God means entering into a close relationship with him. It means viewi...","summary_en":"Knowing God From our perspective, knowledge tends to mean information, facts, and concepts. But in biblical times, knowledge was centered in personal relationships. To know someone is to enter into a close relationship with that person. Knowing God involves much more than simply mastering facts and information about him. It even transcends discussions about the nature and character of God, as important as those are. Knowing God means entering into a close relationship with him. It means viewi...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":119871,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Knowing God","title_en":"Knowing God","content_ro":"<h3>Knowing God<\/h3>\n<p>From our perspective, knowledge tends to mean information, facts, and concepts. But in biblical times, knowledge was centered in personal relationships. To know someone is to enter into a close relationship with that person. Knowing God involves much more than simply mastering facts and information about him. It even transcends discussions about the nature and character of God, as important as those are. Knowing God means entering into a close relationship with him. It means viewing everything as God does and learning to imitate him. Knowing God will transform our thoughts and actions, our priorities and values, and our relationships with fellow human beings. It is far more important than religious rites, sacrifices and burnt offerings, or any other religious activities (see Jer 9:23-24; 31:34).<\/p>\n<p>The prophet Hosea strongly emphasizes the importance of knowing God. He demonstrates that Israel would ultimately be destroyed (Hos 4:6) because they did not know God (4:1). This theme of knowing God is also prevalent in the New Testament Gospel of John. Jesus repeatedly stresses the need to know God, affirming that people can be heavily involved in religious practice but have no genuine relationship with God (see John 7:25-29; 8:14-19, 54-55; 14:6-11; 17:1-3).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 33:8, 11; Num 12:6-8; Isa 11:9; 43:10; Jer 9:24; 31:33-34; Hos 6:3, 6; John 17:3; Phil 3:10; Titus 1:16; Heb 8:10-13; 1 Jn 2:4; 4:6, 8; 3 Jn 1:11<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Knowing God<\/h3>\n<p>From our perspective, knowledge tends to mean information, facts, and concepts. But in biblical times, knowledge was centered in personal relationships. To know someone is to enter into a close relationship with that person. Knowing God involves much more than simply mastering facts and information about him. It even transcends discussions about the nature and character of God, as important as those are. Knowing God means entering into a close relationship with him. It means viewing everything as God does and learning to imitate him. Knowing God will transform our thoughts and actions, our priorities and values, and our relationships with fellow human beings. It is far more important than religious rites, sacrifices and burnt offerings, or any other religious activities (see Jer 9:23-24; 31:34).<\/p>\n<p>The prophet Hosea strongly emphasizes the importance of knowing God. He demonstrates that Israel would ultimately be destroyed (Hos 4:6) because they did not know God (4:1). This theme of knowing God is also prevalent in the New Testament Gospel of John. Jesus repeatedly stresses the need to know God, affirming that people can be heavily involved in religious practice but have no genuine relationship with God (see John 7:25-29; 8:14-19, 54-55; 14:6-11; 17:1-3).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 33:8, 11; Num 12:6-8; Isa 11:9; 43:10; Jer 9:24; 31:33-34; Hos 6:3, 6; John 17:3; Phil 3:10; Titus 1:16; Heb 8:10-13; 1 Jn 2:4; 4:6, 8; 3 Jn 1:11<\/p>","summary_ro":"Knowing God From our perspective, knowledge tends to mean information, facts, and concepts. But in biblical times, knowledge was centered in personal relationships. To know someone is to enter into a close relationship with that person. Knowing God involves much more than simply mastering facts and information about him. It even transcends discussions about the nature and character of God, as important as those are. Knowing God means entering into a close relationship with him. It means viewi...","summary_en":"Knowing God From our perspective, knowledge tends to mean information, facts, and concepts. But in biblical times, knowledge was centered in personal relationships. To know someone is to enter into a close relationship with that person. Knowing God involves much more than simply mastering facts and information about him. It even transcends discussions about the nature and character of God, as important as those are. Knowing God means entering into a close relationship with him. It means viewi...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":147497,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Knowing God","title_en":"Knowing God","content_ro":"<h3>Knowing God<\/h3>\n<p>From our perspective, knowledge tends to mean information, facts, and concepts. But in biblical times, knowledge was centered in personal relationships. To know someone is to enter into a close relationship with that person. Knowing God involves much more than simply mastering facts and information about him. It even transcends discussions about the nature and character of God, as important as those are. Knowing God means entering into a close relationship with him. It means viewing everything as God does and learning to imitate him. Knowing God will transform our thoughts and actions, our priorities and values, and our relationships with fellow human beings. It is far more important than religious rites, sacrifices and burnt offerings, or any other religious activities (see Jer 9:23-24; 31:34).<\/p>\n<p>The prophet Hosea strongly emphasizes the importance of knowing God. He demonstrates that Israel would ultimately be destroyed (Hos 4:6) because they did not know God (4:1). This theme of knowing God is also prevalent in the New Testament Gospel of John. Jesus repeatedly stresses the need to know God, affirming that people can be heavily involved in religious practice but have no genuine relationship with God (see John 7:25-29; 8:14-19, 54-55; 14:6-11; 17:1-3).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 33:8, 11; Num 12:6-8; Isa 11:9; 43:10; Jer 9:24; 31:33-34; Hos 6:3, 6; John 17:3; Phil 3:10; Titus 1:16; Heb 8:10-13; 1 Jn 2:4; 4:6, 8; 3 Jn 1:11<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Knowing God<\/h3>\n<p>From our perspective, knowledge tends to mean information, facts, and concepts. But in biblical times, knowledge was centered in personal relationships. To know someone is to enter into a close relationship with that person. Knowing God involves much more than simply mastering facts and information about him. It even transcends discussions about the nature and character of God, as important as those are. Knowing God means entering into a close relationship with him. It means viewing everything as God does and learning to imitate him. Knowing God will transform our thoughts and actions, our priorities and values, and our relationships with fellow human beings. It is far more important than religious rites, sacrifices and burnt offerings, or any other religious activities (see Jer 9:23-24; 31:34).<\/p>\n<p>The prophet Hosea strongly emphasizes the importance of knowing God. He demonstrates that Israel would ultimately be destroyed (Hos 4:6) because they did not know God (4:1). This theme of knowing God is also prevalent in the New Testament Gospel of John. Jesus repeatedly stresses the need to know God, affirming that people can be heavily involved in religious practice but have no genuine relationship with God (see John 7:25-29; 8:14-19, 54-55; 14:6-11; 17:1-3).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 33:8, 11; Num 12:6-8; Isa 11:9; 43:10; Jer 9:24; 31:33-34; Hos 6:3, 6; John 17:3; Phil 3:10; Titus 1:16; Heb 8:10-13; 1 Jn 2:4; 4:6, 8; 3 Jn 1:11<\/p>","summary_ro":"Knowing God From our perspective, knowledge tends to mean information, facts, and concepts. But in biblical times, knowledge was centered in personal relationships. To know someone is to enter into a close relationship with that person. Knowing God involves much more than simply mastering facts and information about him. It even transcends discussions about the nature and character of God, as important as those are. Knowing God means entering into a close relationship with him. It means viewi...","summary_en":"Knowing God From our perspective, knowledge tends to mean information, facts, and concepts. But in biblical times, knowledge was centered in personal relationships. To know someone is to enter into a close relationship with that person. Knowing God involves much more than simply mastering facts and information about him. It even transcends discussions about the nature and character of God, as important as those are. Knowing God means entering into a close relationship with him. It means viewi...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}]},"labels":{"article":"Articol","map":"Hartă","chart":"Diagramă","textbox":"Notă explicativă","picture":"Imagine","profile":"Profil","study_note":"Notă de studiu","theme_note":"Temă biblică"},"icons":{"article":"📖","map":"🗺️","chart":"📊","textbox":"💡","picture":"🖼️","profile":"👤","study_note":"📝","theme_note":"🎯"},"typeColors":{"article":"#d4af37","map":"#2d7d46","chart":"#3b82f6","textbox":"#8b5cf6","picture":"#ec4899","profile":"#f59e0b","study_note":"#06b6d4","theme_note":"#ef4444"}}