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Zaharia 6

¹ Am ridicat din nou ochii şi m-am uitat, şi iată că patru cară ieşeau dintre doi munţi; şi munţii erau de aramă.

² La carul dintâi erau nişte cai roşi, la al doilea car cai negri,

³ la al treilea car cai albi, şi la al patrulea car cai bălţaţi şi roşi.

⁴ Am luat cuvântul, şi am zis îngerului, care vorbea cu mine: ,,Ce înseamnă aceştia, domnul meu?``

⁵ Îngerul mi-a răspuns: ,,Aceştia sânt cele patru vânturi ale cerurilor, cari ies din locul în care stăteau înaintea Domnului întregului pământ.``

⁶ Caii cei negri, înhămaţi la unul din cară, s-au îndreptat spre ţara dela miază-noapte, şi cei albi au mers după ei; cei bălţaţi s-au îndreptat spre ţara de miază-zi.

⁷ Cei roşi au ieşit şi ei şi au cerut să meargă să cutreiere pământul. Îngerul le-a zis: ,,Duceţi-vă de cutreieraţi pământul!`` Şi au cutreierat pământul.

⁸ El m-a chemat, şi mi-a zis: ,,Iată că cei ce se îndreaptă spre ţara de miază-noapte fac să se mai potolească mânia Mea în ţara dela miază-noapte.``

⁹ Cuvântul Domnului mi-a vorbit astfel:

¹⁰ ,,Să primeşti daruri dela prinşii de război din Babilon: Heldai, Tobia, şi Iedaia, -şi anume să te duci tu însuţi în ziua aceea în casa lui Iosia, fiul lui Ţefania, unde s-au dus ei când au venit din Babilon.

¹¹ Să iei dela ei argint şi aur, şi să faci din el o cunună, şi s-o pui pe capul lui Iosua, fiul lui Ioţadac, marele preot.

¹² Şi să-i spui: ,,Aşa vorbeşte Domnul oştirilor: ,,Iată că un om, al cărui nume este Odrasla, va odrăsli din locul lui, şi va zidi Templul Domnului.

¹³ Da, El va zidi Templul Domnului, va purta podoabă împărătească, va şedea şi va stăpâni pe scaunul Lui de domnie, va fi preot pe scaunul Lui de domnie, şi o desăvârşită unire va domni între ei amândoi.``

¹⁴ Cununa va fi pentru Helem, Tobia şi Iedaia, şi pentru Hen, fiul lui Ţefania, ca o aducere aminte în Templul Domnului.

¹⁵ Ceice sânt departe vor veni şi vor lucra la Templul Domnului; şi veţi şti astfel că Domnul oştirilor m-a trimes la voi. Lucrul acesta se va întâmpla, dacă veţi asculta glasul Domnului, Dumnezeului vostru.``

{"verseMap":{"1":[{"id":1963,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Animals","title_en":"Animals","content_ro":"<h3>ANIMALS<\/h3>\nIn biblical usage, all members of the animal kingdom. Animals are mentioned throughout the Bible from Genesis to Revelation. Animals figured in many important biblical events, including the Creation, the fall of man, the Flood, the ten plagues in Egypt, the Hebrew worship system, and the life of Jesus Christ. The people of both OT and NT times lived close to the land and were well acquainted with various animals so that the scriptural writers and Jesus himself frequently used animals as object lessons.<\/p>\nThe biblical approach to classification of animals is somewhat different from the system of classification used by biologists today. The present system of classification, which traces back to Carolus Linnaeus (an 18th-century Swedish botanist), is based on structure, both internal and external. The biblical basis of classification is habitat. Thus Genesis 1 speaks of aquatic organisms (v 20); aerial organisms (v 21); animals that crawl on the ground (v 24); cattle or domesticated animals (animals that live in association with humans) (v 24); and wild animals (v 24). The same system of classification is followed in Leviticus 11 and throughout Scripture.<\/p>\nBecause of the divergence between systems of classification, the various animals of the Bible will be listed here in alphabetical order—including reptiles, fish, and even invertebrates such as insects, spiders, worms, and sponges. Birds are discussed in a separate article.<\/p>\nPreview<\/p>\n• Adder<\/p>\n• Ant<\/p>\n• Antelope<\/p>\n• Ape<\/p>\n• Asp<\/p>\n• Ass<\/p>\n• Badger<\/p>\n• Bat<\/p>\n• Bear<\/p>\n• Bee<\/p>\n• Behemoth<\/p>\n• Camel<\/p>\n• Caterpillar<\/p>\n• Cattle<\/p>\n• Chameleon<\/p>\n• Coral<\/p>\n• Cricket<\/p>\n• Crocodile<\/p>\n• Deer<\/p>\n• Dog<\/p>\n• Donkey<\/p>\n• Dragon<\/p>\n• Fish<\/p>\n• Flea<\/p>\n• Fly<\/p>\n• Fox<\/p>\n• Frog<\/p>\n• Gazelle<\/p>\n• Gecko<\/p>\n• Gnat<\/p>\n• Goat<\/p>\n• Grasshopper<\/p>\n• Hare<\/p>\n• Hippopotamus<\/p>\n• Horse<\/p>\n• Hyena<\/p>\n• Jackal<\/p>\n• Leech<\/p>\n• Leopard<\/p>\n• Leviathan<\/p>\n• Lion<\/p>\n• Lizard<\/p>\n• Locust<\/p>\n• Mole<\/p>\n• Moth<\/p>\n• Mouse<\/p>\n• Mule<\/p>\n• Pig<\/p>\n• Porcupine<\/p>\n• Scorpion<\/p>\n• Sheep<\/p>\n• Snail<\/p>\n• Snake<\/p>\n• Spider<\/p>\n• Sponge<\/p>\n• Unicorn<\/p>\n• Wasp<\/p>\n• Whale<\/p>\n• Wild Ox<\/p>\n• Wolf<\/p>\n• Worm<\/p>\n\nAdder<\/p>\nOne of the 20 poisonous snakes found in Israel and surrounding countries, also referred to as cockatrice and viper. True vipers (genus Cerastes, Echis colorata,<\/em> and Vipera palestina<\/em>) also exist there, poisonous snakes with curved fangs that spring into position when the snake strikes. The horned viper (Cerastes hasselquistii)<\/em> may attack horses. It is 12 to 18 inches (30 to 46 centimeters) long and often lies in ambush in the sand with only its eyes and the hornlike protrusions on its head visible.<\/p>\nBoth Jesus and John the Baptist referred to the viper several times (Mt 3:7; 12:34; 23:33). The reference in Acts 28:3 is probably to a small viper (Vipera aspis)<\/em> that strikes rapidly and is very pugnacious. It is found in southern Europe and hisses each time it inhales and exhales. The poison of vipers attacks the respiratory system and disintegrates red blood cells.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Snake (below).<\/p>\nAnt<\/p>\nMentioned only twice in the Bible, both times in the book of Proverbs. For many years Solomon was charged with a biological error when he referred to the ant as providing her meat in the summer and gathering her food in the harvest (Prv 6:8). Critics of the Bible were quick to point out that, so far as was then known, ants do not store up food. They assumed that Solomon had probably kicked open an ant hill and mistaken the pupal cases (pods in which immature ants grow to maturity) for grain or had observed ants carrying bits of grain, leaves, and other matter to their nests.<\/p>\nAt least three species of grain-storing ants are now known—two occur in Israel and the other in Mediterranean countries. The particular species referred to by Solomon (Prv 6:6-8; 30:24-25) is probably the harvester ant (Messor semirufus).<\/em> Its granaries are flat chambers connected by galleries irregularly scattered over an area about six feet (1.8 meters) in diameter and about a foot (.3 meter) deep in the ground. Seeds are collected from the ground or picked from plants. The head, or radicle, which is the softest part of the kernel, is bitten off to prevent germination, and the chaff and empty capsules are discarded on kitchen middens (refuse piles) outside the nest. Individual granaries may be 5 inches (12.7 centimeters) in diameter and a half inch (1.2 centimeters) high. Some nests are known to be 40 feet (12 meters) in diameter and 6 to 7 feet (approx. 2 meters) deep with several entrances.<\/p>\nAntelope<\/p>\nSeveral antelope-like creatures are referred to in the Scriptures. One seems to be the white oryx (Oryx leucoryx),<\/em> referred to in Deuteronomy 14:5 (kjv<\/span> “wild ox”; rsv<\/span> “antelope”) and Isaiah 51:20 (kjv<\/span> “wild bull”; RSV <\/span>“antelope”). The oryx was probably the antelope, commonly used for food because its long horns made it relatively easy to catch.<\/p>\nAnother antelope mentioned in the Bible is the addax (Addax nasomaculatus),<\/em> probably the “pygarg” of Deuteronomy 14:5 (kjv<\/span>). It is a native of North Africa with grayish white hinder parts, a white patch on the forehead, and twisted and ringed horns. The word “pygarg” comes from a Greek word meaning “white rump.” The addax is about the size of a donkey. Its body is closely covered with short hair. It has a short mane on the underside of its neck that makes the head look somewhat like that of a goat. The hooves are broad and flat, and the tail resembles that of a donkey. It is common in Africa and in Arabia, where Arabs hunt it with falcons and dogs.<\/p>\nAntelopes are very graceful and run with their heads held high. Both sexes have long, permanent, hollow horns. With the oryx the horns go straight back; addax horns are twisted and ringed. Antelope are alert, wary, and keen sighted. They are usually found in herds of from two to a dozen. If injured or brought to bay, an antelope attacks with its head lowered so that the sharp horns point forward. Antelopes feed on grasses and shrubs, drinking from streams and water holes. When water is scarce, they eat melons and succulent bulbs. Both addax and oryx were ceremonially clean in Jewish law.<\/p>\nApe<\/p>\nPrimate not native to Palestine. The two references to apes in the OT (1 Kgs 10:22; 2 Chr 9:21) refer to their importation by King Solomon with other treasures on board the ships of his mercantile fleet. There is some question concerning the origin of those primates. Some believe that the mention of “ivory” in the same verses suggests they came from East Africa and that they were indeed apes, that is, tailless primates. Others, believing they came from India or Ceylon, suggest that they were actually monkeys. There the baboon (genus Papeio), a large monkey, was considered sacred to the god Thoth. Males of that genus were kept in temples, and the more docile females were often kept as house pets. Such baboons frequently had some of their teeth removed or ground down to lessen the danger of their biting. A number of mummified baboons have been found in Egypt, indicating the high regard in which they were held.<\/p>\nAsp<\/p>\nPoisonous snake. Most biblical references to the asp (Dt 32:33) seem to be to the Egyptian cobra (Naja haje),<\/em> which conceals itself in holes, walls, and rocks and has the ability to expand its neck by raising its anterior ribs so as to enlarge the front of its breast into the shape of a flat disc. Its potent poison can cause death in 30 minutes. It attains a length of about 80 inches (2 meters). The fangs are permanently erect, not movable as in the vipers (the common poisonous snakes of North America; only the coral snake in America has permanently erect fangs). Cobra poison attacks the nervous system, causing muscular paralysis. The Egyptians looked upon it as a sacred creature; they regarded it as a protector since it fed on the rodents that ate their crops. The “fiery serpents” (Nm 21:6; Dt 8:15, both rsv<\/span>) may have been cobras; “fiery” probably refers to the burning fever caused by their venom. Isaiah 14:29 and 30:6 (“flying serpent”) may refer to the hood of the cobra.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Snake (below).<\/p>\nAss<\/p>\nSee<\/em> Donkey (below).<\/p>\nBadger<\/p>\nSmall hoofed mammal. What the kjv<\/span> calls a “coney,” modern translations name “rock badger” (Lv 11:5; Dt 14:7; Ps 104:18; Prv 30:26). The rock badger spoken of in the Bible is probably the Syrian rock hyrax (Hyrax syriaca),<\/em> the only species of hyrax found outside Africa. This small ungulate (having hooflike toenails) lives among rocks from the Dead Sea valley to Mt Hermon. It is strictly a herbivorous (plant-eating) animal about the size of a rabbit. It resembles a guinea pig more than a rabbit, having quite inconspicuous ears and a very small tail. It has broad nails with four toes on its forelegs and three on its hind legs, the toes being connected with skin almost like a web. Pads acting as sucking discs under its feet enable it to keep its footing on slippery rocks. With its yellow and brown fur, it is sometimes called the bear rat because of its resemblance to a tailless rat. It is also equipped with black whiskers that may be seven inches (17.8 centimeters) long.<\/p>\nThese rock badgers, or hyraxes, live together in colonies of from 6 to 50 animals, often sunning themselves on rocks. They are difficult to catch. Guards are posted, and if approaching danger is sighted, the whole group will scurry for cover, warned by the sharp whistles of the guards. Thus they are commended for taking refuge in the rocks (Ps 104:18) and are called wise for making “their houses in the rocks” (Prv 30:24, 26, kjv<\/span>). The badger is not a ruminant (does not chew its cud), but the motion of its jaws may suggest that it chews its cud. That is probably why it was included with other cud-chewing animals in the Jewish food laws (Lv 11:5; Dt 14:7). It was forbidden to the Jews as food because it did not have cloven hooves. Some Arabs eat and even prize its meat.<\/p>\nBat<\/p>\nFlying mammals according to modern classification. They have hair and provide milk for their young. The Bible classifies them with other aerial creatures. Bats take shelter in caves, crevices, tree cavities, buildings, and also in exposed places on trees. In colder areas they hibernate or migrate. The normal resting position for a bat is hanging head downward. Bats “swim” through the air rather than fly because they move with their legs as well as with their wings.<\/p>\nThe bat’s thumb is free and terminates in a single hook claw used for climbing and hanging. The hind feet have five toes, all pointing the same way. The large chest accommodates the powerful muscles needed for flying. Because they orient themselves by echo location, the sense of hearing is very well developed.<\/p>\nMost bats are insect eaters, seizing insects in flight. Many insectivorous bats also eat some fruit. Other bats feed exclusively, usually in groups, on fruit and green vegetation. Fruit-eating bats generally live in the tropics where fruit is constantly ripening, although some have been found in the Holy Land. These bats tend to be larger than the insectivores, having a wingspread of up to five feet (1.5 meters).<\/p>\nA third group includes flower-eating bats that feed on pollen and nectar. These small bats with long pointed heads and long tongues are found only in tropical and semitropical regions. Three species of vampire bats, which do not occur in the Holy Land, eat blood by making a small incision and lapping it up. Carnivorous (meat-eating) bats prey on birds, lizards, and frogs. Fish-eating bats catch fish at or near the water surface.<\/p>\nEight varieties of bats are known in the Holy Land. One of them, the little brown bat (genus Myotis<\/em>), is worldwide in its distribution. It is insectivorous and probably has the widest distribution of any nonhuman terrestrial mammal. Brown bats are mostly cave dwellers. The females form maternity colonies that may number in the tens of thousands.<\/p>\nTwo species of mouse-tailed bats (genus Rhinopoma<\/em>) are found in the Holy Land. Their tails are nearly as long as the head and body combined. They are colonial, roosting in caves, rock clefts, wells, pyramids, palaces, and houses. Like the brown bat, they are insectivorous. The slit-faced or hollow-faced bats (genus Nycteris<\/em>) are also found in the Holy Land. They are insectivorous and roost in groups from 6 to 20.<\/p>\nThe bats found in the Holy Land vary in size from that of a mouse to the size of a rat; the largest species measures more than 20 inches (51 centimeters) across the wings. The bat was unclean to the Jews (Lv 11:19; Dt 14:18).<\/p>\nBear<\/p>\nLarge, heavy, big-headed mammal with short, powerful limbs, a short tail, and small eyes and ears. Bears have a “plantigrade” walk: they walk on both the sole and heel as humans do. The Palestinian bear is a Syrian version of the brown bear (Ursus arctos syriacus).<\/em> It can grow to a height of 6 feet (1.8 meters) and may weigh as much as 500 pounds (227 kilograms).<\/p>\nBears have an excellent sense of smell but less developed senses of sight and hearing. They are omnivorous (eating any kind of food); they subsist largely on vegetation, fruits, insects, and fish.<\/p>\nBears are usually peaceful and inoffensive, but if they think they must defend themselves (Lam 3:10) or their young (2 Sm 17:8; Prv 17:12; Hos 13:8), they may be formidable and dangerous adversaries. David boasted of his role as a bear killer (1 Sm 17:34-37). Since a blow from a bear’s paw can be fatal, David’s courage and strength as a young shepherd in running after a bear and wrenching one of his father’s sheep from its jaws were noteworthy.<\/p>\nSome biblical passages seem to imply that bears attacked for no apparent reason (e.g., Prv 28:15; Am 5:19). At other times they were God’s instruments of punishment, as in the story of Elisha and the two she-bears (2 Kgs 2:24). The bear and the lion, often mentioned together in the Bible (1 Sm 17:37), were the two largest and strongest beasts of prey in the Holy Land. Thus they symbolized both strength and terror (Am 5:19).<\/p>\nIn biblical times bears seem to have roamed all over Palestine. Today they are found only in the Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon Mountains, and even there they are rare.<\/p>\nBee<\/p>\nOne of two domesticated insects (Apis mellifica),<\/em> the other being the silkworm. Bees gather nectar from flowers, transferring pollen from one flower to another in the process. It is believed that they convey the location of sources of nectar to other bees through a bee “dance,” which may indicate both distance and direction. Bees are sensitive to four colors: blue-green, yellow-green, blue-violet, and ultra-violet (invisible to humans).<\/p>\nThe wild bees of the Holy Land are especially noted for their ferocity in attack. Only the female “worker” bees sting people and animals, the virulence of their venom increasing in warm weather. A number of biblical passages allude to the irritable, vindictive nature of bees and to the painful stings they inflict (Dt 1:44; Ps 118:12; Is 7:18).<\/p>\nOne reference calls attention to the fact that in semidesert regions a dead animal’s carcass, stripped to the bone by jackals or vultures and dried in the sun, can provide wild bees an excellent place to start a new colony (Jgs 14:5-9).<\/p>\nThe Egyptians considered the bee sacred. In ancient Greece candles were made from beeswax. In the Holy Land, beekeeping was probably not practiced until the Hellenistic period (second century BC<\/span>), although Ezekiel 27:17 suggests that it may have been practiced earlier. If domestic honey was not available to the Hebrews, wild honey certainly was, and travelers would be on the lookout for caches of honey in rocky clefts and other likely places. The Philistines and the Hittites practiced beekeeping in their cities.<\/p>\nThe Bible contains many references to bees and bee products. A bee swarm was a valuable asset, though the price of honey itself was low. Honey was sometimes eaten with the honeycomb (Sg 5:1). Honey also had uses other than food, e.g., in embalming.<\/p>\nThe land of Israel was described as a land flowing with milk and honey. Honey was a major source of sweetening in the ancient Near East—hence, its importance (cf. Jgs 14:8-9). Actually the Hebrew word for “honey” may include not only bee honey but also the sweet syrup extracted from such fruits as figs, dates, and grapes. Thus “a land flowing with milk and honey” (Ex 3:8, rsv<\/span>) does not necessarily stand for a land of bees but for a land rich in sweetness.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Food and Food Preparation; Honey.<\/p>\nBehemoth<\/p>\nSee<\/em> Hippopotamus (below).<\/p>\nCamel<\/p>\nLarge beast of burden. Unintelligent, ill-natured, and quarrelsome, the camel (Camelus dromedarius)<\/em> is nevertheless a blessing to people living in the desert and on its borders because it is especially adapted to that habitat. It has been called the ship of the desert. Having thick elastic pads of fibrous tissue on its feet, it can walk on hot desert sands. It can go without water for long periods and can subsist on vegetation growing on the saline soils. The camel’s nostrils are pinched together and can be closed at will to prevent penetration of sand during violent sandstorms.<\/p>\nCamels are used for transporting both goods and people. A person riding a camel can cover from 60 to 75 miles (96.5 to 121 kilometers) in a day. A camel can carry a load weighing 600 pounds (272 kilograms) or more. Camels were used heavily in the spice trade (Gn 37:25) and traveled regularly in camel trains between Arabia, Egypt, and Assyria. They were also ridden in time of war (Jgs 6:5). A camel can even be hitched to a plow in areas where the land is cultivated.<\/p>\nThe hair shed by camels during the early spring is preserved and used in weaving cloth and making tents. As much as 10 pounds (4.5 kilograms) of hair can be obtained from one camel. A rough cloak of camel’s hair, as worn by John the Baptist (Mt 3:4), is still worn by Bedouins today. A camel’s hair garment was also the sign of the prophetic office (Zec 13:4).<\/p>\nTwo varieties of camel occur within the one-humped species, the slow burden-bearing camel referred to in Genesis 37:25 and the fast dromedary of 1 Samuel 30:17. The dromedary can stand seven feet (2.1 meters) tall and measure as much as nine feet (2.7 meters) from the muzzle to the tip of the tail. With its three-chambered stomach, which can hold from 15 to 30 quarts (14.2 to 28.4 liters) of liquid, it can go for as long as 5 days during the summer or 25 days in winter without drinking. The camel’s hump is a reserve store of fat, making it possible for the animal to subsist on very little food during a desert journey.<\/p>\nAnother species of camel, the Bactrian camel (Camelus bactrianus),<\/em> is also resident in the Holy Land. It has two humps. It is heavier, bigger, and has longer hair than the one-humped camel and is slower than the swift dromedary. Isaiah 21:7 may refer to the Bactrian camel; both kinds of camel are referred to in Esther 8:10 (kjv<\/span>). Camels ranked in importance with sheep, cattle, and asses in OT times. A third of the 66 biblical references to the camel lists it with other animals.<\/p>\nCamels are ruminants (cud-chewing mammals) but do not have cloven hooves. Thus, they were included in the list of unclean beasts, forbidden by the Israelites as food (Lv 11:4; Dt 14:7). They are eaten by Arabs, however, who also drink their milk (cf. Gn 32:15).<\/p>\nAbraham had camels in Egypt (Gn 12:16). At first Job had 3,000 camels (Jb 1:3) and after his recovery, 6,000 (Jb 42:12). Although wide use of camels does not seem to have begun until shortly before 1000 BC<\/span> (Jgs 6:5), Sumerian texts from the Old Babylonian period list camels and indicate that they had been domesticated. Camel bones and figurines have been found at various eastern archaeological sites dating from well before 1200 BC<\/span>.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Travel.<\/p>\nCaterpillar<\/p>\nLarval stage of insects characterized by complete metamorphosis. Such insects pass through four stages: egg, larva or caterpillar, pupa, and adult. Bees, flies, moths, and butterflies all pass through a larval or caterpillar stage.<\/p>\nThe word “caterpillar” occurs three times in the nlt<\/span> (1 Kgs 8:37; 2 Chr 6:28; Ps 78:46). In the book of Joel that same Hebrew word is translated “locust” (1:4; 2:25, nlt<\/span>). The locust and grasshopper to which the Hebrew word refers have an incomplete type of metamorphosis with only three stages: egg, nymph, and adult. The nymph is a miniature adult in which the wings are not fully developed, though their outline may be present. There are several nymph stages known as instars. The reference is to one of the last instars, in which the wing structures are still folded together and enclosed in a sac but are nevertheless clearly recognizable. That form of the insect is about an inch (2.5 centimeters) long.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Locust (below).<\/p>\nCattle<\/p>\nDomestic animals of the bovine species (Bos primigenius).<\/em> The OT often emphasized the beauty of cattle. Egypt was rich in cattle, especially in the Nile River delta area (Goshen), where the Hebrews settled under Joseph.<\/p>\nSome scholars believe that milk rather than meat was the foremost consideration in the domestication of cattle and that in early civilizations meat supplies came chiefly from wild game. Cattle also supplied strong hides that supplanted wood in the manufacture of shields. Their dung was a source of fuel when wood was scarce (Ez 4:15). They were used as beasts of burden and for plowing. Development of wheeled transportation was associated more closely with cattle than with any other animal.<\/p>\nThe biblical term “cattle” often refers to all domesticated animals or livestock (Gn 1:24; 2:20; 7:23; 47:6, 16-17; Ex 9:3-7; Nm 3:41, 45). Occasionally, the term was used to refer to all large domestic animals (Nm 31:9; 32:26), although sometimes the word as used in the kjv<\/span> refers only to sheep and goats (Gn 30:32, 39, 43; 31:8, 10; Is 7:25; 43:23).<\/p>\nProbably several kinds of cattle were domesticated in the Holy Land. Small, short-legged, black or brown shorthorn cattle were found in the southern part of Judah; that type submitted easily to the yoke and was prominent in agricultural operations. Along the coast a larger variety was found, and the wild districts east of the Jordan River were populated with a breed of huge black cattle.<\/p>\nCattle breeding was widely practiced by the patriarchs (cf. Gn 32:15; Jb 21:10). Strict laws in Mesopotamia, as well as in Israel, penalized the owner of a bull that gored a man or other cattle (Ex 21:28-36). Bulls were sometimes employed figuratively as pictures of strength or violence (Dt 33:17; Pss 22:12; 68:30; Is 10:13). For breeding purposes one bull is normally adequate for about 30 cows, but many more were kept since bulls were widely used in Israel for sacrifices. They might be used as a general sacrifice (Lv 22:23; Nm 23:1) or for special sacrifices (Jgs 6:25; 1 Sm 1:24). Particular sacrifices were offered at the consecration of priests (Ex 29:1), consecration of an altar (Nm 7), purification of the Levites (Nm 8), sin offerings (Lv 16), day of the new moon (Nm 28:11-14), Passover (Nm 28:19), Feast of Weeks (Nm 28:27), Feast of Trumpets (Nm 29:1-2), Day of Atonement (Nm 29:7-9), and the Feast of Tabernacles (Nm 29:12-38). The Feast of Tabernacles required the largest number of bulls for burnt offerings of all the annual feasts, with a total of 71 being slaughtered during the course of eight days.<\/p>\nCalves were sometimes referred to as “sons of the herd” in the original Hebrew (Gn 18:8; 1 Sm 6:7; 14:32). The calf, a symbol of peacefulness (Is 11:6), was also used figuratively to refer to the weak (Ps 68:30). A calf’s head decorated the back of Solomon’s throne (1 Kgs 10:19). Calves were sometimes fattened in stalls to keep them from running off weight in the field (Am 6:4; Mal 4:2; Lk 15:23) or were kept around the house; the witch of Endor kept a calf in her house that she killed and served to Saul and his men (1 Sm 28:24-25). Calves supplied veal (Gn 18:7), considered a delicacy by the wealthy; Amos referred to stall-fattened calves in a denunciation of luxurious and careless living (Am 6:4). Calves also supplied meat for all Saul’s armies at the great slaughter of the Philistines (1 Sm 14:32). The “fatted calf” served roasted or boiled was gourmet fare, suitable for the finest banquet (Gn 18:7; Mt 22:4; Lk 15:23).<\/p>\nCattle were subject to the law of firstlings (Ex 13:12). They were a mark of wealth (Gn 13:2) and were considered proper booty of war (Jos 8:2). Aaron, the first high priest, made a golden calf as a rival to the ark of the covenant (Ex 32; Dt 9:16, 21). Even though he represented the calf as an image of the invisible God, it was especially offensive because the calf was a fertility symbol related to Egyptian and Canaanite practices. Two calves were later made by Jeroboam I of Israel (930–909 BC<\/span>) for his shrines at Bethel and Dan (1 Kgs 12:28-33). Hosea’s prophetic denunciations of calf worship were directed at those shrines (Hos 8:5-6; 13:2).<\/p>\nAn ox is an adult castrated bull. A steer is a young ox. Oxen were used to do work (Nm 7:3; Dt 22:10; 25:4), though for moving heavy objects, cows were typically favored over bulls because of their more docile nature. Oxen were also used as pack animals (1 Chr 12:40, although they did not have the endurance of the ass, camel, or mule. They usually fed on grass (Nm 22:4; Ps 106:20), but they also ate straw (Is 11:7) and salted fodder (Is 30:24) and could be kept in a stable (Lk 13:15). Oxen could not be offered as sacrifices because they had been castrated (Lv 22:24). They could be used for food but were rarely eaten. Possession of an ox and an ass was regarded as the bare minimum for existence in the ancient Palestinian agriculture economy (Jb 24:3; cf. Ex 20:17).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Agriculture; Food and Food Preparation; Offerings and Sacrifices.<\/p>\nChameleon<\/p>\nLizard characterized by its ability to change color according to its surroundings (Chameleon vulgaris).<\/em> To the Israelites the chameleon was ritually unclean (Lv 11:30). The Hebrew word for chameleon is derived from a word meaning “to pant.” A lizard’s lungs are very large, and in ancient times lizards were believed to live on air. A chameleon’s eyes move independently of each other; so at times one eye may be turned upward and the other downward. Chameleons live in trees and bushes, clinging to branches with their long tails.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Lizard (below).<\/p>\nCoral<\/p>\nCalcareous (lime-containing) skeletons of relatively simple marine organisms (Corallium rubrum).<\/em> Red coral from the Mediterranean and Red Seas is widely used for jewelry and for medicinal purposes. While the animal is alive, the coral is green in color and shrublike in appearance, looking rather like an underwater plant since the coral animals are immobil. When the coral is removed from the water, it becomes hard and red in color.<\/p>\nIn ancient times coral was sometimes used as money, along with precious stones, pearls, and gold. Some believe the biblical reference in Lamentations 4:7 (rsv<\/span>) is to pearls rather than to coral, but it is probable that the references in Job 28:18 and Ezekiel 27:16 are to the red coral (see nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nCricket<\/p>\nInsect of the order Orthptera related to grasshoppers and locusts. According to Leviticus 11:22, the cricket was edible. The reference may be to one of the growth stages of the locust.<\/p>\nThe kjv<\/span> translates the Hebrew word as “beetle.” Beetles are insects with chewing mouth parts and two pairs of wings, the fore pair being hard and sheathlike and the hind pair being membranous and folded under the fore pair. Some beetles are carnivorous, others are chiefly herbivorous. Some are aquatic, some produce a secretion that blisters the skin, some damage fabrics, some damage crops, and some feed on other insects that are harmful to humans. In ancient Egypt the beetle, or sacred scarab, was a symbol of the sun god Ra. Scarab seals and amulets were extremely popular in Egypt.<\/p>\nCrocodile<\/p>\nLargest of all existing reptiles (Crocodilus vulgaris),<\/em> attaining a length of well over 20 feet (6 meters). Crocodiles are characterized by large lizardlike bodies supported by short legs. The head terminates in a flattened snout armed with strong conical teeth, each of which is implanted in a distinct socket. New teeth growing from beneath continually replace those in use. The toes are webbed. The back and tail are protected by quadrangular horny shields of varying sizes arranged in regular rows and in contact with one another at the edges. The eyes are covered with movable lids that can be closed when the animal enters the water.<\/p>\nThe crocodile spends most of its time in the water where it feeds mainly on fish but also on aquatic birds and even small animals that come down to the water’s edge to drink. It is surprisingly fast and agile on dry land, even though its legs are so short that its belly and tail drag across the earth leaving a distinct path.<\/p>\nUntil the beginning of the 20th century, the crocodile was found in the marshes and small coastal rivers of western Palestine. A first-century Roman writer, Pliny, referred to a place in the Holy Land called Crocodeilopolis (“crocodile city”) to the south of Mt Carmel, and visitors to the Holy Land as late as the 19th century reported seeing crocodiles in that general region.<\/p>\nThe description of “Leviathan” in Job 41 seems to be based on the crocodile (thus the translation of the nlt<\/span>). The “dragon” of Ezekiel 29:3, used figuratively of the Egyptian pharaoh, may be a reference to the crocodile.<\/p>\nDeer<\/p>\nLarge ruminant (cud-chewing) animals. Only the males have antlers (branching horns). Deer antlers grow annually and are solid, in contrast to those of the antelope and the gazelle. Fully developed antlers are devoid of any covering of skin or horn and, for all practical purposes, may be regarded as a mass of dead bone carried for a certain time by the living animal.<\/p>\nThe end of the deer’s muzzle is naked in all species. The stomach is divided into a series of compartments, some of which are used to store partly chewed food. The food is later regurgitated, rechewed, and finally swallowed into a section of the stomach where true digestion takes place.<\/p>\nThree species of deer were known in Palestine: the red deer (Cervus elaphus),<\/em> the Persian fallow deer (Dama mesopotamica),<\/em> and the roe deer (Capreolus capreolus).<\/em> All are now extinct there. The last deer were hunted in the Holy Land in 1914. The red deer referred to in the Bible as “hart” (male), “stag” (male), or “hind” (female) stood about four feet (1.2 meters) high at the shoulder. It was gregarious (living in herds or flocks), each group remaining in a definite territory. Red deer grazed and browsed during the morning and late afternoon (Lam 1:6). The sexes remained in separate herds. The red deer was known for its leaping (Is 35:6) and sure-footedness in the mountains (Ps 18:33; Sg 2:8-9, 17; 8:14; Hb 3:19).<\/p>\nThe antlers of the Persian fallow deer (1 Kgs 4:23) were large, flattened, and palmated (shaped like an open palm with fingers extended), and its coat was a yellowbrown. It traveled in small groups, feeding mainly on grass in the morning and evening.<\/p>\nThe roe deer (Dt 14:5; 1 Kgs 4:23) was a small, graceful animal, dark reddish brown in summer and yellowish gray in winter. Its antlers were about a foot (30.5 centimeters) long and had three points. The roe deer preferred sparsely wooded valleys and the lower slopes of mountains, grazing in open grasslands. It usually associated in family groups made up of the doe and her offspring. They were shy, yet very curious. The roe deer barked like a dog when disturbed, and they were excellent swimmers.<\/p>\nThere is some question as to whether the roe deer is actually referred to in such passages as 1 Kings 4:23; references may be to the fallow deer, although that animal does not seem to have lived in the southern part of Palestine around the Sinai Desert because of its need for ample amounts of food and water. Fallow deer were found in northern Palestine.<\/p>\nThe hart (the male red deer) was listed among the clean beasts that Jewish law permitted as food (Dt 12:15, 22; 14:5), but deer were not listed among the animals appropriate for sacrifice. The hind (female red deer) normally gave birth to one calf at a time, though twins were born with some degree of regularity (Jb 39:1; Ps 29:9, kjv<\/span>; Jer 14:5). The gestation period was about 40 weeks. When it was about to give birth, the hind looked for a secure hiding place, preferably in the dense undergrowth of the forest where it could find natural protection for the tiny calf. During the first few days after birth, the mother never went far from her young. The fawn was able to stand on its own legs a few hours after birth. The solicitous care by the hind for her calf during the first days of its life is hinted at in a touching way in Jeremiah 14:4-5, where only a severe drought is said to drive the hind from her calf. Job 39:1-4 describes the calving of the hinds. The hind illustrated grace and charm (Gn 49:21; Prv 5:19), and its dark, gentle eyes and graceful limbs were used to describe the beauty of a woman (Prv 5:18-19).<\/p>\nDog<\/p>\nProbably the earliest domesticated animal (Canis familiaris),<\/em> used very early in hunting. The modern dog is believed to have come from the Indian wolf (Canis lupus pallipes).<\/em> The dogs of biblical times probably looked like a modern German shepherd, with short pointed ears, a pointed nose, and a long tail.<\/p>\nThe dog was generally looked down upon in biblical times (Prv 26:11; 2 Pt 2:22). The biblical writers did not share modern sentiments about dogs being man’s best friends. The dog was pictured as a scavenger, haunting streets and dumps (Ex 22:31; 1 Kgs 22:38; Mt 15:26; Lk 16:21). Human corpses could become the spoil of dogs (2 Kgs 9:35-36). In general, dogs served the same function as vultures and other birds of prey. Most of the 41 references in the Scriptures to dogs show strong disfavor. Dogs were considered cowardly, filthy creatures.<\/p>\nDogs used in hunting occur in paintings in Egyptian tombs, and there is a reference to dogs herding sheep in Job 30:1. One good quality of dogs highly esteemed by the Israelites was watchfulness (Is 56:10). In general, however, in biblical times “dog” was a term of contempt (1 Sm 17:43; 2 Sm 16:9) and was used of overly submissive persons (2 Sm 9:8; 2 Kgs 8:13) and of evil persons (Is 56:10-11; Mt 7:6; Phil 3:2; Rv 22:15).<\/p>\nDogs, like pigs, were voracious and omnivorous (eating any kind of food). In response to a Gentile woman’s request that he heal her daughter, Jesus used the metaphor of throwing household food scraps to dogs (Mt 15:22-28; Mk 7:25-30). At the time of Jesus, the word “dog” was a standard Jewish term of contempt for Gentiles who, like dogs, were considered unclean, although the diminutive form of the word, used by Jesus, softened this considerably. Seeing her faith, Jesus granted the woman’s request, giving a non-Jew some of “the children’s bread.”<\/p>\nDonkey<\/p>\nBeast of burden. The donkey of the Holy Land (Equus asinus)<\/em> was quite different from the European donkey of today, which is usually a small, stubborn animal. In biblical times the donkey was a beautiful, stately, friendly animal. Its color was usually reddish brown. Three wild races have been described, all from Africa. The race from northwest Africa is extinct; the one from northeast Africa, if not extinct, is close to extinction; the Somalian race, which survives, did not play an important part in domestication. The northeast African race, the Nubian donkey, was evidently domesticated in the Nile River region in early historic times. The donkey was used as a mount from the time of domestication on. It is first mentioned in the Bible among the animals that Abraham acquired in Egypt (Gn 12:16). The donkey was primarily a beast of burden, driven but not bridled. From the time of the Middle Kingdom on (c. 2040 BC<\/span>), it was used for riding in Egypt, but only the Jews and Nubians rode donkeys regularly. The donkey was also used for threshing grain and for pulling the plow. In Arab countries today peasants plow with a donkey and a cow or camel hitched together. In Israel the law forbade plowing with a donkey and an ox hitched together (Dt 22:10). Until the time of Solomon (960 BC<\/span>), horses were not used in Palestine. From that time on, the horse was ridden by warriors; the donkey was used by those who were traveling peaceably.<\/p>\nThe donkey was held in high regard by the Jews and was considered an economic asset. An individual had to have a donkey for minimum existence (Jb 24:3), and wealth was frequently counted by the number of donkeys one possessed (Gn 12:16; 24:35). The donkey was considered an acceptable gift (Gn 32:13-15). It was allowed to rest on the Sabbath (Dt 5:14). Women in biblical times often used the donkey as a riding animal (Jos 15:18; 1 Sm 25:23; 2 Kgs 4:24); often a special driver would help a woman guide the animal, running along at its side. If a married couple possessed only one donkey, the husband usually walked alongside while the wife rode (Ex 4:20).<\/p>\nThe people of Israel returning from Babylon had ten times as many donkeys as horses and camels (Ezr 2:66-67; Neh 7:68-69). Job’s wealth was indicated by the fact that he had 500 she-donkeys before catastrophe hit him (Jb 1:3); after his recovery he had 1,000 donkeys (Jb 42:12). Joseph’s brothers used donkeys to transport the grain they purchased in Egypt (Gn 42:26; 43:24). Abigail transported food on donkeys to David and his troops during their conflict with Saul (1 Sm 25:18). David assigned one of the 12 managers of his royal estates to look after his donkeys exclusively (1 Chr 27:30).<\/p>\nThe onager, or Syrian wild donkey (Equus hemionus hemihippus)<\/em>, is an intermediate between the true horse and the true donkey. Its ears are longer than those of a horse but shorter than those of a donkey. The front hooves are narrow; there are chestnuts (callouslike spots on the inside of the knees) on the front legs only, and the tail is short haired for a long distance from its root so that it appears to be tufted.<\/p>\nThe Sumerians (ancient Mesopotamians) were able to domesticate the onager, which was eventually replaced by the horse. It was used to draw chariots in Ur; a number of onagers were buried with their vehicles in a royal grave that dates from about 2500 BC<\/span>. Later the wild onager was a favorite hunter’s prize for Babylonian and Assyrian kings.<\/p>\nThe onager was very common in the steppe lands near Israel, where it was described as a freedom-loving desert animal (Jb 24:5; 39:5-8; Ps 104:11; Is 32:14; Jer 2:24; Hos 8:9). Ishmael was described as “free and untamed as a wild donkey” (Gn 16:12, nlt<\/span>)—that is, one who could not adjust to domestic life. Drought seems to have been responsible for the population decline of the onager in biblical times (Jer 14:6). The modern onager (Equus hemionus onager)<\/em> is slightly larger than the Syrian wild donkey that is extinct.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Travel.<\/p>\nDragon<\/p>\nAny one of a number of monstrous land and sea creatures. In biblical usage, “dragon” does not refer to the huge, fire-breathing, winged reptile of European folklore. The translators of the kjv<\/span> used the term to translate two Hebrew words that are usually rendered more precisely in modern translations. One word referred to desert animals; most scholars agree with the niv<\/span> that “jackals” is its proper meaning (Ps 44:19; Is 13:22; Jer 9:11; Mal 1:3). See<\/em> Jackal (below).<\/p>\nThe other Hebrew word translated “dragon” is harder to define. It was frequently used in reference to serpents (so translated in the rsv<\/span>: Ex 7:9-12; Dt 32:33; Ps 91:13). In other rsv<\/span> passages it is translated “sea monster” (Gn 1:21; Jb 7:12; Ps 148:7). The exact identity of such sea monsters is not known. Several rsv<\/span> passages retain the English “dragon.” In two of them (Ps 74:13; Is 27:1), the context indicates that sea monsters are meant. In three others (Is 51:9; Ez 29:3; 32:2) “dragon” seems to refer to the crocodile, a figurative reference to the Egyptian pharaoh at the time of the exodus. Jeremiah 51:34 (translated “monster” in the rsv<\/span>) may also refer to a voracious creature such as a crocodile. See<\/em> Crocodile (above).<\/p>\nBabylonian myths described monsters and dragons in primordial conflict with the god Marduk; they represented the principle of evil. In its figurative usages in Scripture, “dragon” has a similar significance, especially in the prophetic books. In the book of Revelation it is a symbol of Satan, the archenemy of God and his people (Rv 12:3-17; 13:2, 4, 11; 16:13; 20:2).<\/p>\nFish<\/p>\nAquatic animals frequently mentioned in the Bible without names or descriptions that enable us to identify the particular species. Since time immemorial, fish have constituted one of the staple foods of humanity, and they still serve as the chief source of protein in many parts of the world. The trade in fish was highly developed in biblical times. For example, one of the gates in Jerusalem was called the Fish Gate (Neh 3:3; Zep 1:10). The law in Leviticus 11:9-12 permitted the Jews to eat fish, but only those having both fins and scales. Scaleless fish such as catfish were forbidden, even though they had fins.<\/p>\nEgyptian paintings depict various methods of fishing, and the Philistines fished in the Mediterranean Sea. Since the people of Israel were not a seafaring nation, it is safe to assume that most of their fish came from freshwater lakes and rivers, especially the Sea of Galilee. Some 36 species of fish have been identified in that lake, including varieties of perch, carp, barbel, “sardine,” and catfish.<\/p>\nThe method of fishing characteristic of NT times was the dragnet. After a boat had put out into the deep (Lk 5:4), a large net would be thrown out from it and then dragged toward shore by the rowers in the boat, possibly with the help of a crew in another boat. The catch was sorted out on shore (Mt 13:47-48). Fishing was usually carried out at night when the coolness of the water brought fish closer to the surface and when they could not see the approaching nets.<\/p>\nThe Jews also fished by hook and line (Mt 17:27), a few by spear (Jb 41:7), and some by the throw net (Ez 47:10). Habakkuk refers to hook-and-line fishing, netting, and seining (1:15).<\/p>\nVery early in the history of the Christian church the fish became a symbol for Christ and the faith. It was scratched on the walls of Roman catacombs and may be seen today decorating walls, altars, pews, and vestments. The symbol came into use because the Greek word for “fish” (<\/em>ichthus<\/span>)<\/em> is composed of the first letter of each word in the Greek phrase “Jesus Christ, Son of God, Savior.” See<\/em> Whale (below).<\/p>\nFlea<\/p>\nTiny, irritating insect (1 Sm 24:14; 26:20, nlt<\/span>). Many species of fleas occur in Palestine, the most common being Pulex irritans.<\/em> About a thousand species are known around the world. Fleas are wingless parasites that have sharp jaws and suck out blood from the bodies of humans and animals. The body is wedge shaped, enabling the flea to burrow into folds of skin and hide there. The eggs, laid by the female in dust heaps in the corners of rooms, hatch into small, white larvae that pupate (a nonfeeding stage) in a cocoon. Soon adult fleas appear that immediately attach themselves to the body of a host. The female requires blood for the development of her eggs.<\/p>\nA flea bite is painful and causes some swelling and itching. Fleas are attracted by warmth. With favorable moisture and temperature, adult fleas can live a year or longer without food, but they are voracious feeders. The most dangerous fleas are those of the rat that transmit the organism responsible for bubonic plague. There were 41 recorded epidemics of bubonic plague before the Christian era.<\/p>\nFly<\/p>\nInsects of the order Diptera, which have one pair of wings. Many winged insects of other orders, however, are also called flies, such as the dragonfly or butterfly.<\/p>\nAs in almost all parts of the world, flies are abundant in Palestine. One of the most numerous is the common housefly (Musca domestica),<\/em> found chiefly around dung heaps and garbage. The female lays her eggs, out of which emerge white maggots that feed on refuse. After a few days the maggot develops into a cocoon out of which emerges the adult housefly. In the summer the whole cycle lasts about 12 days, so that a fly can breed about 20 generations a year.<\/p>\nAnother fly common to Palestine is the botfly (family Oestridae). It causes much discomfort among livestock by irritating them and spreading diseases. Tabanid flies (family Tabanidae), including the horsefly (genus Tabanus<\/em>) and related species, are also found in Palestine. Both the botfly and horsefly are known as gadflies because of the persistent distress they inflict. Babylonian King Nebuchadnezzar is spoken of as a gadfly in view of his invasion of Egypt (Jer 46:20).<\/p>\nThe fourth plague in Egypt just before the exodus featured “swarms of flies” (Ex 8:21-31, nlt<\/span>; cf. Pss 78:45; 105:31). Those swarms may have been made up of any or all the flies mentioned above. The maggots mentioned in Job 25:6 and Isaiah 14:11 and the worms in Exodus 16:24 and Job 7:5 and 17:14 were probably fly larvae.<\/p>\nA proverb quoted in Ecclesiastes 10:1 probably refers to the housefly, which would be attracted to an open, perfumed ointment bottle. Once inside it would drown and eventually decay, causing the ointment to spoil and stink. The fly is also referred to in Isaiah 7:18 where it symbolizes Egypt. Isaiah may have had in mind a horsefly (Tabanus arenivagus)<\/em> that attacks both humans and animals.<\/p>\nPhilistine inhabitants of the city of Ekron worshiped a god named Baal-zebul, meaning “Lord of the high places.” The Hebrews mockingly spoke of Baal-zebub, meaning “Lord of the flies” (2 Kgs 1:2). The NT form is Beelzebub (e.g., Mt 10:25; 12:24, 27).<\/p>\nFox<\/p>\nSmall, doglike carnivore with a bushy tail that is about half its body length. The red fox of the Holy Land (Vulpes palaetinae)<\/em> is similar to the North American red fox; it is smaller than a wolf and is normally a nocturnal solitary animal. The omnivorous fox eats almost any kind of food—fruits, plants, mice, beetles, and birds—but seldom touches carrion. It loves the sweet juice of grapes, but it also burrows underground tunnels that can destroy the vines (Sg 2:15). The fox is intelligent and known for its slyness (Lk 13:32). It has considerable endurance and can run at speeds up to 30 miles (48 kilometers) per hour. The Jews rebuilding Jerusalem’s wall were taunted by the wisecrack that even a fox jumping on their wall would knock it over (Neh 4:3).<\/p>\nThe Egyptian fox (Vulpes niloticus)<\/em> is found in the central and southern parts of the Holy Land. It is somewhat smaller than the common red fox. Its back is rust colored and its belly light. The Syrian fox (Vulpes flavescens)<\/em> that lives in the northern part of the Holy Land is shiny gold in color.<\/p>\nSome OT references such as Psalm 63:10 and Lamentations 5:18 are translated “fox” in the kjv<\/span> but probably refer to jackals. Jackals, not foxes, hunt in packs and tend to act as scavengers.<\/p>\nFrog<\/p>\nAmphibian (genus Rana<\/em>), living part of its life in the water and part on land.<\/p>\nFrogs and toads are covered with soft, hairless skin and lack a tail in the adult stage. The hind legs are much longer and more powerfully developed than the forelegs so that the animals are able to jump large distances. It has been suggested that the frog referred to in Scripture is an edible one, Rana ridibunda,<\/em> one of the aquatic frogs found in Egypt and in the stagnant waters of the Holy Land.<\/p>\nThe female frog lays her eggs in the water; after about a week the eggs hatch into tadpoles. Gradually through metamorphosis the tail is lost and limbs are acquired. Frogs must maintain a moist skin since they take oxygen through the skin as well as through their lungs; thus they must always remain close to water. They feed on insects and worms.<\/p>\nFrogs are found throughout the Palestinian lowlands, where their croaking is heard in the spring and on summer evenings. The Israelites seem to have associated frogs primarily with sliminess and foulness. They fell into the category of creeping or swarming creatures, which in general were ritually unclean (Lv 11:29-31). Since the frog was not specifically listed, however, rabbis did not consider it one of the animals that defiled human beings through contact.<\/p>\nIn Revelation 16:13 certain foul spirits are said to look like frogs. The ancient Egyptians made the frog a symbol of life and birth and an image of Heqet, the patron goddess of birth. She is depicted with a frog’s head giving life to the newborn. Thus that deity was discredited when the power of God afflicted Egypt in the second of the ten plagues on the Egyptians with the very animal that was her symbol (Ex 8:1-14; Pss 78:45; 105:30). The frog in question may have been the spotted frog of Egypt (Rana punctata,<\/em> or Rana ridibunda).<\/em><\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Plagues upon Egypt.<\/p>\nGazelle<\/p>\nSmall, dainty, graceful antelope with hollow recurved horns on both sexes. Two varieties exist in the Holy Land, the dorcas gazelle (Gazella dorcas),<\/em> which is pale fawn in color and up to 22 inches (56 centimeters) tall, and the Arabian gazelle (Gazella arabica),<\/em> which is a dark smoky color and up to 25 inches (63.5 centimeters) tall.<\/p>\nGazelles are still quite common throughout the desert and steppe areas of the Holy Land, especially in the Negev Desert. Herds usually consist of from 5 to 10 animals, but some varieties assemble in large migratory herds in the fall to relocate to lower elevations and new feeding grounds. Gazelles are herbivorous (plant eating). They are very shy and post guards to warn the herd of approaching danger.<\/p>\nIn biblical times the gazelle was probably the game animal most hunted by the Jews (Prv 6:5; Is 13:14). Pharaoh Tutankhamen hunted gazelles and ostriches. The gazelle is said to have graced Solomon’s table (1 Kgs 4:23). Gazelles were not easy to catch because of their great speed (2 Sm 2:18; 1 Chr 12:8; Prv 6:5); they surpass the deer in swiftness. They were trapped in various ways—encircled with nets, driven into enclosures with pitfalls, or forced into narrow valleys and shot with arrows. The Bedouin hunt gazelle with falcons and dogs; the falcon annoys the gazelle, striking it on the head and injuring it so that the dogs can overtake it.<\/p>\nThe gazelle is referred to in Song of Songs 2:9, 17; 4:5; 7:3; 8:14, where it is an image of feminine beauty.<\/p>\nGecko<\/p>\nReptile of the family Gekkonidae, referred to in Leviticus 11:30. In Jewish food law it was a ritually unclean lizard. There are seven species of geckos in the Holy Land (including Hemidactylus turcicus<\/em> and Ptyodactylus hasselquistii,<\/em> all insectivorous—insect eating). The gecko makes a low mourning sound by vibrating its tongue rapidly against the roof of its mouth. In legend the gecko was said to cause leprosy by crawling across a person’s body.<\/p>\nAnother name for the gecko is the wall lizard, so named because it can walk upside down on ceilings with the aid of the suction discs on its toes—but it often plops down into the middle of the home. Since it was considered unclean, such an intrusion would have been a disgusting nuisance to Jewish households (Lv 11:31-38).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Lizard (below).<\/p>\nGnat<\/p>\nAny very small fly, in common and biblical usage. According to the nlt<\/span>, the third plague in Egypt before the exodus consisted of gnats (Ex 8:16-18; Ps 105:31). The kjv<\/span> translates the Hebrew word there as “lice,” but the breeding pattern described in Exodus 8—insects rising from the dust—seems to fit gnats better than lice. Since “gnat” is a general term, the small flies of that plague may have included several small species such as mosquitos, harvester gnats, midges, or sand flies.<\/p>\nThe sand fly inflicts a far more painful bite than the mosquito. Further, it does not betray itself by a buzzing noise in flight and is so small that it penetrates most mosquito netting.<\/p>\nGnats were drawn to wine while it was fermenting. The Pharisees in particular would strain their wine to avoid consuming unclean insects (Mt 23:24).<\/p>\nGoat<\/p>\nCloven-hooved mammals (genus Capra<\/em>) with large eyes and big, floppy ears that constantly twitch. Both males and females have backward arching horns. The Palestinian goat is a ruminant (cud-chewing animal) of lighter build than the sheep.<\/p>\nThe goat was probably the earliest ruminant to be domesticated. Its wild ancestor seems to have been the Gezoar goat (Capra aegagrus).<\/em> Wild goats are believed to have been domesticated very early in Palestine. The goat of Bible times was probably the Syrian or Mamber variety (Capra hircus mambrica).<\/em> Domesticated goats may have as many as four kids in a litter, whereas wild goats bear only one or two.<\/p>\nThe Palestinian goat was commonly black. Speckled and spotted goats were a rarity, and for that reason Jacob’s request for those goats in Genesis 30:32 appeared very modest. There may also have been red goats (cf. 1 Sm 16:12; 19:13, where goat’s hair was used to imitate David’s hair, which was “ruddy” or auburn).<\/p>\nAlmost every part of the goat was used by the Israelites. The whole goat was used for sacrifice. Its flesh served as meat (Lv 7:23; Dt 14:4), and it was the principal source of milk (Prv 27:27). Goats were sheared in the late spring, and the goat hair was used for weaving tent cloth and for various domestic purposes (Ex 36:14; 1 Sm 19:13, 16). The tabernacle at Mt Sinai was made of goat’s hair blankets (Ex 26:7).<\/p>\nAdult male goats were generally not eaten because of their strong flavor and toughness and also because they were necessary to insure the flock’s increase. Young kids, however, were usually the chief meat for a feast and were offered to visitors as a symbol of hospitality. Goat milk is richer than the milk of cows and sheep and evidently had broader uses. A good goat gives three quarts of milk a day, from which a rich butter and buttermilk can be made. The average Hebrew family could have lived almost entirely on a single goat’s production.<\/p>\nGoatskin was tanned as leather, and the whole hide was turned into a skin bottle by sewing shut leg and neck apertures (Gn 21:14; Jos 9:4). Goatskin had many uses, including the construction of Hebrew musical instruments. The nebal, a large harp, was made with goatskin for its base sound. Drums had goatskin coverings.<\/p>\nGoats were herded with sheep in biblical times, but each group remained separate following its own bell-laden leader. Jesus was evidently referring to their common herding in his description of the Last Judgment (Mt 25:31-46).<\/p>\nBecause of their wool, sheep are valued more than goats. However, where pasture and water are scarce and thorny shrubs dominate over grass, sheep are difficult to keep and goats become important. They can live under conditions that suit neither cows nor sheep, producing large quantities of milk. The goat does not supply fat as the sheep does, and since its hair is coarse its wool is rather scarce. Goat-hair cloth called cilicium was used to make tents.<\/p>\nGoats have voracious appetites. They also were responsible for much damage done to the land of Palestine, breaking down terraces, destroying forests, and bringing about soil erosion by eating off all cover.<\/p>\nThe goat was recognized as a form of wealth, subject to the law of firstlings (Nm 18:17). It had to be eight days old before it could be offered as a sacrifice. A year-old male goat was one of the animals offered at the Passover (28:22), and two goats were offered on the Day of Atonement (Lv 16:7-10). The goat was also used for other specific sacrifices.<\/p>\nThe ibex, a type of wild goat (Capra ibex nubiana),<\/em> still lives in small numbers on the cliffs close to the Dead Sea. That it was known in ancient times is evident from rock carvings. It is distinguished from the true wild goat by having a more compact rump and horns that are slender and curved back. Its slender legs and sharp cloven hooves enable it to cling to narrow rock ledges, to jump between them, and to climb steep cliffs.<\/p>\nUsually the ibex is found in rugged mountain country among rocky crags and meadows just below the snow line (Ps 104:18). In Job 39:1 they are referred to as “mountain goats.” They frequently gather in herds of 5 to 20. They graze and browse, being active in the afternoon and sometimes feeding through the night. The large horn of the ibex was at one period made into the shofar that was blown in the second Jerusalem temple to announce the new year and the jubilee year.<\/p>\nThe goat was often used in a figurative and symbolic sense by the writers of the Bible: in Song of Songs 4:1 and 6:5 for the bride’s black hair; in Matthew 25:31-46 for the wicked; and in Ezekiel 34:17 and Daniel 8:5-8 for various human leaders.<\/p>\nGrasshopper<\/p>\nLarge insects of the Orthoptera order. They have chewing or biting mouth parts and two pairs of wings, the front pair of which is narrow and somewhat thickened and the hind pair membranous and used for flying. When not in use the flight wings are folded beneath the protective front wings like a fan against the body. By rubbing their wings together, male grasshoppers produce sounds that both males and females can detect. Grasshoppers pass through a partial metamorphosis; the egg hatches into a juvenile nymph that looks like an adult except for its smaller size and undeveloped wings. After several months the nymph becomes a winged adult.<\/p>\nThe terms “grasshopper” and “locust” are often used interchangeably. Actually the locust is a kind of grasshopper. Also confusing is the fact that other insects such as cicadas are sometimes called locusts. The difference between grasshoppers and locusts depends more on behavior than appearance. Grasshoppers are individual insects that lead solitary lives and do not migrate. The same insects when migrating in a swarm are called migratory grasshoppers or locusts. Elimination of their food supply by drought, flood, or fire may lead to migration. Climatic factors such as a warm dry winter also stimulate migrations.<\/p>\nGrasshoppers and locusts have been a staple food in the Middle East and also among the Indians of the American Southwest. To the Israelites the grasshopper was considered ritually clean and could be eaten (Lv 11:22).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Locust (below).<\/p>\nHare<\/p>\nAnimal of the genus and species Lepus europaeus judaeus, Lepus capensis,<\/em> and Lepus arabicus.<\/em> It is found in open country, often near or on cultivated lands, and in woods, usually deciduous rather than evergreen. It is an herbivorous rodent and is different from the rabbit, which is not found in Palestine. Although it is not a true ruminant according to modern classification (because it does not have a four-chambered stomach), the hare does rechew its food. It has a process of partial regurgitation of material too hard for the cells in the stomach to absorb initially; thus, the hare actually chews food previously swallowed.<\/p>\nNear Eastern hares have very long ears and large hind feet; their feet are well furred. They are similar to American jackrabbits, which are true hares. Hares do not dig or occupy burrows the way rabbits do. Hares are mainly nocturnal and spend their inactive hours hiding in vegetation. They eat grasses and herbaceous matter as well as twigs and young bark of woody plants. Hares breed with great rapidity—the young attaining sexual maturity at six months after birth.<\/p>\nThe hare was ceremonially unclean (Lv 11:6; Dt 14:7), evidently because although it appeared to chew its cud, it did not have cloven hooves. Consumption of hares has also been forbidden among the Arabs, Chinese, and Lapps, but the hare was widely hunted by other people in ancient and modern times. Its great speed, prolific breeding, timidity, and caution have saved it from extermination by its many enemies.<\/p>\nHippopotamus<\/p>\nLarge beast of problematic interpretation. Some early interpreters thought it referred to the elephant, others to the wild ox, the mammoth, or any large animal. It was called “behemoth” by the kjv<\/span> translators. Today it is generally agreed that the reference is to the hippopotamus (Hippopotamus amphibius),<\/em> a large, thick-skinned, amphibious mammal, an ungulate (having hooflike toenails) with a large head, a bulky, hairless body, and short legs.<\/p>\nThe description in Job 40:15-24 fits closely the modern hippopotamus (see nlt<\/span>), except for the depiction of the tail. At present the hippopotamus is found only in the rivers of Africa, but there is fossil evidence that it has existed in the Holy Land, perhaps in the swamps of northern Galilee and the Jordan Valley.<\/p>\nThe hippopotamus has highly developed sense organs, placed in such a way that it can see, hear, and smell almost without being seen; its eyes, ears, and nostrils can reach above water while the rest of the animal lies submerged. It has a large mouth, large tusks, and a short, heavy throat. The strong legs are so short that the belly almost reaches the ground when the animal is on the land. The hippopotamus lives on plants and herbs growing in rivers, but if food is scarce there, it forages on land, usually at night. In spite of its heavy body it is surprisingly agile on land.<\/p>\nHorse<\/p>\nPrzewalski’s horse (Equus przewalskii,<\/em> an eastern race that roamed about Mongolia until modern firearms destroyed most of them after World War I) and the tarpan (a western race of southern Russia that became extinct in the Ukraine in 1851). The domesticated horse (Equus caballus)<\/em> seems to have been derived from the tarpan. The original site of domestication is believed to have been Turkestan, a region north of Afghanistan and India, now in Russia. The horse differs from the donkey in that it has shorter ears, a longer mane with a forelock, a long hairy tail, and a soft, sensitive muzzle.<\/p>\nHorses were used in war not only for riding but also for pulling the heavy, springless war chariots. Two kinds of horses were needed for these different purposes, and the Hebrews distinguished between chariot horses and cavalry horses.<\/p>\n\nThe Lord warned the early Israelites against unnecessarily amassing military strength in the form of horses and thereby following the oppressive tactics of the powerful Egyptians (Dt 17:14-16), but the demands of war caused both David and Solomon to import horses from Egypt into their kingdoms and to breed them. Solomon greatly increased the number of horses in the Jewish kingdom and maintained large stables at various cities (1 Kgs 10:26) such as the regional defense centers of Megiddo, Hazor, and Gezer (1 Kgs 9:15-19). Ahab’s horses are mentioned in 1 Kings 18:5, and records of Shalmaneser III state that Ahab furnished 2,000 chariots to a coalition against Assyria.<\/p>\nIn early Israel, the horse was opposed as a symbol of pagan luxury and of dependence on physical power for defense (Dt 17:16; 1 Sm 8:11; Ps 20:7; Is 31:1). Horse trading, mentioned as early as Genesis 47:17, was carried on by Solomon between Egypt and the Syro-Hittite principalities (1 Kgs 10:28-29). Most biblical references to horses refer to their use in war, but horses were also used for transportation. Riding seems to have been less popular than the use of chariots. Cavalry units were not introduced until the 12th century BC<\/span> by the Medes. Joseph rode in Pharaoh’s second horse-drawn chariot (Gn 41:43), and Absalom made a display by riding a horse-drawn chariot (2 Sm 15:1). Naaman traveled by horse and chariot (2 Kgs 5:9). Later, horses were so common in Jerusalem that the royal palace had a special horse gate (2 Chr 23:15), and a gate of the city itself was known as the Horse Gate (Neh 3:28; Jer 31:40). Mordecai rode a royal horse of King Xerxes as a sign of honor (Est 6:8-11). Horses are often spoken of figuratively (Ps 32:9; “mare,” Sg 1:9; “stallions,” Jer 5:8; 12:5), especially in the context of judgment (Hb 3:8; Zec 1:8; 6:1-8; Rv 6:2-8; 9:17; 19:11-16).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Warfare; Travel.<\/p>\nHyena<\/p>\nStocky carnivore (Hyaena hyaena)<\/em> with coarse hair, an erect mane, and long hairs along the neck and back. Hyenas live in holes among rocks and banks. They are mainly nocturnal but are ordinarily neither noisy nor aggressive. Their cry, however, is a disagreeable, unearthly sound. Hyenas usually feed on carrion, crushing bones with their powerful jaws. If the carrion supply is inadequate, they will kill sheep, goats, or other small animals. When threatened, hyenas growl and erect their mane, but they rarely fight. They are massively built with forelegs longer than the hind legs.<\/p>\nKnown as scavengers in Africa, hyenas eat domestic refuse in the villages. In Palestine the striped hyena is a common predator, preferring rocky territory and even rock tombs. Since hyenas were notorious for raiding the graves of the dead, all Israelites who could afford it arranged for burial in tombs protected by massive stone doors. Absalom, King David’s son who was killed by Joab in the wild, was buried under a huge pile of stones to protect his corpse from molestation by hyenas (2 Sm 18:17).<\/p>\nJackal<\/p>\nCarnivore (Canis aureus)<\/em> smaller than the true wolf and with a shorter tail. It is similar to the fox but has a broader head, shorter ears, and longer legs. The fox is solitary; the jackal tends to be gregarious. Its tail can be drooping or erect, compared with the long horizontal tail of the fox. Jackals usually prowl at night, either singly, in pairs, or in packs through open savannah country. They eat small mammals, poultry, fruit, vegetables, and carrion. They spend their days in thickets and clumps of vegetation. Often they obtain scraps from kills by larger carnivores. Jackals can run at speeds of about 33 miles (53 kilometers) per hour.<\/p>\nThe jackal can reach a height of about 20 inches (51 centimeters), roughly the size of a German shepherd dog. Its back is pale yellow with dark, almost black, flanks. Its lips are black and its ears white on the inside. The howl of the jackal sounds like the crying of a child or the heartrending wail of the bereaved (Mi 1:8; cf. Jb 30:29). To other jackals the howl is merely an invitation calling the pack together for its nocturnal hunting.<\/p>\nOT references are chiefly to jackals prowling around ruined cities and wilderness areas (Neh 2:13; Ps 44:19; Is 13:22; 34:13; 35:7; Jer 9:11; 14:6; 49:33; 51:37; Lam 4:3; 5:18; Mal 1:3). Many such references are translated “dragon” in the kjv<\/span>, but “jackal” is more appropriate.<\/p>\nLeech<\/p>\nSegmented worm (class Hirundinea) up to five inches (12.7 centimeters) long with a flat body equipped with suction pads at each end. The mouth, located at the bottom of the front suction pad, has three teeth that the leech uses to pierce the skin of its host. The leech feeds on blood, and its glands secrete an anticoagulant to prevent the blood from clotting. The ordinary medicinal leech (Hirudo medicinalis) is abundant in springs and ponds from the Negev Desert to Galilee. It adheres to the bodies of human beings and animals that submerge themselves in water, injects its anticoagulant, and sucks their blood.<\/p>\nThe reference in Proverbs 30:15 is uncertain (see nlt<\/span>) but may be to the parasitic and greedy nature of the horse leech (genus Haemopis<\/em>). The small horse leech enters its host’s mouth and nostrils from water while the animal is drinking. A leech weighing one-half ounce (14.2 grams) has been known to gorge itself with two and a half ounces (71 grams) of concentrated blood and then to exist for 15 months with no more to eat.<\/p>\nLeopard<\/p>\nCalled Panthera pardus tulliana,<\/em> it is the most widespread of all the large wildcats. In rocky areas it lives in caves, but in forested regions it lives in thick vegetation. In OT times many lived in the vicinity of Mt Hermon (Sg 4:8).<\/p>\nThe leopard is somewhat smaller than the tiger, measuring up to 5 feet (1.5 meters) in length with a tail of about 30 inches (.8 meter). Its body is better proportioned than that of the tiger. The leopard takes its victim by surprise from a silent ambush, often concealing itself near villages or watering places and waiting for its prey, remaining in one spot for long spans of time. The leopard is swift on the ground (Hb 1:8), agile in trees, and very graceful in its movements. Its color is yellowish speckled with black spots (Jer 13:23). Daniel and John saw visions in which leopards were symbols of world powers (Dn 7:6; Rv 13:2).<\/p>\nThe leopard is a wary and cunning animal, formidable and ferocious (Jer 5:6; Hos 13:7; cf. Is 11:6). The leopard is dangerous not only to domestic animals but also to humans. With its natural camouflage it can hide on the forest floor, blending into the changing light and shadows. The Israelites were terrified of the leopard because it constantly ravaged their sheep and goats. Several biblical place names suggest that they were known for the leopards in their vicinity: Nimrah, Beth-nimrah, and Nimrim, a district northeast of the Dead Sea. It has survived in the Holy Land into the present century; a few leopards still exist in remote areas near Mt Tabor and Mt Carmel.<\/p>\nLeviathan<\/p>\nSea monster mentioned several times in the Bible (Pss 74:14; 104:26; Is 27:1, nlt<\/span>). It may refer to any of the larger marine animals such as large jellyfish, whales, or sharks, or to a large reptile like the crocodile. Some scholars think “Leviathan” may refer to animals now extinct, such as ichthyosaurs and plesiosaurs (marine reptiles similar to dinosaurs). The scriptural term might also refer to certain dinosaurs that spent part of their lives half-submerged in shallow lakes and oceans. Other scholars believe that most of the references are to the crocodile.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Crocodile (above).<\/p>\nLion<\/p>\nLarge, tawny-colored carnivore (Panthera leo)<\/em> that preys chiefly on hoofed mammals and charges by a series of leaps and bounds. Within historic times the lion ranged in Africa, Europe, and the Holy Land. In ancient times the territories of the African and Persian lions met in the Middle East. The lion of the Holy Land was the Asiatic or Persian lion (Panthera leo persica).<\/em><\/p>\nThe males have heavy manes that stop at the shoulders but cover much of the chest. The Persian lion cannot climb and is mainly nocturnal, returning to its lair or a thicket by day (Jer 4:7; 25:38; Na 2:11-12). This lion is about 5 feet (1.5 meters) long with a tasseled tail 30 inches (.8 meter) or so long; its shoulders may reach a height of 35 inches (.9 meter). It is one of the smallest of the lion breeds.<\/p>\nLions are usually found in pairs, though sometimes in larger numbers. A small group is known as a pride. They generally prefer open country but in Palestine evidently prowled the subtropical vegetation of the Jordan River valley. Lions, which usually hunt at dusk, kill smaller animals by a blow of the paw, larger ones by a bite in the throat. A lion does not remain in the same place for more than a few days. The animal is in its prime at about seven years of age, when it weighs from 400 to 600 pounds (181.6 to 272.4 kilograms).<\/p>\nThe lion does not characteristically attack humans, though like other great cats it may become a man-eater (1 Kgs 13:24-28; 20:36; 2 Kgs 17:25-26; Ps 57:4; Dn 6:7-27). Ordinarily, it attacks only out of great hunger or in self-defense. A very young lion that attacks humans can become dangerous if it develops a taste for human flesh. A very old lion, expelled from the pride because it can no longer keep up in the pursuit of antelope or gazelles, may choose humans as a relatively slow-moving prey.<\/p>\nA lion generally roars only on a full stomach—that is, after it has consumed its prey (Ps 22:13; Ez 22:25; Am 3:4). Nevertheless, its roaring arouses fear (Am 3:8; 1 Pt 5:8). The lion is a bold (2 Sm 17:10; Prv 28:1), destructive animal (Ps 7:2; Jer 2:30; Hos 5:14; Mi 5:8), and the enemy of flocks (Am 3:12).<\/p>\nLions were common in biblical times in all parts of the Holy Land. Hebrew has at least seven words for lion and young lion. The lion is referred to about 130 times in the OT—more than any other wild animal. Lions were evidently much less common in NT times. After gradually declining, they became extinct in Palestine shortly after AD<\/span> 1300. The lion was present in Mesopotamia, however, until the end of the 19th century.<\/p>\nLions played an important part in the political and religious symbolism of the Near East (1 Kgs 10:19-20). In Assyria and Babylonia the lion was regarded as a royal beast (Dn 7:4). Oriental monarchs maintained artificial lion pits as places of execution (Ez 19:1-9; Dn 6:7-16). Animals for these were captured in camouflaged nets or pits. To the Jews, the lion was the mightiest of beasts (Prv 30:29-31). Thus, it symbolized leadership (Gn 49:9-10; Nm 24:9) and hence eventually became a title for Christ (Rv 5:5). It was also the ensign of Judah’s tribe and was used by King Solomon in the decoration of his house and the temple.<\/p>\nLizard<\/p>\nReptiles of the suborder Lacertilia. Their skin is covered with scales. The lizard is a useful creature because it captures harmful insects and worms. Like other reptiles, it lays eggs with shells softer than those of a bird and with no clear division between the yolk and the white. Lizards are “cold-blooded” organisms without a temperature-maintenance mechanism; hence, they become inactive in cold weather.<\/p>\nLizards can survive in barren parched countryside. In the Near East they are encountered in great numbers in the Arabian Desert, the Sinai Peninsula, and the Judean wilderness. There may be as many as 44 different species of lizards in the Holy Land.<\/p>\nThe Dabb lizard (genus Uromastyx<\/em>), which attains a length of about 24 inches (61 centimeters), is found in the Negev Desert. It is omnivorous, an unusual trait since most lizards are insectivorous. It has a hard, rough skin, green with brown spots; a short, rounded head; and a powerful tail encircled with a row of strong spines that it uses as a weapon of defense.<\/p>\nLizards are listed as ceremonially unclean in Jewish law (Lv 11:29-31). The fact that lizards crawl on their bellies made them unclean. Contact with a lizard’s carcass defiled a law-abiding Jew (Lv 11:32-36). The nlt<\/span> translates the “lizards” of Leviticus 11 as “great lizard,” “gecko,” “monitor lizard,” “sand lizard,” and “chameleon.” The monitor lizard is a large lizard that lives in the deserts of southern Palestine, Sinai, and Egypt. It is up to 55 inches (1.4 meters) long with a long snout and sharp teeth. Other translators and commentators render the original Hebrew in a wide variety of ways, including “tortoise,” “ferret,” “lizard,” “snail,” “mole,” and even “water hen.” The fact that most of the original Hebrew words occur only once in Scripture makes it very difficult to be certain about their appropriate translation.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Gecko (above).<\/p>\nLocust<\/p>\nAn insect of the family Acridiidae.<\/em> It is referred to by at least 12 different names in Scripture. The various Hebrew words may refer to different stages of its development from larva to adult or to the type of damage that it causes. Locusts are characterized by swarming and mass migration. In modern times they have caused extensive and disastrous destruction to vegetation. Grasshoppers do not swarm or migrate en masse, differentiating them from the true locusts.<\/p>\nThe OT mentions several different species of locusts. Leviticus 11:22 seems to refer to the slant-faced (bald) locust and also to the katydid, or long-horned grasshopper. The reference in Deuteronomy 28:42 may be to the mole cricket. In Joel 1:4 and 2:25 and in Nahum 3:16-17, successive stages of the insect’s development are described. The cutting locust (kjv<\/span> “palmerworm”) of Joel is probably the first instar (stage of development), the swarming locusts (kjv<\/span> “locust”) are middle stages, and the hopping locusts (kjv<\/span> “cankerworm”) later instars but not yet fully matured insects. In the adult stage, called destroying locusts (kjv<\/span> “caterpillar”), the color of the locust is reddish brown, which turns to yellow with a brownish network on the wings.<\/p>\nOnly three of the hundreds of varieties of locusts found in Bible lands are capable of multiplying into great swarms, and only the desert locust (Schistocerca gergaria)<\/em> can be considered widespread in all the Bible lands. The desert locust is native to the Sudan (Africa). It is a little over two inches (5 centimeters) long and has a wingspread of some five inches (12.7 centimeters). It shows two phases, a solitary phase and a gregarious phase, with a possible third phase known as transiens. There are differences in the immature and adult forms of the phases in color and physiology.<\/p>\nThe quantity and distribution of rains are important factors in the extent of swarming. Moist soil is needed for depositing the eggs and permitting them to develop. Each female deposits from one to six egg pods, containing 28 to 146 eggs each. The larvae emerge in 15 to 43 days.<\/p>\nIn the gregarious phase (from the second stage of metamorphosis onward), the locust is driven by a strong wandering instinct. Masses of them form a random procession of overflowing locust bodies that ignore any obstruction. They swarm over everything (Jl 2:4-9). The only regulator of their activities is temperature; they are immobilized by high or low temperatures. Taking to wing they may move 1,200 miles (1,930.8 kilometers) from their native home. They fly in compact formations large enough to blot out the light of the sun. Their movement seems to be controlled by hormones, but the direction is influenced by the wind. The swarms consume almost every plant in their path, sparing only the carob, sycamore, castor tree, and oleander bush.<\/p>\nA locust plague was one of the most severe evils to come upon the ancient world (Dt 28:38). Joel 2:1-11 describes a locust plague in graphic terms, using it as a symbol of God’s destroying judgment. Special days of prayer, fasting, and trumpet blowing were prescribed to remove locust plagues (1 Kgs 8:37-38; 2 Chr 6:28-29; Jl 2:12-17). Locusts symbolized powerful and merciless enemies that completely destroyed the earnings of human toil (Jgs 6:5; Is 33:4; Jer 46:23; 51:27; Na 3:15).<\/p>\nBedouins eat locusts raw, roasted, or boiled, preserving them by drying and threading. They are also crushed and ground, and the grist used in cooking or eaten with bread, sometimes mixed with honey and dates. Such was the diet of John the Baptist (Mk 1:6). The Greeks ground locusts in stone mortars to make flour of them.<\/p>\nThe ancients considered the two large hind legs, or jumping legs, as separate limbs and had a special name for them. Hence locusts were described as having four legs, a reference to the four smaller walking legs. “Going on all fours” thus referred to creeping or walking as opposed to jumping and did not mean that the unclean insects had only four legs in all. Because of its two hind jumping legs, the locust was exempted from the prohibition against unclean insects (Lv 11:20-23).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Plagues upon Egypt.<\/p>\nMole<\/p>\nRodent (Spalax ehrenbergi)<\/em> from six to nine inches (15 to 23 centimeters) long, which burrows in any area where the soil is suitable for digging; it should be called a mole rat. Common in the Holy Land, large numbers are found in the vicinity of Jerusalem. Isaiah 2:20 refers to the mole, as does Leviticus 11:29-30 (nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nThe mole rat has no tail and is molelike in appearance, but neither true moles nor shrews have ever been found in the Holy Land. The mole rat’s teeth are strong and protruding like those of a squirrel. The neck is short and thick with a plump body shaped like a sausage. The short legs have broad paws with claws adapted for burrowing. The fur is soft, thick, and ashen gray. Its ears and almost sightless eyes, which are no larger than poppyseeds, are hidden in the fur. Folklore taught that touching a mole rat would result in blindness.<\/p>\nIn the wet winter season the mole rat builds breeding mounds resembling those of pocket gophers. It builds less complex resting mounds in the summer, although both have rather elaborate tunnel systems. The mole rat feeds on roots, bulbs, tubers, and various other subterranean plant parts, often doing extensive damage to agriculture.<\/p>\nMoth<\/p>\nInsect of the genus Tineola<\/em> that lays its eggs on wool or furs, its larvae feeding on those materials. The destructive qualities of moths are referred to in several biblical passages (Jb 13:28; Ps 39:11; Is 50:9; Hos 5:12; Mt 6:19-20; Lk 12:33; Jas 5:2). In Isaiah 51:8 “worm” (nlt<\/span>) refers specifically to the larva of the clothes moth. The moth symbolizes disintegration, decay, and weakening. It is only the larvae that do the damage. The adult is quite harmless and feeds mainly on the nectar of flowers. It is easily crushed (Jb 4:19). The clothes moth reproduces in May or June. It enters human dwellings in the evening. A week after the eggs are laid the larvae appear and immediately begin their work of destruction, eating anything within reach made of animal fibers.<\/p>\nThe moth’s destructive activity is done in secret without any sound and without any dramatic appearance, such as a swarm that blots out the sun. In an age when wealth was counted more in possessions than in money, and when among those possessions wool clothing was highly valued, moths could literally cause economic disaster; hence the words of Jesus in the Sermon on the Mount (Mt 6:19-20).<\/p>\nThere are hundreds of species of moths other than the clothes moth in the Holy Land; they are harmless to leaves, flowers, fruit, trees, and seeds. As with the clothes moth, the larvae inflict the damage.<\/p>\nMouse<\/p>\nRodent of the family Muridae, especially genus Mus.<\/em> The mouse was regarded as unclean because, being short legged, it was considered one of the creeping creatures (Lv 11:29). Mice known as commensals live in dwellings and tend to have longer tails and to be darker in color than wild mice, which are active chiefly at night. Mice are good climbers and even good swimmers. Wild mice eat many kinds of vegetation, including seeds, fleshy roots, leaves, and stems. At times they store food.<\/p>\nThe Hebrew word for “mouse” (Lv 11:29; 1 Sm 6:4-5; Is 66:17) is probably a general term for various rats and mice. The root meaning of the Hebrew word “mouse” is “destruction of corn,” a reference to the damage mice do to field crops. At least 23 varieties of mouselike rodents are known in the Holy Land. They cause food spoilage, damage household articles, and transport the host fleas that spread typhus, spotted fever, and bubonic plague. Plague bacteria may have caused the tumors or swellings among the Philistines (1 Sm 6:5). Isaiah 66:17 refers to a pre-exilic Canaanite cultic practice in which mice were eaten; the reference may actually be to the hamster. A number of rodents are eaten by Arabs of the Near East; the gerbil is considered a special delicacy. See<\/em> Mole (above).<\/p>\nMule<\/p>\nHybrid offspring of a male ass and a female horse (Equus asinus mulus),<\/em> ordinarily sterile. The offspring of a female donkey and a stallion (male horse) is known as a hinny and is of little value because of its inferior size.<\/p>\nBecause crossbreeding was forbidden in the law (Lv 19:19), the Israelites procured mules from the Gentiles, perhaps from the Phoenicians, since Tyre (a Phoenician seaport in what is now southern Lebanon) imported horses and mules (Ez 27:14). Mules did not appear in Israel until David’s reign (2 Sm 13:29), possibly because of the rarity of horses among the Hebrews. Mules were used chiefly by members of the royal court and by other nobles. King David rode on a mule, and Solomon rode to his inaugaration on King David’s mule (1 Kgs 1:33). Absalom met his death riding on a mule (2 Sm 18:9). Mules were less common than horses, camels, and asses in the postexilic community (Ezr 2:66). In antiquity Asia Minor was especially noted for breeding fine mules.<\/p>\nMules have long enjoyed a reputation for obstinacy, but that trait is not mentioned in the Bible. The mule is prized for riding and for carrying heavy burdens, especially in warm mountainous regions. They are sure-footed and thrive best in hot, dry climates. The mule has the frugality, endurance, and steady gait of an ass along with the size, strength, swiftness, and courage of a horse. Mules are almost never sick. They live longer than horses. They can carry a load of up to 300 pounds (136 kilograms) as far as 30 miles (48.3 kilometers) a day.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Travel.<\/p>\nPig<\/p>\nMost properly, newborn swine. “Swine” is technically the better name for the species, but it is rarely used in common speech today. The domestic pigs of the Middle East derived from the wild pig (Sus scrofa).<\/em> The pig is the most prolific and abundant supplier of meat and fat for food. A thick layer of fat just under the skin is especially pronounced in domestic breeds. Pigs cannot be driven, so they are of value only to the settled farmer. The Hebrews were originally a nomadic people; therefore, they had little use for an animal closely associated with settled life. An Egyptian prince of about 1500 BC<\/span>, however, is recorded as owning a herd of 1,500 swine.<\/p>\nThe pig is clumsily built, yet lively and able to move with agility and speed. The most conspicuous characteristic of the pig is a truncated, mobile snout terminating in a disc-shaped surface on which the nostrils are located. Most pigs have large tusks in both jaws which grow continuously in life. The tusks of the upper jaw are unique in that they curve upward instead of pointing downward as in most animals. The excrement of a pig has an almost unbearable odor, which clings not only to the pig itself but also to swineherds, who can be identified a long way off.<\/p>\nPigs were never raised in the Holy Land by Jews. The great herd into which Jesus drove the unclean spirits was encountered in the land of the Gadarenes, a non-Jewish area east of the Jordan. The Gadarene demons took refuge in a herd of pigs feeding on a bluff overlooking the Sea of Galilee (Mt 8:28-32).<\/p>\nWild pigs were found in the Holy Land as in many countries today. Psalm 80:13 refers to the destructiveness of a wild boar (the male, or hog) attacking growing crops. A party of wild boars can destroy an entire vineyard or a field of crops in a single night. They devour, trample, and ravage everything within reach.<\/p>\nBoar hunts were common in ancient Mesopotamia. Wild boars do not attack unless molested, but they are dangerous when aroused. They travel in bands of from 6 to 50 and are most active in the evening and early morning hours. The body is covered with stiff bristles and usually some finer hair, but the body covering is often quite scanty. Wild pigs are mainly vegetarian, feeding on roots, nuts, grains, and plant stems. Wild boars were particularly abundant in the mountainous regions of Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon, in the Jordan River valley, and in wooded sections such as Mt Tabor.<\/p>\nStrict Jews would not even mention swine by name but would always substitute the term “the abomination.” Israelites considered themselves polluted if they were even touched by a swine’s bristle. To the Jews, the pig symbolized filth and ugliness. Pigs will eat fecal material, vermin, rodents, carrion, and the like (2 Pt 2:22). Proverbs 11:22 refers to the incongruity of a golden ring in the nose of an animal showing such characteristics. A similar metaphor occurs in Jesus’ statement about casting pearls before swine (Mt 7:6). The prodigal son’s degeneration was shown by his being forced in his poverty to feed pigs and eat their food (Lk 15:15-16).<\/p>\nEating the flesh of pigs was forbidden to the Jews (Lv 11:7; Dt 14:8). The Canaanites in the Holy Land killed and ate pigs freely. In intertestamental times Antiochus IV (Epiphanes), a Syrian king whose territories included Israel, used the pig to “Hellenize” the Jews. He first tested their loyalty to the Jewish faith by requiring the consumption of pork, considered a delicacy by the Greeks (2 Macc 6:18). The act of desecration that drove the Jews to rebellion, however, was the sprinkling of pig blood on the temple altar in a sacrifice to Zeus (1 Macc 1:47).<\/p>\nPigs were frequently used in pagan worship (Is 65:4; 66:3, 17), which may account for their being forbidden to the Jews as food. Evidence in the Holy Land shows that pigs were sacrificed long before Hellenistic times. Pig bones were found in a grotto below the rock-cut place of sacrifice at Gezer. A similar underground chamber with vessels containing piglet bones at Tirzah dates to the middle Bronze Age (about 2000 BC<\/span>).<\/p>\nAlabaster fragments of a statuette of a pig ready to be sacrificed have been unearthed. Swine were sacrificed to Aphrodite (Venus) in Greece and Asia Minor. In addition, pigs were sacrificed in connection with oaths and treaties; in the Iliad,<\/em> Agamemnon sacrificed a boar to Zeus and Helios. So it is not surprising that among the Jews the pig became a symbol of filthiness and paganism.<\/p>\nIt is possible that eating pork was forbidden primarily because the pig may carry many worm parasites such as trichina, though that is also true of some “clean” animals. Another reason for forbidding their consumption may have been that pigs eat carrion. Some people are allergic to pork in hot weather—another suggested reason behind the Jewish taboo. The same taboo exists among the Muslims and existed in certain social strata in Egypt.<\/p>\nPorcupine<\/p>\nRodent, Hystrix cristata,<\/em> which lives in forested areas, rocky hills, ravines, and valleys. The porcupine is still found in the Holy Land today. It has long quills that can be raised to give the appearance of a crest. It is almost entirely nocturnal. It burrows by day into a natural cavity or crevice. The Old World porcupine rarely climbed trees, although the New World porcupine frequently does. A porcupine may weigh as much as 60 pounds (27.2 kilograms). It eats fruit, bark, roots, and other vegetation, and carrion as well. Although its flesh is edible, the porcupine was not classed among the clean animals for the Israelites. The reference in Isaiah 34:11 (rsv<\/span>) is probably to the porcupine, as is Isaiah 14:23 in the nlt<\/span>. See<\/em> Hedgehog.<\/p>\nScorpion<\/p>\nArthropod of the same group as spiders (arachnids). A dozen species of scorpions (order Scorpionida) are found in the Holy Land, but 90 percent of the scorpions are yellow scorpions, usually three to five inches (7.6 to 12.7 centimeters) long. The rock scorpion, also common to the Holy Land, is as thick as a man’s finger and from five to seven inches (12.7 to 17.8 centimeters) in length. Scorpions are slow, nocturnal invertebrates that rest beneath stones by day and prey on insects and other arachnids by night. At the end of its long tail the scorpion carries a poisonous sting that is fatal to most prey and extremely painful to humans (Rv 9:3, 5, 10; cf. 1 Kgs 12:11, 14). Scorpions symbolize Ezekiel’s evil countrymen (Ez 2:6) and the demonic forces of Satan (Lk 10:19). The scorpion is referred to as frequenting the Sinai Desert (Dt 8:15).<\/p>\nA scorpion has from six to eight eyes. It has eight legs like a spider and two lobsterlike claws with which it catches and holds its prey. It feeds particularly on locusts and beetles. In many species the female scorpion eats the male after mating. Scorpions lay eggs that hatch very shortly after laying. Scorpions prefer warmer climates, and because of their desire for warmth, enter houses, especially at night, hiding in beds, blankets, footwear, and clothing.<\/p>\nSheep<\/p>\nDomestic animal, Ovis orientalis,<\/em> referred to directly or by some term such as ewe, lamb, ram, or by some fact concerning them over 700 times in Scripture.<\/p>\nSheep represented the chief wealth and total livelihood of pastoral peoples, providing food to eat, milk to drink, wool for the making of cloth, and hides and bones for other uses. In addition, the sheep was a medium of exchange and a sacrificial animal. The number of sheep raised in ancient times was prodigious. Mesha, king of Moab, paid a tribute annually of 100,000 lambs and the wool of 100,000 rams (2 Kgs 3:4). The Israelites took 250,000 sheep from the Hagrites (1 Chr 5:21).<\/p>\nSheep shearing was often done for festivals (2 Sm 13:23). The sheep was held down on its side and its legs were tied together; then it lay docilely while its wool was clipped (Is 53:7). Sheep reserved for burnt offerings were not shorn; nothing could be held back from a sacrifice to the Lord.<\/p>\nWool had to be processed before it could be used for clothing. First it was washed, sometimes while still on the sheep, then carded and perhaps weighed for the market. The spinning of wool was regarded as a woman’s work (Prv 31:19), but weaving the spun thread into cloth on a loom was primarily a man’s occupation.<\/p>\nThe Bible reports that Abel kept sheep (Gn 4:2). The first sheep to be domesticated was probably the argali (Ovis ammon),<\/em> a variety of the urial (Ovis vignei),<\/em> a mountainous species still existing in Turkestan and Mongolia. Five breeds had reached Mesopotamia by 2000 BC<\/span>; all were of the urial stock.<\/p>\nThe sheep known in Israel was the broad-tailed sheep (Ovis orientalis vignei<\/em> or laticaudata),<\/em> of which the tail weighs from 10 to 15 pounds (4.5 to 6.8 kilograms) and has always been considered a delicacy. Thus the Lord asked for this choice part as a sacrifice (Ex 29:22-25).<\/p>\nOnly the ram of the broad-tailed sheep has horns, but in other varieties of sheep in the Holy Land the ewe also has horns. The horns, two to three inches (5 to 8 centimeters) in diameter, can be potent weapons. Rams’ horns could be used as trumpets (Jos 6:4) or as oil containers (1 Sm 16:1).<\/p>\nAlthough the sheep is very similar to the goat, it is differentiated by a lower forehead, its angulated spiral horns marked with transverse wrinkles and curved slightly outward, its covering of wool, and its lack of a “goatee.” Most sheep are white (Ps 147:16; Is 1:18; Dn 7:9; Rv 1:14).<\/p>\nThe flesh of sheep was a luxury in the biblical culture. King Solomon required a daily provision of 100 sheep for his table (1 Kgs 4:23), but the common people ate lamb or mutton only on festive occasions. A young ram was usually chosen because the ewes were more important to the future prospects of the herd. The meat was boiled in large caldrons. The milk of the sheep is extremely rich; in biblical times it was usually allowed to curdle before drinking. Possibly some Israelites kept lambs in their houses as pets (2 Sm 12:3-4).<\/p>\nTo protect the flock at night against predatory attacks, the shepherd tried to provide a fold. In meadows near villages, folds were built and watchmen were hired to relieve the shepherds. The shepherds of the nativity story were out in the field (Lk 2:8); they had no fold but probably had set up a tent for shelter, consisting simply of goat-hair blankets spread across sapling supports. The scarcity of springs in the Holy Land made the watering of the flock a crucial problem for the shepherd (Gn 13:8-11).<\/p>\nWild mountain sheep, varieties of Ovis orientalis,<\/em> are known in the Mediterranean area (Dt 14:5). The Deuteronomy passage (kjv<\/span> “chamois”) might also refer to Ovis traelaphus,<\/em> a sheep about five feet high (1.5 meters) with long, curved horns. Another possibility is the Barbary sheep that lives in small flocks in rugged mountain areas in Barbary, Egypt, and Mt Sinai. The true chamois is unknown in Palestine.<\/p>\nThe sheep is also used figuratively in Scripture. The ram represented great strength and fittingly symbolized Medo-Persia in Daniel’s vision (Dn 8:3). It is the nature of sheep to be gentle and submissive (Is 53:7; Jer 11:19), defenseless (Mi 5:8; Mt 10:16), and in constant need of guidance and care (Nm 27:17; Mt 9:36). Such qualities are regarded as desirable in the lives of believers in Christ; hence the many figurative references to sheep in the NT and to Jesus as shepherd (Mk 6:34; Jn 10:1-30; Rom 8:35-37; Heb 13:20-21; 1 Pt 2:25). The resurrected Christ told the apostle Peter to “feed my lambs” and “tend my sheep” (Jn 21:15-17).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Offerings and Sacrifices.<\/p>\nSnail<\/p>\nInvertebrate gastropods (mollusks). Land snails are very numerous in the Near East. Some freshwater forms serve as hosts for the schistosome worm, the fluke parasite causing the dread disease bilharzia (schistosomiasis).<\/p>\nPurple dyes of all shades were highly valued in the ancient world. A royal purple dye was obtained from secretions of a sea snail (Murex trunculus<\/em> and Murex brandaris).<\/em> Evidently, that process was developed by Phoenicians, Egyptians, and Assyrians as early as 1500 BC<\/span>. The “purple” fishermen had their own guild during the time of the Roman Empire. The snails were harvested during the fall and winter seasons; in the spring, when egg laying took place, little dye was available. The snails tended to remain concealed in the summer. They inhabited the waters off Crete and Phoenicia. Tyrian purple, produced in the Phoenician city of Tyre, the center of the purple-dye industry, was obtained by a double dyeing. Large deposits of murex shells from dyeing operations have been found along the Mediterranean shoreline. The Israelites had to import purple goods (Ez 27:16). Lydia was a “seller of purple” or of cloth so dyed (Acts 16:14). Purple was a sign of distinction, royalty, and wealth (cf. Ex 25:4; 28:5-6, 15; Nm 15:38; 2 Chr 2:7; Est 8:15; Prv 31:22; Sg 3:10; Ez 27:7; Dn 5:7).<\/p>\nExodus 30:34-35 refers to “onycha,” which was an important ingredient of incense. Onycha is the horny, clawlike operculum (the plate that closes off the opening of its shell when a snail is retracted) of a Near Eastern member of the molluskan family Strombidae. The operculum is sometimes used for offense or locomotion as well as for defense. When burned, the operculum gives off a sharp, strong scent, and when mixed with more fragrant but less powerful substances is even more potent. The name “onycha” is derived from a Greek word (onyx)<\/em> for a fingernail or a claw.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Dye, Dyeing, Dyer.<\/p>\nSnake<\/p>\nVarious species of snake, suborder Ophidia (Serpentes). In the Bible nine Hebrew words and four Greek ones refer to snakes. The most common Hebrew word is onomatopoeic—that is, it is an imitation of a snake hissing or of the sound it produces as it scrapes its scales along the ground (cf. Jer 46:22). Many types of snakes lay eggs (Is 59:5), although some retain the eggs in the body until ready to hatch.<\/p>\nSnakes are among the most widespread reptiles and are found on all continents except Antarctica; they decrease in numbers and species toward the poles but increase as one approaches the equator. Thirty-three species of snakes are known in Palestine and neighboring countries, 20 of which are poisonous. Two dangerous characteristics of the snake noted by biblical writers are its inconspicuous way of moving and the ease with which it hides itself.<\/p>\nMany snakes are able to swallow animals several times their own diameter because of their unusually flexible jaw mechanism. They lack not only legs but also movable eyelids. Snakes periodically shed their skins. The tongue is actually a hearing apparatus sensitive to airborne vibrations and probably to heat waves.<\/p>\nThe venom of poisonous species is a clear, thin secretion, transmitted to the victim’s bloodstream by means of fangs. Two types of venom are known: that of the vipers, which affects respiration and disintegrates red blood cells, and that of the cobras, which paralyzes the nervous system.<\/p>\nThe “asp” referred to in the Bible is probably the cobra; the “adder” is the viper. The “cockatrice” (kjv<\/span>) is probably the adder. Serpents were associated with worship in Canaanite religion and symbolized evil deities among many other peoples. Steles (upright stones bearing inscriptions) have been unearthed at several sites in the Holy Land and Syria depicting a god or worshiper with a snake winding about the legs or body. Because the Israelites were burning incense in pagan worship of Moses’ bronze serpent (Nm 21:8-9), King Hezekiah destroyed it in his religious reform (2 Kgs 18:4).<\/p>\nAlthough snakes have been an object of veneration in some religions, in the Judeo-Christian tradition snakes represent evil and, more specifically, the devil. That association began in the Garden of Eden (Gn 3:1-15) and is also found in the book of Revelation (12:9; 20:2-3).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Adder (above); Asp (above).<\/p>\nSpider<\/p>\nAnimal of the order Araneida. Between 600 and 700 different species inhabit the Holy Land. Spiders are different from insects in that, like scorpions, they have four pairs of legs instead of three. Spiders are equipped with poison glands—the effectiveness varying from species to species. A few can kill only insects, but others can also kill birds and mice.<\/p>\nMost spiders have a pair of spinnerets attached to silk glands on the underside of the abdomen; from them a web is extruded. In the Bible the spider’s web is referred to as a symbol of frailty and insecurity (Jb 8:14; Is 59:5-6).<\/p>\nSponge<\/p>\nSimple marine animals, phylum Porifera. The term “sponge” also refers to those animals’ skeletal remains. The sponge has a porous body composed of tubules and cells.<\/p>\nSponge fishing was well known in the Mediterranean area in ancient times. It was practiced particularly along the Anatolian and Syrian coasts. Sponges were harvested by divers. The use of sponges in absorbing liquids is referred to in the Bible (Mt 27:48; Mk 15:36).<\/p>\nUnicorn<\/p>\nSee<\/em> Wild Ox (below).<\/p>\nWasp<\/p>\nInsects of the family Vespidae. Hornets are social wasps that build large aerial apartment houses in which 1,000 or more individuals may live. In the Bible the hornet is used as a metaphor for God’s use of military forces (Ex 23:28; Dt 7:20; Jos 24:12).<\/p>\nWhale<\/p>\nLargest of all living creatures, including those that have become extinct. Whales are air-breathing mammals of the order Cetacea.<\/p>\nTwo varieties of whales visit the shores of the Holy Land at times. The finback whale (Balaenoptera physalus)<\/em> weighs about 200 tons (181 metric tons) and lives mainly in the Arctic region but sometimes passes through the Straits of Gibraltar to reach the eastern Mediterranean Sea. It feeds on small marine organisms that it strains through its whale bone; it does not have teeth. The finback whale’s esophagus is narrow.<\/p>\nThe sperm whale (Physeter catodon),<\/em> about 60 feet (18.3 meters) long, has a curiously shaped head that looks like a battering ram. The teeth in the lower jaw of the male sperm whale are about seven inches (17.8 centimeters) long. It feeds on big fish, even on sharks. It has a large throat opening.<\/p>\nWhales are referred to in Genesis 1:21 and Job 7:12 (kjv<\/span> only). The “great fish” of Jonah 2:1 need not have been a whale but could have been a large shark, such as the whale shark (Rhineodon),<\/em> which grows 70 feet (21.3 meters) long and lacks the terrible teeth of other sharks. Whatever the actual marine organism, Jonah’s deliverance was miraculous. The Greek word for “whale” is sometimes used as a general term for “sea monster” or huge fish and may be used in that sense in Matthew 12:40.<\/p>\nWild Ox<\/p>\nLarge, fierce, fleet, intractable animal (Bos primigenius).<\/em> It had a long, lean rump with a straight back and a long, narrow head. The animal described in Job 39:9-12 is clearly the wild ox. The two horns (Dt 33:17), its outstanding characteristic, were straight and as long as the head (Nm 23:22; 24:8; Ps 22:21). Kings often symbolized their dominion by wearing a helmet with two wild ox horns (cf. Pss 92:10; 132:17-18). The horns were often used as drinking vessels by the Israelites; some were large enough to hold four gallons (15 liters).<\/p>\nHunting the wild ox was a favorite sport of Assyrian kings. Tiglath-pileser I hunted it in the Lebanon Mountains about 1100 BC<\/span> (cf. Ps 29:6). At one time the animal referred to in Job 39:9-12 was thought to be the oryx or antelope because of the similarity between the Hebrew word in Job and the Arabian name for oryx. The translators of the kjv<\/span> called the wild ox a “unicorn” because of representations found on Babylonian mosaics and Egyptian drawings. Those representations showed it in strict profile, showing only one horn—hence, “unicorn.” Jerome’s Vulgate, a Latin Bible translation (fourth century AD<\/span>) and Martin Luther’s German version translated it similarly.<\/p>\nWolf<\/p>\nLarge doglike mammal (Canis lupus)<\/em> that travels in bands of up to 30 animals. From the nose to the rump, the wolf measures about 3 feet (.9 meter); its drooping tail is about 18 inches (.5 meter) long. It looks much like a skinny German shepherd dog. The grayish yellow pelt is coarse and short haired.<\/p>\nWolves hunt singly or in relays, usually at night (Jer 5:6). Wolves have acute hearing and sight but rely chiefly on scent and usually catch their prey in a swift, open chase. The wolf has a reputation for boldness, fierceness, and voracity (Gn 49:27; Hb 1:8). It commonly kills more than it can eat or drag away and thus is known for its greediness.<\/p>\nThe wolf is a restless animal, always on the move; hunger drives it from one place to another in constant search of new hunting grounds. During spring and fall, wolves usually roam singly or in pairs, whereas in summer they may travel in family groups. In winter, several such groups may join to form a large pack. Wolves are intelligent, social creatures, faithful to their own kind. They mate for life. Individually, the wolf is a rather timid animal; it would much rather avoid human beings. But collectively wolves can be among the most dangerous animals alive.<\/p>\nIn Egypt, Rome, and Greece the wolf was considered sacred. Wolves were well known in the Holy Land and are still found there and also in many places in Asia Minor. Shepherds continually battled with wolves that plundered their flocks (Jn 10:12).<\/p>\nThe Bible refers to wolves in a literal sense in only three places (Is 11:6; 65:25; Jn 10:12), all other references being figurative. Usually the wolf is a symbol of enemies or the wicked (e.g., Ez 22:27; Zep 3:3; Acts 20:29). Both the wolf’s courage and its cruelty were probably in the mind of the patriarch Jacob when he predicted the fate of Benjamin’s tribe (Gn 49:27).<\/p>\nWorm<\/p>\nActually insect larvae in most biblical references, usually maggots, the larvae of flies (see Fly, above). For example, maggots are evidently referred to in accounts of worms feeding on spoiled manna (Ex 16:19-20), corpses (Jb 21:26; Is 14:11), or open wounds (Jb 7:5). Mark 9:48 refers to a maggot that eats dead flesh. In Acts 12:23 a fatal, worm-induced abdominal disease of King Herod is mentioned. In other cases, the reference is to the larvae of other insects (Is 51:8). In Deuteronomy 28:39 and Jonah 4:7 the vine weevil (Cochylis ambiguella)<\/em> is probably referred to; it destroys vines by boring into their stems. Comparing a man to a worm is a metaphor for abasement (Jb 25:6; Ps 22:6).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ANIMALS<\/h3>\nIn biblical usage, all members of the animal kingdom. Animals are mentioned throughout the Bible from Genesis to Revelation. Animals figured in many important biblical events, including the Creation, the fall of man, the Flood, the ten plagues in Egypt, the Hebrew worship system, and the life of Jesus Christ. The people of both OT and NT times lived close to the land and were well acquainted with various animals so that the scriptural writers and Jesus himself frequently used animals as object lessons.<\/p>\nThe biblical approach to classification of animals is somewhat different from the system of classification used by biologists today. The present system of classification, which traces back to Carolus Linnaeus (an 18th-century Swedish botanist), is based on structure, both internal and external. The biblical basis of classification is habitat. Thus Genesis 1 speaks of aquatic organisms (v 20); aerial organisms (v 21); animals that crawl on the ground (v 24); cattle or domesticated animals (animals that live in association with humans) (v 24); and wild animals (v 24). The same system of classification is followed in Leviticus 11 and throughout Scripture.<\/p>\nBecause of the divergence between systems of classification, the various animals of the Bible will be listed here in alphabetical order—including reptiles, fish, and even invertebrates such as insects, spiders, worms, and sponges. Birds are discussed in a separate article.<\/p>\nPreview<\/p>\n• Adder<\/p>\n• Ant<\/p>\n• Antelope<\/p>\n• Ape<\/p>\n• Asp<\/p>\n• Ass<\/p>\n• Badger<\/p>\n• Bat<\/p>\n• Bear<\/p>\n• Bee<\/p>\n• Behemoth<\/p>\n• Camel<\/p>\n• Caterpillar<\/p>\n• Cattle<\/p>\n• Chameleon<\/p>\n• Coral<\/p>\n• Cricket<\/p>\n• Crocodile<\/p>\n• Deer<\/p>\n• Dog<\/p>\n• Donkey<\/p>\n• Dragon<\/p>\n• Fish<\/p>\n• Flea<\/p>\n• Fly<\/p>\n• Fox<\/p>\n• Frog<\/p>\n• Gazelle<\/p>\n• Gecko<\/p>\n• Gnat<\/p>\n• Goat<\/p>\n• Grasshopper<\/p>\n• Hare<\/p>\n• Hippopotamus<\/p>\n• Horse<\/p>\n• Hyena<\/p>\n• Jackal<\/p>\n• Leech<\/p>\n• Leopard<\/p>\n• Leviathan<\/p>\n• Lion<\/p>\n• Lizard<\/p>\n• Locust<\/p>\n• Mole<\/p>\n• Moth<\/p>\n• Mouse<\/p>\n• Mule<\/p>\n• Pig<\/p>\n• Porcupine<\/p>\n• Scorpion<\/p>\n• Sheep<\/p>\n• Snail<\/p>\n• Snake<\/p>\n• Spider<\/p>\n• Sponge<\/p>\n• Unicorn<\/p>\n• Wasp<\/p>\n• Whale<\/p>\n• Wild Ox<\/p>\n• Wolf<\/p>\n• Worm<\/p>\n\nAdder<\/p>\nOne of the 20 poisonous snakes found in Israel and surrounding countries, also referred to as cockatrice and viper. True vipers (genus Cerastes, Echis colorata,<\/em> and Vipera palestina<\/em>) also exist there, poisonous snakes with curved fangs that spring into position when the snake strikes. The horned viper (Cerastes hasselquistii)<\/em> may attack horses. It is 12 to 18 inches (30 to 46 centimeters) long and often lies in ambush in the sand with only its eyes and the hornlike protrusions on its head visible.<\/p>\nBoth Jesus and John the Baptist referred to the viper several times (Mt 3:7; 12:34; 23:33). The reference in Acts 28:3 is probably to a small viper (Vipera aspis)<\/em> that strikes rapidly and is very pugnacious. It is found in southern Europe and hisses each time it inhales and exhales. The poison of vipers attacks the respiratory system and disintegrates red blood cells.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Snake (below).<\/p>\nAnt<\/p>\nMentioned only twice in the Bible, both times in the book of Proverbs. For many years Solomon was charged with a biological error when he referred to the ant as providing her meat in the summer and gathering her food in the harvest (Prv 6:8). Critics of the Bible were quick to point out that, so far as was then known, ants do not store up food. They assumed that Solomon had probably kicked open an ant hill and mistaken the pupal cases (pods in which immature ants grow to maturity) for grain or had observed ants carrying bits of grain, leaves, and other matter to their nests.<\/p>\nAt least three species of grain-storing ants are now known—two occur in Israel and the other in Mediterranean countries. The particular species referred to by Solomon (Prv 6:6-8; 30:24-25) is probably the harvester ant (Messor semirufus).<\/em> Its granaries are flat chambers connected by galleries irregularly scattered over an area about six feet (1.8 meters) in diameter and about a foot (.3 meter) deep in the ground. Seeds are collected from the ground or picked from plants. The head, or radicle, which is the softest part of the kernel, is bitten off to prevent germination, and the chaff and empty capsules are discarded on kitchen middens (refuse piles) outside the nest. Individual granaries may be 5 inches (12.7 centimeters) in diameter and a half inch (1.2 centimeters) high. Some nests are known to be 40 feet (12 meters) in diameter and 6 to 7 feet (approx. 2 meters) deep with several entrances.<\/p>\nAntelope<\/p>\nSeveral antelope-like creatures are referred to in the Scriptures. One seems to be the white oryx (Oryx leucoryx),<\/em> referred to in Deuteronomy 14:5 (kjv<\/span> “wild ox”; rsv<\/span> “antelope”) and Isaiah 51:20 (kjv<\/span> “wild bull”; RSV <\/span>“antelope”). The oryx was probably the antelope, commonly used for food because its long horns made it relatively easy to catch.<\/p>\nAnother antelope mentioned in the Bible is the addax (Addax nasomaculatus),<\/em> probably the “pygarg” of Deuteronomy 14:5 (kjv<\/span>). It is a native of North Africa with grayish white hinder parts, a white patch on the forehead, and twisted and ringed horns. The word “pygarg” comes from a Greek word meaning “white rump.” The addax is about the size of a donkey. Its body is closely covered with short hair. It has a short mane on the underside of its neck that makes the head look somewhat like that of a goat. The hooves are broad and flat, and the tail resembles that of a donkey. It is common in Africa and in Arabia, where Arabs hunt it with falcons and dogs.<\/p>\nAntelopes are very graceful and run with their heads held high. Both sexes have long, permanent, hollow horns. With the oryx the horns go straight back; addax horns are twisted and ringed. Antelope are alert, wary, and keen sighted. They are usually found in herds of from two to a dozen. If injured or brought to bay, an antelope attacks with its head lowered so that the sharp horns point forward. Antelopes feed on grasses and shrubs, drinking from streams and water holes. When water is scarce, they eat melons and succulent bulbs. Both addax and oryx were ceremonially clean in Jewish law.<\/p>\nApe<\/p>\nPrimate not native to Palestine. The two references to apes in the OT (1 Kgs 10:22; 2 Chr 9:21) refer to their importation by King Solomon with other treasures on board the ships of his mercantile fleet. There is some question concerning the origin of those primates. Some believe that the mention of “ivory” in the same verses suggests they came from East Africa and that they were indeed apes, that is, tailless primates. Others, believing they came from India or Ceylon, suggest that they were actually monkeys. There the baboon (genus Papeio), a large monkey, was considered sacred to the god Thoth. Males of that genus were kept in temples, and the more docile females were often kept as house pets. Such baboons frequently had some of their teeth removed or ground down to lessen the danger of their biting. A number of mummified baboons have been found in Egypt, indicating the high regard in which they were held.<\/p>\nAsp<\/p>\nPoisonous snake. Most biblical references to the asp (Dt 32:33) seem to be to the Egyptian cobra (Naja haje),<\/em> which conceals itself in holes, walls, and rocks and has the ability to expand its neck by raising its anterior ribs so as to enlarge the front of its breast into the shape of a flat disc. Its potent poison can cause death in 30 minutes. It attains a length of about 80 inches (2 meters). The fangs are permanently erect, not movable as in the vipers (the common poisonous snakes of North America; only the coral snake in America has permanently erect fangs). Cobra poison attacks the nervous system, causing muscular paralysis. The Egyptians looked upon it as a sacred creature; they regarded it as a protector since it fed on the rodents that ate their crops. The “fiery serpents” (Nm 21:6; Dt 8:15, both rsv<\/span>) may have been cobras; “fiery” probably refers to the burning fever caused by their venom. Isaiah 14:29 and 30:6 (“flying serpent”) may refer to the hood of the cobra.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Snake (below).<\/p>\nAss<\/p>\nSee<\/em> Donkey (below).<\/p>\nBadger<\/p>\nSmall hoofed mammal. What the kjv<\/span> calls a “coney,” modern translations name “rock badger” (Lv 11:5; Dt 14:7; Ps 104:18; Prv 30:26). The rock badger spoken of in the Bible is probably the Syrian rock hyrax (Hyrax syriaca),<\/em> the only species of hyrax found outside Africa. This small ungulate (having hooflike toenails) lives among rocks from the Dead Sea valley to Mt Hermon. It is strictly a herbivorous (plant-eating) animal about the size of a rabbit. It resembles a guinea pig more than a rabbit, having quite inconspicuous ears and a very small tail. It has broad nails with four toes on its forelegs and three on its hind legs, the toes being connected with skin almost like a web. Pads acting as sucking discs under its feet enable it to keep its footing on slippery rocks. With its yellow and brown fur, it is sometimes called the bear rat because of its resemblance to a tailless rat. It is also equipped with black whiskers that may be seven inches (17.8 centimeters) long.<\/p>\nThese rock badgers, or hyraxes, live together in colonies of from 6 to 50 animals, often sunning themselves on rocks. They are difficult to catch. Guards are posted, and if approaching danger is sighted, the whole group will scurry for cover, warned by the sharp whistles of the guards. Thus they are commended for taking refuge in the rocks (Ps 104:18) and are called wise for making “their houses in the rocks” (Prv 30:24, 26, kjv<\/span>). The badger is not a ruminant (does not chew its cud), but the motion of its jaws may suggest that it chews its cud. That is probably why it was included with other cud-chewing animals in the Jewish food laws (Lv 11:5; Dt 14:7). It was forbidden to the Jews as food because it did not have cloven hooves. Some Arabs eat and even prize its meat.<\/p>\nBat<\/p>\nFlying mammals according to modern classification. They have hair and provide milk for their young. The Bible classifies them with other aerial creatures. Bats take shelter in caves, crevices, tree cavities, buildings, and also in exposed places on trees. In colder areas they hibernate or migrate. The normal resting position for a bat is hanging head downward. Bats “swim” through the air rather than fly because they move with their legs as well as with their wings.<\/p>\nThe bat’s thumb is free and terminates in a single hook claw used for climbing and hanging. The hind feet have five toes, all pointing the same way. The large chest accommodates the powerful muscles needed for flying. Because they orient themselves by echo location, the sense of hearing is very well developed.<\/p>\nMost bats are insect eaters, seizing insects in flight. Many insectivorous bats also eat some fruit. Other bats feed exclusively, usually in groups, on fruit and green vegetation. Fruit-eating bats generally live in the tropics where fruit is constantly ripening, although some have been found in the Holy Land. These bats tend to be larger than the insectivores, having a wingspread of up to five feet (1.5 meters).<\/p>\nA third group includes flower-eating bats that feed on pollen and nectar. These small bats with long pointed heads and long tongues are found only in tropical and semitropical regions. Three species of vampire bats, which do not occur in the Holy Land, eat blood by making a small incision and lapping it up. Carnivorous (meat-eating) bats prey on birds, lizards, and frogs. Fish-eating bats catch fish at or near the water surface.<\/p>\nEight varieties of bats are known in the Holy Land. One of them, the little brown bat (genus Myotis<\/em>), is worldwide in its distribution. It is insectivorous and probably has the widest distribution of any nonhuman terrestrial mammal. Brown bats are mostly cave dwellers. The females form maternity colonies that may number in the tens of thousands.<\/p>\nTwo species of mouse-tailed bats (genus Rhinopoma<\/em>) are found in the Holy Land. Their tails are nearly as long as the head and body combined. They are colonial, roosting in caves, rock clefts, wells, pyramids, palaces, and houses. Like the brown bat, they are insectivorous. The slit-faced or hollow-faced bats (genus Nycteris<\/em>) are also found in the Holy Land. They are insectivorous and roost in groups from 6 to 20.<\/p>\nThe bats found in the Holy Land vary in size from that of a mouse to the size of a rat; the largest species measures more than 20 inches (51 centimeters) across the wings. The bat was unclean to the Jews (Lv 11:19; Dt 14:18).<\/p>\nBear<\/p>\nLarge, heavy, big-headed mammal with short, powerful limbs, a short tail, and small eyes and ears. Bears have a “plantigrade” walk: they walk on both the sole and heel as humans do. The Palestinian bear is a Syrian version of the brown bear (Ursus arctos syriacus).<\/em> It can grow to a height of 6 feet (1.8 meters) and may weigh as much as 500 pounds (227 kilograms).<\/p>\nBears have an excellent sense of smell but less developed senses of sight and hearing. They are omnivorous (eating any kind of food); they subsist largely on vegetation, fruits, insects, and fish.<\/p>\nBears are usually peaceful and inoffensive, but if they think they must defend themselves (Lam 3:10) or their young (2 Sm 17:8; Prv 17:12; Hos 13:8), they may be formidable and dangerous adversaries. David boasted of his role as a bear killer (1 Sm 17:34-37). Since a blow from a bear’s paw can be fatal, David’s courage and strength as a young shepherd in running after a bear and wrenching one of his father’s sheep from its jaws were noteworthy.<\/p>\nSome biblical passages seem to imply that bears attacked for no apparent reason (e.g., Prv 28:15; Am 5:19). At other times they were God’s instruments of punishment, as in the story of Elisha and the two she-bears (2 Kgs 2:24). The bear and the lion, often mentioned together in the Bible (1 Sm 17:37), were the two largest and strongest beasts of prey in the Holy Land. Thus they symbolized both strength and terror (Am 5:19).<\/p>\nIn biblical times bears seem to have roamed all over Palestine. Today they are found only in the Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon Mountains, and even there they are rare.<\/p>\nBee<\/p>\nOne of two domesticated insects (Apis mellifica),<\/em> the other being the silkworm. Bees gather nectar from flowers, transferring pollen from one flower to another in the process. It is believed that they convey the location of sources of nectar to other bees through a bee “dance,” which may indicate both distance and direction. Bees are sensitive to four colors: blue-green, yellow-green, blue-violet, and ultra-violet (invisible to humans).<\/p>\nThe wild bees of the Holy Land are especially noted for their ferocity in attack. Only the female “worker” bees sting people and animals, the virulence of their venom increasing in warm weather. A number of biblical passages allude to the irritable, vindictive nature of bees and to the painful stings they inflict (Dt 1:44; Ps 118:12; Is 7:18).<\/p>\nOne reference calls attention to the fact that in semidesert regions a dead animal’s carcass, stripped to the bone by jackals or vultures and dried in the sun, can provide wild bees an excellent place to start a new colony (Jgs 14:5-9).<\/p>\nThe Egyptians considered the bee sacred. In ancient Greece candles were made from beeswax. In the Holy Land, beekeeping was probably not practiced until the Hellenistic period (second century BC<\/span>), although Ezekiel 27:17 suggests that it may have been practiced earlier. If domestic honey was not available to the Hebrews, wild honey certainly was, and travelers would be on the lookout for caches of honey in rocky clefts and other likely places. The Philistines and the Hittites practiced beekeeping in their cities.<\/p>\nThe Bible contains many references to bees and bee products. A bee swarm was a valuable asset, though the price of honey itself was low. Honey was sometimes eaten with the honeycomb (Sg 5:1). Honey also had uses other than food, e.g., in embalming.<\/p>\nThe land of Israel was described as a land flowing with milk and honey. Honey was a major source of sweetening in the ancient Near East—hence, its importance (cf. Jgs 14:8-9). Actually the Hebrew word for “honey” may include not only bee honey but also the sweet syrup extracted from such fruits as figs, dates, and grapes. Thus “a land flowing with milk and honey” (Ex 3:8, rsv<\/span>) does not necessarily stand for a land of bees but for a land rich in sweetness.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Food and Food Preparation; Honey.<\/p>\nBehemoth<\/p>\nSee<\/em> Hippopotamus (below).<\/p>\nCamel<\/p>\nLarge beast of burden. Unintelligent, ill-natured, and quarrelsome, the camel (Camelus dromedarius)<\/em> is nevertheless a blessing to people living in the desert and on its borders because it is especially adapted to that habitat. It has been called the ship of the desert. Having thick elastic pads of fibrous tissue on its feet, it can walk on hot desert sands. It can go without water for long periods and can subsist on vegetation growing on the saline soils. The camel’s nostrils are pinched together and can be closed at will to prevent penetration of sand during violent sandstorms.<\/p>\nCamels are used for transporting both goods and people. A person riding a camel can cover from 60 to 75 miles (96.5 to 121 kilometers) in a day. A camel can carry a load weighing 600 pounds (272 kilograms) or more. Camels were used heavily in the spice trade (Gn 37:25) and traveled regularly in camel trains between Arabia, Egypt, and Assyria. They were also ridden in time of war (Jgs 6:5). A camel can even be hitched to a plow in areas where the land is cultivated.<\/p>\nThe hair shed by camels during the early spring is preserved and used in weaving cloth and making tents. As much as 10 pounds (4.5 kilograms) of hair can be obtained from one camel. A rough cloak of camel’s hair, as worn by John the Baptist (Mt 3:4), is still worn by Bedouins today. A camel’s hair garment was also the sign of the prophetic office (Zec 13:4).<\/p>\nTwo varieties of camel occur within the one-humped species, the slow burden-bearing camel referred to in Genesis 37:25 and the fast dromedary of 1 Samuel 30:17. The dromedary can stand seven feet (2.1 meters) tall and measure as much as nine feet (2.7 meters) from the muzzle to the tip of the tail. With its three-chambered stomach, which can hold from 15 to 30 quarts (14.2 to 28.4 liters) of liquid, it can go for as long as 5 days during the summer or 25 days in winter without drinking. The camel’s hump is a reserve store of fat, making it possible for the animal to subsist on very little food during a desert journey.<\/p>\nAnother species of camel, the Bactrian camel (Camelus bactrianus),<\/em> is also resident in the Holy Land. It has two humps. It is heavier, bigger, and has longer hair than the one-humped camel and is slower than the swift dromedary. Isaiah 21:7 may refer to the Bactrian camel; both kinds of camel are referred to in Esther 8:10 (kjv<\/span>). Camels ranked in importance with sheep, cattle, and asses in OT times. A third of the 66 biblical references to the camel lists it with other animals.<\/p>\nCamels are ruminants (cud-chewing mammals) but do not have cloven hooves. Thus, they were included in the list of unclean beasts, forbidden by the Israelites as food (Lv 11:4; Dt 14:7). They are eaten by Arabs, however, who also drink their milk (cf. Gn 32:15).<\/p>\nAbraham had camels in Egypt (Gn 12:16). At first Job had 3,000 camels (Jb 1:3) and after his recovery, 6,000 (Jb 42:12). Although wide use of camels does not seem to have begun until shortly before 1000 BC<\/span> (Jgs 6:5), Sumerian texts from the Old Babylonian period list camels and indicate that they had been domesticated. Camel bones and figurines have been found at various eastern archaeological sites dating from well before 1200 BC<\/span>.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Travel.<\/p>\nCaterpillar<\/p>\nLarval stage of insects characterized by complete metamorphosis. Such insects pass through four stages: egg, larva or caterpillar, pupa, and adult. Bees, flies, moths, and butterflies all pass through a larval or caterpillar stage.<\/p>\nThe word “caterpillar” occurs three times in the nlt<\/span> (1 Kgs 8:37; 2 Chr 6:28; Ps 78:46). In the book of Joel that same Hebrew word is translated “locust” (1:4; 2:25, nlt<\/span>). The locust and grasshopper to which the Hebrew word refers have an incomplete type of metamorphosis with only three stages: egg, nymph, and adult. The nymph is a miniature adult in which the wings are not fully developed, though their outline may be present. There are several nymph stages known as instars. The reference is to one of the last instars, in which the wing structures are still folded together and enclosed in a sac but are nevertheless clearly recognizable. That form of the insect is about an inch (2.5 centimeters) long.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Locust (below).<\/p>\nCattle<\/p>\nDomestic animals of the bovine species (Bos primigenius).<\/em> The OT often emphasized the beauty of cattle. Egypt was rich in cattle, especially in the Nile River delta area (Goshen), where the Hebrews settled under Joseph.<\/p>\nSome scholars believe that milk rather than meat was the foremost consideration in the domestication of cattle and that in early civilizations meat supplies came chiefly from wild game. Cattle also supplied strong hides that supplanted wood in the manufacture of shields. Their dung was a source of fuel when wood was scarce (Ez 4:15). They were used as beasts of burden and for plowing. Development of wheeled transportation was associated more closely with cattle than with any other animal.<\/p>\nThe biblical term “cattle” often refers to all domesticated animals or livestock (Gn 1:24; 2:20; 7:23; 47:6, 16-17; Ex 9:3-7; Nm 3:41, 45). Occasionally, the term was used to refer to all large domestic animals (Nm 31:9; 32:26), although sometimes the word as used in the kjv<\/span> refers only to sheep and goats (Gn 30:32, 39, 43; 31:8, 10; Is 7:25; 43:23).<\/p>\nProbably several kinds of cattle were domesticated in the Holy Land. Small, short-legged, black or brown shorthorn cattle were found in the southern part of Judah; that type submitted easily to the yoke and was prominent in agricultural operations. Along the coast a larger variety was found, and the wild districts east of the Jordan River were populated with a breed of huge black cattle.<\/p>\nCattle breeding was widely practiced by the patriarchs (cf. Gn 32:15; Jb 21:10). Strict laws in Mesopotamia, as well as in Israel, penalized the owner of a bull that gored a man or other cattle (Ex 21:28-36). Bulls were sometimes employed figuratively as pictures of strength or violence (Dt 33:17; Pss 22:12; 68:30; Is 10:13). For breeding purposes one bull is normally adequate for about 30 cows, but many more were kept since bulls were widely used in Israel for sacrifices. They might be used as a general sacrifice (Lv 22:23; Nm 23:1) or for special sacrifices (Jgs 6:25; 1 Sm 1:24). Particular sacrifices were offered at the consecration of priests (Ex 29:1), consecration of an altar (Nm 7), purification of the Levites (Nm 8), sin offerings (Lv 16), day of the new moon (Nm 28:11-14), Passover (Nm 28:19), Feast of Weeks (Nm 28:27), Feast of Trumpets (Nm 29:1-2), Day of Atonement (Nm 29:7-9), and the Feast of Tabernacles (Nm 29:12-38). The Feast of Tabernacles required the largest number of bulls for burnt offerings of all the annual feasts, with a total of 71 being slaughtered during the course of eight days.<\/p>\nCalves were sometimes referred to as “sons of the herd” in the original Hebrew (Gn 18:8; 1 Sm 6:7; 14:32). The calf, a symbol of peacefulness (Is 11:6), was also used figuratively to refer to the weak (Ps 68:30). A calf’s head decorated the back of Solomon’s throne (1 Kgs 10:19). Calves were sometimes fattened in stalls to keep them from running off weight in the field (Am 6:4; Mal 4:2; Lk 15:23) or were kept around the house; the witch of Endor kept a calf in her house that she killed and served to Saul and his men (1 Sm 28:24-25). Calves supplied veal (Gn 18:7), considered a delicacy by the wealthy; Amos referred to stall-fattened calves in a denunciation of luxurious and careless living (Am 6:4). Calves also supplied meat for all Saul’s armies at the great slaughter of the Philistines (1 Sm 14:32). The “fatted calf” served roasted or boiled was gourmet fare, suitable for the finest banquet (Gn 18:7; Mt 22:4; Lk 15:23).<\/p>\nCattle were subject to the law of firstlings (Ex 13:12). They were a mark of wealth (Gn 13:2) and were considered proper booty of war (Jos 8:2). Aaron, the first high priest, made a golden calf as a rival to the ark of the covenant (Ex 32; Dt 9:16, 21). Even though he represented the calf as an image of the invisible God, it was especially offensive because the calf was a fertility symbol related to Egyptian and Canaanite practices. Two calves were later made by Jeroboam I of Israel (930–909 BC<\/span>) for his shrines at Bethel and Dan (1 Kgs 12:28-33). Hosea’s prophetic denunciations of calf worship were directed at those shrines (Hos 8:5-6; 13:2).<\/p>\nAn ox is an adult castrated bull. A steer is a young ox. Oxen were used to do work (Nm 7:3; Dt 22:10; 25:4), though for moving heavy objects, cows were typically favored over bulls because of their more docile nature. Oxen were also used as pack animals (1 Chr 12:40, although they did not have the endurance of the ass, camel, or mule. They usually fed on grass (Nm 22:4; Ps 106:20), but they also ate straw (Is 11:7) and salted fodder (Is 30:24) and could be kept in a stable (Lk 13:15). Oxen could not be offered as sacrifices because they had been castrated (Lv 22:24). They could be used for food but were rarely eaten. Possession of an ox and an ass was regarded as the bare minimum for existence in the ancient Palestinian agriculture economy (Jb 24:3; cf. Ex 20:17).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Agriculture; Food and Food Preparation; Offerings and Sacrifices.<\/p>\nChameleon<\/p>\nLizard characterized by its ability to change color according to its surroundings (Chameleon vulgaris).<\/em> To the Israelites the chameleon was ritually unclean (Lv 11:30). The Hebrew word for chameleon is derived from a word meaning “to pant.” A lizard’s lungs are very large, and in ancient times lizards were believed to live on air. A chameleon’s eyes move independently of each other; so at times one eye may be turned upward and the other downward. Chameleons live in trees and bushes, clinging to branches with their long tails.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Lizard (below).<\/p>\nCoral<\/p>\nCalcareous (lime-containing) skeletons of relatively simple marine organisms (Corallium rubrum).<\/em> Red coral from the Mediterranean and Red Seas is widely used for jewelry and for medicinal purposes. While the animal is alive, the coral is green in color and shrublike in appearance, looking rather like an underwater plant since the coral animals are immobil. When the coral is removed from the water, it becomes hard and red in color.<\/p>\nIn ancient times coral was sometimes used as money, along with precious stones, pearls, and gold. Some believe the biblical reference in Lamentations 4:7 (rsv<\/span>) is to pearls rather than to coral, but it is probable that the references in Job 28:18 and Ezekiel 27:16 are to the red coral (see nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nCricket<\/p>\nInsect of the order Orthptera related to grasshoppers and locusts. According to Leviticus 11:22, the cricket was edible. The reference may be to one of the growth stages of the locust.<\/p>\nThe kjv<\/span> translates the Hebrew word as “beetle.” Beetles are insects with chewing mouth parts and two pairs of wings, the fore pair being hard and sheathlike and the hind pair being membranous and folded under the fore pair. Some beetles are carnivorous, others are chiefly herbivorous. Some are aquatic, some produce a secretion that blisters the skin, some damage fabrics, some damage crops, and some feed on other insects that are harmful to humans. In ancient Egypt the beetle, or sacred scarab, was a symbol of the sun god Ra. Scarab seals and amulets were extremely popular in Egypt.<\/p>\nCrocodile<\/p>\nLargest of all existing reptiles (Crocodilus vulgaris),<\/em> attaining a length of well over 20 feet (6 meters). Crocodiles are characterized by large lizardlike bodies supported by short legs. The head terminates in a flattened snout armed with strong conical teeth, each of which is implanted in a distinct socket. New teeth growing from beneath continually replace those in use. The toes are webbed. The back and tail are protected by quadrangular horny shields of varying sizes arranged in regular rows and in contact with one another at the edges. The eyes are covered with movable lids that can be closed when the animal enters the water.<\/p>\nThe crocodile spends most of its time in the water where it feeds mainly on fish but also on aquatic birds and even small animals that come down to the water’s edge to drink. It is surprisingly fast and agile on dry land, even though its legs are so short that its belly and tail drag across the earth leaving a distinct path.<\/p>\nUntil the beginning of the 20th century, the crocodile was found in the marshes and small coastal rivers of western Palestine. A first-century Roman writer, Pliny, referred to a place in the Holy Land called Crocodeilopolis (“crocodile city”) to the south of Mt Carmel, and visitors to the Holy Land as late as the 19th century reported seeing crocodiles in that general region.<\/p>\nThe description of “Leviathan” in Job 41 seems to be based on the crocodile (thus the translation of the nlt<\/span>). The “dragon” of Ezekiel 29:3, used figuratively of the Egyptian pharaoh, may be a reference to the crocodile.<\/p>\nDeer<\/p>\nLarge ruminant (cud-chewing) animals. Only the males have antlers (branching horns). Deer antlers grow annually and are solid, in contrast to those of the antelope and the gazelle. Fully developed antlers are devoid of any covering of skin or horn and, for all practical purposes, may be regarded as a mass of dead bone carried for a certain time by the living animal.<\/p>\nThe end of the deer’s muzzle is naked in all species. The stomach is divided into a series of compartments, some of which are used to store partly chewed food. The food is later regurgitated, rechewed, and finally swallowed into a section of the stomach where true digestion takes place.<\/p>\nThree species of deer were known in Palestine: the red deer (Cervus elaphus),<\/em> the Persian fallow deer (Dama mesopotamica),<\/em> and the roe deer (Capreolus capreolus).<\/em> All are now extinct there. The last deer were hunted in the Holy Land in 1914. The red deer referred to in the Bible as “hart” (male), “stag” (male), or “hind” (female) stood about four feet (1.2 meters) high at the shoulder. It was gregarious (living in herds or flocks), each group remaining in a definite territory. Red deer grazed and browsed during the morning and late afternoon (Lam 1:6). The sexes remained in separate herds. The red deer was known for its leaping (Is 35:6) and sure-footedness in the mountains (Ps 18:33; Sg 2:8-9, 17; 8:14; Hb 3:19).<\/p>\nThe antlers of the Persian fallow deer (1 Kgs 4:23) were large, flattened, and palmated (shaped like an open palm with fingers extended), and its coat was a yellowbrown. It traveled in small groups, feeding mainly on grass in the morning and evening.<\/p>\nThe roe deer (Dt 14:5; 1 Kgs 4:23) was a small, graceful animal, dark reddish brown in summer and yellowish gray in winter. Its antlers were about a foot (30.5 centimeters) long and had three points. The roe deer preferred sparsely wooded valleys and the lower slopes of mountains, grazing in open grasslands. It usually associated in family groups made up of the doe and her offspring. They were shy, yet very curious. The roe deer barked like a dog when disturbed, and they were excellent swimmers.<\/p>\nThere is some question as to whether the roe deer is actually referred to in such passages as 1 Kings 4:23; references may be to the fallow deer, although that animal does not seem to have lived in the southern part of Palestine around the Sinai Desert because of its need for ample amounts of food and water. Fallow deer were found in northern Palestine.<\/p>\nThe hart (the male red deer) was listed among the clean beasts that Jewish law permitted as food (Dt 12:15, 22; 14:5), but deer were not listed among the animals appropriate for sacrifice. The hind (female red deer) normally gave birth to one calf at a time, though twins were born with some degree of regularity (Jb 39:1; Ps 29:9, kjv<\/span>; Jer 14:5). The gestation period was about 40 weeks. When it was about to give birth, the hind looked for a secure hiding place, preferably in the dense undergrowth of the forest where it could find natural protection for the tiny calf. During the first few days after birth, the mother never went far from her young. The fawn was able to stand on its own legs a few hours after birth. The solicitous care by the hind for her calf during the first days of its life is hinted at in a touching way in Jeremiah 14:4-5, where only a severe drought is said to drive the hind from her calf. Job 39:1-4 describes the calving of the hinds. The hind illustrated grace and charm (Gn 49:21; Prv 5:19), and its dark, gentle eyes and graceful limbs were used to describe the beauty of a woman (Prv 5:18-19).<\/p>\nDog<\/p>\nProbably the earliest domesticated animal (Canis familiaris),<\/em> used very early in hunting. The modern dog is believed to have come from the Indian wolf (Canis lupus pallipes).<\/em> The dogs of biblical times probably looked like a modern German shepherd, with short pointed ears, a pointed nose, and a long tail.<\/p>\nThe dog was generally looked down upon in biblical times (Prv 26:11; 2 Pt 2:22). The biblical writers did not share modern sentiments about dogs being man’s best friends. The dog was pictured as a scavenger, haunting streets and dumps (Ex 22:31; 1 Kgs 22:38; Mt 15:26; Lk 16:21). Human corpses could become the spoil of dogs (2 Kgs 9:35-36). In general, dogs served the same function as vultures and other birds of prey. Most of the 41 references in the Scriptures to dogs show strong disfavor. Dogs were considered cowardly, filthy creatures.<\/p>\nDogs used in hunting occur in paintings in Egyptian tombs, and there is a reference to dogs herding sheep in Job 30:1. One good quality of dogs highly esteemed by the Israelites was watchfulness (Is 56:10). In general, however, in biblical times “dog” was a term of contempt (1 Sm 17:43; 2 Sm 16:9) and was used of overly submissive persons (2 Sm 9:8; 2 Kgs 8:13) and of evil persons (Is 56:10-11; Mt 7:6; Phil 3:2; Rv 22:15).<\/p>\nDogs, like pigs, were voracious and omnivorous (eating any kind of food). In response to a Gentile woman’s request that he heal her daughter, Jesus used the metaphor of throwing household food scraps to dogs (Mt 15:22-28; Mk 7:25-30). At the time of Jesus, the word “dog” was a standard Jewish term of contempt for Gentiles who, like dogs, were considered unclean, although the diminutive form of the word, used by Jesus, softened this considerably. Seeing her faith, Jesus granted the woman’s request, giving a non-Jew some of “the children’s bread.”<\/p>\nDonkey<\/p>\nBeast of burden. The donkey of the Holy Land (Equus asinus)<\/em> was quite different from the European donkey of today, which is usually a small, stubborn animal. In biblical times the donkey was a beautiful, stately, friendly animal. Its color was usually reddish brown. Three wild races have been described, all from Africa. The race from northwest Africa is extinct; the one from northeast Africa, if not extinct, is close to extinction; the Somalian race, which survives, did not play an important part in domestication. The northeast African race, the Nubian donkey, was evidently domesticated in the Nile River region in early historic times. The donkey was used as a mount from the time of domestication on. It is first mentioned in the Bible among the animals that Abraham acquired in Egypt (Gn 12:16). The donkey was primarily a beast of burden, driven but not bridled. From the time of the Middle Kingdom on (c. 2040 BC<\/span>), it was used for riding in Egypt, but only the Jews and Nubians rode donkeys regularly. The donkey was also used for threshing grain and for pulling the plow. In Arab countries today peasants plow with a donkey and a cow or camel hitched together. In Israel the law forbade plowing with a donkey and an ox hitched together (Dt 22:10). Until the time of Solomon (960 BC<\/span>), horses were not used in Palestine. From that time on, the horse was ridden by warriors; the donkey was used by those who were traveling peaceably.<\/p>\nThe donkey was held in high regard by the Jews and was considered an economic asset. An individual had to have a donkey for minimum existence (Jb 24:3), and wealth was frequently counted by the number of donkeys one possessed (Gn 12:16; 24:35). The donkey was considered an acceptable gift (Gn 32:13-15). It was allowed to rest on the Sabbath (Dt 5:14). Women in biblical times often used the donkey as a riding animal (Jos 15:18; 1 Sm 25:23; 2 Kgs 4:24); often a special driver would help a woman guide the animal, running along at its side. If a married couple possessed only one donkey, the husband usually walked alongside while the wife rode (Ex 4:20).<\/p>\nThe people of Israel returning from Babylon had ten times as many donkeys as horses and camels (Ezr 2:66-67; Neh 7:68-69). Job’s wealth was indicated by the fact that he had 500 she-donkeys before catastrophe hit him (Jb 1:3); after his recovery he had 1,000 donkeys (Jb 42:12). Joseph’s brothers used donkeys to transport the grain they purchased in Egypt (Gn 42:26; 43:24). Abigail transported food on donkeys to David and his troops during their conflict with Saul (1 Sm 25:18). David assigned one of the 12 managers of his royal estates to look after his donkeys exclusively (1 Chr 27:30).<\/p>\nThe onager, or Syrian wild donkey (Equus hemionus hemihippus)<\/em>, is an intermediate between the true horse and the true donkey. Its ears are longer than those of a horse but shorter than those of a donkey. The front hooves are narrow; there are chestnuts (callouslike spots on the inside of the knees) on the front legs only, and the tail is short haired for a long distance from its root so that it appears to be tufted.<\/p>\nThe Sumerians (ancient Mesopotamians) were able to domesticate the onager, which was eventually replaced by the horse. It was used to draw chariots in Ur; a number of onagers were buried with their vehicles in a royal grave that dates from about 2500 BC<\/span>. Later the wild onager was a favorite hunter’s prize for Babylonian and Assyrian kings.<\/p>\nThe onager was very common in the steppe lands near Israel, where it was described as a freedom-loving desert animal (Jb 24:5; 39:5-8; Ps 104:11; Is 32:14; Jer 2:24; Hos 8:9). Ishmael was described as “free and untamed as a wild donkey” (Gn 16:12, nlt<\/span>)—that is, one who could not adjust to domestic life. Drought seems to have been responsible for the population decline of the onager in biblical times (Jer 14:6). The modern onager (Equus hemionus onager)<\/em> is slightly larger than the Syrian wild donkey that is extinct.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Travel.<\/p>\nDragon<\/p>\nAny one of a number of monstrous land and sea creatures. In biblical usage, “dragon” does not refer to the huge, fire-breathing, winged reptile of European folklore. The translators of the kjv<\/span> used the term to translate two Hebrew words that are usually rendered more precisely in modern translations. One word referred to desert animals; most scholars agree with the niv<\/span> that “jackals” is its proper meaning (Ps 44:19; Is 13:22; Jer 9:11; Mal 1:3). See<\/em> Jackal (below).<\/p>\nThe other Hebrew word translated “dragon” is harder to define. It was frequently used in reference to serpents (so translated in the rsv<\/span>: Ex 7:9-12; Dt 32:33; Ps 91:13). In other rsv<\/span> passages it is translated “sea monster” (Gn 1:21; Jb 7:12; Ps 148:7). The exact identity of such sea monsters is not known. Several rsv<\/span> passages retain the English “dragon.” In two of them (Ps 74:13; Is 27:1), the context indicates that sea monsters are meant. In three others (Is 51:9; Ez 29:3; 32:2) “dragon” seems to refer to the crocodile, a figurative reference to the Egyptian pharaoh at the time of the exodus. Jeremiah 51:34 (translated “monster” in the rsv<\/span>) may also refer to a voracious creature such as a crocodile. See<\/em> Crocodile (above).<\/p>\nBabylonian myths described monsters and dragons in primordial conflict with the god Marduk; they represented the principle of evil. In its figurative usages in Scripture, “dragon” has a similar significance, especially in the prophetic books. In the book of Revelation it is a symbol of Satan, the archenemy of God and his people (Rv 12:3-17; 13:2, 4, 11; 16:13; 20:2).<\/p>\nFish<\/p>\nAquatic animals frequently mentioned in the Bible without names or descriptions that enable us to identify the particular species. Since time immemorial, fish have constituted one of the staple foods of humanity, and they still serve as the chief source of protein in many parts of the world. The trade in fish was highly developed in biblical times. For example, one of the gates in Jerusalem was called the Fish Gate (Neh 3:3; Zep 1:10). The law in Leviticus 11:9-12 permitted the Jews to eat fish, but only those having both fins and scales. Scaleless fish such as catfish were forbidden, even though they had fins.<\/p>\nEgyptian paintings depict various methods of fishing, and the Philistines fished in the Mediterranean Sea. Since the people of Israel were not a seafaring nation, it is safe to assume that most of their fish came from freshwater lakes and rivers, especially the Sea of Galilee. Some 36 species of fish have been identified in that lake, including varieties of perch, carp, barbel, “sardine,” and catfish.<\/p>\nThe method of fishing characteristic of NT times was the dragnet. After a boat had put out into the deep (Lk 5:4), a large net would be thrown out from it and then dragged toward shore by the rowers in the boat, possibly with the help of a crew in another boat. The catch was sorted out on shore (Mt 13:47-48). Fishing was usually carried out at night when the coolness of the water brought fish closer to the surface and when they could not see the approaching nets.<\/p>\nThe Jews also fished by hook and line (Mt 17:27), a few by spear (Jb 41:7), and some by the throw net (Ez 47:10). Habakkuk refers to hook-and-line fishing, netting, and seining (1:15).<\/p>\nVery early in the history of the Christian church the fish became a symbol for Christ and the faith. It was scratched on the walls of Roman catacombs and may be seen today decorating walls, altars, pews, and vestments. The symbol came into use because the Greek word for “fish” (<\/em>ichthus<\/span>)<\/em> is composed of the first letter of each word in the Greek phrase “Jesus Christ, Son of God, Savior.” See<\/em> Whale (below).<\/p>\nFlea<\/p>\nTiny, irritating insect (1 Sm 24:14; 26:20, nlt<\/span>). Many species of fleas occur in Palestine, the most common being Pulex irritans.<\/em> About a thousand species are known around the world. Fleas are wingless parasites that have sharp jaws and suck out blood from the bodies of humans and animals. The body is wedge shaped, enabling the flea to burrow into folds of skin and hide there. The eggs, laid by the female in dust heaps in the corners of rooms, hatch into small, white larvae that pupate (a nonfeeding stage) in a cocoon. Soon adult fleas appear that immediately attach themselves to the body of a host. The female requires blood for the development of her eggs.<\/p>\nA flea bite is painful and causes some swelling and itching. Fleas are attracted by warmth. With favorable moisture and temperature, adult fleas can live a year or longer without food, but they are voracious feeders. The most dangerous fleas are those of the rat that transmit the organism responsible for bubonic plague. There were 41 recorded epidemics of bubonic plague before the Christian era.<\/p>\nFly<\/p>\nInsects of the order Diptera, which have one pair of wings. Many winged insects of other orders, however, are also called flies, such as the dragonfly or butterfly.<\/p>\nAs in almost all parts of the world, flies are abundant in Palestine. One of the most numerous is the common housefly (Musca domestica),<\/em> found chiefly around dung heaps and garbage. The female lays her eggs, out of which emerge white maggots that feed on refuse. After a few days the maggot develops into a cocoon out of which emerges the adult housefly. In the summer the whole cycle lasts about 12 days, so that a fly can breed about 20 generations a year.<\/p>\nAnother fly common to Palestine is the botfly (family Oestridae). It causes much discomfort among livestock by irritating them and spreading diseases. Tabanid flies (family Tabanidae), including the horsefly (genus Tabanus<\/em>) and related species, are also found in Palestine. Both the botfly and horsefly are known as gadflies because of the persistent distress they inflict. Babylonian King Nebuchadnezzar is spoken of as a gadfly in view of his invasion of Egypt (Jer 46:20).<\/p>\nThe fourth plague in Egypt just before the exodus featured “swarms of flies” (Ex 8:21-31, nlt<\/span>; cf. Pss 78:45; 105:31). Those swarms may have been made up of any or all the flies mentioned above. The maggots mentioned in Job 25:6 and Isaiah 14:11 and the worms in Exodus 16:24 and Job 7:5 and 17:14 were probably fly larvae.<\/p>\nA proverb quoted in Ecclesiastes 10:1 probably refers to the housefly, which would be attracted to an open, perfumed ointment bottle. Once inside it would drown and eventually decay, causing the ointment to spoil and stink. The fly is also referred to in Isaiah 7:18 where it symbolizes Egypt. Isaiah may have had in mind a horsefly (Tabanus arenivagus)<\/em> that attacks both humans and animals.<\/p>\nPhilistine inhabitants of the city of Ekron worshiped a god named Baal-zebul, meaning “Lord of the high places.” The Hebrews mockingly spoke of Baal-zebub, meaning “Lord of the flies” (2 Kgs 1:2). The NT form is Beelzebub (e.g., Mt 10:25; 12:24, 27).<\/p>\nFox<\/p>\nSmall, doglike carnivore with a bushy tail that is about half its body length. The red fox of the Holy Land (Vulpes palaetinae)<\/em> is similar to the North American red fox; it is smaller than a wolf and is normally a nocturnal solitary animal. The omnivorous fox eats almost any kind of food—fruits, plants, mice, beetles, and birds—but seldom touches carrion. It loves the sweet juice of grapes, but it also burrows underground tunnels that can destroy the vines (Sg 2:15). The fox is intelligent and known for its slyness (Lk 13:32). It has considerable endurance and can run at speeds up to 30 miles (48 kilometers) per hour. The Jews rebuilding Jerusalem’s wall were taunted by the wisecrack that even a fox jumping on their wall would knock it over (Neh 4:3).<\/p>\nThe Egyptian fox (Vulpes niloticus)<\/em> is found in the central and southern parts of the Holy Land. It is somewhat smaller than the common red fox. Its back is rust colored and its belly light. The Syrian fox (Vulpes flavescens)<\/em> that lives in the northern part of the Holy Land is shiny gold in color.<\/p>\nSome OT references such as Psalm 63:10 and Lamentations 5:18 are translated “fox” in the kjv<\/span> but probably refer to jackals. Jackals, not foxes, hunt in packs and tend to act as scavengers.<\/p>\nFrog<\/p>\nAmphibian (genus Rana<\/em>), living part of its life in the water and part on land.<\/p>\nFrogs and toads are covered with soft, hairless skin and lack a tail in the adult stage. The hind legs are much longer and more powerfully developed than the forelegs so that the animals are able to jump large distances. It has been suggested that the frog referred to in Scripture is an edible one, Rana ridibunda,<\/em> one of the aquatic frogs found in Egypt and in the stagnant waters of the Holy Land.<\/p>\nThe female frog lays her eggs in the water; after about a week the eggs hatch into tadpoles. Gradually through metamorphosis the tail is lost and limbs are acquired. Frogs must maintain a moist skin since they take oxygen through the skin as well as through their lungs; thus they must always remain close to water. They feed on insects and worms.<\/p>\nFrogs are found throughout the Palestinian lowlands, where their croaking is heard in the spring and on summer evenings. The Israelites seem to have associated frogs primarily with sliminess and foulness. They fell into the category of creeping or swarming creatures, which in general were ritually unclean (Lv 11:29-31). Since the frog was not specifically listed, however, rabbis did not consider it one of the animals that defiled human beings through contact.<\/p>\nIn Revelation 16:13 certain foul spirits are said to look like frogs. The ancient Egyptians made the frog a symbol of life and birth and an image of Heqet, the patron goddess of birth. She is depicted with a frog’s head giving life to the newborn. Thus that deity was discredited when the power of God afflicted Egypt in the second of the ten plagues on the Egyptians with the very animal that was her symbol (Ex 8:1-14; Pss 78:45; 105:30). The frog in question may have been the spotted frog of Egypt (Rana punctata,<\/em> or Rana ridibunda).<\/em><\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Plagues upon Egypt.<\/p>\nGazelle<\/p>\nSmall, dainty, graceful antelope with hollow recurved horns on both sexes. Two varieties exist in the Holy Land, the dorcas gazelle (Gazella dorcas),<\/em> which is pale fawn in color and up to 22 inches (56 centimeters) tall, and the Arabian gazelle (Gazella arabica),<\/em> which is a dark smoky color and up to 25 inches (63.5 centimeters) tall.<\/p>\nGazelles are still quite common throughout the desert and steppe areas of the Holy Land, especially in the Negev Desert. Herds usually consist of from 5 to 10 animals, but some varieties assemble in large migratory herds in the fall to relocate to lower elevations and new feeding grounds. Gazelles are herbivorous (plant eating). They are very shy and post guards to warn the herd of approaching danger.<\/p>\nIn biblical times the gazelle was probably the game animal most hunted by the Jews (Prv 6:5; Is 13:14). Pharaoh Tutankhamen hunted gazelles and ostriches. The gazelle is said to have graced Solomon’s table (1 Kgs 4:23). Gazelles were not easy to catch because of their great speed (2 Sm 2:18; 1 Chr 12:8; Prv 6:5); they surpass the deer in swiftness. They were trapped in various ways—encircled with nets, driven into enclosures with pitfalls, or forced into narrow valleys and shot with arrows. The Bedouin hunt gazelle with falcons and dogs; the falcon annoys the gazelle, striking it on the head and injuring it so that the dogs can overtake it.<\/p>\nThe gazelle is referred to in Song of Songs 2:9, 17; 4:5; 7:3; 8:14, where it is an image of feminine beauty.<\/p>\nGecko<\/p>\nReptile of the family Gekkonidae, referred to in Leviticus 11:30. In Jewish food law it was a ritually unclean lizard. There are seven species of geckos in the Holy Land (including Hemidactylus turcicus<\/em> and Ptyodactylus hasselquistii,<\/em> all insectivorous—insect eating). The gecko makes a low mourning sound by vibrating its tongue rapidly against the roof of its mouth. In legend the gecko was said to cause leprosy by crawling across a person’s body.<\/p>\nAnother name for the gecko is the wall lizard, so named because it can walk upside down on ceilings with the aid of the suction discs on its toes—but it often plops down into the middle of the home. Since it was considered unclean, such an intrusion would have been a disgusting nuisance to Jewish households (Lv 11:31-38).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Lizard (below).<\/p>\nGnat<\/p>\nAny very small fly, in common and biblical usage. According to the nlt<\/span>, the third plague in Egypt before the exodus consisted of gnats (Ex 8:16-18; Ps 105:31). The kjv<\/span> translates the Hebrew word there as “lice,” but the breeding pattern described in Exodus 8—insects rising from the dust—seems to fit gnats better than lice. Since “gnat” is a general term, the small flies of that plague may have included several small species such as mosquitos, harvester gnats, midges, or sand flies.<\/p>\nThe sand fly inflicts a far more painful bite than the mosquito. Further, it does not betray itself by a buzzing noise in flight and is so small that it penetrates most mosquito netting.<\/p>\nGnats were drawn to wine while it was fermenting. The Pharisees in particular would strain their wine to avoid consuming unclean insects (Mt 23:24).<\/p>\nGoat<\/p>\nCloven-hooved mammals (genus Capra<\/em>) with large eyes and big, floppy ears that constantly twitch. Both males and females have backward arching horns. The Palestinian goat is a ruminant (cud-chewing animal) of lighter build than the sheep.<\/p>\nThe goat was probably the earliest ruminant to be domesticated. Its wild ancestor seems to have been the Gezoar goat (Capra aegagrus).<\/em> Wild goats are believed to have been domesticated very early in Palestine. The goat of Bible times was probably the Syrian or Mamber variety (Capra hircus mambrica).<\/em> Domesticated goats may have as many as four kids in a litter, whereas wild goats bear only one or two.<\/p>\nThe Palestinian goat was commonly black. Speckled and spotted goats were a rarity, and for that reason Jacob’s request for those goats in Genesis 30:32 appeared very modest. There may also have been red goats (cf. 1 Sm 16:12; 19:13, where goat’s hair was used to imitate David’s hair, which was “ruddy” or auburn).<\/p>\nAlmost every part of the goat was used by the Israelites. The whole goat was used for sacrifice. Its flesh served as meat (Lv 7:23; Dt 14:4), and it was the principal source of milk (Prv 27:27). Goats were sheared in the late spring, and the goat hair was used for weaving tent cloth and for various domestic purposes (Ex 36:14; 1 Sm 19:13, 16). The tabernacle at Mt Sinai was made of goat’s hair blankets (Ex 26:7).<\/p>\nAdult male goats were generally not eaten because of their strong flavor and toughness and also because they were necessary to insure the flock’s increase. Young kids, however, were usually the chief meat for a feast and were offered to visitors as a symbol of hospitality. Goat milk is richer than the milk of cows and sheep and evidently had broader uses. A good goat gives three quarts of milk a day, from which a rich butter and buttermilk can be made. The average Hebrew family could have lived almost entirely on a single goat’s production.<\/p>\nGoatskin was tanned as leather, and the whole hide was turned into a skin bottle by sewing shut leg and neck apertures (Gn 21:14; Jos 9:4). Goatskin had many uses, including the construction of Hebrew musical instruments. The nebal, a large harp, was made with goatskin for its base sound. Drums had goatskin coverings.<\/p>\nGoats were herded with sheep in biblical times, but each group remained separate following its own bell-laden leader. Jesus was evidently referring to their common herding in his description of the Last Judgment (Mt 25:31-46).<\/p>\nBecause of their wool, sheep are valued more than goats. However, where pasture and water are scarce and thorny shrubs dominate over grass, sheep are difficult to keep and goats become important. They can live under conditions that suit neither cows nor sheep, producing large quantities of milk. The goat does not supply fat as the sheep does, and since its hair is coarse its wool is rather scarce. Goat-hair cloth called cilicium was used to make tents.<\/p>\nGoats have voracious appetites. They also were responsible for much damage done to the land of Palestine, breaking down terraces, destroying forests, and bringing about soil erosion by eating off all cover.<\/p>\nThe goat was recognized as a form of wealth, subject to the law of firstlings (Nm 18:17). It had to be eight days old before it could be offered as a sacrifice. A year-old male goat was one of the animals offered at the Passover (28:22), and two goats were offered on the Day of Atonement (Lv 16:7-10). The goat was also used for other specific sacrifices.<\/p>\nThe ibex, a type of wild goat (Capra ibex nubiana),<\/em> still lives in small numbers on the cliffs close to the Dead Sea. That it was known in ancient times is evident from rock carvings. It is distinguished from the true wild goat by having a more compact rump and horns that are slender and curved back. Its slender legs and sharp cloven hooves enable it to cling to narrow rock ledges, to jump between them, and to climb steep cliffs.<\/p>\nUsually the ibex is found in rugged mountain country among rocky crags and meadows just below the snow line (Ps 104:18). In Job 39:1 they are referred to as “mountain goats.” They frequently gather in herds of 5 to 20. They graze and browse, being active in the afternoon and sometimes feeding through the night. The large horn of the ibex was at one period made into the shofar that was blown in the second Jerusalem temple to announce the new year and the jubilee year.<\/p>\nThe goat was often used in a figurative and symbolic sense by the writers of the Bible: in Song of Songs 4:1 and 6:5 for the bride’s black hair; in Matthew 25:31-46 for the wicked; and in Ezekiel 34:17 and Daniel 8:5-8 for various human leaders.<\/p>\nGrasshopper<\/p>\nLarge insects of the Orthoptera order. They have chewing or biting mouth parts and two pairs of wings, the front pair of which is narrow and somewhat thickened and the hind pair membranous and used for flying. When not in use the flight wings are folded beneath the protective front wings like a fan against the body. By rubbing their wings together, male grasshoppers produce sounds that both males and females can detect. Grasshoppers pass through a partial metamorphosis; the egg hatches into a juvenile nymph that looks like an adult except for its smaller size and undeveloped wings. After several months the nymph becomes a winged adult.<\/p>\nThe terms “grasshopper” and “locust” are often used interchangeably. Actually the locust is a kind of grasshopper. Also confusing is the fact that other insects such as cicadas are sometimes called locusts. The difference between grasshoppers and locusts depends more on behavior than appearance. Grasshoppers are individual insects that lead solitary lives and do not migrate. The same insects when migrating in a swarm are called migratory grasshoppers or locusts. Elimination of their food supply by drought, flood, or fire may lead to migration. Climatic factors such as a warm dry winter also stimulate migrations.<\/p>\nGrasshoppers and locusts have been a staple food in the Middle East and also among the Indians of the American Southwest. To the Israelites the grasshopper was considered ritually clean and could be eaten (Lv 11:22).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Locust (below).<\/p>\nHare<\/p>\nAnimal of the genus and species Lepus europaeus judaeus, Lepus capensis,<\/em> and Lepus arabicus.<\/em> It is found in open country, often near or on cultivated lands, and in woods, usually deciduous rather than evergreen. It is an herbivorous rodent and is different from the rabbit, which is not found in Palestine. Although it is not a true ruminant according to modern classification (because it does not have a four-chambered stomach), the hare does rechew its food. It has a process of partial regurgitation of material too hard for the cells in the stomach to absorb initially; thus, the hare actually chews food previously swallowed.<\/p>\nNear Eastern hares have very long ears and large hind feet; their feet are well furred. They are similar to American jackrabbits, which are true hares. Hares do not dig or occupy burrows the way rabbits do. Hares are mainly nocturnal and spend their inactive hours hiding in vegetation. They eat grasses and herbaceous matter as well as twigs and young bark of woody plants. Hares breed with great rapidity—the young attaining sexual maturity at six months after birth.<\/p>\nThe hare was ceremonially unclean (Lv 11:6; Dt 14:7), evidently because although it appeared to chew its cud, it did not have cloven hooves. Consumption of hares has also been forbidden among the Arabs, Chinese, and Lapps, but the hare was widely hunted by other people in ancient and modern times. Its great speed, prolific breeding, timidity, and caution have saved it from extermination by its many enemies.<\/p>\nHippopotamus<\/p>\nLarge beast of problematic interpretation. Some early interpreters thought it referred to the elephant, others to the wild ox, the mammoth, or any large animal. It was called “behemoth” by the kjv<\/span> translators. Today it is generally agreed that the reference is to the hippopotamus (Hippopotamus amphibius),<\/em> a large, thick-skinned, amphibious mammal, an ungulate (having hooflike toenails) with a large head, a bulky, hairless body, and short legs.<\/p>\nThe description in Job 40:15-24 fits closely the modern hippopotamus (see nlt<\/span>), except for the depiction of the tail. At present the hippopotamus is found only in the rivers of Africa, but there is fossil evidence that it has existed in the Holy Land, perhaps in the swamps of northern Galilee and the Jordan Valley.<\/p>\nThe hippopotamus has highly developed sense organs, placed in such a way that it can see, hear, and smell almost without being seen; its eyes, ears, and nostrils can reach above water while the rest of the animal lies submerged. It has a large mouth, large tusks, and a short, heavy throat. The strong legs are so short that the belly almost reaches the ground when the animal is on the land. The hippopotamus lives on plants and herbs growing in rivers, but if food is scarce there, it forages on land, usually at night. In spite of its heavy body it is surprisingly agile on land.<\/p>\nHorse<\/p>\nPrzewalski’s horse (Equus przewalskii,<\/em> an eastern race that roamed about Mongolia until modern firearms destroyed most of them after World War I) and the tarpan (a western race of southern Russia that became extinct in the Ukraine in 1851). The domesticated horse (Equus caballus)<\/em> seems to have been derived from the tarpan. The original site of domestication is believed to have been Turkestan, a region north of Afghanistan and India, now in Russia. The horse differs from the donkey in that it has shorter ears, a longer mane with a forelock, a long hairy tail, and a soft, sensitive muzzle.<\/p>\nHorses were used in war not only for riding but also for pulling the heavy, springless war chariots. Two kinds of horses were needed for these different purposes, and the Hebrews distinguished between chariot horses and cavalry horses.<\/p>\n\nThe Lord warned the early Israelites against unnecessarily amassing military strength in the form of horses and thereby following the oppressive tactics of the powerful Egyptians (Dt 17:14-16), but the demands of war caused both David and Solomon to import horses from Egypt into their kingdoms and to breed them. Solomon greatly increased the number of horses in the Jewish kingdom and maintained large stables at various cities (1 Kgs 10:26) such as the regional defense centers of Megiddo, Hazor, and Gezer (1 Kgs 9:15-19). Ahab’s horses are mentioned in 1 Kings 18:5, and records of Shalmaneser III state that Ahab furnished 2,000 chariots to a coalition against Assyria.<\/p>\nIn early Israel, the horse was opposed as a symbol of pagan luxury and of dependence on physical power for defense (Dt 17:16; 1 Sm 8:11; Ps 20:7; Is 31:1). Horse trading, mentioned as early as Genesis 47:17, was carried on by Solomon between Egypt and the Syro-Hittite principalities (1 Kgs 10:28-29). Most biblical references to horses refer to their use in war, but horses were also used for transportation. Riding seems to have been less popular than the use of chariots. Cavalry units were not introduced until the 12th century BC<\/span> by the Medes. Joseph rode in Pharaoh’s second horse-drawn chariot (Gn 41:43), and Absalom made a display by riding a horse-drawn chariot (2 Sm 15:1). Naaman traveled by horse and chariot (2 Kgs 5:9). Later, horses were so common in Jerusalem that the royal palace had a special horse gate (2 Chr 23:15), and a gate of the city itself was known as the Horse Gate (Neh 3:28; Jer 31:40). Mordecai rode a royal horse of King Xerxes as a sign of honor (Est 6:8-11). Horses are often spoken of figuratively (Ps 32:9; “mare,” Sg 1:9; “stallions,” Jer 5:8; 12:5), especially in the context of judgment (Hb 3:8; Zec 1:8; 6:1-8; Rv 6:2-8; 9:17; 19:11-16).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Warfare; Travel.<\/p>\nHyena<\/p>\nStocky carnivore (Hyaena hyaena)<\/em> with coarse hair, an erect mane, and long hairs along the neck and back. Hyenas live in holes among rocks and banks. They are mainly nocturnal but are ordinarily neither noisy nor aggressive. Their cry, however, is a disagreeable, unearthly sound. Hyenas usually feed on carrion, crushing bones with their powerful jaws. If the carrion supply is inadequate, they will kill sheep, goats, or other small animals. When threatened, hyenas growl and erect their mane, but they rarely fight. They are massively built with forelegs longer than the hind legs.<\/p>\nKnown as scavengers in Africa, hyenas eat domestic refuse in the villages. In Palestine the striped hyena is a common predator, preferring rocky territory and even rock tombs. Since hyenas were notorious for raiding the graves of the dead, all Israelites who could afford it arranged for burial in tombs protected by massive stone doors. Absalom, King David’s son who was killed by Joab in the wild, was buried under a huge pile of stones to protect his corpse from molestation by hyenas (2 Sm 18:17).<\/p>\nJackal<\/p>\nCarnivore (Canis aureus)<\/em> smaller than the true wolf and with a shorter tail. It is similar to the fox but has a broader head, shorter ears, and longer legs. The fox is solitary; the jackal tends to be gregarious. Its tail can be drooping or erect, compared with the long horizontal tail of the fox. Jackals usually prowl at night, either singly, in pairs, or in packs through open savannah country. They eat small mammals, poultry, fruit, vegetables, and carrion. They spend their days in thickets and clumps of vegetation. Often they obtain scraps from kills by larger carnivores. Jackals can run at speeds of about 33 miles (53 kilometers) per hour.<\/p>\nThe jackal can reach a height of about 20 inches (51 centimeters), roughly the size of a German shepherd dog. Its back is pale yellow with dark, almost black, flanks. Its lips are black and its ears white on the inside. The howl of the jackal sounds like the crying of a child or the heartrending wail of the bereaved (Mi 1:8; cf. Jb 30:29). To other jackals the howl is merely an invitation calling the pack together for its nocturnal hunting.<\/p>\nOT references are chiefly to jackals prowling around ruined cities and wilderness areas (Neh 2:13; Ps 44:19; Is 13:22; 34:13; 35:7; Jer 9:11; 14:6; 49:33; 51:37; Lam 4:3; 5:18; Mal 1:3). Many such references are translated “dragon” in the kjv<\/span>, but “jackal” is more appropriate.<\/p>\nLeech<\/p>\nSegmented worm (class Hirundinea) up to five inches (12.7 centimeters) long with a flat body equipped with suction pads at each end. The mouth, located at the bottom of the front suction pad, has three teeth that the leech uses to pierce the skin of its host. The leech feeds on blood, and its glands secrete an anticoagulant to prevent the blood from clotting. The ordinary medicinal leech (Hirudo medicinalis) is abundant in springs and ponds from the Negev Desert to Galilee. It adheres to the bodies of human beings and animals that submerge themselves in water, injects its anticoagulant, and sucks their blood.<\/p>\nThe reference in Proverbs 30:15 is uncertain (see nlt<\/span>) but may be to the parasitic and greedy nature of the horse leech (genus Haemopis<\/em>). The small horse leech enters its host’s mouth and nostrils from water while the animal is drinking. A leech weighing one-half ounce (14.2 grams) has been known to gorge itself with two and a half ounces (71 grams) of concentrated blood and then to exist for 15 months with no more to eat.<\/p>\nLeopard<\/p>\nCalled Panthera pardus tulliana,<\/em> it is the most widespread of all the large wildcats. In rocky areas it lives in caves, but in forested regions it lives in thick vegetation. In OT times many lived in the vicinity of Mt Hermon (Sg 4:8).<\/p>\nThe leopard is somewhat smaller than the tiger, measuring up to 5 feet (1.5 meters) in length with a tail of about 30 inches (.8 meter). Its body is better proportioned than that of the tiger. The leopard takes its victim by surprise from a silent ambush, often concealing itself near villages or watering places and waiting for its prey, remaining in one spot for long spans of time. The leopard is swift on the ground (Hb 1:8), agile in trees, and very graceful in its movements. Its color is yellowish speckled with black spots (Jer 13:23). Daniel and John saw visions in which leopards were symbols of world powers (Dn 7:6; Rv 13:2).<\/p>\nThe leopard is a wary and cunning animal, formidable and ferocious (Jer 5:6; Hos 13:7; cf. Is 11:6). The leopard is dangerous not only to domestic animals but also to humans. With its natural camouflage it can hide on the forest floor, blending into the changing light and shadows. The Israelites were terrified of the leopard because it constantly ravaged their sheep and goats. Several biblical place names suggest that they were known for the leopards in their vicinity: Nimrah, Beth-nimrah, and Nimrim, a district northeast of the Dead Sea. It has survived in the Holy Land into the present century; a few leopards still exist in remote areas near Mt Tabor and Mt Carmel.<\/p>\nLeviathan<\/p>\nSea monster mentioned several times in the Bible (Pss 74:14; 104:26; Is 27:1, nlt<\/span>). It may refer to any of the larger marine animals such as large jellyfish, whales, or sharks, or to a large reptile like the crocodile. Some scholars think “Leviathan” may refer to animals now extinct, such as ichthyosaurs and plesiosaurs (marine reptiles similar to dinosaurs). The scriptural term might also refer to certain dinosaurs that spent part of their lives half-submerged in shallow lakes and oceans. Other scholars believe that most of the references are to the crocodile.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Crocodile (above).<\/p>\nLion<\/p>\nLarge, tawny-colored carnivore (Panthera leo)<\/em> that preys chiefly on hoofed mammals and charges by a series of leaps and bounds. Within historic times the lion ranged in Africa, Europe, and the Holy Land. In ancient times the territories of the African and Persian lions met in the Middle East. The lion of the Holy Land was the Asiatic or Persian lion (Panthera leo persica).<\/em><\/p>\nThe males have heavy manes that stop at the shoulders but cover much of the chest. The Persian lion cannot climb and is mainly nocturnal, returning to its lair or a thicket by day (Jer 4:7; 25:38; Na 2:11-12). This lion is about 5 feet (1.5 meters) long with a tasseled tail 30 inches (.8 meter) or so long; its shoulders may reach a height of 35 inches (.9 meter). It is one of the smallest of the lion breeds.<\/p>\nLions are usually found in pairs, though sometimes in larger numbers. A small group is known as a pride. They generally prefer open country but in Palestine evidently prowled the subtropical vegetation of the Jordan River valley. Lions, which usually hunt at dusk, kill smaller animals by a blow of the paw, larger ones by a bite in the throat. A lion does not remain in the same place for more than a few days. The animal is in its prime at about seven years of age, when it weighs from 400 to 600 pounds (181.6 to 272.4 kilograms).<\/p>\nThe lion does not characteristically attack humans, though like other great cats it may become a man-eater (1 Kgs 13:24-28; 20:36; 2 Kgs 17:25-26; Ps 57:4; Dn 6:7-27). Ordinarily, it attacks only out of great hunger or in self-defense. A very young lion that attacks humans can become dangerous if it develops a taste for human flesh. A very old lion, expelled from the pride because it can no longer keep up in the pursuit of antelope or gazelles, may choose humans as a relatively slow-moving prey.<\/p>\nA lion generally roars only on a full stomach—that is, after it has consumed its prey (Ps 22:13; Ez 22:25; Am 3:4). Nevertheless, its roaring arouses fear (Am 3:8; 1 Pt 5:8). The lion is a bold (2 Sm 17:10; Prv 28:1), destructive animal (Ps 7:2; Jer 2:30; Hos 5:14; Mi 5:8), and the enemy of flocks (Am 3:12).<\/p>\nLions were common in biblical times in all parts of the Holy Land. Hebrew has at least seven words for lion and young lion. The lion is referred to about 130 times in the OT—more than any other wild animal. Lions were evidently much less common in NT times. After gradually declining, they became extinct in Palestine shortly after AD<\/span> 1300. The lion was present in Mesopotamia, however, until the end of the 19th century.<\/p>\nLions played an important part in the political and religious symbolism of the Near East (1 Kgs 10:19-20). In Assyria and Babylonia the lion was regarded as a royal beast (Dn 7:4). Oriental monarchs maintained artificial lion pits as places of execution (Ez 19:1-9; Dn 6:7-16). Animals for these were captured in camouflaged nets or pits. To the Jews, the lion was the mightiest of beasts (Prv 30:29-31). Thus, it symbolized leadership (Gn 49:9-10; Nm 24:9) and hence eventually became a title for Christ (Rv 5:5). It was also the ensign of Judah’s tribe and was used by King Solomon in the decoration of his house and the temple.<\/p>\nLizard<\/p>\nReptiles of the suborder Lacertilia. Their skin is covered with scales. The lizard is a useful creature because it captures harmful insects and worms. Like other reptiles, it lays eggs with shells softer than those of a bird and with no clear division between the yolk and the white. Lizards are “cold-blooded” organisms without a temperature-maintenance mechanism; hence, they become inactive in cold weather.<\/p>\nLizards can survive in barren parched countryside. In the Near East they are encountered in great numbers in the Arabian Desert, the Sinai Peninsula, and the Judean wilderness. There may be as many as 44 different species of lizards in the Holy Land.<\/p>\nThe Dabb lizard (genus Uromastyx<\/em>), which attains a length of about 24 inches (61 centimeters), is found in the Negev Desert. It is omnivorous, an unusual trait since most lizards are insectivorous. It has a hard, rough skin, green with brown spots; a short, rounded head; and a powerful tail encircled with a row of strong spines that it uses as a weapon of defense.<\/p>\nLizards are listed as ceremonially unclean in Jewish law (Lv 11:29-31). The fact that lizards crawl on their bellies made them unclean. Contact with a lizard’s carcass defiled a law-abiding Jew (Lv 11:32-36). The nlt<\/span> translates the “lizards” of Leviticus 11 as “great lizard,” “gecko,” “monitor lizard,” “sand lizard,” and “chameleon.” The monitor lizard is a large lizard that lives in the deserts of southern Palestine, Sinai, and Egypt. It is up to 55 inches (1.4 meters) long with a long snout and sharp teeth. Other translators and commentators render the original Hebrew in a wide variety of ways, including “tortoise,” “ferret,” “lizard,” “snail,” “mole,” and even “water hen.” The fact that most of the original Hebrew words occur only once in Scripture makes it very difficult to be certain about their appropriate translation.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Gecko (above).<\/p>\nLocust<\/p>\nAn insect of the family Acridiidae.<\/em> It is referred to by at least 12 different names in Scripture. The various Hebrew words may refer to different stages of its development from larva to adult or to the type of damage that it causes. Locusts are characterized by swarming and mass migration. In modern times they have caused extensive and disastrous destruction to vegetation. Grasshoppers do not swarm or migrate en masse, differentiating them from the true locusts.<\/p>\nThe OT mentions several different species of locusts. Leviticus 11:22 seems to refer to the slant-faced (bald) locust and also to the katydid, or long-horned grasshopper. The reference in Deuteronomy 28:42 may be to the mole cricket. In Joel 1:4 and 2:25 and in Nahum 3:16-17, successive stages of the insect’s development are described. The cutting locust (kjv<\/span> “palmerworm”) of Joel is probably the first instar (stage of development), the swarming locusts (kjv<\/span> “locust”) are middle stages, and the hopping locusts (kjv<\/span> “cankerworm”) later instars but not yet fully matured insects. In the adult stage, called destroying locusts (kjv<\/span> “caterpillar”), the color of the locust is reddish brown, which turns to yellow with a brownish network on the wings.<\/p>\nOnly three of the hundreds of varieties of locusts found in Bible lands are capable of multiplying into great swarms, and only the desert locust (Schistocerca gergaria)<\/em> can be considered widespread in all the Bible lands. The desert locust is native to the Sudan (Africa). It is a little over two inches (5 centimeters) long and has a wingspread of some five inches (12.7 centimeters). It shows two phases, a solitary phase and a gregarious phase, with a possible third phase known as transiens. There are differences in the immature and adult forms of the phases in color and physiology.<\/p>\nThe quantity and distribution of rains are important factors in the extent of swarming. Moist soil is needed for depositing the eggs and permitting them to develop. Each female deposits from one to six egg pods, containing 28 to 146 eggs each. The larvae emerge in 15 to 43 days.<\/p>\nIn the gregarious phase (from the second stage of metamorphosis onward), the locust is driven by a strong wandering instinct. Masses of them form a random procession of overflowing locust bodies that ignore any obstruction. They swarm over everything (Jl 2:4-9). The only regulator of their activities is temperature; they are immobilized by high or low temperatures. Taking to wing they may move 1,200 miles (1,930.8 kilometers) from their native home. They fly in compact formations large enough to blot out the light of the sun. Their movement seems to be controlled by hormones, but the direction is influenced by the wind. The swarms consume almost every plant in their path, sparing only the carob, sycamore, castor tree, and oleander bush.<\/p>\nA locust plague was one of the most severe evils to come upon the ancient world (Dt 28:38). Joel 2:1-11 describes a locust plague in graphic terms, using it as a symbol of God’s destroying judgment. Special days of prayer, fasting, and trumpet blowing were prescribed to remove locust plagues (1 Kgs 8:37-38; 2 Chr 6:28-29; Jl 2:12-17). Locusts symbolized powerful and merciless enemies that completely destroyed the earnings of human toil (Jgs 6:5; Is 33:4; Jer 46:23; 51:27; Na 3:15).<\/p>\nBedouins eat locusts raw, roasted, or boiled, preserving them by drying and threading. They are also crushed and ground, and the grist used in cooking or eaten with bread, sometimes mixed with honey and dates. Such was the diet of John the Baptist (Mk 1:6). The Greeks ground locusts in stone mortars to make flour of them.<\/p>\nThe ancients considered the two large hind legs, or jumping legs, as separate limbs and had a special name for them. Hence locusts were described as having four legs, a reference to the four smaller walking legs. “Going on all fours” thus referred to creeping or walking as opposed to jumping and did not mean that the unclean insects had only four legs in all. Because of its two hind jumping legs, the locust was exempted from the prohibition against unclean insects (Lv 11:20-23).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Plagues upon Egypt.<\/p>\nMole<\/p>\nRodent (Spalax ehrenbergi)<\/em> from six to nine inches (15 to 23 centimeters) long, which burrows in any area where the soil is suitable for digging; it should be called a mole rat. Common in the Holy Land, large numbers are found in the vicinity of Jerusalem. Isaiah 2:20 refers to the mole, as does Leviticus 11:29-30 (nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nThe mole rat has no tail and is molelike in appearance, but neither true moles nor shrews have ever been found in the Holy Land. The mole rat’s teeth are strong and protruding like those of a squirrel. The neck is short and thick with a plump body shaped like a sausage. The short legs have broad paws with claws adapted for burrowing. The fur is soft, thick, and ashen gray. Its ears and almost sightless eyes, which are no larger than poppyseeds, are hidden in the fur. Folklore taught that touching a mole rat would result in blindness.<\/p>\nIn the wet winter season the mole rat builds breeding mounds resembling those of pocket gophers. It builds less complex resting mounds in the summer, although both have rather elaborate tunnel systems. The mole rat feeds on roots, bulbs, tubers, and various other subterranean plant parts, often doing extensive damage to agriculture.<\/p>\nMoth<\/p>\nInsect of the genus Tineola<\/em> that lays its eggs on wool or furs, its larvae feeding on those materials. The destructive qualities of moths are referred to in several biblical passages (Jb 13:28; Ps 39:11; Is 50:9; Hos 5:12; Mt 6:19-20; Lk 12:33; Jas 5:2). In Isaiah 51:8 “worm” (nlt<\/span>) refers specifically to the larva of the clothes moth. The moth symbolizes disintegration, decay, and weakening. It is only the larvae that do the damage. The adult is quite harmless and feeds mainly on the nectar of flowers. It is easily crushed (Jb 4:19). The clothes moth reproduces in May or June. It enters human dwellings in the evening. A week after the eggs are laid the larvae appear and immediately begin their work of destruction, eating anything within reach made of animal fibers.<\/p>\nThe moth’s destructive activity is done in secret without any sound and without any dramatic appearance, such as a swarm that blots out the sun. In an age when wealth was counted more in possessions than in money, and when among those possessions wool clothing was highly valued, moths could literally cause economic disaster; hence the words of Jesus in the Sermon on the Mount (Mt 6:19-20).<\/p>\nThere are hundreds of species of moths other than the clothes moth in the Holy Land; they are harmless to leaves, flowers, fruit, trees, and seeds. As with the clothes moth, the larvae inflict the damage.<\/p>\nMouse<\/p>\nRodent of the family Muridae, especially genus Mus.<\/em> The mouse was regarded as unclean because, being short legged, it was considered one of the creeping creatures (Lv 11:29). Mice known as commensals live in dwellings and tend to have longer tails and to be darker in color than wild mice, which are active chiefly at night. Mice are good climbers and even good swimmers. Wild mice eat many kinds of vegetation, including seeds, fleshy roots, leaves, and stems. At times they store food.<\/p>\nThe Hebrew word for “mouse” (Lv 11:29; 1 Sm 6:4-5; Is 66:17) is probably a general term for various rats and mice. The root meaning of the Hebrew word “mouse” is “destruction of corn,” a reference to the damage mice do to field crops. At least 23 varieties of mouselike rodents are known in the Holy Land. They cause food spoilage, damage household articles, and transport the host fleas that spread typhus, spotted fever, and bubonic plague. Plague bacteria may have caused the tumors or swellings among the Philistines (1 Sm 6:5). Isaiah 66:17 refers to a pre-exilic Canaanite cultic practice in which mice were eaten; the reference may actually be to the hamster. A number of rodents are eaten by Arabs of the Near East; the gerbil is considered a special delicacy. See<\/em> Mole (above).<\/p>\nMule<\/p>\nHybrid offspring of a male ass and a female horse (Equus asinus mulus),<\/em> ordinarily sterile. The offspring of a female donkey and a stallion (male horse) is known as a hinny and is of little value because of its inferior size.<\/p>\nBecause crossbreeding was forbidden in the law (Lv 19:19), the Israelites procured mules from the Gentiles, perhaps from the Phoenicians, since Tyre (a Phoenician seaport in what is now southern Lebanon) imported horses and mules (Ez 27:14). Mules did not appear in Israel until David’s reign (2 Sm 13:29), possibly because of the rarity of horses among the Hebrews. Mules were used chiefly by members of the royal court and by other nobles. King David rode on a mule, and Solomon rode to his inaugaration on King David’s mule (1 Kgs 1:33). Absalom met his death riding on a mule (2 Sm 18:9). Mules were less common than horses, camels, and asses in the postexilic community (Ezr 2:66). In antiquity Asia Minor was especially noted for breeding fine mules.<\/p>\nMules have long enjoyed a reputation for obstinacy, but that trait is not mentioned in the Bible. The mule is prized for riding and for carrying heavy burdens, especially in warm mountainous regions. They are sure-footed and thrive best in hot, dry climates. The mule has the frugality, endurance, and steady gait of an ass along with the size, strength, swiftness, and courage of a horse. Mules are almost never sick. They live longer than horses. They can carry a load of up to 300 pounds (136 kilograms) as far as 30 miles (48.3 kilometers) a day.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Travel.<\/p>\nPig<\/p>\nMost properly, newborn swine. “Swine” is technically the better name for the species, but it is rarely used in common speech today. The domestic pigs of the Middle East derived from the wild pig (Sus scrofa).<\/em> The pig is the most prolific and abundant supplier of meat and fat for food. A thick layer of fat just under the skin is especially pronounced in domestic breeds. Pigs cannot be driven, so they are of value only to the settled farmer. The Hebrews were originally a nomadic people; therefore, they had little use for an animal closely associated with settled life. An Egyptian prince of about 1500 BC<\/span>, however, is recorded as owning a herd of 1,500 swine.<\/p>\nThe pig is clumsily built, yet lively and able to move with agility and speed. The most conspicuous characteristic of the pig is a truncated, mobile snout terminating in a disc-shaped surface on which the nostrils are located. Most pigs have large tusks in both jaws which grow continuously in life. The tusks of the upper jaw are unique in that they curve upward instead of pointing downward as in most animals. The excrement of a pig has an almost unbearable odor, which clings not only to the pig itself but also to swineherds, who can be identified a long way off.<\/p>\nPigs were never raised in the Holy Land by Jews. The great herd into which Jesus drove the unclean spirits was encountered in the land of the Gadarenes, a non-Jewish area east of the Jordan. The Gadarene demons took refuge in a herd of pigs feeding on a bluff overlooking the Sea of Galilee (Mt 8:28-32).<\/p>\nWild pigs were found in the Holy Land as in many countries today. Psalm 80:13 refers to the destructiveness of a wild boar (the male, or hog) attacking growing crops. A party of wild boars can destroy an entire vineyard or a field of crops in a single night. They devour, trample, and ravage everything within reach.<\/p>\nBoar hunts were common in ancient Mesopotamia. Wild boars do not attack unless molested, but they are dangerous when aroused. They travel in bands of from 6 to 50 and are most active in the evening and early morning hours. The body is covered with stiff bristles and usually some finer hair, but the body covering is often quite scanty. Wild pigs are mainly vegetarian, feeding on roots, nuts, grains, and plant stems. Wild boars were particularly abundant in the mountainous regions of Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon, in the Jordan River valley, and in wooded sections such as Mt Tabor.<\/p>\nStrict Jews would not even mention swine by name but would always substitute the term “the abomination.” Israelites considered themselves polluted if they were even touched by a swine’s bristle. To the Jews, the pig symbolized filth and ugliness. Pigs will eat fecal material, vermin, rodents, carrion, and the like (2 Pt 2:22). Proverbs 11:22 refers to the incongruity of a golden ring in the nose of an animal showing such characteristics. A similar metaphor occurs in Jesus’ statement about casting pearls before swine (Mt 7:6). The prodigal son’s degeneration was shown by his being forced in his poverty to feed pigs and eat their food (Lk 15:15-16).<\/p>\nEating the flesh of pigs was forbidden to the Jews (Lv 11:7; Dt 14:8). The Canaanites in the Holy Land killed and ate pigs freely. In intertestamental times Antiochus IV (Epiphanes), a Syrian king whose territories included Israel, used the pig to “Hellenize” the Jews. He first tested their loyalty to the Jewish faith by requiring the consumption of pork, considered a delicacy by the Greeks (2 Macc 6:18). The act of desecration that drove the Jews to rebellion, however, was the sprinkling of pig blood on the temple altar in a sacrifice to Zeus (1 Macc 1:47).<\/p>\nPigs were frequently used in pagan worship (Is 65:4; 66:3, 17), which may account for their being forbidden to the Jews as food. Evidence in the Holy Land shows that pigs were sacrificed long before Hellenistic times. Pig bones were found in a grotto below the rock-cut place of sacrifice at Gezer. A similar underground chamber with vessels containing piglet bones at Tirzah dates to the middle Bronze Age (about 2000 BC<\/span>).<\/p>\nAlabaster fragments of a statuette of a pig ready to be sacrificed have been unearthed. Swine were sacrificed to Aphrodite (Venus) in Greece and Asia Minor. In addition, pigs were sacrificed in connection with oaths and treaties; in the Iliad,<\/em> Agamemnon sacrificed a boar to Zeus and Helios. So it is not surprising that among the Jews the pig became a symbol of filthiness and paganism.<\/p>\nIt is possible that eating pork was forbidden primarily because the pig may carry many worm parasites such as trichina, though that is also true of some “clean” animals. Another reason for forbidding their consumption may have been that pigs eat carrion. Some people are allergic to pork in hot weather—another suggested reason behind the Jewish taboo. The same taboo exists among the Muslims and existed in certain social strata in Egypt.<\/p>\nPorcupine<\/p>\nRodent, Hystrix cristata,<\/em> which lives in forested areas, rocky hills, ravines, and valleys. The porcupine is still found in the Holy Land today. It has long quills that can be raised to give the appearance of a crest. It is almost entirely nocturnal. It burrows by day into a natural cavity or crevice. The Old World porcupine rarely climbed trees, although the New World porcupine frequently does. A porcupine may weigh as much as 60 pounds (27.2 kilograms). It eats fruit, bark, roots, and other vegetation, and carrion as well. Although its flesh is edible, the porcupine was not classed among the clean animals for the Israelites. The reference in Isaiah 34:11 (rsv<\/span>) is probably to the porcupine, as is Isaiah 14:23 in the nlt<\/span>. See<\/em> Hedgehog.<\/p>\nScorpion<\/p>\nArthropod of the same group as spiders (arachnids). A dozen species of scorpions (order Scorpionida) are found in the Holy Land, but 90 percent of the scorpions are yellow scorpions, usually three to five inches (7.6 to 12.7 centimeters) long. The rock scorpion, also common to the Holy Land, is as thick as a man’s finger and from five to seven inches (12.7 to 17.8 centimeters) in length. Scorpions are slow, nocturnal invertebrates that rest beneath stones by day and prey on insects and other arachnids by night. At the end of its long tail the scorpion carries a poisonous sting that is fatal to most prey and extremely painful to humans (Rv 9:3, 5, 10; cf. 1 Kgs 12:11, 14). Scorpions symbolize Ezekiel’s evil countrymen (Ez 2:6) and the demonic forces of Satan (Lk 10:19). The scorpion is referred to as frequenting the Sinai Desert (Dt 8:15).<\/p>\nA scorpion has from six to eight eyes. It has eight legs like a spider and two lobsterlike claws with which it catches and holds its prey. It feeds particularly on locusts and beetles. In many species the female scorpion eats the male after mating. Scorpions lay eggs that hatch very shortly after laying. Scorpions prefer warmer climates, and because of their desire for warmth, enter houses, especially at night, hiding in beds, blankets, footwear, and clothing.<\/p>\nSheep<\/p>\nDomestic animal, Ovis orientalis,<\/em> referred to directly or by some term such as ewe, lamb, ram, or by some fact concerning them over 700 times in Scripture.<\/p>\nSheep represented the chief wealth and total livelihood of pastoral peoples, providing food to eat, milk to drink, wool for the making of cloth, and hides and bones for other uses. In addition, the sheep was a medium of exchange and a sacrificial animal. The number of sheep raised in ancient times was prodigious. Mesha, king of Moab, paid a tribute annually of 100,000 lambs and the wool of 100,000 rams (2 Kgs 3:4). The Israelites took 250,000 sheep from the Hagrites (1 Chr 5:21).<\/p>\nSheep shearing was often done for festivals (2 Sm 13:23). The sheep was held down on its side and its legs were tied together; then it lay docilely while its wool was clipped (Is 53:7). Sheep reserved for burnt offerings were not shorn; nothing could be held back from a sacrifice to the Lord.<\/p>\nWool had to be processed before it could be used for clothing. First it was washed, sometimes while still on the sheep, then carded and perhaps weighed for the market. The spinning of wool was regarded as a woman’s work (Prv 31:19), but weaving the spun thread into cloth on a loom was primarily a man’s occupation.<\/p>\nThe Bible reports that Abel kept sheep (Gn 4:2). The first sheep to be domesticated was probably the argali (Ovis ammon),<\/em> a variety of the urial (Ovis vignei),<\/em> a mountainous species still existing in Turkestan and Mongolia. Five breeds had reached Mesopotamia by 2000 BC<\/span>; all were of the urial stock.<\/p>\nThe sheep known in Israel was the broad-tailed sheep (Ovis orientalis vignei<\/em> or laticaudata),<\/em> of which the tail weighs from 10 to 15 pounds (4.5 to 6.8 kilograms) and has always been considered a delicacy. Thus the Lord asked for this choice part as a sacrifice (Ex 29:22-25).<\/p>\nOnly the ram of the broad-tailed sheep has horns, but in other varieties of sheep in the Holy Land the ewe also has horns. The horns, two to three inches (5 to 8 centimeters) in diameter, can be potent weapons. Rams’ horns could be used as trumpets (Jos 6:4) or as oil containers (1 Sm 16:1).<\/p>\nAlthough the sheep is very similar to the goat, it is differentiated by a lower forehead, its angulated spiral horns marked with transverse wrinkles and curved slightly outward, its covering of wool, and its lack of a “goatee.” Most sheep are white (Ps 147:16; Is 1:18; Dn 7:9; Rv 1:14).<\/p>\nThe flesh of sheep was a luxury in the biblical culture. King Solomon required a daily provision of 100 sheep for his table (1 Kgs 4:23), but the common people ate lamb or mutton only on festive occasions. A young ram was usually chosen because the ewes were more important to the future prospects of the herd. The meat was boiled in large caldrons. The milk of the sheep is extremely rich; in biblical times it was usually allowed to curdle before drinking. Possibly some Israelites kept lambs in their houses as pets (2 Sm 12:3-4).<\/p>\nTo protect the flock at night against predatory attacks, the shepherd tried to provide a fold. In meadows near villages, folds were built and watchmen were hired to relieve the shepherds. The shepherds of the nativity story were out in the field (Lk 2:8); they had no fold but probably had set up a tent for shelter, consisting simply of goat-hair blankets spread across sapling supports. The scarcity of springs in the Holy Land made the watering of the flock a crucial problem for the shepherd (Gn 13:8-11).<\/p>\nWild mountain sheep, varieties of Ovis orientalis,<\/em> are known in the Mediterranean area (Dt 14:5). The Deuteronomy passage (kjv<\/span> “chamois”) might also refer to Ovis traelaphus,<\/em> a sheep about five feet high (1.5 meters) with long, curved horns. Another possibility is the Barbary sheep that lives in small flocks in rugged mountain areas in Barbary, Egypt, and Mt Sinai. The true chamois is unknown in Palestine.<\/p>\nThe sheep is also used figuratively in Scripture. The ram represented great strength and fittingly symbolized Medo-Persia in Daniel’s vision (Dn 8:3). It is the nature of sheep to be gentle and submissive (Is 53:7; Jer 11:19), defenseless (Mi 5:8; Mt 10:16), and in constant need of guidance and care (Nm 27:17; Mt 9:36). Such qualities are regarded as desirable in the lives of believers in Christ; hence the many figurative references to sheep in the NT and to Jesus as shepherd (Mk 6:34; Jn 10:1-30; Rom 8:35-37; Heb 13:20-21; 1 Pt 2:25). The resurrected Christ told the apostle Peter to “feed my lambs” and “tend my sheep” (Jn 21:15-17).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Offerings and Sacrifices.<\/p>\nSnail<\/p>\nInvertebrate gastropods (mollusks). Land snails are very numerous in the Near East. Some freshwater forms serve as hosts for the schistosome worm, the fluke parasite causing the dread disease bilharzia (schistosomiasis).<\/p>\nPurple dyes of all shades were highly valued in the ancient world. A royal purple dye was obtained from secretions of a sea snail (Murex trunculus<\/em> and Murex brandaris).<\/em> Evidently, that process was developed by Phoenicians, Egyptians, and Assyrians as early as 1500 BC<\/span>. The “purple” fishermen had their own guild during the time of the Roman Empire. The snails were harvested during the fall and winter seasons; in the spring, when egg laying took place, little dye was available. The snails tended to remain concealed in the summer. They inhabited the waters off Crete and Phoenicia. Tyrian purple, produced in the Phoenician city of Tyre, the center of the purple-dye industry, was obtained by a double dyeing. Large deposits of murex shells from dyeing operations have been found along the Mediterranean shoreline. The Israelites had to import purple goods (Ez 27:16). Lydia was a “seller of purple” or of cloth so dyed (Acts 16:14). Purple was a sign of distinction, royalty, and wealth (cf. Ex 25:4; 28:5-6, 15; Nm 15:38; 2 Chr 2:7; Est 8:15; Prv 31:22; Sg 3:10; Ez 27:7; Dn 5:7).<\/p>\nExodus 30:34-35 refers to “onycha,” which was an important ingredient of incense. Onycha is the horny, clawlike operculum (the plate that closes off the opening of its shell when a snail is retracted) of a Near Eastern member of the molluskan family Strombidae. The operculum is sometimes used for offense or locomotion as well as for defense. When burned, the operculum gives off a sharp, strong scent, and when mixed with more fragrant but less powerful substances is even more potent. The name “onycha” is derived from a Greek word (onyx)<\/em> for a fingernail or a claw.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Dye, Dyeing, Dyer.<\/p>\nSnake<\/p>\nVarious species of snake, suborder Ophidia (Serpentes). In the Bible nine Hebrew words and four Greek ones refer to snakes. The most common Hebrew word is onomatopoeic—that is, it is an imitation of a snake hissing or of the sound it produces as it scrapes its scales along the ground (cf. Jer 46:22). Many types of snakes lay eggs (Is 59:5), although some retain the eggs in the body until ready to hatch.<\/p>\nSnakes are among the most widespread reptiles and are found on all continents except Antarctica; they decrease in numbers and species toward the poles but increase as one approaches the equator. Thirty-three species of snakes are known in Palestine and neighboring countries, 20 of which are poisonous. Two dangerous characteristics of the snake noted by biblical writers are its inconspicuous way of moving and the ease with which it hides itself.<\/p>\nMany snakes are able to swallow animals several times their own diameter because of their unusually flexible jaw mechanism. They lack not only legs but also movable eyelids. Snakes periodically shed their skins. The tongue is actually a hearing apparatus sensitive to airborne vibrations and probably to heat waves.<\/p>\nThe venom of poisonous species is a clear, thin secretion, transmitted to the victim’s bloodstream by means of fangs. Two types of venom are known: that of the vipers, which affects respiration and disintegrates red blood cells, and that of the cobras, which paralyzes the nervous system.<\/p>\nThe “asp” referred to in the Bible is probably the cobra; the “adder” is the viper. The “cockatrice” (kjv<\/span>) is probably the adder. Serpents were associated with worship in Canaanite religion and symbolized evil deities among many other peoples. Steles (upright stones bearing inscriptions) have been unearthed at several sites in the Holy Land and Syria depicting a god or worshiper with a snake winding about the legs or body. Because the Israelites were burning incense in pagan worship of Moses’ bronze serpent (Nm 21:8-9), King Hezekiah destroyed it in his religious reform (2 Kgs 18:4).<\/p>\nAlthough snakes have been an object of veneration in some religions, in the Judeo-Christian tradition snakes represent evil and, more specifically, the devil. That association began in the Garden of Eden (Gn 3:1-15) and is also found in the book of Revelation (12:9; 20:2-3).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Adder (above); Asp (above).<\/p>\nSpider<\/p>\nAnimal of the order Araneida. Between 600 and 700 different species inhabit the Holy Land. Spiders are different from insects in that, like scorpions, they have four pairs of legs instead of three. Spiders are equipped with poison glands—the effectiveness varying from species to species. A few can kill only insects, but others can also kill birds and mice.<\/p>\nMost spiders have a pair of spinnerets attached to silk glands on the underside of the abdomen; from them a web is extruded. In the Bible the spider’s web is referred to as a symbol of frailty and insecurity (Jb 8:14; Is 59:5-6).<\/p>\nSponge<\/p>\nSimple marine animals, phylum Porifera. The term “sponge” also refers to those animals’ skeletal remains. The sponge has a porous body composed of tubules and cells.<\/p>\nSponge fishing was well known in the Mediterranean area in ancient times. It was practiced particularly along the Anatolian and Syrian coasts. Sponges were harvested by divers. The use of sponges in absorbing liquids is referred to in the Bible (Mt 27:48; Mk 15:36).<\/p>\nUnicorn<\/p>\nSee<\/em> Wild Ox (below).<\/p>\nWasp<\/p>\nInsects of the family Vespidae. Hornets are social wasps that build large aerial apartment houses in which 1,000 or more individuals may live. In the Bible the hornet is used as a metaphor for God’s use of military forces (Ex 23:28; Dt 7:20; Jos 24:12).<\/p>\nWhale<\/p>\nLargest of all living creatures, including those that have become extinct. Whales are air-breathing mammals of the order Cetacea.<\/p>\nTwo varieties of whales visit the shores of the Holy Land at times. The finback whale (Balaenoptera physalus)<\/em> weighs about 200 tons (181 metric tons) and lives mainly in the Arctic region but sometimes passes through the Straits of Gibraltar to reach the eastern Mediterranean Sea. It feeds on small marine organisms that it strains through its whale bone; it does not have teeth. The finback whale’s esophagus is narrow.<\/p>\nThe sperm whale (Physeter catodon),<\/em> about 60 feet (18.3 meters) long, has a curiously shaped head that looks like a battering ram. The teeth in the lower jaw of the male sperm whale are about seven inches (17.8 centimeters) long. It feeds on big fish, even on sharks. It has a large throat opening.<\/p>\nWhales are referred to in Genesis 1:21 and Job 7:12 (kjv<\/span> only). The “great fish” of Jonah 2:1 need not have been a whale but could have been a large shark, such as the whale shark (Rhineodon),<\/em> which grows 70 feet (21.3 meters) long and lacks the terrible teeth of other sharks. Whatever the actual marine organism, Jonah’s deliverance was miraculous. The Greek word for “whale” is sometimes used as a general term for “sea monster” or huge fish and may be used in that sense in Matthew 12:40.<\/p>\nWild Ox<\/p>\nLarge, fierce, fleet, intractable animal (Bos primigenius).<\/em> It had a long, lean rump with a straight back and a long, narrow head. The animal described in Job 39:9-12 is clearly the wild ox. The two horns (Dt 33:17), its outstanding characteristic, were straight and as long as the head (Nm 23:22; 24:8; Ps 22:21). Kings often symbolized their dominion by wearing a helmet with two wild ox horns (cf. Pss 92:10; 132:17-18). The horns were often used as drinking vessels by the Israelites; some were large enough to hold four gallons (15 liters).<\/p>\nHunting the wild ox was a favorite sport of Assyrian kings. Tiglath-pileser I hunted it in the Lebanon Mountains about 1100 BC<\/span> (cf. Ps 29:6). At one time the animal referred to in Job 39:9-12 was thought to be the oryx or antelope because of the similarity between the Hebrew word in Job and the Arabian name for oryx. The translators of the kjv<\/span> called the wild ox a “unicorn” because of representations found on Babylonian mosaics and Egyptian drawings. Those representations showed it in strict profile, showing only one horn—hence, “unicorn.” Jerome’s Vulgate, a Latin Bible translation (fourth century AD<\/span>) and Martin Luther’s German version translated it similarly.<\/p>\nWolf<\/p>\nLarge doglike mammal (Canis lupus)<\/em> that travels in bands of up to 30 animals. From the nose to the rump, the wolf measures about 3 feet (.9 meter); its drooping tail is about 18 inches (.5 meter) long. It looks much like a skinny German shepherd dog. The grayish yellow pelt is coarse and short haired.<\/p>\nWolves hunt singly or in relays, usually at night (Jer 5:6). Wolves have acute hearing and sight but rely chiefly on scent and usually catch their prey in a swift, open chase. The wolf has a reputation for boldness, fierceness, and voracity (Gn 49:27; Hb 1:8). It commonly kills more than it can eat or drag away and thus is known for its greediness.<\/p>\nThe wolf is a restless animal, always on the move; hunger drives it from one place to another in constant search of new hunting grounds. During spring and fall, wolves usually roam singly or in pairs, whereas in summer they may travel in family groups. In winter, several such groups may join to form a large pack. Wolves are intelligent, social creatures, faithful to their own kind. They mate for life. Individually, the wolf is a rather timid animal; it would much rather avoid human beings. But collectively wolves can be among the most dangerous animals alive.<\/p>\nIn Egypt, Rome, and Greece the wolf was considered sacred. Wolves were well known in the Holy Land and are still found there and also in many places in Asia Minor. Shepherds continually battled with wolves that plundered their flocks (Jn 10:12).<\/p>\nThe Bible refers to wolves in a literal sense in only three places (Is 11:6; 65:25; Jn 10:12), all other references being figurative. Usually the wolf is a symbol of enemies or the wicked (e.g., Ez 22:27; Zep 3:3; Acts 20:29). Both the wolf’s courage and its cruelty were probably in the mind of the patriarch Jacob when he predicted the fate of Benjamin’s tribe (Gn 49:27).<\/p>\nWorm<\/p>\nActually insect larvae in most biblical references, usually maggots, the larvae of flies (see Fly, above). For example, maggots are evidently referred to in accounts of worms feeding on spoiled manna (Ex 16:19-20), corpses (Jb 21:26; Is 14:11), or open wounds (Jb 7:5). Mark 9:48 refers to a maggot that eats dead flesh. In Acts 12:23 a fatal, worm-induced abdominal disease of King Herod is mentioned. In other cases, the reference is to the larvae of other insects (Is 51:8). In Deuteronomy 28:39 and Jonah 4:7 the vine weevil (Cochylis ambiguella)<\/em> is probably referred to; it destroys vines by boring into their stems. Comparing a man to a worm is a metaphor for abasement (Jb 25:6; Ps 22:6).<\/p>","summary_ro":"ANIMALS In biblical usage, all members of the animal kingdom. Animals are mentioned throughout the Bible from Genesis to Revelation. Animals figured in many important biblical events, including the Creation, the fall of man, the Flood, the ten plagues in Egypt, the Hebrew worship system, and the life of Jesus Christ. The people of both OT and NT times lived close to the land and were well acquainted with various animals so that the scriptural writers and Jesus himself frequently used animals ...","summary_en":"ANIMALS In biblical usage, all members of the animal kingdom. Animals are mentioned throughout the Bible from Genesis to Revelation. Animals figured in many important biblical events, including the Creation, the fall of man, the Flood, the ten plagues in Egypt, the Hebrew worship system, and the life of Jesus Christ. The people of both OT and NT times lived close to the land and were well acquainted with various animals so that the scriptural writers and Jesus himself frequently used animals ...","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":31233,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"the Presence of God","title_en":"the Presence of God","content_ro":"<h3>PRESENCE OF GOD, The<\/span><\/h3>\nGod’s manifestation of his spiritual being. Since God is spirit, believers experience him by sensing his invisible presence. God also makes himself known in other ways. He appears in nature, particularly in catastrophic forces—fire, lightning, and earthquake (1 Kgs 19:11-13). He also appears in human form (Gn 18; 32:22-32). So God, who cannot be seen, has chosen ways to reveal himself.<\/p>\nIn the Old Testament<\/p>\n<h5>The Angel of the Lord<\/h5>\nThe angel of the Lord was God’s emissary and Israel’s special helper, although it is not said that the same angel is meant in every instance (Ex 14:19; 23:20; 33:2). After the angel vanishes, Hagar insists that she had seen God himself (Gn 16:13). In Jacob’s experience the angel identifies himself with God (31:11-13); while in Genesis 21:18, 22:11, Numbers 22:35, the “I” of deity signified God’s presence in the angel. There is also oscillation between God and the angel in Exodus 12:23 and Genesis 48:15-16. Here God was temporarily incarnating himself within the form of the angel, assuring his own that he was immediately present with them.<\/p>\n<h5>The Glory of God<\/h5>\nGlory is what God possesses in his own right, a visible extension of his nature, a “concrete” form of his divine presence. The heavens are a visible form of God’s presence (Pss 8; 19:1-6; 136:5), for they are his glory. The glory that appeared to Israel as devouring fire on Sinai (Ex 29:43) filled the tabernacle (40:34-38). By it God consecrated the tabernacle as the place of his presence. In Isaiah 6 the glory appears as the normal expression of the divine presence. In Ezekiel the glory is identical with God (Ez 9:3-4). Throughout the OT the glory of God is the transcendent God making his presence and nearness visible to his own.<\/p>\n<h5>The Face of God<\/h5>\nIn the OT “presence” is used to represent the Hebrew word for “face”; when “face” is conjoined with a preposition, it means “in the presence of.” In Genesis 32:30 Jacob saw God “face to face.” A man’s personality and character are made visible on his face. In this sense a man’s face is the man. So, “the angel of his presence [face]” (Is 63:9) may mean “the angel who is his face,” since the prophet may have intended the identification. The face of God is the revelation of the grace of God. So, when he hides his face, he is withholding his grace. But when he makes his face shine (Ps 31:16), there is blessing (44:3). The face of God, then, is the presence of God (Ex 33:14). To pray to God in a holy place was to “seek God’s face” (Ps 24:6), his personal presence. Indeed, this sums up temple worship and private prayer in Israel (63:1-3; 100:2). The blessing of God consisted in his face shining upon them (Nm 6:25; Ps 80:3, 7, 19).<\/p>\n<h5>The Name of God<\/h5>\nAmong Semites, the equation of the name and the person was a common idea. So also, the name of God was an interchangeable term for God himself, a symbol of his activity in revelation. The linking of man’s worship of God with the divine name of God was the medium of his operation (Pss 44:5; 89:24; Is 30:27), a designation for the power of God that radiates help and energy universally. God could act by his name. The angel of the Lord’s authority and power functioned because God’s name was in him (Ex 23:20-21). As bearer of the divine name, he made real the hidden presence of God. The temple was the dwelling place of the name (1 Kgs 11:36), not only because God’s name was invoked there but also because God’s presence—God himself—dwelt there.<\/p>\n<h5>The Spirit of God<\/h5>\nIn the Holy Spirit the transcendent God draws near to his people. The Spirit is the medium through whom God’s presence becomes real among his people (Is 63:11-14; Zec 7:12) and by whom God’s gifts and powers operate among them (2 Chr 15:1; 20:14; 24:20; Zec 4:6; 6:1-8). The Spirit was the presence and power of God with his people—God himself acting in accordance with his essential nature. The sinner cannot be in the presence of God without the aid of God’s Holy Spirit; to be deprived of the Holy Spirit is to be deprived of God’s presence (Ps 51:11). Without the Spirit, communion between God and humans is not possible.<\/p>\nIn the New Testament<\/p>\nIn the NT a new mode of God’s presence is revealed. It is in Jesus Christ the incarnate Word that God is present among his own (Jn 1:14-18; 17:6, 26). Jesus’ mission was to reveal God to humanity. This he did through his whole life’s work as well as through his words. His revelation of the name of God was expressed in his own name—Jesus (“The Lord Is Salvation”). And in the person of Jesus the function of the name of God found fulfillment. Christ was the new temple (Jn 1:14; 2:21; Col 2:9). He was the locus of the tabernacling presence of God. But that was only a first installment of the unveiling of God’s presence.<\/p>\nThe church now constitutes the temple of God in the NT. Christianity is essentially the religion of the presence of God and of communion with God. The body of Christ, “the spiritual temple” (Eph 2:22), made of “living stones” (1 Pt 2:5), is the residence of the presence of the glorious God.<\/p>\nAnd now, the individual Christian is also a temple of God (1 Cor 3:16-17; 6:19; 2 Cor 6:16). God is especially present in the Christian’s spirit; there God reigns, for there is his kingdom; there he is worshiped, for there his glory and his presence have consecrated the inner being into a temple (see Jn 14:23).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> God, Being and Attributes of.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>PRESENCE OF GOD, The<\/span><\/h3>\nGod’s manifestation of his spiritual being. Since God is spirit, believers experience him by sensing his invisible presence. God also makes himself known in other ways. He appears in nature, particularly in catastrophic forces—fire, lightning, and earthquake (1 Kgs 19:11-13). He also appears in human form (Gn 18; 32:22-32). So God, who cannot be seen, has chosen ways to reveal himself.<\/p>\nIn the Old Testament<\/p>\n<h5>The Angel of the Lord<\/h5>\nThe angel of the Lord was God’s emissary and Israel’s special helper, although it is not said that the same angel is meant in every instance (Ex 14:19; 23:20; 33:2). After the angel vanishes, Hagar insists that she had seen God himself (Gn 16:13). In Jacob’s experience the angel identifies himself with God (31:11-13); while in Genesis 21:18, 22:11, Numbers 22:35, the “I” of deity signified God’s presence in the angel. There is also oscillation between God and the angel in Exodus 12:23 and Genesis 48:15-16. Here God was temporarily incarnating himself within the form of the angel, assuring his own that he was immediately present with them.<\/p>\n<h5>The Glory of God<\/h5>\nGlory is what God possesses in his own right, a visible extension of his nature, a “concrete” form of his divine presence. The heavens are a visible form of God’s presence (Pss 8; 19:1-6; 136:5), for they are his glory. The glory that appeared to Israel as devouring fire on Sinai (Ex 29:43) filled the tabernacle (40:34-38). By it God consecrated the tabernacle as the place of his presence. In Isaiah 6 the glory appears as the normal expression of the divine presence. In Ezekiel the glory is identical with God (Ez 9:3-4). Throughout the OT the glory of God is the transcendent God making his presence and nearness visible to his own.<\/p>\n<h5>The Face of God<\/h5>\nIn the OT “presence” is used to represent the Hebrew word for “face”; when “face” is conjoined with a preposition, it means “in the presence of.” In Genesis 32:30 Jacob saw God “face to face.” A man’s personality and character are made visible on his face. In this sense a man’s face is the man. So, “the angel of his presence [face]” (Is 63:9) may mean “the angel who is his face,” since the prophet may have intended the identification. The face of God is the revelation of the grace of God. So, when he hides his face, he is withholding his grace. But when he makes his face shine (Ps 31:16), there is blessing (44:3). The face of God, then, is the presence of God (Ex 33:14). To pray to God in a holy place was to “seek God’s face” (Ps 24:6), his personal presence. Indeed, this sums up temple worship and private prayer in Israel (63:1-3; 100:2). The blessing of God consisted in his face shining upon them (Nm 6:25; Ps 80:3, 7, 19).<\/p>\n<h5>The Name of God<\/h5>\nAmong Semites, the equation of the name and the person was a common idea. So also, the name of God was an interchangeable term for God himself, a symbol of his activity in revelation. The linking of man’s worship of God with the divine name of God was the medium of his operation (Pss 44:5; 89:24; Is 30:27), a designation for the power of God that radiates help and energy universally. God could act by his name. The angel of the Lord’s authority and power functioned because God’s name was in him (Ex 23:20-21). As bearer of the divine name, he made real the hidden presence of God. The temple was the dwelling place of the name (1 Kgs 11:36), not only because God’s name was invoked there but also because God’s presence—God himself—dwelt there.<\/p>\n<h5>The Spirit of God<\/h5>\nIn the Holy Spirit the transcendent God draws near to his people. The Spirit is the medium through whom God’s presence becomes real among his people (Is 63:11-14; Zec 7:12) and by whom God’s gifts and powers operate among them (2 Chr 15:1; 20:14; 24:20; Zec 4:6; 6:1-8). The Spirit was the presence and power of God with his people—God himself acting in accordance with his essential nature. The sinner cannot be in the presence of God without the aid of God’s Holy Spirit; to be deprived of the Holy Spirit is to be deprived of God’s presence (Ps 51:11). Without the Spirit, communion between God and humans is not possible.<\/p>\nIn the New Testament<\/p>\nIn the NT a new mode of God’s presence is revealed. It is in Jesus Christ the incarnate Word that God is present among his own (Jn 1:14-18; 17:6, 26). Jesus’ mission was to reveal God to humanity. This he did through his whole life’s work as well as through his words. His revelation of the name of God was expressed in his own name—Jesus (“The Lord Is Salvation”). And in the person of Jesus the function of the name of God found fulfillment. Christ was the new temple (Jn 1:14; 2:21; Col 2:9). He was the locus of the tabernacling presence of God. But that was only a first installment of the unveiling of God’s presence.<\/p>\nThe church now constitutes the temple of God in the NT. Christianity is essentially the religion of the presence of God and of communion with God. The body of Christ, “the spiritual temple” (Eph 2:22), made of “living stones” (1 Pt 2:5), is the residence of the presence of the glorious God.<\/p>\nAnd now, the individual Christian is also a temple of God (1 Cor 3:16-17; 6:19; 2 Cor 6:16). God is especially present in the Christian’s spirit; there God reigns, for there is his kingdom; there he is worshiped, for there his glory and his presence have consecrated the inner being into a temple (see Jn 14:23).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> God, Being and Attributes of.<\/p>","summary_ro":"PRESENCE OF GOD, The God’s manifestation of his spiritual being. Since God is spirit, believers experience him by sensing his invisible presence. God also makes himself known in other ways. He appears in nature, particularly in catastrophic forces—fire, lightning, and earthquake (1 Kgs 19:11-13). He also appears in human form (Gn 18; 32:22-32). So God, who cannot be seen, has chosen ways to reveal himself. In the Old Testament The Angel of the Lord The angel of the Lord was God’s emissary and...","summary_en":"PRESENCE OF GOD, The God’s manifestation of his spiritual being. Since God is spirit, believers experience him by sensing his invisible presence. God also makes himself known in other ways. He appears in nature, particularly in catastrophic forces—fire, lightning, and earthquake (1 Kgs 19:11-13). He also appears in human form (Gn 18; 32:22-32). So God, who cannot be seen, has chosen ways to reveal himself. In the Old Testament The Angel of the Lord The angel of the Lord was God’s emissary and...","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":39097,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Book of Zechariah","title_en":"Book of Zechariah","content_ro":"<h3>ZECHARIAH, Book of<\/h3>\nLongest book of the Minor Prophets and the most difficult to understand. One reason for this difficulty is the numerous visions that call for an interpreter. At times an interpreting angel is present to tell what the vision means (Zec 1:9-10, 19-20; 4:1-6; 5:5-6), but at other times, when an interpretation is really needed, there is no angel to give one. The obscure meaning of many passages has spawned numerous theories concerning the date, authorship, unity, and interpretation of this book. One thing that makes the book of Zechariah significant for the Christian is its use in the NT. The last part of Zechariah (chs 9–11) is the most quoted section of the Prophets in the Gospel Passion narratives, and, other than Ezekiel, Zechariah influenced the book of Revelation more than any other OT book.<\/p>\nPreview<\/p>\n• Author<\/p>\n• Date<\/p>\n• Background<\/p>\n• Purpose and Message<\/p>\n• Content<\/p>\nAuthor<\/p>\nThe name Zechariah probably means “the Lord remembers” or “the Lord is renowned.” Zechariah is a common name in the OT and NT. At least 30 different people in the OT are named Zechariah. There is a problem in identifying the prophet’s father. In Zechariah 1:1 and 1:7, the prophet is called “the son of Berechiah, the son of Iddo,” but in Ezra 5:1 and 6:14 he is called simply “the son of Iddo.” There was another Zechariah in Isaiah’s time whose father was named Jeberechiah (Is 8:2). Another prophet by the name of Zechariah, the son of Jehoiada the priest, lived much earlier during the reign of Joash, king of Judah (835–796 BC<\/span>). This prophet was stoned to death because he proclaimed that the Lord had forsaken his people because of their sins (2 Chr 24:20-22). Jesus seemed to refer to this or a similar unrecorded incident, but he calls the prophet the son of Berechiah, the last of the martyrs among the prophets (Mt 23:35). However, Luke’s account of what Jesus said about Zechariah (Lk 11:51) does not include the words “the son of Berechiah.” Since Jesus was quoting 2 Chronicles, which was the last book in the Hebrew Bible, he was simply indicating the sweep of time from the first murder (Abel) to the last (Zechariah, the son of Jehoiada). There is no evidence that the prophet of the book of Zechariah was martyred; therefore, the best solution to the problem is to consider Berechiah the father, and Iddo the grandfather, of this prophet.<\/p>\nDate<\/p>\nThe first part of the book of Zechariah (chs 1–8) is easy to date. The first date is in the first verse, “the eighth month of the second year of Darius.” This was Darius, king of Persia (521–486 BC<\/span>). The eighth month of Darius’s second year would be October 520 BC<\/span>. This date seems to be the first time the “word of the Lord” came to Zechariah. The second date in Zechariah is in 1:7: “On the twenty-fourth day of the eleventh month which is the month of Shebat, in the second year of Darius . . .” (rsv<\/span>). This date would be February 15, 519 BC<\/span>. The word of the Lord that came to Zechariah on this date seems to include the account of eight night visions, along with some oracles, from an angel who talked with him. The third date in Zechariah is in 7:1: “In the fourth year of King Darius . . . on the fourth day of the ninth month, which is Chislev . . .” (rsv<\/span>). This date would be the equivalent of December 7, 518 BC<\/span>.<\/p>\nThere are no dates in Zechariah 9–14. Zechariah’s name is never mentioned, and neither is Darius or any king. A period of relative peace and stability gives place to war. The temple is standing (11:13; 14:20), and evidently Greek soldiers are present (9:13). Any attempt to assign specific dates to Zechariah 9–14 would be speculation.<\/p>\nBackground<\/p>\nThe temple in Jerusalem was destroyed by Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon, in 586 BC<\/span>. Nebuchadnezzar made several raids against Jerusalem before and after it fell, taking many captives to Babylon (cf. 2 Kgs 24:1-17; Dn 1:1). On two occasions, Jeremiah had predicted that captivity would last 70 years (Jer 25:11; 29:10; cf. Dn 9:2). In the time of Zechariah, the period of 70 years since the fall of Jerusalem was coming to an end (Zec 1:12; 7:5). It had been 66 years since Jerusalem fell, when the first “word of the Lord” came to Zechariah in the second year of Darius (520 BC<\/span>). The Babylonian Empire had fallen to the Persians in 538 BC<\/span>, and Cyrus the first king of Persia signed a decree permitting all captives to return to their homes (2 Chr 36:23; Ezr 1:1-4). Evidently, the first contingent of Jewish captives returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel and Joshua the priest about 536 BC<\/span>. One of the first objectives of the returnees was to rebuild the temple (Ezr 1:3), but internal strife and external opposition from the Samaritans prohibited the immediate rebuilding of the temple. After Darius I became king of Persia in 521 BC<\/span>, a wave of expectation and enthusiasm swept over the Jewish communities in Jerusalem and Babylon. Two prophets, possibly from the Babylonian exiles, Haggai and Zechariah, began preaching so powerfully that work on the second temple began in 520 BC<\/span> and was finished in 516 BC<\/span> (Ezr 5:1, 14-15; Hg 1–2; Zec 1–8).<\/p>\nThe book of Zechariah opens in the second year of Darius (520 BC<\/span>). Some of the captives had been back in Jerusalem for 16 years, but nothing was being done about rebuilding the temple. Zechariah’s first message called for the people to repent and not repeat the mistake of their fathers, whose sins and refusal to repent led to the exile and destruction of the temple (Zec 1:1-6). Then a series of eight night visions follows (1:7–6:8), assuring the people that the temple would be rebuilt by Zerubbabel (1:16; 4:9; 6:15). Two verses in Zechariah speak volumes concerning the hardships and difficulties in Jerusalem before the temple was rebuilt: “This is what the Lord<\/span> Almighty says: Take heart and finish the task! You have heard what the prophets have been saying about building the Temple of the Lord<\/span> Almighty ever since the foundation was laid. Before the work on the Temple began, there were no jobs and no wages for either people or animals. No traveler was safe from the enemy, for there were enemies on all sides. I had turned everyone against each other” (8:9-10, nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nThe first eight chapters of Zechariah are set against the social, political, and religious situations in Jerusalem from 520 to 518 BC<\/span>. But beginning with chapter 9, historical moorings are lost. Chapter 9 opens with an oracle against Syria, including Damascus, Tyre, and Sidon, and against Philistia. Each of these places will be conquered and cleansed and will become like a clan in Judah. There is the promise of a new king coming triumphantly to Jerusalem, yet humbly riding on a donkey. His reign will be peaceful and universal. The next oracle speaks of setting the captives free, but this may not refer to the Babylonian captives, because of a reference to the Greeks. Zechariah 9–12 is almost wholly concerned with the future. Some scholars call this part apocalyptic literature. The nations attack Jerusalem and are defeated (chs 12, 14). The temple is standing (11:13), but it does not seem to have a place of great prominence in the new Jerusalem and in the kingdom of God (14:6-9).<\/p>\nPurpose and Message<\/p>\nThe purpose of the book is to reassure and encourage. The restored Jewish community of 520 BC<\/span> needed the assurance that the temple would be rebuilt, and later groups of God’s people needed to know that ultimately the kingdom of God would come in its fullness. There are three messages in the book of Zechariah: the need for repentance (1:1–5:11); the eight night visions (1:7–6:8) signifying that the temple would be rebuilt and God’s glory would return to Jerusalem; and the coming kingdom of God (chs 9–14).<\/p>\nContent<\/p>\nThe book of Zechariah may be divided into two main parts: chapters 1–8 and 9–14. The first part is dated between 520 BC<\/span> and 518 BC<\/span>. It consists of oracles and visions of Zechariah the son of Berechiah. Mainly prose, its primary concern is to assure the restored Jewish community that the temple will be rebuilt. The second part (chs 9–14) is undated. There are no references to Zechariah. The temple is standing, and much of the language is eschatological and apocalyptic. The second part itself has two parts: chapters 9–11 and 12–14. Chapters 9 and 12 begin essentially the same way: “The oracle of the word of the Lord.”<\/p>\nThe first part of Zechariah (chs 1–8) has four main sections: superscription and first oracle (1:1-6); eight night visions and related oracles (1:7–6:8); the symbolic crowning of Joshua (6:9-15); and the question about fasting and morality (7:1–8:23).<\/p>\n<h5>The Superscription (1:1)<\/h5>\nThis section is dated specifically “in the eighth month” of the Babylonian calendar, which was from mid-October to mid-November. The second year of Darius, king of Persia, was 520 BC<\/span>. The date is important in relating the work of Zechariah to that of Haggai (cf. Hg 1:1, 15; 2:1, 10, 18-20) and to the reconstruction of the temple under Zerubbabel. The first oracle concerns the need for repentance. The first message of Zechariah came between Haggai’s second and third message. He, like Haggai, probably attributed the failure of the crops and other hardships to a failure to rebuild the temple (cf. Hg 1:6-11). Zechariah calls for the people to repent so that they can persevere with work on the temple.<\/p>\n<h5>The Eight Night Visions and Related Oracles (1:7–6:8)<\/h5>\nThese visions that Zechariah saw in Jerusalem all seem to have been given on the night of the 24th day of the 11th month (Shebat) in the second year of Darius (mid-January to mid-February 519 BC<\/span>). Seven of the eight visions have essentially the same form. Four of the visions begin with the words “Then I looked up and saw” (1:18; 2:1; 5:1; 6:1). One begins, “In a vision during the night” (1:8). Another begins, “Then the angel who had been talking with me returned and woke me, as though I had been asleep. ‘What do you see now?’ he asked” (4:1-2, nlt<\/span>). Still another (the seventh) vision begins, “Then the angel who was talking with me came forward and said . . .” (5:5). However, the fourth vision is different from the other seven. It begins, “Then he showed me” (3:1, cf. Am 7:1, 4, 7). This message in the third person contains no interpreting angel nor any direct message to Zechariah, as if he were merely an observer. This fourth vision is so different from the other seven that it was not a part of the original series of eight.<\/p>\nAn overall pattern to the eight visions is not evident. Some scholars have seen some significance in the fact that the visions move from the evening or night in the first vision to the sunrise in the last vision. Others have detected some relationships in pairs of visions. The first and last visions involve horses and riders or chariots. The second and third visions involve the restoration of Judah and Jerusalem (1:18-21; 2:1-5). The fourth and fifth deal with the place of the two leaders in the restored community: Joshua will be cleansed and restored as the high priest (3:1-5) and Zerubbabel the governor will complete the temple (4:1-14). The sixth and seventh visions involve the cleansing of the land. A flying scroll enters the house of every thief and false witness and consumes it (5:1-4). Wickedness personified as a woman will be carried in an ephah (basket) to the land of Shinar (vv 5-11). Interspersed in the vision accounts are four oracles (1:14-17; 2:8-13; 3:6-10; 4:8-14). Each of these passages begins with the messenger formula, “Thus says the Lord,” or the expression “Cry out” (1:14, 17). The first oracle assures the people that the temple, the cities, and the choice of Jerusalem will be renewed. The second oracle exhorts any exiles remaining in Babylon to return to Judah and Jerusalem (2:7-12). Zechariah 2:12-13 are interesting. Verse 12 is the only OT reference to Palestine as “the Holy Land,” and verse 13 is similar to the call to worship in Habakkuk 2:20: “Be silent before the Lord<\/span>, all humanity, for he is springing into action from his holy dwelling” (Zec 2:13, nlt<\/span>). The third oracle in the visionary accounts concerns Joshua the high priest as a sign of the coming of God’s servant, the Branch who removes the guilt of the land in a single day (3:6-10).<\/p>\n<h5>The Symbolic Crowning of Joshua (6:9-15)<\/h5>\nZechariah is told to go into the house of Josiah son of Zephaniah, take silver and gold from some returnees from Babylon, make a crown, and put it on the head of Joshua the priest as a symbol of the royal and priestly king, the Branch, the builder of the temple. After the ceremony the crown is to be hung in the temple as a memorial of those who gave the silver and the gold. The last verse (6:15) seems to say that just as gold and silver from exiles was used to symbolize the crowning of the coming king of the kingdom, so exiles, “those who are far off,” will also participate in the completion of the temple. Then Zechariah’s hearers will know God sent him to prophesy. This will all take place when and if they will diligently obey the voice of the Lord.<\/p>\n<h5>The Question about Fasting and Morality (7:1–8:23)<\/h5>\nA delegation from Bethel (10 miles or 16.1 kilometers north of Jerusalem) came to Jerusalem in the fourth year of Darius (518 BC<\/span>). Work on the temple had been going on for two years. The purpose of this visit was to entreat the favor of the Lord (7:2) and to ask the priests and the prophets if they should continue to fast as they had done since the temple was destroyed 70 years earlier (v 3). The Lord told Zechariah to ask why they were fasting—for the Lord or for selfish motives? The answer to the question of fasting seems to be that God desires truth, justice, and covenant-love more than fasting. Zechariah reiterates the message the Lord had already given his people by the former prophets. The last section in the first part of Zechariah is a decalogue of promises (8:1-23). The ten promises begin with the words “Thus says the Lord” or “The word of the Lord came to me.” The last word of God is not judgment but promise, hope, forgiveness, and restoration.<\/p>\n<h5>The Oracles of the Lord (chs 9–12)<\/h5>\nThe last half of the book of Zechariah (chs 9–14) falls into two nearly equal parts: chapters 9–11 (46 verses) and chapters 12–14 (44 verses). Each part begins with the words “An oracle” (9:1; 12:1). Both “oracles” are primarily eschatological. The first part (chs 9–11) is concerned with the restoration of the tribes to Palestine (9:11-17; 10:6-12). In order to accomplish this, the Lord will rid Palestine and Syria of opponents to his rule (9:1-8; 11:1-3), remove the evil shepherds (rulers; 10:2b-5; 11:4-17), and the Prince of Peace will come (9:9-10). The last “oracle” of Zechariah (12:1–14:21) is also eschatological. This time the concern is primarily that of Jerusalem and Judah. Twice Jerusalem is attacked by the nations (12:1-8; 14:1-5). Each time the Lord fights for Jerusalem, Judah, and the house of David. Jerusalem weeps and mourns for an unidentified martyr (12:10-14). The martyr could be called the “good” shepherd who is killed and his sheep scattered (13:7-9). Jesus referred to this passage in connection with his arrest (Mt 26:31; Mk 14:27). A fountain will be opened for the house of David, and the inhabitants of Jerusalem will be cleansed from sin, idolatry, and false prophets (Zec 13:1-6). The new Jerusalem will remain aloft on its site and the land around it will be turned into a plain (14:10-11). There will be no night nor extreme temperatures in the new Jerusalem. Living waters will flow from Jerusalem, and the Lord will become King of all the earth. Those who fight against Jerusalem will be destroyed, but those who survive will worship the Lord year by year by keeping the Feast of Booths.<\/p>\nThe last scene in the book of Zechariah is a picture of the world after Armageddon, a new world cleansed of sin. It will be a time of peace and security. When God comes to reign, everything will become holy. The warhorses will become as holy as the priest’s turban, and the ordinary cooking vessel will be as temple vessels. The Canaanite or trader will be eliminated. There will be no difference between Jew and Gentile, as long as one worships the Lord of Hosts as King.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Israel, History of; Postexilic Period; Prophecy; Prophet, Prophetess; Zechariah (Person) #20.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ZECHARIAH, Book of<\/h3>\nLongest book of the Minor Prophets and the most difficult to understand. One reason for this difficulty is the numerous visions that call for an interpreter. At times an interpreting angel is present to tell what the vision means (Zec 1:9-10, 19-20; 4:1-6; 5:5-6), but at other times, when an interpretation is really needed, there is no angel to give one. The obscure meaning of many passages has spawned numerous theories concerning the date, authorship, unity, and interpretation of this book. One thing that makes the book of Zechariah significant for the Christian is its use in the NT. The last part of Zechariah (chs 9–11) is the most quoted section of the Prophets in the Gospel Passion narratives, and, other than Ezekiel, Zechariah influenced the book of Revelation more than any other OT book.<\/p>\nPreview<\/p>\n• Author<\/p>\n• Date<\/p>\n• Background<\/p>\n• Purpose and Message<\/p>\n• Content<\/p>\nAuthor<\/p>\nThe name Zechariah probably means “the Lord remembers” or “the Lord is renowned.” Zechariah is a common name in the OT and NT. At least 30 different people in the OT are named Zechariah. There is a problem in identifying the prophet’s father. In Zechariah 1:1 and 1:7, the prophet is called “the son of Berechiah, the son of Iddo,” but in Ezra 5:1 and 6:14 he is called simply “the son of Iddo.” There was another Zechariah in Isaiah’s time whose father was named Jeberechiah (Is 8:2). Another prophet by the name of Zechariah, the son of Jehoiada the priest, lived much earlier during the reign of Joash, king of Judah (835–796 BC<\/span>). This prophet was stoned to death because he proclaimed that the Lord had forsaken his people because of their sins (2 Chr 24:20-22). Jesus seemed to refer to this or a similar unrecorded incident, but he calls the prophet the son of Berechiah, the last of the martyrs among the prophets (Mt 23:35). However, Luke’s account of what Jesus said about Zechariah (Lk 11:51) does not include the words “the son of Berechiah.” Since Jesus was quoting 2 Chronicles, which was the last book in the Hebrew Bible, he was simply indicating the sweep of time from the first murder (Abel) to the last (Zechariah, the son of Jehoiada). There is no evidence that the prophet of the book of Zechariah was martyred; therefore, the best solution to the problem is to consider Berechiah the father, and Iddo the grandfather, of this prophet.<\/p>\nDate<\/p>\nThe first part of the book of Zechariah (chs 1–8) is easy to date. The first date is in the first verse, “the eighth month of the second year of Darius.” This was Darius, king of Persia (521–486 BC<\/span>). The eighth month of Darius’s second year would be October 520 BC<\/span>. This date seems to be the first time the “word of the Lord” came to Zechariah. The second date in Zechariah is in 1:7: “On the twenty-fourth day of the eleventh month which is the month of Shebat, in the second year of Darius . . .” (rsv<\/span>). This date would be February 15, 519 BC<\/span>. The word of the Lord that came to Zechariah on this date seems to include the account of eight night visions, along with some oracles, from an angel who talked with him. The third date in Zechariah is in 7:1: “In the fourth year of King Darius . . . on the fourth day of the ninth month, which is Chislev . . .” (rsv<\/span>). This date would be the equivalent of December 7, 518 BC<\/span>.<\/p>\nThere are no dates in Zechariah 9–14. Zechariah’s name is never mentioned, and neither is Darius or any king. A period of relative peace and stability gives place to war. The temple is standing (11:13; 14:20), and evidently Greek soldiers are present (9:13). Any attempt to assign specific dates to Zechariah 9–14 would be speculation.<\/p>\nBackground<\/p>\nThe temple in Jerusalem was destroyed by Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon, in 586 BC<\/span>. Nebuchadnezzar made several raids against Jerusalem before and after it fell, taking many captives to Babylon (cf. 2 Kgs 24:1-17; Dn 1:1). On two occasions, Jeremiah had predicted that captivity would last 70 years (Jer 25:11; 29:10; cf. Dn 9:2). In the time of Zechariah, the period of 70 years since the fall of Jerusalem was coming to an end (Zec 1:12; 7:5). It had been 66 years since Jerusalem fell, when the first “word of the Lord” came to Zechariah in the second year of Darius (520 BC<\/span>). The Babylonian Empire had fallen to the Persians in 538 BC<\/span>, and Cyrus the first king of Persia signed a decree permitting all captives to return to their homes (2 Chr 36:23; Ezr 1:1-4). Evidently, the first contingent of Jewish captives returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel and Joshua the priest about 536 BC<\/span>. One of the first objectives of the returnees was to rebuild the temple (Ezr 1:3), but internal strife and external opposition from the Samaritans prohibited the immediate rebuilding of the temple. After Darius I became king of Persia in 521 BC<\/span>, a wave of expectation and enthusiasm swept over the Jewish communities in Jerusalem and Babylon. Two prophets, possibly from the Babylonian exiles, Haggai and Zechariah, began preaching so powerfully that work on the second temple began in 520 BC<\/span> and was finished in 516 BC<\/span> (Ezr 5:1, 14-15; Hg 1–2; Zec 1–8).<\/p>\nThe book of Zechariah opens in the second year of Darius (520 BC<\/span>). Some of the captives had been back in Jerusalem for 16 years, but nothing was being done about rebuilding the temple. Zechariah’s first message called for the people to repent and not repeat the mistake of their fathers, whose sins and refusal to repent led to the exile and destruction of the temple (Zec 1:1-6). Then a series of eight night visions follows (1:7–6:8), assuring the people that the temple would be rebuilt by Zerubbabel (1:16; 4:9; 6:15). Two verses in Zechariah speak volumes concerning the hardships and difficulties in Jerusalem before the temple was rebuilt: “This is what the Lord<\/span> Almighty says: Take heart and finish the task! You have heard what the prophets have been saying about building the Temple of the Lord<\/span> Almighty ever since the foundation was laid. Before the work on the Temple began, there were no jobs and no wages for either people or animals. No traveler was safe from the enemy, for there were enemies on all sides. I had turned everyone against each other” (8:9-10, nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nThe first eight chapters of Zechariah are set against the social, political, and religious situations in Jerusalem from 520 to 518 BC<\/span>. But beginning with chapter 9, historical moorings are lost. Chapter 9 opens with an oracle against Syria, including Damascus, Tyre, and Sidon, and against Philistia. Each of these places will be conquered and cleansed and will become like a clan in Judah. There is the promise of a new king coming triumphantly to Jerusalem, yet humbly riding on a donkey. His reign will be peaceful and universal. The next oracle speaks of setting the captives free, but this may not refer to the Babylonian captives, because of a reference to the Greeks. Zechariah 9–12 is almost wholly concerned with the future. Some scholars call this part apocalyptic literature. The nations attack Jerusalem and are defeated (chs 12, 14). The temple is standing (11:13), but it does not seem to have a place of great prominence in the new Jerusalem and in the kingdom of God (14:6-9).<\/p>\nPurpose and Message<\/p>\nThe purpose of the book is to reassure and encourage. The restored Jewish community of 520 BC<\/span> needed the assurance that the temple would be rebuilt, and later groups of God’s people needed to know that ultimately the kingdom of God would come in its fullness. There are three messages in the book of Zechariah: the need for repentance (1:1–5:11); the eight night visions (1:7–6:8) signifying that the temple would be rebuilt and God’s glory would return to Jerusalem; and the coming kingdom of God (chs 9–14).<\/p>\nContent<\/p>\nThe book of Zechariah may be divided into two main parts: chapters 1–8 and 9–14. The first part is dated between 520 BC<\/span> and 518 BC<\/span>. It consists of oracles and visions of Zechariah the son of Berechiah. Mainly prose, its primary concern is to assure the restored Jewish community that the temple will be rebuilt. The second part (chs 9–14) is undated. There are no references to Zechariah. The temple is standing, and much of the language is eschatological and apocalyptic. The second part itself has two parts: chapters 9–11 and 12–14. Chapters 9 and 12 begin essentially the same way: “The oracle of the word of the Lord.”<\/p>\nThe first part of Zechariah (chs 1–8) has four main sections: superscription and first oracle (1:1-6); eight night visions and related oracles (1:7–6:8); the symbolic crowning of Joshua (6:9-15); and the question about fasting and morality (7:1–8:23).<\/p>\n<h5>The Superscription (1:1)<\/h5>\nThis section is dated specifically “in the eighth month” of the Babylonian calendar, which was from mid-October to mid-November. The second year of Darius, king of Persia, was 520 BC<\/span>. The date is important in relating the work of Zechariah to that of Haggai (cf. Hg 1:1, 15; 2:1, 10, 18-20) and to the reconstruction of the temple under Zerubbabel. The first oracle concerns the need for repentance. The first message of Zechariah came between Haggai’s second and third message. He, like Haggai, probably attributed the failure of the crops and other hardships to a failure to rebuild the temple (cf. Hg 1:6-11). Zechariah calls for the people to repent so that they can persevere with work on the temple.<\/p>\n<h5>The Eight Night Visions and Related Oracles (1:7–6:8)<\/h5>\nThese visions that Zechariah saw in Jerusalem all seem to have been given on the night of the 24th day of the 11th month (Shebat) in the second year of Darius (mid-January to mid-February 519 BC<\/span>). Seven of the eight visions have essentially the same form. Four of the visions begin with the words “Then I looked up and saw” (1:18; 2:1; 5:1; 6:1). One begins, “In a vision during the night” (1:8). Another begins, “Then the angel who had been talking with me returned and woke me, as though I had been asleep. ‘What do you see now?’ he asked” (4:1-2, nlt<\/span>). Still another (the seventh) vision begins, “Then the angel who was talking with me came forward and said . . .” (5:5). However, the fourth vision is different from the other seven. It begins, “Then he showed me” (3:1, cf. Am 7:1, 4, 7). This message in the third person contains no interpreting angel nor any direct message to Zechariah, as if he were merely an observer. This fourth vision is so different from the other seven that it was not a part of the original series of eight.<\/p>\nAn overall pattern to the eight visions is not evident. Some scholars have seen some significance in the fact that the visions move from the evening or night in the first vision to the sunrise in the last vision. Others have detected some relationships in pairs of visions. The first and last visions involve horses and riders or chariots. The second and third visions involve the restoration of Judah and Jerusalem (1:18-21; 2:1-5). The fourth and fifth deal with the place of the two leaders in the restored community: Joshua will be cleansed and restored as the high priest (3:1-5) and Zerubbabel the governor will complete the temple (4:1-14). The sixth and seventh visions involve the cleansing of the land. A flying scroll enters the house of every thief and false witness and consumes it (5:1-4). Wickedness personified as a woman will be carried in an ephah (basket) to the land of Shinar (vv 5-11). Interspersed in the vision accounts are four oracles (1:14-17; 2:8-13; 3:6-10; 4:8-14). Each of these passages begins with the messenger formula, “Thus says the Lord,” or the expression “Cry out” (1:14, 17). The first oracle assures the people that the temple, the cities, and the choice of Jerusalem will be renewed. The second oracle exhorts any exiles remaining in Babylon to return to Judah and Jerusalem (2:7-12). Zechariah 2:12-13 are interesting. Verse 12 is the only OT reference to Palestine as “the Holy Land,” and verse 13 is similar to the call to worship in Habakkuk 2:20: “Be silent before the Lord<\/span>, all humanity, for he is springing into action from his holy dwelling” (Zec 2:13, nlt<\/span>). The third oracle in the visionary accounts concerns Joshua the high priest as a sign of the coming of God’s servant, the Branch who removes the guilt of the land in a single day (3:6-10).<\/p>\n<h5>The Symbolic Crowning of Joshua (6:9-15)<\/h5>\nZechariah is told to go into the house of Josiah son of Zephaniah, take silver and gold from some returnees from Babylon, make a crown, and put it on the head of Joshua the priest as a symbol of the royal and priestly king, the Branch, the builder of the temple. After the ceremony the crown is to be hung in the temple as a memorial of those who gave the silver and the gold. The last verse (6:15) seems to say that just as gold and silver from exiles was used to symbolize the crowning of the coming king of the kingdom, so exiles, “those who are far off,” will also participate in the completion of the temple. Then Zechariah’s hearers will know God sent him to prophesy. This will all take place when and if they will diligently obey the voice of the Lord.<\/p>\n<h5>The Question about Fasting and Morality (7:1–8:23)<\/h5>\nA delegation from Bethel (10 miles or 16.1 kilometers north of Jerusalem) came to Jerusalem in the fourth year of Darius (518 BC<\/span>). Work on the temple had been going on for two years. The purpose of this visit was to entreat the favor of the Lord (7:2) and to ask the priests and the prophets if they should continue to fast as they had done since the temple was destroyed 70 years earlier (v 3). The Lord told Zechariah to ask why they were fasting—for the Lord or for selfish motives? The answer to the question of fasting seems to be that God desires truth, justice, and covenant-love more than fasting. Zechariah reiterates the message the Lord had already given his people by the former prophets. The last section in the first part of Zechariah is a decalogue of promises (8:1-23). The ten promises begin with the words “Thus says the Lord” or “The word of the Lord came to me.” The last word of God is not judgment but promise, hope, forgiveness, and restoration.<\/p>\n<h5>The Oracles of the Lord (chs 9–12)<\/h5>\nThe last half of the book of Zechariah (chs 9–14) falls into two nearly equal parts: chapters 9–11 (46 verses) and chapters 12–14 (44 verses). Each part begins with the words “An oracle” (9:1; 12:1). Both “oracles” are primarily eschatological. The first part (chs 9–11) is concerned with the restoration of the tribes to Palestine (9:11-17; 10:6-12). In order to accomplish this, the Lord will rid Palestine and Syria of opponents to his rule (9:1-8; 11:1-3), remove the evil shepherds (rulers; 10:2b-5; 11:4-17), and the Prince of Peace will come (9:9-10). The last “oracle” of Zechariah (12:1–14:21) is also eschatological. This time the concern is primarily that of Jerusalem and Judah. Twice Jerusalem is attacked by the nations (12:1-8; 14:1-5). Each time the Lord fights for Jerusalem, Judah, and the house of David. Jerusalem weeps and mourns for an unidentified martyr (12:10-14). The martyr could be called the “good” shepherd who is killed and his sheep scattered (13:7-9). Jesus referred to this passage in connection with his arrest (Mt 26:31; Mk 14:27). A fountain will be opened for the house of David, and the inhabitants of Jerusalem will be cleansed from sin, idolatry, and false prophets (Zec 13:1-6). The new Jerusalem will remain aloft on its site and the land around it will be turned into a plain (14:10-11). There will be no night nor extreme temperatures in the new Jerusalem. Living waters will flow from Jerusalem, and the Lord will become King of all the earth. Those who fight against Jerusalem will be destroyed, but those who survive will worship the Lord year by year by keeping the Feast of Booths.<\/p>\nThe last scene in the book of Zechariah is a picture of the world after Armageddon, a new world cleansed of sin. It will be a time of peace and security. When God comes to reign, everything will become holy. The warhorses will become as holy as the priest’s turban, and the ordinary cooking vessel will be as temple vessels. The Canaanite or trader will be eliminated. There will be no difference between Jew and Gentile, as long as one worships the Lord of Hosts as King.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Israel, History of; Postexilic Period; Prophecy; Prophet, Prophetess; Zechariah (Person) #20.<\/p>","summary_ro":"ZECHARIAH, Book of Longest book of the Minor Prophets and the most difficult to understand. One reason for this difficulty is the numerous visions that call for an interpreter. At times an interpreting angel is present to tell what the vision means (Zec 1:9-10, 19-20; 4:1-6; 5:5-6), but at other times, when an interpretation is really needed, there is no angel to give one. The obscure meaning of many passages has spawned numerous theories concerning the date, authorship, unity, and interpreta...","summary_en":"ZECHARIAH, Book of Longest book of the Minor Prophets and the most difficult to understand. One reason for this difficulty is the numerous visions that call for an interpreter. At times an interpreting angel is present to tell what the vision means (Zec 1:9-10, 19-20; 4:1-6; 5:5-6), but at other times, when an interpretation is really needed, there is no angel to give one. The obscure meaning of many passages has spawned numerous theories concerning the date, authorship, unity, and interpreta...","source":"Articles\/Z.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":54303,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Zaharia 6:1","title_en":"Study Note: Zaharia 6:1","content_ro":"6:1-8<\/strong> In Zechariah’s first and last visions, God sends horses to patrol the earth. Both visions show God’s sovereignty and his concern for the nations, a vital component of Zechariah’s message of comfort and encouragement to postexilic Judah.<\/p>","content_en":"6:1-8<\/strong> In Zechariah’s first and last visions, God sends horses to patrol the earth. Both visions show God’s sovereignty and his concern for the nations, a vital component of Zechariah’s message of comfort and encouragement to postexilic Judah.<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:1-8 In Zechariah’s first and last visions, God sends horses to patrol the earth. Both visions show God’s sovereignty and his concern for the nations, a vital component of Zechariah’s message of comfort and encouragement to postexilic Judah.","summary_en":"6:1-8 In Zechariah’s first and last visions, God sends horses to patrol the earth. Both visions show God’s sovereignty and his concern for the nations, a vital component of Zechariah’s message of comfort and encouragement to postexilic Judah.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":54304,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Zaharia 6:1","title_en":"Study Note: Zaharia 6:1","content_ro":"6:1<\/strong> Chariots<\/em> symbolize the swift and decisive power of God’s intervention in human affairs. • The two bronze mountains<\/em> are enhanced images of the two bronze pillars that once flanked the entrance to Solomon’s Temple (1 Kgs 7:13-22). Bronze<\/em> symbolizes the impregnable strength of God’s dwelling.<\/p>","content_en":"6:1<\/strong> Chariots<\/em> symbolize the swift and decisive power of God’s intervention in human affairs. • The two bronze mountains<\/em> are enhanced images of the two bronze pillars that once flanked the entrance to Solomon’s Temple (1 Kgs 7:13-22). Bronze<\/em> symbolizes the impregnable strength of God’s dwelling.<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:1 Chariots symbolize the swift and decisive power of God’s intervention in human affairs. • The two bronze mountains are enhanced images of the two bronze pillars that once flanked the entrance to Solomon’s Temple (1 Kgs 7:13-22). Bronze symbolizes the impregnable strength of God’s dwelling.","summary_en":"6:1 Chariots symbolize the swift and decisive power of God’s intervention in human affairs. • The two bronze mountains are enhanced images of the two bronze pillars that once flanked the entrance to Solomon’s Temple (1 Kgs 7:13-22). Bronze symbolizes the impregnable strength of God’s dwelling.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":81929,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Zaharia 6:1","title_en":"Study Note: Zaharia 6:1","content_ro":"6:1-8<\/strong> In Zechariah’s first and last visions, God sends horses to patrol the earth. Both visions show God’s sovereignty and his concern for the nations, a vital component of Zechariah’s message of comfort and encouragement to postexilic Judah.<\/p>","content_en":"6:1-8<\/strong> In Zechariah’s first and last visions, God sends horses to patrol the earth. Both visions show God’s sovereignty and his concern for the nations, a vital component of Zechariah’s message of comfort and encouragement to postexilic Judah.<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:1-8 In Zechariah’s first and last visions, God sends horses to patrol the earth. Both visions show God’s sovereignty and his concern for the nations, a vital component of Zechariah’s message of comfort and encouragement to postexilic Judah.","summary_en":"6:1-8 In Zechariah’s first and last visions, God sends horses to patrol the earth. Both visions show God’s sovereignty and his concern for the nations, a vital component of Zechariah’s message of comfort and encouragement to postexilic Judah.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":81930,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Zaharia 6:1","title_en":"Study Note: Zaharia 6:1","content_ro":"6:1<\/strong> Chariots<\/em> symbolize the swift and decisive power of God’s intervention in human affairs. • The two bronze mountains<\/em> are enhanced images of the two bronze pillars that once flanked the entrance to Solomon’s Temple (1 Kgs 7:13-22). Bronze<\/em> symbolizes the impregnable strength of God’s dwelling.<\/p>","content_en":"6:1<\/strong> Chariots<\/em> symbolize the swift and decisive power of God’s intervention in human affairs. • The two bronze mountains<\/em> are enhanced images of the two bronze pillars that once flanked the entrance to Solomon’s Temple (1 Kgs 7:13-22). Bronze<\/em> symbolizes the impregnable strength of God’s dwelling.<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:1 Chariots symbolize the swift and decisive power of God’s intervention in human affairs. • The two bronze mountains are enhanced images of the two bronze pillars that once flanked the entrance to Solomon’s Temple (1 Kgs 7:13-22). Bronze symbolizes the impregnable strength of God’s dwelling.","summary_en":"6:1 Chariots symbolize the swift and decisive power of God’s intervention in human affairs. • The two bronze mountains are enhanced images of the two bronze pillars that once flanked the entrance to Solomon’s Temple (1 Kgs 7:13-22). Bronze symbolizes the impregnable strength of God’s dwelling.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":109555,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Zaharia 6:1","title_en":"Study Note: Zaharia 6:1","content_ro":"6:1-8<\/strong> In Zechariah’s first and last visions, God sends horses to patrol the earth. Both visions show God’s sovereignty and his concern for the nations, a vital component of Zechariah’s message of comfort and encouragement to postexilic Judah.<\/p>","content_en":"6:1-8<\/strong> In Zechariah’s first and last visions, God sends horses to patrol the earth. Both visions show God’s sovereignty and his concern for the nations, a vital component of Zechariah’s message of comfort and encouragement to postexilic Judah.<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:1-8 In Zechariah’s first and last visions, God sends horses to patrol the earth. Both visions show God’s sovereignty and his concern for the nations, a vital component of Zechariah’s message of comfort and encouragement to postexilic Judah.","summary_en":"6:1-8 In Zechariah’s first and last visions, God sends horses to patrol the earth. Both visions show God’s sovereignty and his concern for the nations, a vital component of Zechariah’s message of comfort and encouragement to postexilic Judah.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":109556,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Zaharia 6:1","title_en":"Study Note: Zaharia 6:1","content_ro":"6:1<\/strong> Chariots<\/em> symbolize the swift and decisive power of God’s intervention in human affairs. • The two bronze mountains<\/em> are enhanced images of the two bronze pillars that once flanked the entrance to Solomon’s Temple (1 Kgs 7:13-22). Bronze<\/em> symbolizes the impregnable strength of God’s dwelling.<\/p>","content_en":"6:1<\/strong> Chariots<\/em> symbolize the swift and decisive power of God’s intervention in human affairs. • The two bronze mountains<\/em> are enhanced images of the two bronze pillars that once flanked the entrance to Solomon’s Temple (1 Kgs 7:13-22). Bronze<\/em> symbolizes the impregnable strength of God’s dwelling.<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:1 Chariots symbolize the swift and decisive power of God’s intervention in human affairs. • The two bronze mountains are enhanced images of the two bronze pillars that once flanked the entrance to Solomon’s Temple (1 Kgs 7:13-22). Bronze symbolizes the impregnable strength of God’s dwelling.","summary_en":"6:1 Chariots symbolize the swift and decisive power of God’s intervention in human affairs. • The two bronze mountains are enhanced images of the two bronze pillars that once flanked the entrance to Solomon’s Temple (1 Kgs 7:13-22). Bronze symbolizes the impregnable strength of God’s dwelling.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":137181,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Zaharia 6:1","title_en":"Study Note: Zaharia 6:1","content_ro":"6:1-8<\/strong> In Zechariah’s first and last visions, God sends horses to patrol the earth. Both visions show God’s sovereignty and his concern for the nations, a vital component of Zechariah’s message of comfort and encouragement to postexilic Judah.<\/p>","content_en":"6:1-8<\/strong> In Zechariah’s first and last visions, God sends horses to patrol the earth. Both visions show God’s sovereignty and his concern for the nations, a vital component of Zechariah’s message of comfort and encouragement to postexilic Judah.<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:1-8 In Zechariah’s first and last visions, God sends horses to patrol the earth. Both visions show God’s sovereignty and his concern for the nations, a vital component of Zechariah’s message of comfort and encouragement to postexilic Judah.","summary_en":"6:1-8 In Zechariah’s first and last visions, God sends horses to patrol the earth. Both visions show God’s sovereignty and his concern for the nations, a vital component of Zechariah’s message of comfort and encouragement to postexilic Judah.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":137182,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Zaharia 6:1","title_en":"Study Note: Zaharia 6:1","content_ro":"6:1<\/strong> Chariots<\/em> symbolize the swift and decisive power of God’s intervention in human affairs. • The two bronze mountains<\/em> are enhanced images of the two bronze pillars that once flanked the entrance to Solomon’s Temple (1 Kgs 7:13-22). Bronze<\/em> symbolizes the impregnable strength of God’s dwelling.<\/p>","content_en":"6:1<\/strong> Chariots<\/em> symbolize the swift and decisive power of God’s intervention in human affairs. • The two bronze mountains<\/em> are enhanced images of the two bronze pillars that once flanked the entrance to Solomon’s Temple (1 Kgs 7:13-22). Bronze<\/em> symbolizes the impregnable strength of God’s dwelling.<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:1 Chariots symbolize the swift and decisive power of God’s intervention in human affairs. • The two bronze mountains are enhanced images of the two bronze pillars that once flanked the entrance to Solomon’s Temple (1 Kgs 7:13-22). Bronze symbolizes the impregnable strength of God’s dwelling.","summary_en":"6:1 Chariots symbolize the swift and decisive power of God’s intervention in human affairs. • The two bronze mountains are enhanced images of the two bronze pillars that once flanked the entrance to Solomon’s Temple (1 Kgs 7:13-22). Bronze symbolizes the impregnable strength of God’s dwelling.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":67992,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Symbolic Numbers","title_en":"Symbolic Numbers","content_ro":"<h3>Symbolic Numbers<\/h3>\nNumbers used in Scripture have often inspired wild speculation. An understanding of the symbolism of numbers in the ancient world can help ground our interpretation. Such symbolism, however, is not rigid or exact, so great care must be exercised when numbers are used in interpretation, so as not to push fanciful predictions about future events.<\/p>\nThe number one<\/em> can refer to God’s oneness (Deut 6:4; Gal 3:20; Jas 2:19). Two<\/em> is the minimum number required to give a legitimate witness (Deut 17:6; Rev 11:3), and three<\/em> can imply divine representation (Gen 18:1-2; 2 Cor 13:14; Rev 1:4-5). Four<\/em> can stand for the known world, represented in Revelation by living creatures, horsemen, winds, and angels (Rev 4:6-8; 6:1-8; 7:1) and in Genesis by four<\/em> rivers (Gen 2:10-14). When three<\/em> and four<\/em> are added to make seven,<\/em> they represent perfection or divine fulfillment, indicating that God and the world are in harmony. The multiplication of three<\/em> by four<\/em> yields twelve,<\/em> the number associated with God’s people (Gen 35:22-26; Exod 24:4; 28:21; Num 17:2; Josh 4:3-8; 1 Kgs 18:31; Matt 10:1-4; 19:28; Jas 1:1; Rev 12:1; 21:12–22:2. The number five<\/em> and its multiples, such as ten,<\/em> represent human completeness (e.g., five<\/em> fingers per hand); and six<\/em> carries a negative sense or implication of evil, being neither humanly complete (five<\/em>) nor divinely complete (seven<\/em>).<\/p>\nMultiples of ten<\/em> (e.g., forty<\/em>) are a symbolic way to indicate many<\/em>, whereas three sixes<\/em> (666) imply supreme evil (Rev 13:18). One thousand<\/em> is regarded as the foundational large number; 12,000 indicates a large number of God’s people (Rev 7:5-8); and 144,000 represents the complete people of God (Rev 7:4; 14:1). The number 10,000 and its multiples are probably best transliterated from Greek as myriads<\/em>, since they really mean “a huge number” rather than a precise count.<\/p>\nWhile some of the numbers in the Bible have symbolic meanings, using numbers to speculate on the time of Christ’s return or of the end of the world is highly dubious—only God possesses that knowledge (Mark 13:32). God did not intend for the symbolic numbers in Revelation to help us predict the future; rather, their symbolic meanings help to explain the significance of the visions. Because the numbers are symbolic, sometimes when we translate them into contemporary sizes, distances, and numbers for our ease of reading, it can result in the loss of theological significance. The use of these symbolic numbers can illuminate a vision’s relationship to the world or to the people of God.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nGen 2:2-3; 4:15; 15:13; 41:53-54; Exod 20:6; 25:31-37; 32:15; Lev 16:14; 23:16; 2 Sam 24:13; 1 Kgs 4:26; 17:21; 18:31, 43-44; Job 1:2; Ps 90:4; Jer 15:3; 49:36; Ezek 14:21; Dan 4:16, 23-25; 7:3, 17, 24; Zech 4:2; 6:1; Matt 10:1-5; 12:40; 18:21-22; Mark 6:7; Luke 15:8; Acts 6:3; 10:16; 1 Cor 8:6; Eph 4:4-6; 2 Pet 3:8; Rev 1:16; 2:10; 4:4; 6:1; 7:1, 4-8; 12:1, 3; 13:1; 17:3-14; 20:2-7; 21:12-21<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Symbolic Numbers<\/h3>\nNumbers used in Scripture have often inspired wild speculation. An understanding of the symbolism of numbers in the ancient world can help ground our interpretation. Such symbolism, however, is not rigid or exact, so great care must be exercised when numbers are used in interpretation, so as not to push fanciful predictions about future events.<\/p>\nThe number one<\/em> can refer to God’s oneness (Deut 6:4; Gal 3:20; Jas 2:19). Two<\/em> is the minimum number required to give a legitimate witness (Deut 17:6; Rev 11:3), and three<\/em> can imply divine representation (Gen 18:1-2; 2 Cor 13:14; Rev 1:4-5). Four<\/em> can stand for the known world, represented in Revelation by living creatures, horsemen, winds, and angels (Rev 4:6-8; 6:1-8; 7:1) and in Genesis by four<\/em> rivers (Gen 2:10-14). When three<\/em> and four<\/em> are added to make seven,<\/em> they represent perfection or divine fulfillment, indicating that God and the world are in harmony. The multiplication of three<\/em> by four<\/em> yields twelve,<\/em> the number associated with God’s people (Gen 35:22-26; Exod 24:4; 28:21; Num 17:2; Josh 4:3-8; 1 Kgs 18:31; Matt 10:1-4; 19:28; Jas 1:1; Rev 12:1; 21:12–22:2. The number five<\/em> and its multiples, such as ten,<\/em> represent human completeness (e.g., five<\/em> fingers per hand); and six<\/em> carries a negative sense or implication of evil, being neither humanly complete (five<\/em>) nor divinely complete (seven<\/em>).<\/p>\nMultiples of ten<\/em> (e.g., forty<\/em>) are a symbolic way to indicate many<\/em>, whereas three sixes<\/em> (666) imply supreme evil (Rev 13:18). One thousand<\/em> is regarded as the foundational large number; 12,000 indicates a large number of God’s people (Rev 7:5-8); and 144,000 represents the complete people of God (Rev 7:4; 14:1). The number 10,000 and its multiples are probably best transliterated from Greek as myriads<\/em>, since they really mean “a huge number” rather than a precise count.<\/p>\nWhile some of the numbers in the Bible have symbolic meanings, using numbers to speculate on the time of Christ’s return or of the end of the world is highly dubious—only God possesses that knowledge (Mark 13:32). God did not intend for the symbolic numbers in Revelation to help us predict the future; rather, their symbolic meanings help to explain the significance of the visions. Because the numbers are symbolic, sometimes when we translate them into contemporary sizes, distances, and numbers for our ease of reading, it can result in the loss of theological significance. The use of these symbolic numbers can illuminate a vision’s relationship to the world or to the people of God.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nGen 2:2-3; 4:15; 15:13; 41:53-54; Exod 20:6; 25:31-37; 32:15; Lev 16:14; 23:16; 2 Sam 24:13; 1 Kgs 4:26; 17:21; 18:31, 43-44; Job 1:2; Ps 90:4; Jer 15:3; 49:36; Ezek 14:21; Dan 4:16, 23-25; 7:3, 17, 24; Zech 4:2; 6:1; Matt 10:1-5; 12:40; 18:21-22; Mark 6:7; Luke 15:8; Acts 6:3; 10:16; 1 Cor 8:6; Eph 4:4-6; 2 Pet 3:8; Rev 1:16; 2:10; 4:4; 6:1; 7:1, 4-8; 12:1, 3; 13:1; 17:3-14; 20:2-7; 21:12-21<\/p>","summary_ro":"Symbolic Numbers Numbers used in Scripture have often inspired wild speculation. An understanding of the symbolism of numbers in the ancient world can help ground our interpretation. Such symbolism, however, is not rigid or exact, so great care must be exercised when numbers are used in interpretation, so as not to push fanciful predictions about future events. The number one can refer to God’s oneness (Deut 6:4; Gal 3:20; Jas 2:19). Two is the minimum number required to give a legitimate wit...","summary_en":"Symbolic Numbers Numbers used in Scripture have often inspired wild speculation. An understanding of the symbolism of numbers in the ancient world can help ground our interpretation. Such symbolism, however, is not rigid or exact, so great care must be exercised when numbers are used in interpretation, so as not to push fanciful predictions about future events. The number one can refer to God’s oneness (Deut 6:4; Gal 3:20; Jas 2:19). Two is the minimum number required to give a legitimate wit...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":95618,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Symbolic Numbers","title_en":"Symbolic Numbers","content_ro":"<h3>Symbolic Numbers<\/h3>\nNumbers used in Scripture have often inspired wild speculation. An understanding of the symbolism of numbers in the ancient world can help ground our interpretation. Such symbolism, however, is not rigid or exact, so great care must be exercised when numbers are used in interpretation, so as not to push fanciful predictions about future events.<\/p>\nThe number one<\/em> can refer to God’s oneness (Deut 6:4; Gal 3:20; Jas 2:19). Two<\/em> is the minimum number required to give a legitimate witness (Deut 17:6; Rev 11:3), and three<\/em> can imply divine representation (Gen 18:1-2; 2 Cor 13:14; Rev 1:4-5). Four<\/em> can stand for the known world, represented in Revelation by living creatures, horsemen, winds, and angels (Rev 4:6-8; 6:1-8; 7:1) and in Genesis by four<\/em> rivers (Gen 2:10-14). When three<\/em> and four<\/em> are added to make seven,<\/em> they represent perfection or divine fulfillment, indicating that God and the world are in harmony. The multiplication of three<\/em> by four<\/em> yields twelve,<\/em> the number associated with God’s people (Gen 35:22-26; Exod 24:4; 28:21; Num 17:2; Josh 4:3-8; 1 Kgs 18:31; Matt 10:1-4; 19:28; Jas 1:1; Rev 12:1; 21:12–22:2. The number five<\/em> and its multiples, such as ten,<\/em> represent human completeness (e.g., five<\/em> fingers per hand); and six<\/em> carries a negative sense or implication of evil, being neither humanly complete (five<\/em>) nor divinely complete (seven<\/em>).<\/p>\nMultiples of ten<\/em> (e.g., forty<\/em>) are a symbolic way to indicate many<\/em>, whereas three sixes<\/em> (666) imply supreme evil (Rev 13:18). One thousand<\/em> is regarded as the foundational large number; 12,000 indicates a large number of God’s people (Rev 7:5-8); and 144,000 represents the complete people of God (Rev 7:4; 14:1). The number 10,000 and its multiples are probably best transliterated from Greek as myriads<\/em>, since they really mean “a huge number” rather than a precise count.<\/p>\nWhile some of the numbers in the Bible have symbolic meanings, using numbers to speculate on the time of Christ’s return or of the end of the world is highly dubious—only God possesses that knowledge (Mark 13:32). God did not intend for the symbolic numbers in Revelation to help us predict the future; rather, their symbolic meanings help to explain the significance of the visions. Because the numbers are symbolic, sometimes when we translate them into contemporary sizes, distances, and numbers for our ease of reading, it can result in the loss of theological significance. The use of these symbolic numbers can illuminate a vision’s relationship to the world or to the people of God.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nGen 2:2-3; 4:15; 15:13; 41:53-54; Exod 20:6; 25:31-37; 32:15; Lev 16:14; 23:16; 2 Sam 24:13; 1 Kgs 4:26; 17:21; 18:31, 43-44; Job 1:2; Ps 90:4; Jer 15:3; 49:36; Ezek 14:21; Dan 4:16, 23-25; 7:3, 17, 24; Zech 4:2; 6:1; Matt 10:1-5; 12:40; 18:21-22; Mark 6:7; Luke 15:8; Acts 6:3; 10:16; 1 Cor 8:6; Eph 4:4-6; 2 Pet 3:8; Rev 1:16; 2:10; 4:4; 6:1; 7:1, 4-8; 12:1, 3; 13:1; 17:3-14; 20:2-7; 21:12-21<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Symbolic Numbers<\/h3>\nNumbers used in Scripture have often inspired wild speculation. An understanding of the symbolism of numbers in the ancient world can help ground our interpretation. Such symbolism, however, is not rigid or exact, so great care must be exercised when numbers are used in interpretation, so as not to push fanciful predictions about future events.<\/p>\nThe number one<\/em> can refer to God’s oneness (Deut 6:4; Gal 3:20; Jas 2:19). Two<\/em> is the minimum number required to give a legitimate witness (Deut 17:6; Rev 11:3), and three<\/em> can imply divine representation (Gen 18:1-2; 2 Cor 13:14; Rev 1:4-5). Four<\/em> can stand for the known world, represented in Revelation by living creatures, horsemen, winds, and angels (Rev 4:6-8; 6:1-8; 7:1) and in Genesis by four<\/em> rivers (Gen 2:10-14). When three<\/em> and four<\/em> are added to make seven,<\/em> they represent perfection or divine fulfillment, indicating that God and the world are in harmony. The multiplication of three<\/em> by four<\/em> yields twelve,<\/em> the number associated with God’s people (Gen 35:22-26; Exod 24:4; 28:21; Num 17:2; Josh 4:3-8; 1 Kgs 18:31; Matt 10:1-4; 19:28; Jas 1:1; Rev 12:1; 21:12–22:2. The number five<\/em> and its multiples, such as ten,<\/em> represent human completeness (e.g., five<\/em> fingers per hand); and six<\/em> carries a negative sense or implication of evil, being neither humanly complete (five<\/em>) nor divinely complete (seven<\/em>).<\/p>\nMultiples of ten<\/em> (e.g., forty<\/em>) are a symbolic way to indicate many<\/em>, whereas three sixes<\/em> (666) imply supreme evil (Rev 13:18). One thousand<\/em> is regarded as the foundational large number; 12,000 indicates a large number of God’s people (Rev 7:5-8); and 144,000 represents the complete people of God (Rev 7:4; 14:1). The number 10,000 and its multiples are probably best transliterated from Greek as myriads<\/em>, since they really mean “a huge number” rather than a precise count.<\/p>\nWhile some of the numbers in the Bible have symbolic meanings, using numbers to speculate on the time of Christ’s return or of the end of the world is highly dubious—only God possesses that knowledge (Mark 13:32). God did not intend for the symbolic numbers in Revelation to help us predict the future; rather, their symbolic meanings help to explain the significance of the visions. Because the numbers are symbolic, sometimes when we translate them into contemporary sizes, distances, and numbers for our ease of reading, it can result in the loss of theological significance. The use of these symbolic numbers can illuminate a vision’s relationship to the world or to the people of God.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nGen 2:2-3; 4:15; 15:13; 41:53-54; Exod 20:6; 25:31-37; 32:15; Lev 16:14; 23:16; 2 Sam 24:13; 1 Kgs 4:26; 17:21; 18:31, 43-44; Job 1:2; Ps 90:4; Jer 15:3; 49:36; Ezek 14:21; Dan 4:16, 23-25; 7:3, 17, 24; Zech 4:2; 6:1; Matt 10:1-5; 12:40; 18:21-22; Mark 6:7; Luke 15:8; Acts 6:3; 10:16; 1 Cor 8:6; Eph 4:4-6; 2 Pet 3:8; Rev 1:16; 2:10; 4:4; 6:1; 7:1, 4-8; 12:1, 3; 13:1; 17:3-14; 20:2-7; 21:12-21<\/p>","summary_ro":"Symbolic Numbers Numbers used in Scripture have often inspired wild speculation. An understanding of the symbolism of numbers in the ancient world can help ground our interpretation. Such symbolism, however, is not rigid or exact, so great care must be exercised when numbers are used in interpretation, so as not to push fanciful predictions about future events. The number one can refer to God’s oneness (Deut 6:4; Gal 3:20; Jas 2:19). Two is the minimum number required to give a legitimate wit...","summary_en":"Symbolic Numbers Numbers used in Scripture have often inspired wild speculation. An understanding of the symbolism of numbers in the ancient world can help ground our interpretation. Such symbolism, however, is not rigid or exact, so great care must be exercised when numbers are used in interpretation, so as not to push fanciful predictions about future events. The number one can refer to God’s oneness (Deut 6:4; Gal 3:20; Jas 2:19). Two is the minimum number required to give a legitimate wit...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":123244,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Symbolic Numbers","title_en":"Symbolic Numbers","content_ro":"<h3>Symbolic Numbers<\/h3>\nNumbers used in Scripture have often inspired wild speculation. An understanding of the symbolism of numbers in the ancient world can help ground our interpretation. Such symbolism, however, is not rigid or exact, so great care must be exercised when numbers are used in interpretation, so as not to push fanciful predictions about future events.<\/p>\nThe number one<\/em> can refer to God’s oneness (Deut 6:4; Gal 3:20; Jas 2:19). Two<\/em> is the minimum number required to give a legitimate witness (Deut 17:6; Rev 11:3), and three<\/em> can imply divine representation (Gen 18:1-2; 2 Cor 13:14; Rev 1:4-5). Four<\/em> can stand for the known world, represented in Revelation by living creatures, horsemen, winds, and angels (Rev 4:6-8; 6:1-8; 7:1) and in Genesis by four<\/em> rivers (Gen 2:10-14). When three<\/em> and four<\/em> are added to make seven,<\/em> they represent perfection or divine fulfillment, indicating that God and the world are in harmony. The multiplication of three<\/em> by four<\/em> yields twelve,<\/em> the number associated with God’s people (Gen 35:22-26; Exod 24:4; 28:21; Num 17:2; Josh 4:3-8; 1 Kgs 18:31; Matt 10:1-4; 19:28; Jas 1:1; Rev 12:1; 21:12–22:2. The number five<\/em> and its multiples, such as ten,<\/em> represent human completeness (e.g., five<\/em> fingers per hand); and six<\/em> carries a negative sense or implication of evil, being neither humanly complete (five<\/em>) nor divinely complete (seven<\/em>).<\/p>\nMultiples of ten<\/em> (e.g., forty<\/em>) are a symbolic way to indicate many<\/em>, whereas three sixes<\/em> (666) imply supreme evil (Rev 13:18). One thousand<\/em> is regarded as the foundational large number; 12,000 indicates a large number of God’s people (Rev 7:5-8); and 144,000 represents the complete people of God (Rev 7:4; 14:1). The number 10,000 and its multiples are probably best transliterated from Greek as myriads<\/em>, since they really mean “a huge number” rather than a precise count.<\/p>\nWhile some of the numbers in the Bible have symbolic meanings, using numbers to speculate on the time of Christ’s return or of the end of the world is highly dubious—only God possesses that knowledge (Mark 13:32). God did not intend for the symbolic numbers in Revelation to help us predict the future; rather, their symbolic meanings help to explain the significance of the visions. Because the numbers are symbolic, sometimes when we translate them into contemporary sizes, distances, and numbers for our ease of reading, it can result in the loss of theological significance. The use of these symbolic numbers can illuminate a vision’s relationship to the world or to the people of God.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nGen 2:2-3; 4:15; 15:13; 41:53-54; Exod 20:6; 25:31-37; 32:15; Lev 16:14; 23:16; 2 Sam 24:13; 1 Kgs 4:26; 17:21; 18:31, 43-44; Job 1:2; Ps 90:4; Jer 15:3; 49:36; Ezek 14:21; Dan 4:16, 23-25; 7:3, 17, 24; Zech 4:2; 6:1; Matt 10:1-5; 12:40; 18:21-22; Mark 6:7; Luke 15:8; Acts 6:3; 10:16; 1 Cor 8:6; Eph 4:4-6; 2 Pet 3:8; Rev 1:16; 2:10; 4:4; 6:1; 7:1, 4-8; 12:1, 3; 13:1; 17:3-14; 20:2-7; 21:12-21<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Symbolic Numbers<\/h3>\nNumbers used in Scripture have often inspired wild speculation. An understanding of the symbolism of numbers in the ancient world can help ground our interpretation. Such symbolism, however, is not rigid or exact, so great care must be exercised when numbers are used in interpretation, so as not to push fanciful predictions about future events.<\/p>\nThe number one<\/em> can refer to God’s oneness (Deut 6:4; Gal 3:20; Jas 2:19). Two<\/em> is the minimum number required to give a legitimate witness (Deut 17:6; Rev 11:3), and three<\/em> can imply divine representation (Gen 18:1-2; 2 Cor 13:14; Rev 1:4-5). Four<\/em> can stand for the known world, represented in Revelation by living creatures, horsemen, winds, and angels (Rev 4:6-8; 6:1-8; 7:1) and in Genesis by four<\/em> rivers (Gen 2:10-14). When three<\/em> and four<\/em> are added to make seven,<\/em> they represent perfection or divine fulfillment, indicating that God and the world are in harmony. The multiplication of three<\/em> by four<\/em> yields twelve,<\/em> the number associated with God’s people (Gen 35:22-26; Exod 24:4; 28:21; Num 17:2; Josh 4:3-8; 1 Kgs 18:31; Matt 10:1-4; 19:28; Jas 1:1; Rev 12:1; 21:12–22:2. The number five<\/em> and its multiples, such as ten,<\/em> represent human completeness (e.g., five<\/em> fingers per hand); and six<\/em> carries a negative sense or implication of evil, being neither humanly complete (five<\/em>) nor divinely complete (seven<\/em>).<\/p>\nMultiples of ten<\/em> (e.g., forty<\/em>) are a symbolic way to indicate many<\/em>, whereas three sixes<\/em> (666) imply supreme evil (Rev 13:18). One thousand<\/em> is regarded as the foundational large number; 12,000 indicates a large number of God’s people (Rev 7:5-8); and 144,000 represents the complete people of God (Rev 7:4; 14:1). The number 10,000 and its multiples are probably best transliterated from Greek as myriads<\/em>, since they really mean “a huge number” rather than a precise count.<\/p>\nWhile some of the numbers in the Bible have symbolic meanings, using numbers to speculate on the time of Christ’s return or of the end of the world is highly dubious—only God possesses that knowledge (Mark 13:32). God did not intend for the symbolic numbers in Revelation to help us predict the future; rather, their symbolic meanings help to explain the significance of the visions. Because the numbers are symbolic, sometimes when we translate them into contemporary sizes, distances, and numbers for our ease of reading, it can result in the loss of theological significance. The use of these symbolic numbers can illuminate a vision’s relationship to the world or to the people of God.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nGen 2:2-3; 4:15; 15:13; 41:53-54; Exod 20:6; 25:31-37; 32:15; Lev 16:14; 23:16; 2 Sam 24:13; 1 Kgs 4:26; 17:21; 18:31, 43-44; Job 1:2; Ps 90:4; Jer 15:3; 49:36; Ezek 14:21; Dan 4:16, 23-25; 7:3, 17, 24; Zech 4:2; 6:1; Matt 10:1-5; 12:40; 18:21-22; Mark 6:7; Luke 15:8; Acts 6:3; 10:16; 1 Cor 8:6; Eph 4:4-6; 2 Pet 3:8; Rev 1:16; 2:10; 4:4; 6:1; 7:1, 4-8; 12:1, 3; 13:1; 17:3-14; 20:2-7; 21:12-21<\/p>","summary_ro":"Symbolic Numbers Numbers used in Scripture have often inspired wild speculation. An understanding of the symbolism of numbers in the ancient world can help ground our interpretation. Such symbolism, however, is not rigid or exact, so great care must be exercised when numbers are used in interpretation, so as not to push fanciful predictions about future events. The number one can refer to God’s oneness (Deut 6:4; Gal 3:20; Jas 2:19). Two is the minimum number required to give a legitimate wit...","summary_en":"Symbolic Numbers Numbers used in Scripture have often inspired wild speculation. An understanding of the symbolism of numbers in the ancient world can help ground our interpretation. Such symbolism, however, is not rigid or exact, so great care must be exercised when numbers are used in interpretation, so as not to push fanciful predictions about future events. The number one can refer to God’s oneness (Deut 6:4; Gal 3:20; Jas 2:19). Two is the minimum number required to give a legitimate wit...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":150870,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Symbolic Numbers","title_en":"Symbolic Numbers","content_ro":"<h3>Symbolic Numbers<\/h3>\nNumbers used in Scripture have often inspired wild speculation. An understanding of the symbolism of numbers in the ancient world can help ground our interpretation. Such symbolism, however, is not rigid or exact, so great care must be exercised when numbers are used in interpretation, so as not to push fanciful predictions about future events.<\/p>\nThe number one<\/em> can refer to God’s oneness (Deut 6:4; Gal 3:20; Jas 2:19). Two<\/em> is the minimum number required to give a legitimate witness (Deut 17:6; Rev 11:3), and three<\/em> can imply divine representation (Gen 18:1-2; 2 Cor 13:14; Rev 1:4-5). Four<\/em> can stand for the known world, represented in Revelation by living creatures, horsemen, winds, and angels (Rev 4:6-8; 6:1-8; 7:1) and in Genesis by four<\/em> rivers (Gen 2:10-14). When three<\/em> and four<\/em> are added to make seven,<\/em> they represent perfection or divine fulfillment, indicating that God and the world are in harmony. The multiplication of three<\/em> by four<\/em> yields twelve,<\/em> the number associated with God’s people (Gen 35:22-26; Exod 24:4; 28:21; Num 17:2; Josh 4:3-8; 1 Kgs 18:31; Matt 10:1-4; 19:28; Jas 1:1; Rev 12:1; 21:12–22:2. The number five<\/em> and its multiples, such as ten,<\/em> represent human completeness (e.g., five<\/em> fingers per hand); and six<\/em> carries a negative sense or implication of evil, being neither humanly complete (five<\/em>) nor divinely complete (seven<\/em>).<\/p>\nMultiples of ten<\/em> (e.g., forty<\/em>) are a symbolic way to indicate many<\/em>, whereas three sixes<\/em> (666) imply supreme evil (Rev 13:18). One thousand<\/em> is regarded as the foundational large number; 12,000 indicates a large number of God’s people (Rev 7:5-8); and 144,000 represents the complete people of God (Rev 7:4; 14:1). The number 10,000 and its multiples are probably best transliterated from Greek as myriads<\/em>, since they really mean “a huge number” rather than a precise count.<\/p>\nWhile some of the numbers in the Bible have symbolic meanings, using numbers to speculate on the time of Christ’s return or of the end of the world is highly dubious—only God possesses that knowledge (Mark 13:32). God did not intend for the symbolic numbers in Revelation to help us predict the future; rather, their symbolic meanings help to explain the significance of the visions. Because the numbers are symbolic, sometimes when we translate them into contemporary sizes, distances, and numbers for our ease of reading, it can result in the loss of theological significance. The use of these symbolic numbers can illuminate a vision’s relationship to the world or to the people of God.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nGen 2:2-3; 4:15; 15:13; 41:53-54; Exod 20:6; 25:31-37; 32:15; Lev 16:14; 23:16; 2 Sam 24:13; 1 Kgs 4:26; 17:21; 18:31, 43-44; Job 1:2; Ps 90:4; Jer 15:3; 49:36; Ezek 14:21; Dan 4:16, 23-25; 7:3, 17, 24; Zech 4:2; 6:1; Matt 10:1-5; 12:40; 18:21-22; Mark 6:7; Luke 15:8; Acts 6:3; 10:16; 1 Cor 8:6; Eph 4:4-6; 2 Pet 3:8; Rev 1:16; 2:10; 4:4; 6:1; 7:1, 4-8; 12:1, 3; 13:1; 17:3-14; 20:2-7; 21:12-21<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Symbolic Numbers<\/h3>\nNumbers used in Scripture have often inspired wild speculation. An understanding of the symbolism of numbers in the ancient world can help ground our interpretation. Such symbolism, however, is not rigid or exact, so great care must be exercised when numbers are used in interpretation, so as not to push fanciful predictions about future events.<\/p>\nThe number one<\/em> can refer to God’s oneness (Deut 6:4; Gal 3:20; Jas 2:19). Two<\/em> is the minimum number required to give a legitimate witness (Deut 17:6; Rev 11:3), and three<\/em> can imply divine representation (Gen 18:1-2; 2 Cor 13:14; Rev 1:4-5). Four<\/em> can stand for the known world, represented in Revelation by living creatures, horsemen, winds, and angels (Rev 4:6-8; 6:1-8; 7:1) and in Genesis by four<\/em> rivers (Gen 2:10-14). When three<\/em> and four<\/em> are added to make seven,<\/em> they represent perfection or divine fulfillment, indicating that God and the world are in harmony. The multiplication of three<\/em> by four<\/em> yields twelve,<\/em> the number associated with God’s people (Gen 35:22-26; Exod 24:4; 28:21; Num 17:2; Josh 4:3-8; 1 Kgs 18:31; Matt 10:1-4; 19:28; Jas 1:1; Rev 12:1; 21:12–22:2. The number five<\/em> and its multiples, such as ten,<\/em> represent human completeness (e.g., five<\/em> fingers per hand); and six<\/em> carries a negative sense or implication of evil, being neither humanly complete (five<\/em>) nor divinely complete (seven<\/em>).<\/p>\nMultiples of ten<\/em> (e.g., forty<\/em>) are a symbolic way to indicate many<\/em>, whereas three sixes<\/em> (666) imply supreme evil (Rev 13:18). One thousand<\/em> is regarded as the foundational large number; 12,000 indicates a large number of God’s people (Rev 7:5-8); and 144,000 represents the complete people of God (Rev 7:4; 14:1). The number 10,000 and its multiples are probably best transliterated from Greek as myriads<\/em>, since they really mean “a huge number” rather than a precise count.<\/p>\nWhile some of the numbers in the Bible have symbolic meanings, using numbers to speculate on the time of Christ’s return or of the end of the world is highly dubious—only God possesses that knowledge (Mark 13:32). God did not intend for the symbolic numbers in Revelation to help us predict the future; rather, their symbolic meanings help to explain the significance of the visions. Because the numbers are symbolic, sometimes when we translate them into contemporary sizes, distances, and numbers for our ease of reading, it can result in the loss of theological significance. The use of these symbolic numbers can illuminate a vision’s relationship to the world or to the people of God.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nGen 2:2-3; 4:15; 15:13; 41:53-54; Exod 20:6; 25:31-37; 32:15; Lev 16:14; 23:16; 2 Sam 24:13; 1 Kgs 4:26; 17:21; 18:31, 43-44; Job 1:2; Ps 90:4; Jer 15:3; 49:36; Ezek 14:21; Dan 4:16, 23-25; 7:3, 17, 24; Zech 4:2; 6:1; Matt 10:1-5; 12:40; 18:21-22; Mark 6:7; Luke 15:8; Acts 6:3; 10:16; 1 Cor 8:6; Eph 4:4-6; 2 Pet 3:8; Rev 1:16; 2:10; 4:4; 6:1; 7:1, 4-8; 12:1, 3; 13:1; 17:3-14; 20:2-7; 21:12-21<\/p>","summary_ro":"Symbolic Numbers Numbers used in Scripture have often inspired wild speculation. An understanding of the symbolism of numbers in the ancient world can help ground our interpretation. Such symbolism, however, is not rigid or exact, so great care must be exercised when numbers are used in interpretation, so as not to push fanciful predictions about future events. The number one can refer to God’s oneness (Deut 6:4; Gal 3:20; Jas 2:19). Two is the minimum number required to give a legitimate wit...","summary_en":"Symbolic Numbers Numbers used in Scripture have often inspired wild speculation. An understanding of the symbolism of numbers in the ancient world can help ground our interpretation. Such symbolism, however, is not rigid or exact, so great care must be exercised when numbers are used in interpretation, so as not to push fanciful predictions about future events. The number one can refer to God’s oneness (Deut 6:4; Gal 3:20; Jas 2:19). Two is the minimum number required to give a legitimate wit...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"2":[{"id":7039,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Color","title_en":"Color","content_ro":"<h3>COLOR<\/h3>\nThe OT and NT have no exact word for “color,” although the word appears several times in our English Bibles. The words translated “color” have quite different meanings in the original languages.<\/p>\nThe word most frequently translated “colour” in the kjv<\/span> literally means “eye” and suggests “appearance” (Lv 13:55; Nm 11:7; Prv 23:31; Ez 1:4, 7, 16, 22, 27; 8:2; 10:9; Dn 10:6). Only Leviticus 13:55 retains the translation “color” in the rsv<\/span>. Other words translated as “color” in the rsv<\/span> refer to facial appearance (Dn 5:6-10; 7:28), fabrics of variegated colors (Prv 7:16; Ez 17:3; 27:24), stones (1 Chr 29:2), and breastplates (Rv 9:17). Joseph’s “coat of many colours” (Gn 37:3, kjv<\/span>) and Tamar’s “garment of divers colours” (2 Sm 13:18-19, kjv<\/span>) were either long-sleeved robes or richly ornamented tunics that served as a mark of preferred status.<\/p>\nIn the NT, a word that means “pretense” is used archaically in Acts 27:30 and was interpreted as “colour” by the kjv<\/span> translators. They also added the word “colour” to Revelation 17:4, evidently to clarify the meaning.<\/p>\nThough many colors are mentioned in the Bible, colors are not particularly singled out for emphasis. Natural colors are seldom mentioned in descriptions. Colors that appear frequently and that are most carefully differentiated are manufactured colors, especially dyes.<\/p>\nColors Mentioned in the Bible<\/p>\nBecause the Hebrews perceived color differently than we do in Western culture, it is sometimes difficult to translate precisely the various Hebrew words denoting colors. Thus there is often a wide variation in translations of such words in English Bibles. To provide a base for comparison, this article will follow the rsv<\/span> except as noted.<\/p>\nColors mentioned most often in the OT and NT are the following:<\/p>\n“Black” is the translation of five words in the OT and one in the NT, expressing varying degrees of darkness. The words describe the color of lambs (Gn 30:32-33, 35, 40), hair (Lv 13:31, 37; Sg 5:11; Mt 5:36), skin (Jb 30:30), horses (Zec 6:2, 6; Rv 6:5), the sky (1 Kgs 18:45; Is 50:3; Jer 4:28), the day (Jb 3:5; Mi 3:6), the darkened sun (Rv 6:12), and an invading army (Jl 2:2). Job’s “blackness” (Jb 30:28) has been understood as disease or sadness.<\/p>\n“Blue” probably refers to a blue-purple dye obtained from Mediterranean mollusks. A popular color, it was considered less desirable in antiquity than “royal” purple. Both dyes were produced in Tyre, which at one time had a monopoly on the manufacture of blue and purple dye (2 Chr 2:7, 14; Ez 27:24). Ships of Tyre had awnings of blue and purple (Ez 27:7). Blue was used in the tabernacle fabrics (Ex 26:1; Nm 4:6-9), the priests’ garments (Ex 28:5-6), in Solomon’s temple (2 Chr 2:7, 14), and in the Persian court (Est 1:6; 8:15). Blue is not mentioned in the NT.<\/p>\n“Crimson” is the English translation of three different Hebrew words. This red color of varying shades was derived from certain insects. The word describes certain fabrics in Solomon’s temple (2 Chr 2:7, 14; 3:14) and was used figuratively to describe sin (Is 1:18). The word translated “crimsoned” to describe garments from Bozrah (63:1) probably means “vivid colors” rather than a specific hue.<\/p>\n“Gray,” a color found only in the OT, is used exclusively to describe old age—as in gray hair or gray-headed (Gn 42:38; 44:29-31; Dt 32:25; 1 Sm 12:2; 1 Kgs 2:6, 9; Jb 15:10; Ps 71:18; Prv 20:29; Is 46:4; Hos 7:9). A different word used to describe dappled gray horses (Zec 6:3) probably means “spotted” or “speckled.”<\/p>\n“Green” translates seven words in the OT and two in the NT. Most of the words refer to vegetation and are descriptive of the fresh or moist condition of plants rather than their color. The following are described as “green”: plants (Gn 1:30), trees (1 Kgs 14:23), branches (Jb 15:32), pastures (Ps 23:2; Jl 2:22), herbs (Ps 37:2), olive trees (Ps 52:8; Jer 11:16), thorns (Ps 58:9), leaves (Jer 17:8), grass (Mk 6:39; Rv 8:7), and wood (Lk 23:31). In addition to various plants, a dove’s wing (Ps 68:13), a couch (Sg 1:16), and a righteous person (Ps 92:14) are also described as “green.” Idolatrous worship practices took place under “every green tree” (Dt 12:2; 2 Kgs 16:4; Is 57:5; Jer 2:20; Ez 6:13), although the word actually describes the luxurious growth of the leaves rather than their color.<\/p>\nAnother word, “greenish,” is derived from one of the OT words for “green” and refers to disease (Lv 13:49) and fungus that forms on the walls of houses (14:37).<\/p>\n“Purple” was the most highly valued dye in the ancient world. Encompassing shades varying from actual purple to red, it was obtained from mollusks of the Gastropoda class. The first people to use the dye were perhaps the ancient Phoenicians, whose name may come from a Greek word meaning “bloodred.” At any rate, the Phoenicians monopolized the purple industry for many years. Some fabrics were described as being purple: those used in the tabernacle (Ex 25:4; 26:1), in the garments of the priests (28:5-8, 15, 33), in Solomon’s temple (2 Chr 2:7), in the upholstery of Solomon’s chariot (Sg 3:10), and in decorations of the Persian court (Est 1:6). Purple was customarily worn by wealthy people and royalty (Jgs 8:26; Prv 31:22; Dn 5:7). Mordecai was rewarded with a garment of purple (Est 8:15). Daniel was given a similar garment (Dn 5:29). It was worn by Assyrian soldiers (Ez 23:6). Jeremiah described idols that were robed in blue and purple garments (Jer 10:9). Ships of Tyre had awnings of blue and purple (Ez 27:7), and purple dye was an item of trade between Tyre and the people of Aram (v 16). It is used once to describe the color of hair (Sg 7:5).<\/p>\nReferences to purple in the NT are fewer than in the OT but affirm the continued economic importance of the dye. Purple clothing denoted wealth (Lk 16:19). Jesus was robed in purple by Roman soldiers (Mk 15:17, 20; Jn 19:2, 5; cf. Mt 27:28, “scarlet”). The purple and scarlet garment of the harlot Babylon symbolized royal rank (Rv 17:4). Lydia of Thyatira was a seller of purple fabrics (Acts 16:14).<\/p>\n“Red” frequently refers to the natural color of certain objects mentioned in the Bible: skin (Gn 25:25), pottage (v 30), the eye (49:12, though the word used here may mean “sparkling” or “dark”), a sacrificial heifer (Nm 19:2), water (2 Kgs 3:22), the face of a weeping person (Jb 16:16), wine (Prv 23:31), the eyes of one drinking wine (v 29), clothing (Is 63:2), a shield (Na 2:3), and horses (Zec 1:8; 6:2). It is used figuratively to describe sin (Is 1:18). A leprous disease (Lv 13:49), a spot on the skin (vv 19, 24, 42-43), and fungus on the wall of a house (14:37) were discolored with a reddish hue. The Red Sea is mentioned frequently in the OT (Ex 10:19; 15:4), but the Hebrew words thus translated actually mean “Sea of Reeds.” However, in the NT the Greek word is actually the word “red” (Acts 7:36; Heb 11:29). In the NT, red is used to describe the color of the sky (Mt 16:2-3), a horse (Rv 6:4), and a dragon (12:3).<\/p>\n“Scarlet,” a brilliant red hue derived from certain insects, was used for fabrics and yarns and was highly valued in the ancient world (Rv 18:12). It is difficult to distinguish between “scarlet” and “crimson” in the Bible. A scarlet thread was bound to the hand of Zerah at birth (Gn 38:28, 30). The word describes certain fabrics in the tabernacle (Ex 25:4; 26:1, 31, 36; 27:16), the priests’ garments (28:5-8, 15, 33), rope (Jos 2:18, 21), clothing (2 Sm 1:24; Prv 31:21; Jer 4:30), lips (Sg 4:3), and soldiers’ uniforms (Na 2:3). Some kind of scarlet material was used during the ratification of the covenant at Sinai (Heb 9:19), for the cleansing of a leper (Lv 14:4-6) and of a house (vv 49-52), for covering the articles on the table of the bread of the Presence (Nm 4:8), and for the ritual of the red heifer (19:6). Matthew described Jesus’ robe at his trial as scarlet (Mt 27:28). The woman of Revelation 17:3-4 was dressed in purple and scarlet and seated upon a scarlet beast. The luxury associated with Rome is suggested by the description of clothing of purple and scarlet (Rv 18:16). Scarlet, like crimson and red, is also used figuratively of sins (Is 1:18).<\/p>\n “White” translates a number of words found in the Bible. It is generally the color of natural objects such as goats (Gn 30:35), hair (Lv 13:10; Mt 5:36; Rv 1:14), diseased skin (Ex 4:6; Lv 13:4, 17), manna (Ex 16:31), snow (2 Kgs 5:27), milk and teeth (Gn 49:12), horses (Zec 1:8; 6:3; Rv 6:2; 19:11), a donkey (Jgs 5:10, kjv<\/span>; rsv<\/span> “tawny”), wool (Ez 27:18), special stones (Rv 2:17), light (Mt 17:2), clouds (Rv 14:14), and fields ready for harvest (Jn 4:35). It is used to describe the color of curtains (Est 1:6), clothing (Est 8:15; Eccl 9:8; Dn 7:9; Mk 16:5; Rv 3:5, 18; 4:4), the garments of angels (Jn 20:12; Acts 1:10), and a throne (Rv 20:11). It is used figuratively to describe cleansing from sin (Ps 51:7; Is 1:18; Dn 12:10) and the appearance of princes (Lam 4:7).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Cloth and Cloth Manufacturing; Dye, Dyeing, Dyer.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>COLOR<\/h3>\nThe OT and NT have no exact word for “color,” although the word appears several times in our English Bibles. The words translated “color” have quite different meanings in the original languages.<\/p>\nThe word most frequently translated “colour” in the kjv<\/span> literally means “eye” and suggests “appearance” (Lv 13:55; Nm 11:7; Prv 23:31; Ez 1:4, 7, 16, 22, 27; 8:2; 10:9; Dn 10:6). Only Leviticus 13:55 retains the translation “color” in the rsv<\/span>. Other words translated as “color” in the rsv<\/span> refer to facial appearance (Dn 5:6-10; 7:28), fabrics of variegated colors (Prv 7:16; Ez 17:3; 27:24), stones (1 Chr 29:2), and breastplates (Rv 9:17). Joseph’s “coat of many colours” (Gn 37:3, kjv<\/span>) and Tamar’s “garment of divers colours” (2 Sm 13:18-19, kjv<\/span>) were either long-sleeved robes or richly ornamented tunics that served as a mark of preferred status.<\/p>\nIn the NT, a word that means “pretense” is used archaically in Acts 27:30 and was interpreted as “colour” by the kjv<\/span> translators. They also added the word “colour” to Revelation 17:4, evidently to clarify the meaning.<\/p>\nThough many colors are mentioned in the Bible, colors are not particularly singled out for emphasis. Natural colors are seldom mentioned in descriptions. Colors that appear frequently and that are most carefully differentiated are manufactured colors, especially dyes.<\/p>\nColors Mentioned in the Bible<\/p>\nBecause the Hebrews perceived color differently than we do in Western culture, it is sometimes difficult to translate precisely the various Hebrew words denoting colors. Thus there is often a wide variation in translations of such words in English Bibles. To provide a base for comparison, this article will follow the rsv<\/span> except as noted.<\/p>\nColors mentioned most often in the OT and NT are the following:<\/p>\n“Black” is the translation of five words in the OT and one in the NT, expressing varying degrees of darkness. The words describe the color of lambs (Gn 30:32-33, 35, 40), hair (Lv 13:31, 37; Sg 5:11; Mt 5:36), skin (Jb 30:30), horses (Zec 6:2, 6; Rv 6:5), the sky (1 Kgs 18:45; Is 50:3; Jer 4:28), the day (Jb 3:5; Mi 3:6), the darkened sun (Rv 6:12), and an invading army (Jl 2:2). Job’s “blackness” (Jb 30:28) has been understood as disease or sadness.<\/p>\n“Blue” probably refers to a blue-purple dye obtained from Mediterranean mollusks. A popular color, it was considered less desirable in antiquity than “royal” purple. Both dyes were produced in Tyre, which at one time had a monopoly on the manufacture of blue and purple dye (2 Chr 2:7, 14; Ez 27:24). Ships of Tyre had awnings of blue and purple (Ez 27:7). Blue was used in the tabernacle fabrics (Ex 26:1; Nm 4:6-9), the priests’ garments (Ex 28:5-6), in Solomon’s temple (2 Chr 2:7, 14), and in the Persian court (Est 1:6; 8:15). Blue is not mentioned in the NT.<\/p>\n“Crimson” is the English translation of three different Hebrew words. This red color of varying shades was derived from certain insects. The word describes certain fabrics in Solomon’s temple (2 Chr 2:7, 14; 3:14) and was used figuratively to describe sin (Is 1:18). The word translated “crimsoned” to describe garments from Bozrah (63:1) probably means “vivid colors” rather than a specific hue.<\/p>\n“Gray,” a color found only in the OT, is used exclusively to describe old age—as in gray hair or gray-headed (Gn 42:38; 44:29-31; Dt 32:25; 1 Sm 12:2; 1 Kgs 2:6, 9; Jb 15:10; Ps 71:18; Prv 20:29; Is 46:4; Hos 7:9). A different word used to describe dappled gray horses (Zec 6:3) probably means “spotted” or “speckled.”<\/p>\n“Green” translates seven words in the OT and two in the NT. Most of the words refer to vegetation and are descriptive of the fresh or moist condition of plants rather than their color. The following are described as “green”: plants (Gn 1:30), trees (1 Kgs 14:23), branches (Jb 15:32), pastures (Ps 23:2; Jl 2:22), herbs (Ps 37:2), olive trees (Ps 52:8; Jer 11:16), thorns (Ps 58:9), leaves (Jer 17:8), grass (Mk 6:39; Rv 8:7), and wood (Lk 23:31). In addition to various plants, a dove’s wing (Ps 68:13), a couch (Sg 1:16), and a righteous person (Ps 92:14) are also described as “green.” Idolatrous worship practices took place under “every green tree” (Dt 12:2; 2 Kgs 16:4; Is 57:5; Jer 2:20; Ez 6:13), although the word actually describes the luxurious growth of the leaves rather than their color.<\/p>\nAnother word, “greenish,” is derived from one of the OT words for “green” and refers to disease (Lv 13:49) and fungus that forms on the walls of houses (14:37).<\/p>\n“Purple” was the most highly valued dye in the ancient world. Encompassing shades varying from actual purple to red, it was obtained from mollusks of the Gastropoda class. The first people to use the dye were perhaps the ancient Phoenicians, whose name may come from a Greek word meaning “bloodred.” At any rate, the Phoenicians monopolized the purple industry for many years. Some fabrics were described as being purple: those used in the tabernacle (Ex 25:4; 26:1), in the garments of the priests (28:5-8, 15, 33), in Solomon’s temple (2 Chr 2:7), in the upholstery of Solomon’s chariot (Sg 3:10), and in decorations of the Persian court (Est 1:6). Purple was customarily worn by wealthy people and royalty (Jgs 8:26; Prv 31:22; Dn 5:7). Mordecai was rewarded with a garment of purple (Est 8:15). Daniel was given a similar garment (Dn 5:29). It was worn by Assyrian soldiers (Ez 23:6). Jeremiah described idols that were robed in blue and purple garments (Jer 10:9). Ships of Tyre had awnings of blue and purple (Ez 27:7), and purple dye was an item of trade between Tyre and the people of Aram (v 16). It is used once to describe the color of hair (Sg 7:5).<\/p>\nReferences to purple in the NT are fewer than in the OT but affirm the continued economic importance of the dye. Purple clothing denoted wealth (Lk 16:19). Jesus was robed in purple by Roman soldiers (Mk 15:17, 20; Jn 19:2, 5; cf. Mt 27:28, “scarlet”). The purple and scarlet garment of the harlot Babylon symbolized royal rank (Rv 17:4). Lydia of Thyatira was a seller of purple fabrics (Acts 16:14).<\/p>\n“Red” frequently refers to the natural color of certain objects mentioned in the Bible: skin (Gn 25:25), pottage (v 30), the eye (49:12, though the word used here may mean “sparkling” or “dark”), a sacrificial heifer (Nm 19:2), water (2 Kgs 3:22), the face of a weeping person (Jb 16:16), wine (Prv 23:31), the eyes of one drinking wine (v 29), clothing (Is 63:2), a shield (Na 2:3), and horses (Zec 1:8; 6:2). It is used figuratively to describe sin (Is 1:18). A leprous disease (Lv 13:49), a spot on the skin (vv 19, 24, 42-43), and fungus on the wall of a house (14:37) were discolored with a reddish hue. The Red Sea is mentioned frequently in the OT (Ex 10:19; 15:4), but the Hebrew words thus translated actually mean “Sea of Reeds.” However, in the NT the Greek word is actually the word “red” (Acts 7:36; Heb 11:29). In the NT, red is used to describe the color of the sky (Mt 16:2-3), a horse (Rv 6:4), and a dragon (12:3).<\/p>\n“Scarlet,” a brilliant red hue derived from certain insects, was used for fabrics and yarns and was highly valued in the ancient world (Rv 18:12). It is difficult to distinguish between “scarlet” and “crimson” in the Bible. A scarlet thread was bound to the hand of Zerah at birth (Gn 38:28, 30). The word describes certain fabrics in the tabernacle (Ex 25:4; 26:1, 31, 36; 27:16), the priests’ garments (28:5-8, 15, 33), rope (Jos 2:18, 21), clothing (2 Sm 1:24; Prv 31:21; Jer 4:30), lips (Sg 4:3), and soldiers’ uniforms (Na 2:3). Some kind of scarlet material was used during the ratification of the covenant at Sinai (Heb 9:19), for the cleansing of a leper (Lv 14:4-6) and of a house (vv 49-52), for covering the articles on the table of the bread of the Presence (Nm 4:8), and for the ritual of the red heifer (19:6). Matthew described Jesus’ robe at his trial as scarlet (Mt 27:28). The woman of Revelation 17:3-4 was dressed in purple and scarlet and seated upon a scarlet beast. The luxury associated with Rome is suggested by the description of clothing of purple and scarlet (Rv 18:16). Scarlet, like crimson and red, is also used figuratively of sins (Is 1:18).<\/p>\n “White” translates a number of words found in the Bible. It is generally the color of natural objects such as goats (Gn 30:35), hair (Lv 13:10; Mt 5:36; Rv 1:14), diseased skin (Ex 4:6; Lv 13:4, 17), manna (Ex 16:31), snow (2 Kgs 5:27), milk and teeth (Gn 49:12), horses (Zec 1:8; 6:3; Rv 6:2; 19:11), a donkey (Jgs 5:10, kjv<\/span>; rsv<\/span> “tawny”), wool (Ez 27:18), special stones (Rv 2:17), light (Mt 17:2), clouds (Rv 14:14), and fields ready for harvest (Jn 4:35). It is used to describe the color of curtains (Est 1:6), clothing (Est 8:15; Eccl 9:8; Dn 7:9; Mk 16:5; Rv 3:5, 18; 4:4), the garments of angels (Jn 20:12; Acts 1:10), and a throne (Rv 20:11). It is used figuratively to describe cleansing from sin (Ps 51:7; Is 1:18; Dn 12:10) and the appearance of princes (Lam 4:7).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Cloth and Cloth Manufacturing; Dye, Dyeing, Dyer.<\/p>","summary_ro":"COLOR The OT and NT have no exact word for “color,” although the word appears several times in our English Bibles. The words translated “color” have quite different meanings in the original languages. The word most frequently translated “colour” in the kjv literally means “eye” and suggests “appearance” (Lv 13:55; Nm 11:7; Prv 23:31; Ez 1:4, 7, 16, 22, 27; 8:2; 10:9; Dn 10:6). Only Leviticus 13:55 retains the translation “color” in the rsv. Other words translated as “color” in the rsv refer t...","summary_en":"COLOR The OT and NT have no exact word for “color,” although the word appears several times in our English Bibles. The words translated “color” have quite different meanings in the original languages. The word most frequently translated “colour” in the kjv literally means “eye” and suggests “appearance” (Lv 13:55; Nm 11:7; Prv 23:31; Ez 1:4, 7, 16, 22, 27; 8:2; 10:9; Dn 10:6). Only Leviticus 13:55 retains the translation “color” in the rsv. Other words translated as “color” in the rsv refer t...","source":"Articles\/C.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":54305,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Zaharia 6:2","title_en":"Study Note: Zaharia 6:2","content_ro":"6:2-3<\/strong> red . . . black . . . white . . . dappled-gray horses:<\/em> Zechariah attaches no particular significance to the colors of the horses in his vision (cp. Rev 6:1-8).<\/p>","content_en":"6:2-3<\/strong> red . . . black . . . white . . . dappled-gray horses:<\/em> Zechariah attaches no particular significance to the colors of the horses in his vision (cp. Rev 6:1-8).<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:2-3 red . . . black . . . white . . . dappled-gray horses: Zechariah attaches no particular significance to the colors of the horses in his vision (cp. Rev 6:1-8).","summary_en":"6:2-3 red . . . black . . . white . . . dappled-gray horses: Zechariah attaches no particular significance to the colors of the horses in his vision (cp. Rev 6:1-8).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":81931,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Zaharia 6:2","title_en":"Study Note: Zaharia 6:2","content_ro":"6:2-3<\/strong> red . . . black . . . white . . . dappled-gray horses:<\/em> Zechariah attaches no particular significance to the colors of the horses in his vision (cp. Rev 6:1-8).<\/p>","content_en":"6:2-3<\/strong> red . . . black . . . white . . . dappled-gray horses:<\/em> Zechariah attaches no particular significance to the colors of the horses in his vision (cp. Rev 6:1-8).<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:2-3 red . . . black . . . white . . . dappled-gray horses: Zechariah attaches no particular significance to the colors of the horses in his vision (cp. Rev 6:1-8).","summary_en":"6:2-3 red . . . black . . . white . . . dappled-gray horses: Zechariah attaches no particular significance to the colors of the horses in his vision (cp. Rev 6:1-8).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":109557,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Zaharia 6:2","title_en":"Study Note: Zaharia 6:2","content_ro":"6:2-3<\/strong> red . . . black . . . white . . . dappled-gray horses:<\/em> Zechariah attaches no particular significance to the colors of the horses in his vision (cp. Rev 6:1-8).<\/p>","content_en":"6:2-3<\/strong> red . . . black . . . white . . . dappled-gray horses:<\/em> Zechariah attaches no particular significance to the colors of the horses in his vision (cp. Rev 6:1-8).<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:2-3 red . . . black . . . white . . . dappled-gray horses: Zechariah attaches no particular significance to the colors of the horses in his vision (cp. Rev 6:1-8).","summary_en":"6:2-3 red . . . black . . . white . . . dappled-gray horses: Zechariah attaches no particular significance to the colors of the horses in his vision (cp. Rev 6:1-8).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":137183,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Zaharia 6:2","title_en":"Study Note: Zaharia 6:2","content_ro":"6:2-3<\/strong> red . . . black . . . white . . . dappled-gray horses:<\/em> Zechariah attaches no particular significance to the colors of the horses in his vision (cp. Rev 6:1-8).<\/p>","content_en":"6:2-3<\/strong> red . . . black . . . white . . . dappled-gray horses:<\/em> Zechariah attaches no particular significance to the colors of the horses in his vision (cp. Rev 6:1-8).<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:2-3 red . . . black . . . white . . . dappled-gray horses: Zechariah attaches no particular significance to the colors of the horses in his vision (cp. Rev 6:1-8).","summary_en":"6:2-3 red . . . black . . . white . . . dappled-gray horses: Zechariah attaches no particular significance to the colors of the horses in his vision (cp. Rev 6:1-8).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"3":[{"id":7069,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Color","title_en":"Color","content_ro":"<h3>COLOR<\/h3>\nThe OT and NT have no exact word for “color,” although the word appears several times in our English Bibles. The words translated “color” have quite different meanings in the original languages.<\/p>\nThe word most frequently translated “colour” in the kjv<\/span> literally means “eye” and suggests “appearance” (Lv 13:55; Nm 11:7; Prv 23:31; Ez 1:4, 7, 16, 22, 27; 8:2; 10:9; Dn 10:6). Only Leviticus 13:55 retains the translation “color” in the rsv<\/span>. Other words translated as “color” in the rsv<\/span> refer to facial appearance (Dn 5:6-10; 7:28), fabrics of variegated colors (Prv 7:16; Ez 17:3; 27:24), stones (1 Chr 29:2), and breastplates (Rv 9:17). Joseph’s “coat of many colours” (Gn 37:3, kjv<\/span>) and Tamar’s “garment of divers colours” (2 Sm 13:18-19, kjv<\/span>) were either long-sleeved robes or richly ornamented tunics that served as a mark of preferred status.<\/p>\nIn the NT, a word that means “pretense” is used archaically in Acts 27:30 and was interpreted as “colour” by the kjv<\/span> translators. They also added the word “colour” to Revelation 17:4, evidently to clarify the meaning.<\/p>\nThough many colors are mentioned in the Bible, colors are not particularly singled out for emphasis. Natural colors are seldom mentioned in descriptions. Colors that appear frequently and that are most carefully differentiated are manufactured colors, especially dyes.<\/p>\nColors Mentioned in the Bible<\/p>\nBecause the Hebrews perceived color differently than we do in Western culture, it is sometimes difficult to translate precisely the various Hebrew words denoting colors. Thus there is often a wide variation in translations of such words in English Bibles. To provide a base for comparison, this article will follow the rsv<\/span> except as noted.<\/p>\nColors mentioned most often in the OT and NT are the following:<\/p>\n“Black” is the translation of five words in the OT and one in the NT, expressing varying degrees of darkness. The words describe the color of lambs (Gn 30:32-33, 35, 40), hair (Lv 13:31, 37; Sg 5:11; Mt 5:36), skin (Jb 30:30), horses (Zec 6:2, 6; Rv 6:5), the sky (1 Kgs 18:45; Is 50:3; Jer 4:28), the day (Jb 3:5; Mi 3:6), the darkened sun (Rv 6:12), and an invading army (Jl 2:2). Job’s “blackness” (Jb 30:28) has been understood as disease or sadness.<\/p>\n“Blue” probably refers to a blue-purple dye obtained from Mediterranean mollusks. A popular color, it was considered less desirable in antiquity than “royal” purple. Both dyes were produced in Tyre, which at one time had a monopoly on the manufacture of blue and purple dye (2 Chr 2:7, 14; Ez 27:24). Ships of Tyre had awnings of blue and purple (Ez 27:7). Blue was used in the tabernacle fabrics (Ex 26:1; Nm 4:6-9), the priests’ garments (Ex 28:5-6), in Solomon’s temple (2 Chr 2:7, 14), and in the Persian court (Est 1:6; 8:15). Blue is not mentioned in the NT.<\/p>\n“Crimson” is the English translation of three different Hebrew words. This red color of varying shades was derived from certain insects. The word describes certain fabrics in Solomon’s temple (2 Chr 2:7, 14; 3:14) and was used figuratively to describe sin (Is 1:18). The word translated “crimsoned” to describe garments from Bozrah (63:1) probably means “vivid colors” rather than a specific hue.<\/p>\n“Gray,” a color found only in the OT, is used exclusively to describe old age—as in gray hair or gray-headed (Gn 42:38; 44:29-31; Dt 32:25; 1 Sm 12:2; 1 Kgs 2:6, 9; Jb 15:10; Ps 71:18; Prv 20:29; Is 46:4; Hos 7:9). A different word used to describe dappled gray horses (Zec 6:3) probably means “spotted” or “speckled.”<\/p>\n“Green” translates seven words in the OT and two in the NT. Most of the words refer to vegetation and are descriptive of the fresh or moist condition of plants rather than their color. The following are described as “green”: plants (Gn 1:30), trees (1 Kgs 14:23), branches (Jb 15:32), pastures (Ps 23:2; Jl 2:22), herbs (Ps 37:2), olive trees (Ps 52:8; Jer 11:16), thorns (Ps 58:9), leaves (Jer 17:8), grass (Mk 6:39; Rv 8:7), and wood (Lk 23:31). In addition to various plants, a dove’s wing (Ps 68:13), a couch (Sg 1:16), and a righteous person (Ps 92:14) are also described as “green.” Idolatrous worship practices took place under “every green tree” (Dt 12:2; 2 Kgs 16:4; Is 57:5; Jer 2:20; Ez 6:13), although the word actually describes the luxurious growth of the leaves rather than their color.<\/p>\nAnother word, “greenish,” is derived from one of the OT words for “green” and refers to disease (Lv 13:49) and fungus that forms on the walls of houses (14:37).<\/p>\n“Purple” was the most highly valued dye in the ancient world. Encompassing shades varying from actual purple to red, it was obtained from mollusks of the Gastropoda class. The first people to use the dye were perhaps the ancient Phoenicians, whose name may come from a Greek word meaning “bloodred.” At any rate, the Phoenicians monopolized the purple industry for many years. Some fabrics were described as being purple: those used in the tabernacle (Ex 25:4; 26:1), in the garments of the priests (28:5-8, 15, 33), in Solomon’s temple (2 Chr 2:7), in the upholstery of Solomon’s chariot (Sg 3:10), and in decorations of the Persian court (Est 1:6). Purple was customarily worn by wealthy people and royalty (Jgs 8:26; Prv 31:22; Dn 5:7). Mordecai was rewarded with a garment of purple (Est 8:15). Daniel was given a similar garment (Dn 5:29). It was worn by Assyrian soldiers (Ez 23:6). Jeremiah described idols that were robed in blue and purple garments (Jer 10:9). Ships of Tyre had awnings of blue and purple (Ez 27:7), and purple dye was an item of trade between Tyre and the people of Aram (v 16). It is used once to describe the color of hair (Sg 7:5).<\/p>\nReferences to purple in the NT are fewer than in the OT but affirm the continued economic importance of the dye. Purple clothing denoted wealth (Lk 16:19). Jesus was robed in purple by Roman soldiers (Mk 15:17, 20; Jn 19:2, 5; cf. Mt 27:28, “scarlet”). The purple and scarlet garment of the harlot Babylon symbolized royal rank (Rv 17:4). Lydia of Thyatira was a seller of purple fabrics (Acts 16:14).<\/p>\n“Red” frequently refers to the natural color of certain objects mentioned in the Bible: skin (Gn 25:25), pottage (v 30), the eye (49:12, though the word used here may mean “sparkling” or “dark”), a sacrificial heifer (Nm 19:2), water (2 Kgs 3:22), the face of a weeping person (Jb 16:16), wine (Prv 23:31), the eyes of one drinking wine (v 29), clothing (Is 63:2), a shield (Na 2:3), and horses (Zec 1:8; 6:2). It is used figuratively to describe sin (Is 1:18). A leprous disease (Lv 13:49), a spot on the skin (vv 19, 24, 42-43), and fungus on the wall of a house (14:37) were discolored with a reddish hue. The Red Sea is mentioned frequently in the OT (Ex 10:19; 15:4), but the Hebrew words thus translated actually mean “Sea of Reeds.” However, in the NT the Greek word is actually the word “red” (Acts 7:36; Heb 11:29). In the NT, red is used to describe the color of the sky (Mt 16:2-3), a horse (Rv 6:4), and a dragon (12:3).<\/p>\n“Scarlet,” a brilliant red hue derived from certain insects, was used for fabrics and yarns and was highly valued in the ancient world (Rv 18:12). It is difficult to distinguish between “scarlet” and “crimson” in the Bible. A scarlet thread was bound to the hand of Zerah at birth (Gn 38:28, 30). The word describes certain fabrics in the tabernacle (Ex 25:4; 26:1, 31, 36; 27:16), the priests’ garments (28:5-8, 15, 33), rope (Jos 2:18, 21), clothing (2 Sm 1:24; Prv 31:21; Jer 4:30), lips (Sg 4:3), and soldiers’ uniforms (Na 2:3). Some kind of scarlet material was used during the ratification of the covenant at Sinai (Heb 9:19), for the cleansing of a leper (Lv 14:4-6) and of a house (vv 49-52), for covering the articles on the table of the bread of the Presence (Nm 4:8), and for the ritual of the red heifer (19:6). Matthew described Jesus’ robe at his trial as scarlet (Mt 27:28). The woman of Revelation 17:3-4 was dressed in purple and scarlet and seated upon a scarlet beast. The luxury associated with Rome is suggested by the description of clothing of purple and scarlet (Rv 18:16). Scarlet, like crimson and red, is also used figuratively of sins (Is 1:18).<\/p>\n “White” translates a number of words found in the Bible. It is generally the color of natural objects such as goats (Gn 30:35), hair (Lv 13:10; Mt 5:36; Rv 1:14), diseased skin (Ex 4:6; Lv 13:4, 17), manna (Ex 16:31), snow (2 Kgs 5:27), milk and teeth (Gn 49:12), horses (Zec 1:8; 6:3; Rv 6:2; 19:11), a donkey (Jgs 5:10, kjv<\/span>; rsv<\/span> “tawny”), wool (Ez 27:18), special stones (Rv 2:17), light (Mt 17:2), clouds (Rv 14:14), and fields ready for harvest (Jn 4:35). It is used to describe the color of curtains (Est 1:6), clothing (Est 8:15; Eccl 9:8; Dn 7:9; Mk 16:5; Rv 3:5, 18; 4:4), the garments of angels (Jn 20:12; Acts 1:10), and a throne (Rv 20:11). It is used figuratively to describe cleansing from sin (Ps 51:7; Is 1:18; Dn 12:10) and the appearance of princes (Lam 4:7).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Cloth and Cloth Manufacturing; Dye, Dyeing, Dyer.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>COLOR<\/h3>\nThe OT and NT have no exact word for “color,” although the word appears several times in our English Bibles. The words translated “color” have quite different meanings in the original languages.<\/p>\nThe word most frequently translated “colour” in the kjv<\/span> literally means “eye” and suggests “appearance” (Lv 13:55; Nm 11:7; Prv 23:31; Ez 1:4, 7, 16, 22, 27; 8:2; 10:9; Dn 10:6). Only Leviticus 13:55 retains the translation “color” in the rsv<\/span>. Other words translated as “color” in the rsv<\/span> refer to facial appearance (Dn 5:6-10; 7:28), fabrics of variegated colors (Prv 7:16; Ez 17:3; 27:24), stones (1 Chr 29:2), and breastplates (Rv 9:17). Joseph’s “coat of many colours” (Gn 37:3, kjv<\/span>) and Tamar’s “garment of divers colours” (2 Sm 13:18-19, kjv<\/span>) were either long-sleeved robes or richly ornamented tunics that served as a mark of preferred status.<\/p>\nIn the NT, a word that means “pretense” is used archaically in Acts 27:30 and was interpreted as “colour” by the kjv<\/span> translators. They also added the word “colour” to Revelation 17:4, evidently to clarify the meaning.<\/p>\nThough many colors are mentioned in the Bible, colors are not particularly singled out for emphasis. Natural colors are seldom mentioned in descriptions. Colors that appear frequently and that are most carefully differentiated are manufactured colors, especially dyes.<\/p>\nColors Mentioned in the Bible<\/p>\nBecause the Hebrews perceived color differently than we do in Western culture, it is sometimes difficult to translate precisely the various Hebrew words denoting colors. Thus there is often a wide variation in translations of such words in English Bibles. To provide a base for comparison, this article will follow the rsv<\/span> except as noted.<\/p>\nColors mentioned most often in the OT and NT are the following:<\/p>\n“Black” is the translation of five words in the OT and one in the NT, expressing varying degrees of darkness. The words describe the color of lambs (Gn 30:32-33, 35, 40), hair (Lv 13:31, 37; Sg 5:11; Mt 5:36), skin (Jb 30:30), horses (Zec 6:2, 6; Rv 6:5), the sky (1 Kgs 18:45; Is 50:3; Jer 4:28), the day (Jb 3:5; Mi 3:6), the darkened sun (Rv 6:12), and an invading army (Jl 2:2). Job’s “blackness” (Jb 30:28) has been understood as disease or sadness.<\/p>\n“Blue” probably refers to a blue-purple dye obtained from Mediterranean mollusks. A popular color, it was considered less desirable in antiquity than “royal” purple. Both dyes were produced in Tyre, which at one time had a monopoly on the manufacture of blue and purple dye (2 Chr 2:7, 14; Ez 27:24). Ships of Tyre had awnings of blue and purple (Ez 27:7). Blue was used in the tabernacle fabrics (Ex 26:1; Nm 4:6-9), the priests’ garments (Ex 28:5-6), in Solomon’s temple (2 Chr 2:7, 14), and in the Persian court (Est 1:6; 8:15). Blue is not mentioned in the NT.<\/p>\n“Crimson” is the English translation of three different Hebrew words. This red color of varying shades was derived from certain insects. The word describes certain fabrics in Solomon’s temple (2 Chr 2:7, 14; 3:14) and was used figuratively to describe sin (Is 1:18). The word translated “crimsoned” to describe garments from Bozrah (63:1) probably means “vivid colors” rather than a specific hue.<\/p>\n“Gray,” a color found only in the OT, is used exclusively to describe old age—as in gray hair or gray-headed (Gn 42:38; 44:29-31; Dt 32:25; 1 Sm 12:2; 1 Kgs 2:6, 9; Jb 15:10; Ps 71:18; Prv 20:29; Is 46:4; Hos 7:9). A different word used to describe dappled gray horses (Zec 6:3) probably means “spotted” or “speckled.”<\/p>\n“Green” translates seven words in the OT and two in the NT. Most of the words refer to vegetation and are descriptive of the fresh or moist condition of plants rather than their color. The following are described as “green”: plants (Gn 1:30), trees (1 Kgs 14:23), branches (Jb 15:32), pastures (Ps 23:2; Jl 2:22), herbs (Ps 37:2), olive trees (Ps 52:8; Jer 11:16), thorns (Ps 58:9), leaves (Jer 17:8), grass (Mk 6:39; Rv 8:7), and wood (Lk 23:31). In addition to various plants, a dove’s wing (Ps 68:13), a couch (Sg 1:16), and a righteous person (Ps 92:14) are also described as “green.” Idolatrous worship practices took place under “every green tree” (Dt 12:2; 2 Kgs 16:4; Is 57:5; Jer 2:20; Ez 6:13), although the word actually describes the luxurious growth of the leaves rather than their color.<\/p>\nAnother word, “greenish,” is derived from one of the OT words for “green” and refers to disease (Lv 13:49) and fungus that forms on the walls of houses (14:37).<\/p>\n“Purple” was the most highly valued dye in the ancient world. Encompassing shades varying from actual purple to red, it was obtained from mollusks of the Gastropoda class. The first people to use the dye were perhaps the ancient Phoenicians, whose name may come from a Greek word meaning “bloodred.” At any rate, the Phoenicians monopolized the purple industry for many years. Some fabrics were described as being purple: those used in the tabernacle (Ex 25:4; 26:1), in the garments of the priests (28:5-8, 15, 33), in Solomon’s temple (2 Chr 2:7), in the upholstery of Solomon’s chariot (Sg 3:10), and in decorations of the Persian court (Est 1:6). Purple was customarily worn by wealthy people and royalty (Jgs 8:26; Prv 31:22; Dn 5:7). Mordecai was rewarded with a garment of purple (Est 8:15). Daniel was given a similar garment (Dn 5:29). It was worn by Assyrian soldiers (Ez 23:6). Jeremiah described idols that were robed in blue and purple garments (Jer 10:9). Ships of Tyre had awnings of blue and purple (Ez 27:7), and purple dye was an item of trade between Tyre and the people of Aram (v 16). It is used once to describe the color of hair (Sg 7:5).<\/p>\nReferences to purple in the NT are fewer than in the OT but affirm the continued economic importance of the dye. Purple clothing denoted wealth (Lk 16:19). Jesus was robed in purple by Roman soldiers (Mk 15:17, 20; Jn 19:2, 5; cf. Mt 27:28, “scarlet”). The purple and scarlet garment of the harlot Babylon symbolized royal rank (Rv 17:4). Lydia of Thyatira was a seller of purple fabrics (Acts 16:14).<\/p>\n“Red” frequently refers to the natural color of certain objects mentioned in the Bible: skin (Gn 25:25), pottage (v 30), the eye (49:12, though the word used here may mean “sparkling” or “dark”), a sacrificial heifer (Nm 19:2), water (2 Kgs 3:22), the face of a weeping person (Jb 16:16), wine (Prv 23:31), the eyes of one drinking wine (v 29), clothing (Is 63:2), a shield (Na 2:3), and horses (Zec 1:8; 6:2). It is used figuratively to describe sin (Is 1:18). A leprous disease (Lv 13:49), a spot on the skin (vv 19, 24, 42-43), and fungus on the wall of a house (14:37) were discolored with a reddish hue. The Red Sea is mentioned frequently in the OT (Ex 10:19; 15:4), but the Hebrew words thus translated actually mean “Sea of Reeds.” However, in the NT the Greek word is actually the word “red” (Acts 7:36; Heb 11:29). In the NT, red is used to describe the color of the sky (Mt 16:2-3), a horse (Rv 6:4), and a dragon (12:3).<\/p>\n“Scarlet,” a brilliant red hue derived from certain insects, was used for fabrics and yarns and was highly valued in the ancient world (Rv 18:12). It is difficult to distinguish between “scarlet” and “crimson” in the Bible. A scarlet thread was bound to the hand of Zerah at birth (Gn 38:28, 30). The word describes certain fabrics in the tabernacle (Ex 25:4; 26:1, 31, 36; 27:16), the priests’ garments (28:5-8, 15, 33), rope (Jos 2:18, 21), clothing (2 Sm 1:24; Prv 31:21; Jer 4:30), lips (Sg 4:3), and soldiers’ uniforms (Na 2:3). Some kind of scarlet material was used during the ratification of the covenant at Sinai (Heb 9:19), for the cleansing of a leper (Lv 14:4-6) and of a house (vv 49-52), for covering the articles on the table of the bread of the Presence (Nm 4:8), and for the ritual of the red heifer (19:6). Matthew described Jesus’ robe at his trial as scarlet (Mt 27:28). The woman of Revelation 17:3-4 was dressed in purple and scarlet and seated upon a scarlet beast. The luxury associated with Rome is suggested by the description of clothing of purple and scarlet (Rv 18:16). Scarlet, like crimson and red, is also used figuratively of sins (Is 1:18).<\/p>\n “White” translates a number of words found in the Bible. It is generally the color of natural objects such as goats (Gn 30:35), hair (Lv 13:10; Mt 5:36; Rv 1:14), diseased skin (Ex 4:6; Lv 13:4, 17), manna (Ex 16:31), snow (2 Kgs 5:27), milk and teeth (Gn 49:12), horses (Zec 1:8; 6:3; Rv 6:2; 19:11), a donkey (Jgs 5:10, kjv<\/span>; rsv<\/span> “tawny”), wool (Ez 27:18), special stones (Rv 2:17), light (Mt 17:2), clouds (Rv 14:14), and fields ready for harvest (Jn 4:35). It is used to describe the color of curtains (Est 1:6), clothing (Est 8:15; Eccl 9:8; Dn 7:9; Mk 16:5; Rv 3:5, 18; 4:4), the garments of angels (Jn 20:12; Acts 1:10), and a throne (Rv 20:11). It is used figuratively to describe cleansing from sin (Ps 51:7; Is 1:18; Dn 12:10) and the appearance of princes (Lam 4:7).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Cloth and Cloth Manufacturing; Dye, Dyeing, Dyer.<\/p>","summary_ro":"COLOR The OT and NT have no exact word for “color,” although the word appears several times in our English Bibles. The words translated “color” have quite different meanings in the original languages. The word most frequently translated “colour” in the kjv literally means “eye” and suggests “appearance” (Lv 13:55; Nm 11:7; Prv 23:31; Ez 1:4, 7, 16, 22, 27; 8:2; 10:9; Dn 10:6). Only Leviticus 13:55 retains the translation “color” in the rsv. Other words translated as “color” in the rsv refer t...","summary_en":"COLOR The OT and NT have no exact word for “color,” although the word appears several times in our English Bibles. The words translated “color” have quite different meanings in the original languages. The word most frequently translated “colour” in the kjv literally means “eye” and suggests “appearance” (Lv 13:55; Nm 11:7; Prv 23:31; Ez 1:4, 7, 16, 22, 27; 8:2; 10:9; Dn 10:6). Only Leviticus 13:55 retains the translation “color” in the rsv. Other words translated as “color” in the rsv refer t...","source":"Articles\/C.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"5":[{"id":54306,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Zaharia 6:5","title_en":"Study Note: Zaharia 6:5","content_ro":"6:5<\/strong> The four spirits<\/em> (or the four winds<\/em>) of heaven<\/em> are divine council members who report to God on their reconnaissance missions to the four compass points (see 2:6). The whole world is under God’s dominion. The teams of chariot horses are agents of God’s judgment.<\/p>","content_en":"6:5<\/strong> The four spirits<\/em> (or the four winds<\/em>) of heaven<\/em> are divine council members who report to God on their reconnaissance missions to the four compass points (see 2:6). The whole world is under God’s dominion. The teams of chariot horses are agents of God’s judgment.<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:5 The four spirits (or the four winds) of heaven are divine council members who report to God on their reconnaissance missions to the four compass points (see 2:6). The whole world is under God’s dominion. The teams of chariot horses are agents of God’s judgment.","summary_en":"6:5 The four spirits (or the four winds) of heaven are divine council members who report to God on their reconnaissance missions to the four compass points (see 2:6). The whole world is under God’s dominion. The teams of chariot horses are agents of God’s judgment.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":81932,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Zaharia 6:5","title_en":"Study Note: Zaharia 6:5","content_ro":"6:5<\/strong> The four spirits<\/em> (or the four winds<\/em>) of heaven<\/em> are divine council members who report to God on their reconnaissance missions to the four compass points (see 2:6). The whole world is under God’s dominion. The teams of chariot horses are agents of God’s judgment.<\/p>","content_en":"6:5<\/strong> The four spirits<\/em> (or the four winds<\/em>) of heaven<\/em> are divine council members who report to God on their reconnaissance missions to the four compass points (see 2:6). The whole world is under God’s dominion. The teams of chariot horses are agents of God’s judgment.<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:5 The four spirits (or the four winds) of heaven are divine council members who report to God on their reconnaissance missions to the four compass points (see 2:6). The whole world is under God’s dominion. The teams of chariot horses are agents of God’s judgment.","summary_en":"6:5 The four spirits (or the four winds) of heaven are divine council members who report to God on their reconnaissance missions to the four compass points (see 2:6). The whole world is under God’s dominion. The teams of chariot horses are agents of God’s judgment.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":109558,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Zaharia 6:5","title_en":"Study Note: Zaharia 6:5","content_ro":"6:5<\/strong> The four spirits<\/em> (or the four winds<\/em>) of heaven<\/em> are divine council members who report to God on their reconnaissance missions to the four compass points (see 2:6). The whole world is under God’s dominion. The teams of chariot horses are agents of God’s judgment.<\/p>","content_en":"6:5<\/strong> The four spirits<\/em> (or the four winds<\/em>) of heaven<\/em> are divine council members who report to God on their reconnaissance missions to the four compass points (see 2:6). The whole world is under God’s dominion. The teams of chariot horses are agents of God’s judgment.<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:5 The four spirits (or the four winds) of heaven are divine council members who report to God on their reconnaissance missions to the four compass points (see 2:6). The whole world is under God’s dominion. The teams of chariot horses are agents of God’s judgment.","summary_en":"6:5 The four spirits (or the four winds) of heaven are divine council members who report to God on their reconnaissance missions to the four compass points (see 2:6). The whole world is under God’s dominion. The teams of chariot horses are agents of God’s judgment.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":137184,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Zaharia 6:5","title_en":"Study Note: Zaharia 6:5","content_ro":"6:5<\/strong> The four spirits<\/em> (or the four winds<\/em>) of heaven<\/em> are divine council members who report to God on their reconnaissance missions to the four compass points (see 2:6). The whole world is under God’s dominion. The teams of chariot horses are agents of God’s judgment.<\/p>","content_en":"6:5<\/strong> The four spirits<\/em> (or the four winds<\/em>) of heaven<\/em> are divine council members who report to God on their reconnaissance missions to the four compass points (see 2:6). The whole world is under God’s dominion. The teams of chariot horses are agents of God’s judgment.<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:5 The four spirits (or the four winds) of heaven are divine council members who report to God on their reconnaissance missions to the four compass points (see 2:6). The whole world is under God’s dominion. The teams of chariot horses are agents of God’s judgment.","summary_en":"6:5 The four spirits (or the four winds) of heaven are divine council members who report to God on their reconnaissance missions to the four compass points (see 2:6). The whole world is under God’s dominion. The teams of chariot horses are agents of God’s judgment.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"7":[{"id":54307,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Zaharia 6:7","title_en":"Study Note: Zaharia 6:7","content_ro":"6:7<\/strong> The teams of horses are portrayed as powerful<\/em> and eager<\/em> to do the Lord’s work (6:5). They move only at the Lord’s command.<\/p>","content_en":"6:7<\/strong> The teams of horses are portrayed as powerful<\/em> and eager<\/em> to do the Lord’s work (6:5). They move only at the Lord’s command.<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:7 The teams of horses are portrayed as powerful and eager to do the Lord’s work (6:5). They move only at the Lord’s command.","summary_en":"6:7 The teams of horses are portrayed as powerful and eager to do the Lord’s work (6:5). They move only at the Lord’s command.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":81933,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Zaharia 6:7","title_en":"Study Note: Zaharia 6:7","content_ro":"6:7<\/strong> The teams of horses are portrayed as powerful<\/em> and eager<\/em> to do the Lord’s work (6:5). They move only at the Lord’s command.<\/p>","content_en":"6:7<\/strong> The teams of horses are portrayed as powerful<\/em> and eager<\/em> to do the Lord’s work (6:5). They move only at the Lord’s command.<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:7 The teams of horses are portrayed as powerful and eager to do the Lord’s work (6:5). They move only at the Lord’s command.","summary_en":"6:7 The teams of horses are portrayed as powerful and eager to do the Lord’s work (6:5). They move only at the Lord’s command.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":109559,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Zaharia 6:7","title_en":"Study Note: Zaharia 6:7","content_ro":"6:7<\/strong> The teams of horses are portrayed as powerful<\/em> and eager<\/em> to do the Lord’s work (6:5). They move only at the Lord’s command.<\/p>","content_en":"6:7<\/strong> The teams of horses are portrayed as powerful<\/em> and eager<\/em> to do the Lord’s work (6:5). They move only at the Lord’s command.<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:7 The teams of horses are portrayed as powerful and eager to do the Lord’s work (6:5). They move only at the Lord’s command.","summary_en":"6:7 The teams of horses are portrayed as powerful and eager to do the Lord’s work (6:5). They move only at the Lord’s command.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":137185,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Zaharia 6:7","title_en":"Study Note: Zaharia 6:7","content_ro":"6:7<\/strong> The teams of horses are portrayed as powerful<\/em> and eager<\/em> to do the Lord’s work (6:5). They move only at the Lord’s command.<\/p>","content_en":"6:7<\/strong> The teams of horses are portrayed as powerful<\/em> and eager<\/em> to do the Lord’s work (6:5). They move only at the Lord’s command.<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:7 The teams of horses are portrayed as powerful and eager to do the Lord’s work (6:5). They move only at the Lord’s command.","summary_en":"6:7 The teams of horses are portrayed as powerful and eager to do the Lord’s work (6:5). They move only at the Lord’s command.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"8":[{"id":54308,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Zaharia 6:8","title_en":"Study Note: Zaharia 6:8","content_ro":"6:8<\/strong> the<\/em> Lord<\/span> summoned me:<\/em> The series of visions closes with a direct word from the Lord to Zechariah. In bypassing the interpreting angel, God emphasizes the sure and effective implementation of his word to Israel. • have vented the anger of my Spirit<\/em> (literally have given my Spirit rest<\/em>): “Spirit” can mean “anger,” as it does here (see Judg 8:3; Isa 33:11).<\/p>","content_en":"6:8<\/strong> the<\/em> Lord<\/span> summoned me:<\/em> The series of visions closes with a direct word from the Lord to Zechariah. In bypassing the interpreting angel, God emphasizes the sure and effective implementation of his word to Israel. • have vented the anger of my Spirit<\/em> (literally have given my Spirit rest<\/em>): “Spirit” can mean “anger,” as it does here (see Judg 8:3; Isa 33:11).<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:8 the Lord summoned me: The series of visions closes with a direct word from the Lord to Zechariah. In bypassing the interpreting angel, God emphasizes the sure and effective implementation of his word to Israel. • have vented the anger of my Spirit (literally have given my Spirit rest): “Spirit” can mean “anger,” as it does here (see Judg 8:3; Isa 33:11).","summary_en":"6:8 the Lord summoned me: The series of visions closes with a direct word from the Lord to Zechariah. In bypassing the interpreting angel, God emphasizes the sure and effective implementation of his word to Israel. • have vented the anger of my Spirit (literally have given my Spirit rest): “Spirit” can mean “anger,” as it does here (see Judg 8:3; Isa 33:11).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":81934,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Zaharia 6:8","title_en":"Study Note: Zaharia 6:8","content_ro":"6:8<\/strong> the<\/em> Lord<\/span> summoned me:<\/em> The series of visions closes with a direct word from the Lord to Zechariah. In bypassing the interpreting angel, God emphasizes the sure and effective implementation of his word to Israel. • have vented the anger of my Spirit<\/em> (literally have given my Spirit rest<\/em>): “Spirit” can mean “anger,” as it does here (see Judg 8:3; Isa 33:11).<\/p>","content_en":"6:8<\/strong> the<\/em> Lord<\/span> summoned me:<\/em> The series of visions closes with a direct word from the Lord to Zechariah. In bypassing the interpreting angel, God emphasizes the sure and effective implementation of his word to Israel. • have vented the anger of my Spirit<\/em> (literally have given my Spirit rest<\/em>): “Spirit” can mean “anger,” as it does here (see Judg 8:3; Isa 33:11).<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:8 the Lord summoned me: The series of visions closes with a direct word from the Lord to Zechariah. In bypassing the interpreting angel, God emphasizes the sure and effective implementation of his word to Israel. • have vented the anger of my Spirit (literally have given my Spirit rest): “Spirit” can mean “anger,” as it does here (see Judg 8:3; Isa 33:11).","summary_en":"6:8 the Lord summoned me: The series of visions closes with a direct word from the Lord to Zechariah. In bypassing the interpreting angel, God emphasizes the sure and effective implementation of his word to Israel. • have vented the anger of my Spirit (literally have given my Spirit rest): “Spirit” can mean “anger,” as it does here (see Judg 8:3; Isa 33:11).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":109560,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Zaharia 6:8","title_en":"Study Note: Zaharia 6:8","content_ro":"6:8<\/strong> the<\/em> Lord<\/span> summoned me:<\/em> The series of visions closes with a direct word from the Lord to Zechariah. In bypassing the interpreting angel, God emphasizes the sure and effective implementation of his word to Israel. • have vented the anger of my Spirit<\/em> (literally have given my Spirit rest<\/em>): “Spirit” can mean “anger,” as it does here (see Judg 8:3; Isa 33:11).<\/p>","content_en":"6:8<\/strong> the<\/em> Lord<\/span> summoned me:<\/em> The series of visions closes with a direct word from the Lord to Zechariah. In bypassing the interpreting angel, God emphasizes the sure and effective implementation of his word to Israel. • have vented the anger of my Spirit<\/em> (literally have given my Spirit rest<\/em>): “Spirit” can mean “anger,” as it does here (see Judg 8:3; Isa 33:11).<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:8 the Lord summoned me: The series of visions closes with a direct word from the Lord to Zechariah. In bypassing the interpreting angel, God emphasizes the sure and effective implementation of his word to Israel. • have vented the anger of my Spirit (literally have given my Spirit rest): “Spirit” can mean “anger,” as it does here (see Judg 8:3; Isa 33:11).","summary_en":"6:8 the Lord summoned me: The series of visions closes with a direct word from the Lord to Zechariah. In bypassing the interpreting angel, God emphasizes the sure and effective implementation of his word to Israel. • have vented the anger of my Spirit (literally have given my Spirit rest): “Spirit” can mean “anger,” as it does here (see Judg 8:3; Isa 33:11).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":137186,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Zaharia 6:8","title_en":"Study Note: Zaharia 6:8","content_ro":"6:8<\/strong> the<\/em> Lord<\/span> summoned me:<\/em> The series of visions closes with a direct word from the Lord to Zechariah. In bypassing the interpreting angel, God emphasizes the sure and effective implementation of his word to Israel. • have vented the anger of my Spirit<\/em> (literally have given my Spirit rest<\/em>): “Spirit” can mean “anger,” as it does here (see Judg 8:3; Isa 33:11).<\/p>","content_en":"6:8<\/strong> the<\/em> Lord<\/span> summoned me:<\/em> The series of visions closes with a direct word from the Lord to Zechariah. In bypassing the interpreting angel, God emphasizes the sure and effective implementation of his word to Israel. • have vented the anger of my Spirit<\/em> (literally have given my Spirit rest<\/em>): “Spirit” can mean “anger,” as it does here (see Judg 8:3; Isa 33:11).<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:8 the Lord summoned me: The series of visions closes with a direct word from the Lord to Zechariah. In bypassing the interpreting angel, God emphasizes the sure and effective implementation of his word to Israel. • have vented the anger of my Spirit (literally have given my Spirit rest): “Spirit” can mean “anger,” as it does here (see Judg 8:3; Isa 33:11).","summary_en":"6:8 the Lord summoned me: The series of visions closes with a direct word from the Lord to Zechariah. In bypassing the interpreting angel, God emphasizes the sure and effective implementation of his word to Israel. • have vented the anger of my Spirit (literally have given my Spirit rest): “Spirit” can mean “anger,” as it does here (see Judg 8:3; Isa 33:11).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"9":[{"id":39093,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Book of Zechariah","title_en":"Book of Zechariah","content_ro":"<h3>ZECHARIAH, Book of<\/h3>\nLongest book of the Minor Prophets and the most difficult to understand. One reason for this difficulty is the numerous visions that call for an interpreter. At times an interpreting angel is present to tell what the vision means (Zec 1:9-10, 19-20; 4:1-6; 5:5-6), but at other times, when an interpretation is really needed, there is no angel to give one. The obscure meaning of many passages has spawned numerous theories concerning the date, authorship, unity, and interpretation of this book. One thing that makes the book of Zechariah significant for the Christian is its use in the NT. The last part of Zechariah (chs 9–11) is the most quoted section of the Prophets in the Gospel Passion narratives, and, other than Ezekiel, Zechariah influenced the book of Revelation more than any other OT book.<\/p>\nPreview<\/p>\n• Author<\/p>\n• Date<\/p>\n• Background<\/p>\n• Purpose and Message<\/p>\n• Content<\/p>\nAuthor<\/p>\nThe name Zechariah probably means “the Lord remembers” or “the Lord is renowned.” Zechariah is a common name in the OT and NT. At least 30 different people in the OT are named Zechariah. There is a problem in identifying the prophet’s father. In Zechariah 1:1 and 1:7, the prophet is called “the son of Berechiah, the son of Iddo,” but in Ezra 5:1 and 6:14 he is called simply “the son of Iddo.” There was another Zechariah in Isaiah’s time whose father was named Jeberechiah (Is 8:2). Another prophet by the name of Zechariah, the son of Jehoiada the priest, lived much earlier during the reign of Joash, king of Judah (835–796 BC<\/span>). This prophet was stoned to death because he proclaimed that the Lord had forsaken his people because of their sins (2 Chr 24:20-22). Jesus seemed to refer to this or a similar unrecorded incident, but he calls the prophet the son of Berechiah, the last of the martyrs among the prophets (Mt 23:35). However, Luke’s account of what Jesus said about Zechariah (Lk 11:51) does not include the words “the son of Berechiah.” Since Jesus was quoting 2 Chronicles, which was the last book in the Hebrew Bible, he was simply indicating the sweep of time from the first murder (Abel) to the last (Zechariah, the son of Jehoiada). There is no evidence that the prophet of the book of Zechariah was martyred; therefore, the best solution to the problem is to consider Berechiah the father, and Iddo the grandfather, of this prophet.<\/p>\nDate<\/p>\nThe first part of the book of Zechariah (chs 1–8) is easy to date. The first date is in the first verse, “the eighth month of the second year of Darius.” This was Darius, king of Persia (521–486 BC<\/span>). The eighth month of Darius’s second year would be October 520 BC<\/span>. This date seems to be the first time the “word of the Lord” came to Zechariah. The second date in Zechariah is in 1:7: “On the twenty-fourth day of the eleventh month which is the month of Shebat, in the second year of Darius . . .” (rsv<\/span>). This date would be February 15, 519 BC<\/span>. The word of the Lord that came to Zechariah on this date seems to include the account of eight night visions, along with some oracles, from an angel who talked with him. The third date in Zechariah is in 7:1: “In the fourth year of King Darius . . . on the fourth day of the ninth month, which is Chislev . . .” (rsv<\/span>). This date would be the equivalent of December 7, 518 BC<\/span>.<\/p>\nThere are no dates in Zechariah 9–14. Zechariah’s name is never mentioned, and neither is Darius or any king. A period of relative peace and stability gives place to war. The temple is standing (11:13; 14:20), and evidently Greek soldiers are present (9:13). Any attempt to assign specific dates to Zechariah 9–14 would be speculation.<\/p>\nBackground<\/p>\nThe temple in Jerusalem was destroyed by Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon, in 586 BC<\/span>. Nebuchadnezzar made several raids against Jerusalem before and after it fell, taking many captives to Babylon (cf. 2 Kgs 24:1-17; Dn 1:1). On two occasions, Jeremiah had predicted that captivity would last 70 years (Jer 25:11; 29:10; cf. Dn 9:2). In the time of Zechariah, the period of 70 years since the fall of Jerusalem was coming to an end (Zec 1:12; 7:5). It had been 66 years since Jerusalem fell, when the first “word of the Lord” came to Zechariah in the second year of Darius (520 BC<\/span>). The Babylonian Empire had fallen to the Persians in 538 BC<\/span>, and Cyrus the first king of Persia signed a decree permitting all captives to return to their homes (2 Chr 36:23; Ezr 1:1-4). Evidently, the first contingent of Jewish captives returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel and Joshua the priest about 536 BC<\/span>. One of the first objectives of the returnees was to rebuild the temple (Ezr 1:3), but internal strife and external opposition from the Samaritans prohibited the immediate rebuilding of the temple. After Darius I became king of Persia in 521 BC<\/span>, a wave of expectation and enthusiasm swept over the Jewish communities in Jerusalem and Babylon. Two prophets, possibly from the Babylonian exiles, Haggai and Zechariah, began preaching so powerfully that work on the second temple began in 520 BC<\/span> and was finished in 516 BC<\/span> (Ezr 5:1, 14-15; Hg 1–2; Zec 1–8).<\/p>\nThe book of Zechariah opens in the second year of Darius (520 BC<\/span>). Some of the captives had been back in Jerusalem for 16 years, but nothing was being done about rebuilding the temple. Zechariah’s first message called for the people to repent and not repeat the mistake of their fathers, whose sins and refusal to repent led to the exile and destruction of the temple (Zec 1:1-6). Then a series of eight night visions follows (1:7–6:8), assuring the people that the temple would be rebuilt by Zerubbabel (1:16; 4:9; 6:15). Two verses in Zechariah speak volumes concerning the hardships and difficulties in Jerusalem before the temple was rebuilt: “This is what the Lord<\/span> Almighty says: Take heart and finish the task! You have heard what the prophets have been saying about building the Temple of the Lord<\/span> Almighty ever since the foundation was laid. Before the work on the Temple began, there were no jobs and no wages for either people or animals. No traveler was safe from the enemy, for there were enemies on all sides. I had turned everyone against each other” (8:9-10, nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nThe first eight chapters of Zechariah are set against the social, political, and religious situations in Jerusalem from 520 to 518 BC<\/span>. But beginning with chapter 9, historical moorings are lost. Chapter 9 opens with an oracle against Syria, including Damascus, Tyre, and Sidon, and against Philistia. Each of these places will be conquered and cleansed and will become like a clan in Judah. There is the promise of a new king coming triumphantly to Jerusalem, yet humbly riding on a donkey. His reign will be peaceful and universal. The next oracle speaks of setting the captives free, but this may not refer to the Babylonian captives, because of a reference to the Greeks. Zechariah 9–12 is almost wholly concerned with the future. Some scholars call this part apocalyptic literature. The nations attack Jerusalem and are defeated (chs 12, 14). The temple is standing (11:13), but it does not seem to have a place of great prominence in the new Jerusalem and in the kingdom of God (14:6-9).<\/p>\nPurpose and Message<\/p>\nThe purpose of the book is to reassure and encourage. The restored Jewish community of 520 BC<\/span> needed the assurance that the temple would be rebuilt, and later groups of God’s people needed to know that ultimately the kingdom of God would come in its fullness. There are three messages in the book of Zechariah: the need for repentance (1:1–5:11); the eight night visions (1:7–6:8) signifying that the temple would be rebuilt and God’s glory would return to Jerusalem; and the coming kingdom of God (chs 9–14).<\/p>\nContent<\/p>\nThe book of Zechariah may be divided into two main parts: chapters 1–8 and 9–14. The first part is dated between 520 BC<\/span> and 518 BC<\/span>. It consists of oracles and visions of Zechariah the son of Berechiah. Mainly prose, its primary concern is to assure the restored Jewish community that the temple will be rebuilt. The second part (chs 9–14) is undated. There are no references to Zechariah. The temple is standing, and much of the language is eschatological and apocalyptic. The second part itself has two parts: chapters 9–11 and 12–14. Chapters 9 and 12 begin essentially the same way: “The oracle of the word of the Lord.”<\/p>\nThe first part of Zechariah (chs 1–8) has four main sections: superscription and first oracle (1:1-6); eight night visions and related oracles (1:7–6:8); the symbolic crowning of Joshua (6:9-15); and the question about fasting and morality (7:1–8:23).<\/p>\n<h5>The Superscription (1:1)<\/h5>\nThis section is dated specifically “in the eighth month” of the Babylonian calendar, which was from mid-October to mid-November. The second year of Darius, king of Persia, was 520 BC<\/span>. The date is important in relating the work of Zechariah to that of Haggai (cf. Hg 1:1, 15; 2:1, 10, 18-20) and to the reconstruction of the temple under Zerubbabel. The first oracle concerns the need for repentance. The first message of Zechariah came between Haggai’s second and third message. He, like Haggai, probably attributed the failure of the crops and other hardships to a failure to rebuild the temple (cf. Hg 1:6-11). Zechariah calls for the people to repent so that they can persevere with work on the temple.<\/p>\n<h5>The Eight Night Visions and Related Oracles (1:7–6:8)<\/h5>\nThese visions that Zechariah saw in Jerusalem all seem to have been given on the night of the 24th day of the 11th month (Shebat) in the second year of Darius (mid-January to mid-February 519 BC<\/span>). Seven of the eight visions have essentially the same form. Four of the visions begin with the words “Then I looked up and saw” (1:18; 2:1; 5:1; 6:1). One begins, “In a vision during the night” (1:8). Another begins, “Then the angel who had been talking with me returned and woke me, as though I had been asleep. ‘What do you see now?’ he asked” (4:1-2, nlt<\/span>). Still another (the seventh) vision begins, “Then the angel who was talking with me came forward and said . . .” (5:5). However, the fourth vision is different from the other seven. It begins, “Then he showed me” (3:1, cf. Am 7:1, 4, 7). This message in the third person contains no interpreting angel nor any direct message to Zechariah, as if he were merely an observer. This fourth vision is so different from the other seven that it was not a part of the original series of eight.<\/p>\nAn overall pattern to the eight visions is not evident. Some scholars have seen some significance in the fact that the visions move from the evening or night in the first vision to the sunrise in the last vision. Others have detected some relationships in pairs of visions. The first and last visions involve horses and riders or chariots. The second and third visions involve the restoration of Judah and Jerusalem (1:18-21; 2:1-5). The fourth and fifth deal with the place of the two leaders in the restored community: Joshua will be cleansed and restored as the high priest (3:1-5) and Zerubbabel the governor will complete the temple (4:1-14). The sixth and seventh visions involve the cleansing of the land. A flying scroll enters the house of every thief and false witness and consumes it (5:1-4). Wickedness personified as a woman will be carried in an ephah (basket) to the land of Shinar (vv 5-11). Interspersed in the vision accounts are four oracles (1:14-17; 2:8-13; 3:6-10; 4:8-14). Each of these passages begins with the messenger formula, “Thus says the Lord,” or the expression “Cry out” (1:14, 17). The first oracle assures the people that the temple, the cities, and the choice of Jerusalem will be renewed. The second oracle exhorts any exiles remaining in Babylon to return to Judah and Jerusalem (2:7-12). Zechariah 2:12-13 are interesting. Verse 12 is the only OT reference to Palestine as “the Holy Land,” and verse 13 is similar to the call to worship in Habakkuk 2:20: “Be silent before the Lord<\/span>, all humanity, for he is springing into action from his holy dwelling” (Zec 2:13, nlt<\/span>). The third oracle in the visionary accounts concerns Joshua the high priest as a sign of the coming of God’s servant, the Branch who removes the guilt of the land in a single day (3:6-10).<\/p>\n<h5>The Symbolic Crowning of Joshua (6:9-15)<\/h5>\nZechariah is told to go into the house of Josiah son of Zephaniah, take silver and gold from some returnees from Babylon, make a crown, and put it on the head of Joshua the priest as a symbol of the royal and priestly king, the Branch, the builder of the temple. After the ceremony the crown is to be hung in the temple as a memorial of those who gave the silver and the gold. The last verse (6:15) seems to say that just as gold and silver from exiles was used to symbolize the crowning of the coming king of the kingdom, so exiles, “those who are far off,” will also participate in the completion of the temple. Then Zechariah’s hearers will know God sent him to prophesy. This will all take place when and if they will diligently obey the voice of the Lord.<\/p>\n<h5>The Question about Fasting and Morality (7:1–8:23)<\/h5>\nA delegation from Bethel (10 miles or 16.1 kilometers north of Jerusalem) came to Jerusalem in the fourth year of Darius (518 BC<\/span>). Work on the temple had been going on for two years. The purpose of this visit was to entreat the favor of the Lord (7:2) and to ask the priests and the prophets if they should continue to fast as they had done since the temple was destroyed 70 years earlier (v 3). The Lord told Zechariah to ask why they were fasting—for the Lord or for selfish motives? The answer to the question of fasting seems to be that God desires truth, justice, and covenant-love more than fasting. Zechariah reiterates the message the Lord had already given his people by the former prophets. The last section in the first part of Zechariah is a decalogue of promises (8:1-23). The ten promises begin with the words “Thus says the Lord” or “The word of the Lord came to me.” The last word of God is not judgment but promise, hope, forgiveness, and restoration.<\/p>\n<h5>The Oracles of the Lord (chs 9–12)<\/h5>\nThe last half of the book of Zechariah (chs 9–14) falls into two nearly equal parts: chapters 9–11 (46 verses) and chapters 12–14 (44 verses). Each part begins with the words “An oracle” (9:1; 12:1). Both “oracles” are primarily eschatological. The first part (chs 9–11) is concerned with the restoration of the tribes to Palestine (9:11-17; 10:6-12). In order to accomplish this, the Lord will rid Palestine and Syria of opponents to his rule (9:1-8; 11:1-3), remove the evil shepherds (rulers; 10:2b-5; 11:4-17), and the Prince of Peace will come (9:9-10). The last “oracle” of Zechariah (12:1–14:21) is also eschatological. This time the concern is primarily that of Jerusalem and Judah. Twice Jerusalem is attacked by the nations (12:1-8; 14:1-5). Each time the Lord fights for Jerusalem, Judah, and the house of David. Jerusalem weeps and mourns for an unidentified martyr (12:10-14). The martyr could be called the “good” shepherd who is killed and his sheep scattered (13:7-9). Jesus referred to this passage in connection with his arrest (Mt 26:31; Mk 14:27). A fountain will be opened for the house of David, and the inhabitants of Jerusalem will be cleansed from sin, idolatry, and false prophets (Zec 13:1-6). The new Jerusalem will remain aloft on its site and the land around it will be turned into a plain (14:10-11). There will be no night nor extreme temperatures in the new Jerusalem. Living waters will flow from Jerusalem, and the Lord will become King of all the earth. Those who fight against Jerusalem will be destroyed, but those who survive will worship the Lord year by year by keeping the Feast of Booths.<\/p>\nThe last scene in the book of Zechariah is a picture of the world after Armageddon, a new world cleansed of sin. It will be a time of peace and security. When God comes to reign, everything will become holy. The warhorses will become as holy as the priest’s turban, and the ordinary cooking vessel will be as temple vessels. The Canaanite or trader will be eliminated. There will be no difference between Jew and Gentile, as long as one worships the Lord of Hosts as King.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Israel, History of; Postexilic Period; Prophecy; Prophet, Prophetess; Zechariah (Person) #20.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ZECHARIAH, Book of<\/h3>\nLongest book of the Minor Prophets and the most difficult to understand. One reason for this difficulty is the numerous visions that call for an interpreter. At times an interpreting angel is present to tell what the vision means (Zec 1:9-10, 19-20; 4:1-6; 5:5-6), but at other times, when an interpretation is really needed, there is no angel to give one. The obscure meaning of many passages has spawned numerous theories concerning the date, authorship, unity, and interpretation of this book. One thing that makes the book of Zechariah significant for the Christian is its use in the NT. The last part of Zechariah (chs 9–11) is the most quoted section of the Prophets in the Gospel Passion narratives, and, other than Ezekiel, Zechariah influenced the book of Revelation more than any other OT book.<\/p>\nPreview<\/p>\n• Author<\/p>\n• Date<\/p>\n• Background<\/p>\n• Purpose and Message<\/p>\n• Content<\/p>\nAuthor<\/p>\nThe name Zechariah probably means “the Lord remembers” or “the Lord is renowned.” Zechariah is a common name in the OT and NT. At least 30 different people in the OT are named Zechariah. There is a problem in identifying the prophet’s father. In Zechariah 1:1 and 1:7, the prophet is called “the son of Berechiah, the son of Iddo,” but in Ezra 5:1 and 6:14 he is called simply “the son of Iddo.” There was another Zechariah in Isaiah’s time whose father was named Jeberechiah (Is 8:2). Another prophet by the name of Zechariah, the son of Jehoiada the priest, lived much earlier during the reign of Joash, king of Judah (835–796 BC<\/span>). This prophet was stoned to death because he proclaimed that the Lord had forsaken his people because of their sins (2 Chr 24:20-22). Jesus seemed to refer to this or a similar unrecorded incident, but he calls the prophet the son of Berechiah, the last of the martyrs among the prophets (Mt 23:35). However, Luke’s account of what Jesus said about Zechariah (Lk 11:51) does not include the words “the son of Berechiah.” Since Jesus was quoting 2 Chronicles, which was the last book in the Hebrew Bible, he was simply indicating the sweep of time from the first murder (Abel) to the last (Zechariah, the son of Jehoiada). There is no evidence that the prophet of the book of Zechariah was martyred; therefore, the best solution to the problem is to consider Berechiah the father, and Iddo the grandfather, of this prophet.<\/p>\nDate<\/p>\nThe first part of the book of Zechariah (chs 1–8) is easy to date. The first date is in the first verse, “the eighth month of the second year of Darius.” This was Darius, king of Persia (521–486 BC<\/span>). The eighth month of Darius’s second year would be October 520 BC<\/span>. This date seems to be the first time the “word of the Lord” came to Zechariah. The second date in Zechariah is in 1:7: “On the twenty-fourth day of the eleventh month which is the month of Shebat, in the second year of Darius . . .” (rsv<\/span>). This date would be February 15, 519 BC<\/span>. The word of the Lord that came to Zechariah on this date seems to include the account of eight night visions, along with some oracles, from an angel who talked with him. The third date in Zechariah is in 7:1: “In the fourth year of King Darius . . . on the fourth day of the ninth month, which is Chislev . . .” (rsv<\/span>). This date would be the equivalent of December 7, 518 BC<\/span>.<\/p>\nThere are no dates in Zechariah 9–14. Zechariah’s name is never mentioned, and neither is Darius or any king. A period of relative peace and stability gives place to war. The temple is standing (11:13; 14:20), and evidently Greek soldiers are present (9:13). Any attempt to assign specific dates to Zechariah 9–14 would be speculation.<\/p>\nBackground<\/p>\nThe temple in Jerusalem was destroyed by Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon, in 586 BC<\/span>. Nebuchadnezzar made several raids against Jerusalem before and after it fell, taking many captives to Babylon (cf. 2 Kgs 24:1-17; Dn 1:1). On two occasions, Jeremiah had predicted that captivity would last 70 years (Jer 25:11; 29:10; cf. Dn 9:2). In the time of Zechariah, the period of 70 years since the fall of Jerusalem was coming to an end (Zec 1:12; 7:5). It had been 66 years since Jerusalem fell, when the first “word of the Lord” came to Zechariah in the second year of Darius (520 BC<\/span>). The Babylonian Empire had fallen to the Persians in 538 BC<\/span>, and Cyrus the first king of Persia signed a decree permitting all captives to return to their homes (2 Chr 36:23; Ezr 1:1-4). Evidently, the first contingent of Jewish captives returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel and Joshua the priest about 536 BC<\/span>. One of the first objectives of the returnees was to rebuild the temple (Ezr 1:3), but internal strife and external opposition from the Samaritans prohibited the immediate rebuilding of the temple. After Darius I became king of Persia in 521 BC<\/span>, a wave of expectation and enthusiasm swept over the Jewish communities in Jerusalem and Babylon. Two prophets, possibly from the Babylonian exiles, Haggai and Zechariah, began preaching so powerfully that work on the second temple began in 520 BC<\/span> and was finished in 516 BC<\/span> (Ezr 5:1, 14-15; Hg 1–2; Zec 1–8).<\/p>\nThe book of Zechariah opens in the second year of Darius (520 BC<\/span>). Some of the captives had been back in Jerusalem for 16 years, but nothing was being done about rebuilding the temple. Zechariah’s first message called for the people to repent and not repeat the mistake of their fathers, whose sins and refusal to repent led to the exile and destruction of the temple (Zec 1:1-6). Then a series of eight night visions follows (1:7–6:8), assuring the people that the temple would be rebuilt by Zerubbabel (1:16; 4:9; 6:15). Two verses in Zechariah speak volumes concerning the hardships and difficulties in Jerusalem before the temple was rebuilt: “This is what the Lord<\/span> Almighty says: Take heart and finish the task! You have heard what the prophets have been saying about building the Temple of the Lord<\/span> Almighty ever since the foundation was laid. Before the work on the Temple began, there were no jobs and no wages for either people or animals. No traveler was safe from the enemy, for there were enemies on all sides. I had turned everyone against each other” (8:9-10, nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nThe first eight chapters of Zechariah are set against the social, political, and religious situations in Jerusalem from 520 to 518 BC<\/span>. But beginning with chapter 9, historical moorings are lost. Chapter 9 opens with an oracle against Syria, including Damascus, Tyre, and Sidon, and against Philistia. Each of these places will be conquered and cleansed and will become like a clan in Judah. There is the promise of a new king coming triumphantly to Jerusalem, yet humbly riding on a donkey. His reign will be peaceful and universal. The next oracle speaks of setting the captives free, but this may not refer to the Babylonian captives, because of a reference to the Greeks. Zechariah 9–12 is almost wholly concerned with the future. Some scholars call this part apocalyptic literature. The nations attack Jerusalem and are defeated (chs 12, 14). The temple is standing (11:13), but it does not seem to have a place of great prominence in the new Jerusalem and in the kingdom of God (14:6-9).<\/p>\nPurpose and Message<\/p>\nThe purpose of the book is to reassure and encourage. The restored Jewish community of 520 BC<\/span> needed the assurance that the temple would be rebuilt, and later groups of God’s people needed to know that ultimately the kingdom of God would come in its fullness. There are three messages in the book of Zechariah: the need for repentance (1:1–5:11); the eight night visions (1:7–6:8) signifying that the temple would be rebuilt and God’s glory would return to Jerusalem; and the coming kingdom of God (chs 9–14).<\/p>\nContent<\/p>\nThe book of Zechariah may be divided into two main parts: chapters 1–8 and 9–14. The first part is dated between 520 BC<\/span> and 518 BC<\/span>. It consists of oracles and visions of Zechariah the son of Berechiah. Mainly prose, its primary concern is to assure the restored Jewish community that the temple will be rebuilt. The second part (chs 9–14) is undated. There are no references to Zechariah. The temple is standing, and much of the language is eschatological and apocalyptic. The second part itself has two parts: chapters 9–11 and 12–14. Chapters 9 and 12 begin essentially the same way: “The oracle of the word of the Lord.”<\/p>\nThe first part of Zechariah (chs 1–8) has four main sections: superscription and first oracle (1:1-6); eight night visions and related oracles (1:7–6:8); the symbolic crowning of Joshua (6:9-15); and the question about fasting and morality (7:1–8:23).<\/p>\n<h5>The Superscription (1:1)<\/h5>\nThis section is dated specifically “in the eighth month” of the Babylonian calendar, which was from mid-October to mid-November. The second year of Darius, king of Persia, was 520 BC<\/span>. The date is important in relating the work of Zechariah to that of Haggai (cf. Hg 1:1, 15; 2:1, 10, 18-20) and to the reconstruction of the temple under Zerubbabel. The first oracle concerns the need for repentance. The first message of Zechariah came between Haggai’s second and third message. He, like Haggai, probably attributed the failure of the crops and other hardships to a failure to rebuild the temple (cf. Hg 1:6-11). Zechariah calls for the people to repent so that they can persevere with work on the temple.<\/p>\n<h5>The Eight Night Visions and Related Oracles (1:7–6:8)<\/h5>\nThese visions that Zechariah saw in Jerusalem all seem to have been given on the night of the 24th day of the 11th month (Shebat) in the second year of Darius (mid-January to mid-February 519 BC<\/span>). Seven of the eight visions have essentially the same form. Four of the visions begin with the words “Then I looked up and saw” (1:18; 2:1; 5:1; 6:1). One begins, “In a vision during the night” (1:8). Another begins, “Then the angel who had been talking with me returned and woke me, as though I had been asleep. ‘What do you see now?’ he asked” (4:1-2, nlt<\/span>). Still another (the seventh) vision begins, “Then the angel who was talking with me came forward and said . . .” (5:5). However, the fourth vision is different from the other seven. It begins, “Then he showed me” (3:1, cf. Am 7:1, 4, 7). This message in the third person contains no interpreting angel nor any direct message to Zechariah, as if he were merely an observer. This fourth vision is so different from the other seven that it was not a part of the original series of eight.<\/p>\nAn overall pattern to the eight visions is not evident. Some scholars have seen some significance in the fact that the visions move from the evening or night in the first vision to the sunrise in the last vision. Others have detected some relationships in pairs of visions. The first and last visions involve horses and riders or chariots. The second and third visions involve the restoration of Judah and Jerusalem (1:18-21; 2:1-5). The fourth and fifth deal with the place of the two leaders in the restored community: Joshua will be cleansed and restored as the high priest (3:1-5) and Zerubbabel the governor will complete the temple (4:1-14). The sixth and seventh visions involve the cleansing of the land. A flying scroll enters the house of every thief and false witness and consumes it (5:1-4). Wickedness personified as a woman will be carried in an ephah (basket) to the land of Shinar (vv 5-11). Interspersed in the vision accounts are four oracles (1:14-17; 2:8-13; 3:6-10; 4:8-14). Each of these passages begins with the messenger formula, “Thus says the Lord,” or the expression “Cry out” (1:14, 17). The first oracle assures the people that the temple, the cities, and the choice of Jerusalem will be renewed. The second oracle exhorts any exiles remaining in Babylon to return to Judah and Jerusalem (2:7-12). Zechariah 2:12-13 are interesting. Verse 12 is the only OT reference to Palestine as “the Holy Land,” and verse 13 is similar to the call to worship in Habakkuk 2:20: “Be silent before the Lord<\/span>, all humanity, for he is springing into action from his holy dwelling” (Zec 2:13, nlt<\/span>). The third oracle in the visionary accounts concerns Joshua the high priest as a sign of the coming of God’s servant, the Branch who removes the guilt of the land in a single day (3:6-10).<\/p>\n<h5>The Symbolic Crowning of Joshua (6:9-15)<\/h5>\nZechariah is told to go into the house of Josiah son of Zephaniah, take silver and gold from some returnees from Babylon, make a crown, and put it on the head of Joshua the priest as a symbol of the royal and priestly king, the Branch, the builder of the temple. After the ceremony the crown is to be hung in the temple as a memorial of those who gave the silver and the gold. The last verse (6:15) seems to say that just as gold and silver from exiles was used to symbolize the crowning of the coming king of the kingdom, so exiles, “those who are far off,” will also participate in the completion of the temple. Then Zechariah’s hearers will know God sent him to prophesy. This will all take place when and if they will diligently obey the voice of the Lord.<\/p>\n<h5>The Question about Fasting and Morality (7:1–8:23)<\/h5>\nA delegation from Bethel (10 miles or 16.1 kilometers north of Jerusalem) came to Jerusalem in the fourth year of Darius (518 BC<\/span>). Work on the temple had been going on for two years. The purpose of this visit was to entreat the favor of the Lord (7:2) and to ask the priests and the prophets if they should continue to fast as they had done since the temple was destroyed 70 years earlier (v 3). The Lord told Zechariah to ask why they were fasting—for the Lord or for selfish motives? The answer to the question of fasting seems to be that God desires truth, justice, and covenant-love more than fasting. Zechariah reiterates the message the Lord had already given his people by the former prophets. The last section in the first part of Zechariah is a decalogue of promises (8:1-23). The ten promises begin with the words “Thus says the Lord” or “The word of the Lord came to me.” The last word of God is not judgment but promise, hope, forgiveness, and restoration.<\/p>\n<h5>The Oracles of the Lord (chs 9–12)<\/h5>\nThe last half of the book of Zechariah (chs 9–14) falls into two nearly equal parts: chapters 9–11 (46 verses) and chapters 12–14 (44 verses). Each part begins with the words “An oracle” (9:1; 12:1). Both “oracles” are primarily eschatological. The first part (chs 9–11) is concerned with the restoration of the tribes to Palestine (9:11-17; 10:6-12). In order to accomplish this, the Lord will rid Palestine and Syria of opponents to his rule (9:1-8; 11:1-3), remove the evil shepherds (rulers; 10:2b-5; 11:4-17), and the Prince of Peace will come (9:9-10). The last “oracle” of Zechariah (12:1–14:21) is also eschatological. This time the concern is primarily that of Jerusalem and Judah. Twice Jerusalem is attacked by the nations (12:1-8; 14:1-5). Each time the Lord fights for Jerusalem, Judah, and the house of David. Jerusalem weeps and mourns for an unidentified martyr (12:10-14). The martyr could be called the “good” shepherd who is killed and his sheep scattered (13:7-9). Jesus referred to this passage in connection with his arrest (Mt 26:31; Mk 14:27). A fountain will be opened for the house of David, and the inhabitants of Jerusalem will be cleansed from sin, idolatry, and false prophets (Zec 13:1-6). The new Jerusalem will remain aloft on its site and the land around it will be turned into a plain (14:10-11). There will be no night nor extreme temperatures in the new Jerusalem. Living waters will flow from Jerusalem, and the Lord will become King of all the earth. Those who fight against Jerusalem will be destroyed, but those who survive will worship the Lord year by year by keeping the Feast of Booths.<\/p>\nThe last scene in the book of Zechariah is a picture of the world after Armageddon, a new world cleansed of sin. It will be a time of peace and security. When God comes to reign, everything will become holy. The warhorses will become as holy as the priest’s turban, and the ordinary cooking vessel will be as temple vessels. The Canaanite or trader will be eliminated. There will be no difference between Jew and Gentile, as long as one worships the Lord of Hosts as King.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Israel, History of; Postexilic Period; Prophecy; Prophet, Prophetess; Zechariah (Person) #20.<\/p>","summary_ro":"ZECHARIAH, Book of Longest book of the Minor Prophets and the most difficult to understand. One reason for this difficulty is the numerous visions that call for an interpreter. At times an interpreting angel is present to tell what the vision means (Zec 1:9-10, 19-20; 4:1-6; 5:5-6), but at other times, when an interpretation is really needed, there is no angel to give one. The obscure meaning of many passages has spawned numerous theories concerning the date, authorship, unity, and interpreta...","summary_en":"ZECHARIAH, Book of Longest book of the Minor Prophets and the most difficult to understand. One reason for this difficulty is the numerous visions that call for an interpreter. At times an interpreting angel is present to tell what the vision means (Zec 1:9-10, 19-20; 4:1-6; 5:5-6), but at other times, when an interpretation is really needed, there is no angel to give one. The obscure meaning of many passages has spawned numerous theories concerning the date, authorship, unity, and interpreta...","source":"Articles\/Z.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":54309,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Zaharia 6:9","title_en":"Study Note: Zaharia 6:9","content_ro":"6:9-15<\/strong> This authoritative message accompanies Zechariah’s eighth vision (6:1-8). Jeshua’s symbolic coronation as both king and priest was not an actual political arrangement for Judah; it probably symbolizes the coming of the Messiah, the Branch<\/em> (6:12; cp. 3:8).<\/p>","content_en":"6:9-15<\/strong> This authoritative message accompanies Zechariah’s eighth vision (6:1-8). Jeshua’s symbolic coronation as both king and priest was not an actual political arrangement for Judah; it probably symbolizes the coming of the Messiah, the Branch<\/em> (6:12; cp. 3:8).<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:9-15 This authoritative message accompanies Zechariah’s eighth vision (6:1-8). Jeshua’s symbolic coronation as both king and priest was not an actual political arrangement for Judah; it probably symbolizes the coming of the Messiah, the Branch (6:12; cp. 3:8).","summary_en":"6:9-15 This authoritative message accompanies Zechariah’s eighth vision (6:1-8). Jeshua’s symbolic coronation as both king and priest was not an actual political arrangement for Judah; it probably symbolizes the coming of the Messiah, the Branch (6:12; cp. 3:8).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":81935,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Zaharia 6:9","title_en":"Study Note: Zaharia 6:9","content_ro":"6:9-15<\/strong> This authoritative message accompanies Zechariah’s eighth vision (6:1-8). Jeshua’s symbolic coronation as both king and priest was not an actual political arrangement for Judah; it probably symbolizes the coming of the Messiah, the Branch<\/em> (6:12; cp. 3:8).<\/p>","content_en":"6:9-15<\/strong> This authoritative message accompanies Zechariah’s eighth vision (6:1-8). Jeshua’s symbolic coronation as both king and priest was not an actual political arrangement for Judah; it probably symbolizes the coming of the Messiah, the Branch<\/em> (6:12; cp. 3:8).<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:9-15 This authoritative message accompanies Zechariah’s eighth vision (6:1-8). Jeshua’s symbolic coronation as both king and priest was not an actual political arrangement for Judah; it probably symbolizes the coming of the Messiah, the Branch (6:12; cp. 3:8).","summary_en":"6:9-15 This authoritative message accompanies Zechariah’s eighth vision (6:1-8). Jeshua’s symbolic coronation as both king and priest was not an actual political arrangement for Judah; it probably symbolizes the coming of the Messiah, the Branch (6:12; cp. 3:8).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":109561,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Zaharia 6:9","title_en":"Study Note: Zaharia 6:9","content_ro":"6:9-15<\/strong> This authoritative message accompanies Zechariah’s eighth vision (6:1-8). Jeshua’s symbolic coronation as both king and priest was not an actual political arrangement for Judah; it probably symbolizes the coming of the Messiah, the Branch<\/em> (6:12; cp. 3:8).<\/p>","content_en":"6:9-15<\/strong> This authoritative message accompanies Zechariah’s eighth vision (6:1-8). Jeshua’s symbolic coronation as both king and priest was not an actual political arrangement for Judah; it probably symbolizes the coming of the Messiah, the Branch<\/em> (6:12; cp. 3:8).<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:9-15 This authoritative message accompanies Zechariah’s eighth vision (6:1-8). Jeshua’s symbolic coronation as both king and priest was not an actual political arrangement for Judah; it probably symbolizes the coming of the Messiah, the Branch (6:12; cp. 3:8).","summary_en":"6:9-15 This authoritative message accompanies Zechariah’s eighth vision (6:1-8). Jeshua’s symbolic coronation as both king and priest was not an actual political arrangement for Judah; it probably symbolizes the coming of the Messiah, the Branch (6:12; cp. 3:8).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":137187,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Zaharia 6:9","title_en":"Study Note: Zaharia 6:9","content_ro":"6:9-15<\/strong> This authoritative message accompanies Zechariah’s eighth vision (6:1-8). Jeshua’s symbolic coronation as both king and priest was not an actual political arrangement for Judah; it probably symbolizes the coming of the Messiah, the Branch<\/em> (6:12; cp. 3:8).<\/p>","content_en":"6:9-15<\/strong> This authoritative message accompanies Zechariah’s eighth vision (6:1-8). Jeshua’s symbolic coronation as both king and priest was not an actual political arrangement for Judah; it probably symbolizes the coming of the Messiah, the Branch<\/em> (6:12; cp. 3:8).<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:9-15 This authoritative message accompanies Zechariah’s eighth vision (6:1-8). Jeshua’s symbolic coronation as both king and priest was not an actual political arrangement for Judah; it probably symbolizes the coming of the Messiah, the Branch (6:12; cp. 3:8).","summary_en":"6:9-15 This authoritative message accompanies Zechariah’s eighth vision (6:1-8). Jeshua’s symbolic coronation as both king and priest was not an actual political arrangement for Judah; it probably symbolizes the coming of the Messiah, the Branch (6:12; cp. 3:8).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"10":[{"id":16079,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Heldai","title_en":"Heldai","content_ro":"<h3>HELDAI<\/h3>\n<li>1. Baanah’s son, described as a Netophathite in the line of Othniel. He appears first as one of David’s mighty men (2 Sm 23:29; 1 Chr 11:30, “Heled”). In 1 Chronicles 27:15, he is called a commander of an army division of 24,000 that served during the 12th month of the year.<\/li>\n<li>2. One of the exiles returning from Babylon from whom the prophet Zechariah took gold and silver to make a crown for Joshua, the high priest (Zec 6:10).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>HELDAI<\/h3>\n<li>1. Baanah’s son, described as a Netophathite in the line of Othniel. He appears first as one of David’s mighty men (2 Sm 23:29; 1 Chr 11:30, “Heled”). In 1 Chronicles 27:15, he is called a commander of an army division of 24,000 that served during the 12th month of the year.<\/li>\n<li>2. One of the exiles returning from Babylon from whom the prophet Zechariah took gold and silver to make a crown for Joshua, the high priest (Zec 6:10).<\/li>","summary_ro":"HELDAI 1. Baanah’s son, described as a Netophathite in the line of Othniel. He appears first as one of David’s mighty men (2 Sm 23:29; 1 Chr 11:30, “Heled”). In 1 Chronicles 27:15, he is called a commander of an army division of 24,000 that served during the 12th month of the year. 2. One of the exiles returning from Babylon from whom the prophet Zechariah took gold and silver to make a crown for Joshua, the high priest (Zec 6:10).","summary_en":"HELDAI 1. Baanah’s son, described as a Netophathite in the line of Othniel. He appears first as one of David’s mighty men (2 Sm 23:29; 1 Chr 11:30, “Heled”). In 1 Chronicles 27:15, he is called a commander of an army division of 24,000 that served during the 12th month of the year. 2. One of the exiles returning from Babylon from whom the prophet Zechariah took gold and silver to make a crown for Joshua, the high priest (Zec 6:10).","source":"Articles\/H.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":18632,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Jedaiah","title_en":"Jedaiah","content_ro":"<h3>JEDAIAH<\/h3>\n<li>1. Shimri’s son and the father of Allon. He is listed in the genealogical tables of the Simeonites who settled in the valley of Gedor in Hezekiah’s time (1 Chr 4:37).<\/li>\n<li>2. Harumaph’s son, who helped repair the Jerusalem wall after the exile (Neh 3:10).<\/li>\n<li>3. Aaron’s descendant and head of the second of the 24 priestly divisions for temple service in David’s time (1 Chr 24:7). His descendants are listed among the returned exiles (1 Chr 9:10; Ezr 2:36; Neh 7:39). The individuals and families listed below are probably a part of this priestly line, but their exact relationships are difficult to determine.<\/li>\n<li>4. Provincial priest who agreed to resettle in postexilic Jerusalem (Neh 11:10; cf. v 2).<\/li>\n<li>5. Priest who returned with Zerubbabel after the exile (Neh 12:6-7). In the next generation this was the name of a family (v 21).<\/li>\n<li>6. One of the exiles taken by Zechariah as witness to the symbolic crowning of Joshua (nlt<\/span> “Jeshua”). He may be the same as #4 or #5 above. He came back from captivity bringing gifts for the temple in the days of the high priest Joshua (Zec 6:10-14).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>JEDAIAH<\/h3>\n<li>1. Shimri’s son and the father of Allon. He is listed in the genealogical tables of the Simeonites who settled in the valley of Gedor in Hezekiah’s time (1 Chr 4:37).<\/li>\n<li>2. Harumaph’s son, who helped repair the Jerusalem wall after the exile (Neh 3:10).<\/li>\n<li>3. Aaron’s descendant and head of the second of the 24 priestly divisions for temple service in David’s time (1 Chr 24:7). His descendants are listed among the returned exiles (1 Chr 9:10; Ezr 2:36; Neh 7:39). The individuals and families listed below are probably a part of this priestly line, but their exact relationships are difficult to determine.<\/li>\n<li>4. Provincial priest who agreed to resettle in postexilic Jerusalem (Neh 11:10; cf. v 2).<\/li>\n<li>5. Priest who returned with Zerubbabel after the exile (Neh 12:6-7). In the next generation this was the name of a family (v 21).<\/li>\n<li>6. One of the exiles taken by Zechariah as witness to the symbolic crowning of Joshua (nlt<\/span> “Jeshua”). He may be the same as #4 or #5 above. He came back from captivity bringing gifts for the temple in the days of the high priest Joshua (Zec 6:10-14).<\/li>","summary_ro":"JEDAIAH 1. Shimri’s son and the father of Allon. He is listed in the genealogical tables of the Simeonites who settled in the valley of Gedor in Hezekiah’s time (1 Chr 4:37). 2. Harumaph’s son, who helped repair the Jerusalem wall after the exile (Neh 3:10). 3. Aaron’s descendant and head of the second of the 24 priestly divisions for temple service in David’s time (1 Chr 24:7). His descendants are listed among the returned exiles (1 Chr 9:10; Ezr 2:36; Neh 7:39). The individuals and families...","summary_en":"JEDAIAH 1. Shimri’s son and the father of Allon. He is listed in the genealogical tables of the Simeonites who settled in the valley of Gedor in Hezekiah’s time (1 Chr 4:37). 2. Harumaph’s son, who helped repair the Jerusalem wall after the exile (Neh 3:10). 3. Aaron’s descendant and head of the second of the 24 priestly divisions for temple service in David’s time (1 Chr 24:7). His descendants are listed among the returned exiles (1 Chr 9:10; Ezr 2:36; Neh 7:39). The individuals and families...","source":"Articles\/J.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":20898,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Josiah","title_en":"Josiah","content_ro":"<h3>JOSIAH<\/h3>\n<li>1. Sixteenth king of the southern kingdom of Judah (640–609 BC<\/span>). A godly man, he stood in marked contrast to his grandfather Manasseh and his father, Amon. In fact, Scripture declares there was no king either before or after him who was as obedient to the law of Moses (2 Kgs 23:25). The Greek form of his name, Josias, appears in Matthew 1:10-11 (kjv<\/span>).<\/li>\nThe Times of Josiah<\/p>\nWhen Josiah became king in 640 BC<\/span>, the international scene was about to change drastically. After the great Assyrian king Ashurbanipal died in 633 BC<\/span>, mediocre rulers followed him on the throne, and there was considerable unrest in the empire. Nabopolassar, father of Nebuchadnezzar, seized the kingship in Babylon and established the Neo-Babylonian Empire late in 626 BC<\/span>. Soon Babylonians and Medes combined forces to topple the Assyrian Empire, and in 612 BC<\/span> completely destroyed the city of Nineveh. As Babylonian power rose in the east, Assyrian control over the province that had once been the kingdom of Israel relaxed and Assyrian pressure on Judah virtually ceased. After the fall of Nineveh, the Assyrians established their capital at Haran. There they were defeated by Babylonians and Scythians in 610 BC<\/span>. At that point Pharaoh Neco II of Egypt decided to support Assyria. In the late spring of 609 BC<\/span> he advanced through Judah, defeated and killed Josiah, and spent the summer campaigning in Syria.<\/p>\nBefore Josiah’s reign, Judah had capitulated to gross idolatry during the reign of Manasseh (697–642 BC<\/span>). Baalism, Molech worship, and other pagan religions had invaded the land, as had occultism and astrology. A false altar even stood in the temple in Jerusalem, and human sacrifice to pagan deities was practiced near Jerusalem. The nation was thoroughly corrupt. Although some reform occurred in Manasseh’s latter days, conditions reverted to their former baseness during the reign of his son Amon (642–640 BC<\/span>). In 640 BC<\/span> officials of Amon’s household assassinated him, and the “people of the land” put Josiah on the throne (2 Kgs 21:26; 22:1; 2 Chr 33:25–34:1).<\/p>\nJosiah’s Reform Activities<\/p>\nJosiah was only eight years old when he became king. Evidently he had spiritually motivated advisers or regents; by the time he was 16, he began of his own accord “to seek the God of his ancestor David” (2 Chr 34:3). When he was 20, he became greatly exercised over the idolatry of the land and launched a major effort to eradicate the pagan high places, groves, and images from Judah and Jerusalem. So intense was Josiah’s hatred of idolatry that he even opened the tombs of pagan priests and burned their bones on pagan altars before the altars were destroyed.<\/p>\nJosiah carried his reform movement beyond the borders of Judah, venting his fury especially on the cult center at Bethel, where Jeroboam had set up his false worship. In fulfillment of prophecy (1 Kgs 13:1-3), he destroyed the altar and high place and burned the bones of officiating priests to desecrate the site (2 Kgs 23:15-18). What he did at Bethel he did everywhere else in the kingdom of Samaria (vv 19-20).<\/p>\nWhen Josiah was 26, he launched a project to cleanse and repair the temple in Jerusalem (2 Kgs 22:3). Shaphan, the king’s administrative assistant, commissioned the work; Hilkiah the priest supervised the renovation and construction. In the process of restoring the temple, Hilkiah found the Book of the Law, the nature and contents of which are otherwise unknown. Possibly in the dark days of Manasseh a deliberate attempt had been made to destroy the Word of God. At any rate, there was little knowledge of Scripture in Judah.<\/p>\nWhen Shaphan read the Book of the Law to Josiah, the king was devastated by the pronouncements of judgment against apostasy contained in it. He sent a delegation to Huldah the prophetess to find out what judgments awaited the land. The prophetess replied that the condemnation of God would indeed fall on Judah for its sin, but she sent word to Josiah that because his heart was right toward God, the punishment would not come during his lifetime.<\/p>\nThe king called together a large representative group for a public reading of the law—evidently sections especially concerned with obligations to God. The king and the people made a covenant before God to keep his commandments.<\/p>\nFaced with the importance of maintaining a pure monotheistic faith, the king was spurred on to even more rigorous efforts to cleanse the temple and Jerusalem. He destroyed the vessels used in Baal worship, the monument of horses given by the kings of Judah for sun worship, the chariots dedicated to the sun, the homosexual community near the temple, and shrines built by Solomon and in use since his day. Moreover, he made stringent efforts to eliminate the pagan shrines and high places in all the towns of Judah (2 Kgs 23:4-14).<\/p>\nThe Death of Josiah<\/p>\nPrecisely why Josiah opposed Pharaoh Neco’s advance through Judean territory is unknown. He may have wanted to prevent aid from reaching the hated Assyrians or to maintain his own independence. Josiah was mortally wounded in the conflict and was greatly lamented by Jeremiah and all the people (2 Chr 35:25). Well they might weep, for their godly king was gone, and within a few years the judgment withheld during his lifetime would descend on the nation.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Chronology of the Bible (Old Testament); Israel, History of.<\/p>\n<li>2. Son of Zephaniah, who returned to Jerusalem with other Jews after the captivity (Zec 6:10, 14; Hebrew “Hen”).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>JOSIAH<\/h3>\n<li>1. Sixteenth king of the southern kingdom of Judah (640–609 BC<\/span>). A godly man, he stood in marked contrast to his grandfather Manasseh and his father, Amon. In fact, Scripture declares there was no king either before or after him who was as obedient to the law of Moses (2 Kgs 23:25). The Greek form of his name, Josias, appears in Matthew 1:10-11 (kjv<\/span>).<\/li>\nThe Times of Josiah<\/p>\nWhen Josiah became king in 640 BC<\/span>, the international scene was about to change drastically. After the great Assyrian king Ashurbanipal died in 633 BC<\/span>, mediocre rulers followed him on the throne, and there was considerable unrest in the empire. Nabopolassar, father of Nebuchadnezzar, seized the kingship in Babylon and established the Neo-Babylonian Empire late in 626 BC<\/span>. Soon Babylonians and Medes combined forces to topple the Assyrian Empire, and in 612 BC<\/span> completely destroyed the city of Nineveh. As Babylonian power rose in the east, Assyrian control over the province that had once been the kingdom of Israel relaxed and Assyrian pressure on Judah virtually ceased. After the fall of Nineveh, the Assyrians established their capital at Haran. There they were defeated by Babylonians and Scythians in 610 BC<\/span>. At that point Pharaoh Neco II of Egypt decided to support Assyria. In the late spring of 609 BC<\/span> he advanced through Judah, defeated and killed Josiah, and spent the summer campaigning in Syria.<\/p>\nBefore Josiah’s reign, Judah had capitulated to gross idolatry during the reign of Manasseh (697–642 BC<\/span>). Baalism, Molech worship, and other pagan religions had invaded the land, as had occultism and astrology. A false altar even stood in the temple in Jerusalem, and human sacrifice to pagan deities was practiced near Jerusalem. The nation was thoroughly corrupt. Although some reform occurred in Manasseh’s latter days, conditions reverted to their former baseness during the reign of his son Amon (642–640 BC<\/span>). In 640 BC<\/span> officials of Amon’s household assassinated him, and the “people of the land” put Josiah on the throne (2 Kgs 21:26; 22:1; 2 Chr 33:25–34:1).<\/p>\nJosiah’s Reform Activities<\/p>\nJosiah was only eight years old when he became king. Evidently he had spiritually motivated advisers or regents; by the time he was 16, he began of his own accord “to seek the God of his ancestor David” (2 Chr 34:3). When he was 20, he became greatly exercised over the idolatry of the land and launched a major effort to eradicate the pagan high places, groves, and images from Judah and Jerusalem. So intense was Josiah’s hatred of idolatry that he even opened the tombs of pagan priests and burned their bones on pagan altars before the altars were destroyed.<\/p>\nJosiah carried his reform movement beyond the borders of Judah, venting his fury especially on the cult center at Bethel, where Jeroboam had set up his false worship. In fulfillment of prophecy (1 Kgs 13:1-3), he destroyed the altar and high place and burned the bones of officiating priests to desecrate the site (2 Kgs 23:15-18). What he did at Bethel he did everywhere else in the kingdom of Samaria (vv 19-20).<\/p>\nWhen Josiah was 26, he launched a project to cleanse and repair the temple in Jerusalem (2 Kgs 22:3). Shaphan, the king’s administrative assistant, commissioned the work; Hilkiah the priest supervised the renovation and construction. In the process of restoring the temple, Hilkiah found the Book of the Law, the nature and contents of which are otherwise unknown. Possibly in the dark days of Manasseh a deliberate attempt had been made to destroy the Word of God. At any rate, there was little knowledge of Scripture in Judah.<\/p>\nWhen Shaphan read the Book of the Law to Josiah, the king was devastated by the pronouncements of judgment against apostasy contained in it. He sent a delegation to Huldah the prophetess to find out what judgments awaited the land. The prophetess replied that the condemnation of God would indeed fall on Judah for its sin, but she sent word to Josiah that because his heart was right toward God, the punishment would not come during his lifetime.<\/p>\nThe king called together a large representative group for a public reading of the law—evidently sections especially concerned with obligations to God. The king and the people made a covenant before God to keep his commandments.<\/p>\nFaced with the importance of maintaining a pure monotheistic faith, the king was spurred on to even more rigorous efforts to cleanse the temple and Jerusalem. He destroyed the vessels used in Baal worship, the monument of horses given by the kings of Judah for sun worship, the chariots dedicated to the sun, the homosexual community near the temple, and shrines built by Solomon and in use since his day. Moreover, he made stringent efforts to eliminate the pagan shrines and high places in all the towns of Judah (2 Kgs 23:4-14).<\/p>\nThe Death of Josiah<\/p>\nPrecisely why Josiah opposed Pharaoh Neco’s advance through Judean territory is unknown. He may have wanted to prevent aid from reaching the hated Assyrians or to maintain his own independence. Josiah was mortally wounded in the conflict and was greatly lamented by Jeremiah and all the people (2 Chr 35:25). Well they might weep, for their godly king was gone, and within a few years the judgment withheld during his lifetime would descend on the nation.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Chronology of the Bible (Old Testament); Israel, History of.<\/p>\n<li>2. Son of Zephaniah, who returned to Jerusalem with other Jews after the captivity (Zec 6:10, 14; Hebrew “Hen”).<\/li>","summary_ro":"JOSIAH 1. Sixteenth king of the southern kingdom of Judah (640–609 BC). A godly man, he stood in marked contrast to his grandfather Manasseh and his father, Amon. In fact, Scripture declares there was no king either before or after him who was as obedient to the law of Moses (2 Kgs 23:25). The Greek form of his name, Josias, appears in Matthew 1:10-11 (kjv). The Times of Josiah When Josiah became king in 640 BC, the international scene was about to change drastically. After the great Assyrian...","summary_en":"JOSIAH 1. Sixteenth king of the southern kingdom of Judah (640–609 BC). A godly man, he stood in marked contrast to his grandfather Manasseh and his father, Amon. In fact, Scripture declares there was no king either before or after him who was as obedient to the law of Moses (2 Kgs 23:25). The Greek form of his name, Josias, appears in Matthew 1:10-11 (kjv). The Times of Josiah When Josiah became king in 640 BC, the international scene was about to change drastically. After the great Assyrian...","source":"Articles\/J.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":30926,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Period*, Postexilic","title_en":"Period*, Postexilic","content_ro":"<h3>POSTEXILIC PERIOD*<\/h3>\nA period in the Jews’ history after their exile to Babylon. This period extends from 539–c. 331 BC<\/span>.<\/p>\nPreview<\/p>\n• The Biblical Perspective<\/p>\n• The Collapse of the Babylonian Empire<\/p>\n• The Policy of Persia<\/p>\n• The Return from Exile<\/p>\n• The Return of Ezra<\/p>\n• Nehemiah’s Return and Ministry<\/p>\n• The Remainder of the Persian Period<\/p>\n• Religious Features of the Postexilic Period<\/p>\nThe Biblical Perspective<\/p>\nThe books that specifically cover the history of the postexilic or Persian period are Ezra, Nehemiah, Haggai, and Zechariah. These cover a period of over a century, only a portion of which is dealt with in detail, as the following table shows:<\/p>\n\nThe Collapse of the Babylonian Empire<\/p>\nThis occurred with dramatic suddenness, largely because of internal resistance to the policies of the last Babylonian king, Nabonidus (555–539 BC<\/span>). His neglect of the traditional Babylonian deity, Marduk, in favor of the moon god, Sin, was particularly resented. Nabonidus lived in Taima during the last decade of his reign, refusing to enter Babylon, where his son Belshazzar ruled as virtual king, as noted in Daniel 5. Babylon fell to the Persians in October 538 BC<\/span> and the entire empire passed into their control.<\/p>\nThe Policy of Persia<\/p>\nThis is well documented through contemporary inscriptions, notably the record of Cyrus, the first king of the Persian Empire (559–530 BC<\/span>), in the “Cyrus Cylinder.” A new phase in the relationship of conqueror to conquered peoples opened up, which contrasted with the policy of the Assyrian and Babylonian empires of crushing any opposition by massive force. Cyrus and his successors followed a conciliatory line, allowing exiled groups to return home, encouraging local faiths, posing as the champions of the territorial deities, and allowing local autonomy except where Persian interests were affected adversely. The cost of this operation, although considerable, must have been infinitesimal compared with that of keeping rebellious subjects under constant subjection.<\/p>\nThe new enlightened policy is reflected in the decree of Cyrus, dated 538 BC<\/span> (Ezr 1:1) and preserved in two versions. The first (vv 1-4) is clearly the official proclamation, while the second (6:3-5) is a more prosaic memorandum dealing with building specifications, a record of Cyrus’s commitment stored in the official archives (vv 1-2). The critical tendency to question the narrative in Ezra 1, especially on the score of the favorable references to the God of Israel and the vast financial support promised, has been nullified by the archaeological evidence, which shows an identical policy elsewhere. The Cyrus Cylinder, for example, notes, “The gods who live within them [i.e., the cities] I returned to their places. . . . All of their inhabitants I collected and restored to their dwelling places.”<\/p>\nIn Judah itself there is no evidence for any warfare in this period, which suggests that the Persian takeover of the area was nonviolent. Judah was incorporated into the fifth Persian province, which included the entire area west of the Euphrates River (Ezr 7:21). It was no more than a minor subdistrict, governed through Samaria.<\/p>\nThe Return from Exile<\/p>\nThe continuance of a large Jewish community in Babylonia shows that not all the Jews responded to the invitation to return to their homeland, probably because of the prosperity acquired in exile. But 42,360 dedicated Jews (Ezr 2:64) braved the challenge of a four-month 900-mile (1,448-kilometer) journey under Sheshbazzar (1:8), the officially appointed leader, and Zerubbabel his nephew (3:2), who was probably the one to whom the Jews looked as leader. With great enthusiasm the Jews rebuilt the altar of sacrifice and resumed the observance of the traditional feasts (vv 1-6), revealing both a sense of stewardship (2:68-69) and careful attention to the requirements of the Law (3:2-4). Soon after, work on the second temple commenced—the materials and master craftsmen being imported from Tyre and Sidon (Ezr 3:7-9; cf. 1 Kgs 5). When the foundations were laid, the worshipers were doubtless aware that they were fulfilling God’s promise through Jeremiah (Ezr 3:10-11; cf. Jer 33:10-11). But their high hopes were thwarted when there was opposition from neighboring areas (Ezr 4:4-5), selfishness in giving their own accommodations a higher priority than the Lord’s house (Hg 1:2-4, 9), and a series of crop failures that further reduced morale (1:6, 10-11; 2:17).<\/p>\nWork on the temple was not resumed until Haggai and Zechariah appeared in 520 BC<\/span>. They encouraged Zerubbabel and Joshua (Jeshua) the high priest, rebuked the people for their apathy and selfishness, and promised God’s presence and blessing upon the temple project (Hg 1:12–2:9). Zechariah’s preaching went beyond the building of the temple, including the rebuilding of Jerusalem itself (Zec 2:1-5) and its world reputation (2:1-5, 11-12; 8:22). The two leaders were addressed in ways that anticipated the Messiah (Hg 2:21-23; Zec 6:10-14). But the Persian king Darius (521–486 BC<\/span>) was not alarmed when the rebuilding operation was reported to him (Ezr 5:1–6:13) and allowed the work to continue. In February 515 BC<\/span> it was dedicated (6:14-16). The Jewish community again had a focal point for its religion, but the political situation remained difficult, with no real security in a still-shattered city.<\/p>\nThe Return of Ezra<\/p>\nThe traditional date of Ezra’s return is 458 BC<\/span> (preceding that of Nehemiah in 445 BC<\/span>). This is based on the premise that the King Artaxerxes noted in Ezra 7:7 was Artaxerxes I Longimanus (464–424 BC<\/span>) and not Artaxerxes II Mnemon (404–359 BC<\/span>). However, some scholars, allowing that the king was Artaxerxes I, but believing that Nehemiah preceded Ezra, suggest that a tens unit has dropped out of “seventh” in Ezra 7:7, and that the date of Ezra’s return should be the 27th (438 BC<\/span>) or 37th year (428 BC<\/span>) of Artaxerxes I, making Ezra’s return a few years after Nehemiah’s. While this is plausible, there remains strong support for the traditional view. It accords with the order of the two books in the OT and requires no textual emendation. It also accounts for the section in Ezra 4:7-23, where, in the reign of Artaxerxes, an abortive effort was made by a recently returned group to rebuild the wall of Jerusalem. Nehemiah 1:1-4 suggests that this was regarded as important and its abrupt termination, by a decree of the king, caused Nehemiah great distress. The probability is that Ezra, recently returned, realized that little could be done in the way of major religious reformation until Jerusalem was secure, but in attempting to rebuild the wall he exceeded his mandate and was not able to function adequately until Nehemiah arrived, when the new security of Jerusalem allowed the great Law-reading ceremony of Nehemiah 8:1-12 to take place.<\/p>\nEzra’s ministry concerned the teaching of the Law of Moses, the Pentateuch, which had long been extant in its final form by this time. Ezra 7 shows that Artaxerxes was following the traditional Persian policy of encouraging good relationships with his subject peoples. Ezra’s appointment (Ezr 7:12) was to a state office; it has frequently been paraphrased as “Secretary of State for Jewish Religious Affairs.”<\/p>\n\nNehemiah’s Return and Ministry<\/p>\nHanani and others (Neh 1:1-3) informed Nehemiah of the complete failure of a recent attempt to rebuild the wall, probably that recorded in Ezra 4:7-23, and sought his mediation before the very king who had authorized the decree that compelled work on the wall to cease. A friend in high places was vital, and Nehemiah, a trusted and influential member of the court (Neh 1:11), was approached for this delicate and dangerous task. Nehemiah 1:4–2:8 shows how well he prepared for and seized his opportunity. His appointment as the governor of Judah (5:14) involved the removal of this area from the control of the governor of Samaria, which accounts for the unrelenting hostility of Sanballat (2:19; 4:1). The evidence of Nehemiah 3 suggests that the extent of Judah at this time was limited, probably not reaching as far north as Bethel or as far south as Hebron. Nehemiah was faced with opposition that included ridicule (2:19; 4:1-3), armed force (4:8, 11), discouragement (v 10), internal economic problems (5:1-18), intrigue (6:1-2), intimidation, and blackmail (vv 5-14). In spite of these obstacles, the wall was completed in the incredibly brief period of 52 days (v 15).<\/p>\nIn addition to this monumental achievement, Nehemiah completely reorganized the social and economic life of Jerusalem, dealing with alienated mortgages, excessive interest rates (Neh 5:1-13), mixed marriages (10:30; 13:23-30), Sabbath observance (10:31; 13:15-21), and temple supplies (10:32-40; 13:10-13). Almost certainly, it was this political and economic security that allowed Ezra, who probably arrived 13 years earlier, to proceed with his great religious reformation based on the Law. Nehemiah’s book, usually called the “Nehemiah Memoirs,” was probably presented by him in the temple as a “votive offering” (as indicated by the form of 5:19; 13:14, 22, 31).<\/p>\nThe Remainder of the Persian Period<\/p>\nPersian control, which probably centered on Lachish, was traditionally mild, except where her interests were directly threatened. There is no evidence of any major discontent in Judah, which enjoyed a considerable degree of autonomy. The Phoenician revolt of 351 BC<\/span>, which took Artaxerxes III (359–338 BC<\/span>) three years to subdue, was the only serious disturbance in the area. While Artaxerxes deported some Jews to Hyrcania, southeast of the Caspian Sea, that was probably a precautionary measure, and Judah does not appear to have been greatly involved in the revolt. The Jerusalem priests were allowed to mint their own coinage and levy a temple tax. Under the wider influence of the Persian Empire, Hebrew gradually fell out of popular usage as a spoken language, being replaced by Aramaic. As the international stature of Greece increased, so the influence of Hellenism began to be felt, even in Judah.<\/p>\nReligious Features of the Postexilic Period<\/p>\n<h5>The Decline of Prophecy<\/h5>\nThere were three main reasons for this:<\/p>\n1. The prophetic movement as a whole became discredited after Jerusalem fell in 586 BC<\/span>. The large number of popular cult prophets who had foretold a sudden end to the Babylonian oppression (e.g., Jer 28:1-4) were proved decisively wrong. The suspicion that henceforth became attached to prophecy was increased further in the Persian period, when large numbers of itinerant “prophets” of various religions traveled widely. Zechariah 13:2-6 shows the stern measures advocated against such false prophets and fortune-tellers.<\/p>\n<li>2. There was a markedly different historical situation. The chastened remnant that survived had turned away from the blatant apostasy that characterized the preexilic period, so that the prophetic condemnation was not required with the same urgency. The temple and the Law had acquired a new prominence, and postexilic prophecy generally was concerned either with the rebuilding of the temple (e.g., Haggai and Zechariah) or the purification of its cult (e.g., Malachi). Once this goal had been realized, the role of the prophet was diminished. Another historical factor was the relatively large number of priests who returned from captivity, doubtless encouraged by the prospect of serving in the rebuilt temple. The main need at this time was for the priest, who revealed God’s will on the basis of the Law.<\/li>\n<li>3. There was an increasing stress on the transcendence of God, caused partly by an emphasis upon priestly mediation and partly by a fear of God that resulted from the recent judgment. The apocalyptic movement, with its emphasis on angelic intermediaries between humans and a transcendent God, encouraged this tendency. Correspondingly, the prophetic appeal for a personal, moral walk with God weakened.<\/li>\n<h5>The Rise of the Synagogue<\/h5>\nSome type of local worship, independent of the temple and its sacrifices, must have developed in the Captivity, with the Law increasingly occupying a dominant position. Later on, the prophetic books were read and expounded, but the primary stress was always on the Law. This mode of worship later took root in the homeland, and the synagogue gradually developed into the focal point of the community for social relationships, education, and worship. It facilitated the worldwide continuance and expansion of the Jewish faith, independent of Jerusalem.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Chronology of the Bible (Old Testament); Diaspora of the Jews; Ezra, Book of; Haggai, Book of; Israel, History of; Nehemiah, Book of; Zechariah, Book of.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>POSTEXILIC PERIOD*<\/h3>\nA period in the Jews’ history after their exile to Babylon. This period extends from 539–c. 331 BC<\/span>.<\/p>\nPreview<\/p>\n• The Biblical Perspective<\/p>\n• The Collapse of the Babylonian Empire<\/p>\n• The Policy of Persia<\/p>\n• The Return from Exile<\/p>\n• The Return of Ezra<\/p>\n• Nehemiah’s Return and Ministry<\/p>\n• The Remainder of the Persian Period<\/p>\n• Religious Features of the Postexilic Period<\/p>\nThe Biblical Perspective<\/p>\nThe books that specifically cover the history of the postexilic or Persian period are Ezra, Nehemiah, Haggai, and Zechariah. These cover a period of over a century, only a portion of which is dealt with in detail, as the following table shows:<\/p>\n\nThe Collapse of the Babylonian Empire<\/p>\nThis occurred with dramatic suddenness, largely because of internal resistance to the policies of the last Babylonian king, Nabonidus (555–539 BC<\/span>). His neglect of the traditional Babylonian deity, Marduk, in favor of the moon god, Sin, was particularly resented. Nabonidus lived in Taima during the last decade of his reign, refusing to enter Babylon, where his son Belshazzar ruled as virtual king, as noted in Daniel 5. Babylon fell to the Persians in October 538 BC<\/span> and the entire empire passed into their control.<\/p>\nThe Policy of Persia<\/p>\nThis is well documented through contemporary inscriptions, notably the record of Cyrus, the first king of the Persian Empire (559–530 BC<\/span>), in the “Cyrus Cylinder.” A new phase in the relationship of conqueror to conquered peoples opened up, which contrasted with the policy of the Assyrian and Babylonian empires of crushing any opposition by massive force. Cyrus and his successors followed a conciliatory line, allowing exiled groups to return home, encouraging local faiths, posing as the champions of the territorial deities, and allowing local autonomy except where Persian interests were affected adversely. The cost of this operation, although considerable, must have been infinitesimal compared with that of keeping rebellious subjects under constant subjection.<\/p>\nThe new enlightened policy is reflected in the decree of Cyrus, dated 538 BC<\/span> (Ezr 1:1) and preserved in two versions. The first (vv 1-4) is clearly the official proclamation, while the second (6:3-5) is a more prosaic memorandum dealing with building specifications, a record of Cyrus’s commitment stored in the official archives (vv 1-2). The critical tendency to question the narrative in Ezra 1, especially on the score of the favorable references to the God of Israel and the vast financial support promised, has been nullified by the archaeological evidence, which shows an identical policy elsewhere. The Cyrus Cylinder, for example, notes, “The gods who live within them [i.e., the cities] I returned to their places. . . . All of their inhabitants I collected and restored to their dwelling places.”<\/p>\nIn Judah itself there is no evidence for any warfare in this period, which suggests that the Persian takeover of the area was nonviolent. Judah was incorporated into the fifth Persian province, which included the entire area west of the Euphrates River (Ezr 7:21). It was no more than a minor subdistrict, governed through Samaria.<\/p>\nThe Return from Exile<\/p>\nThe continuance of a large Jewish community in Babylonia shows that not all the Jews responded to the invitation to return to their homeland, probably because of the prosperity acquired in exile. But 42,360 dedicated Jews (Ezr 2:64) braved the challenge of a four-month 900-mile (1,448-kilometer) journey under Sheshbazzar (1:8), the officially appointed leader, and Zerubbabel his nephew (3:2), who was probably the one to whom the Jews looked as leader. With great enthusiasm the Jews rebuilt the altar of sacrifice and resumed the observance of the traditional feasts (vv 1-6), revealing both a sense of stewardship (2:68-69) and careful attention to the requirements of the Law (3:2-4). Soon after, work on the second temple commenced—the materials and master craftsmen being imported from Tyre and Sidon (Ezr 3:7-9; cf. 1 Kgs 5). When the foundations were laid, the worshipers were doubtless aware that they were fulfilling God’s promise through Jeremiah (Ezr 3:10-11; cf. Jer 33:10-11). But their high hopes were thwarted when there was opposition from neighboring areas (Ezr 4:4-5), selfishness in giving their own accommodations a higher priority than the Lord’s house (Hg 1:2-4, 9), and a series of crop failures that further reduced morale (1:6, 10-11; 2:17).<\/p>\nWork on the temple was not resumed until Haggai and Zechariah appeared in 520 BC<\/span>. They encouraged Zerubbabel and Joshua (Jeshua) the high priest, rebuked the people for their apathy and selfishness, and promised God’s presence and blessing upon the temple project (Hg 1:12–2:9). Zechariah’s preaching went beyond the building of the temple, including the rebuilding of Jerusalem itself (Zec 2:1-5) and its world reputation (2:1-5, 11-12; 8:22). The two leaders were addressed in ways that anticipated the Messiah (Hg 2:21-23; Zec 6:10-14). But the Persian king Darius (521–486 BC<\/span>) was not alarmed when the rebuilding operation was reported to him (Ezr 5:1–6:13) and allowed the work to continue. In February 515 BC<\/span> it was dedicated (6:14-16). The Jewish community again had a focal point for its religion, but the political situation remained difficult, with no real security in a still-shattered city.<\/p>\nThe Return of Ezra<\/p>\nThe traditional date of Ezra’s return is 458 BC<\/span> (preceding that of Nehemiah in 445 BC<\/span>). This is based on the premise that the King Artaxerxes noted in Ezra 7:7 was Artaxerxes I Longimanus (464–424 BC<\/span>) and not Artaxerxes II Mnemon (404–359 BC<\/span>). However, some scholars, allowing that the king was Artaxerxes I, but believing that Nehemiah preceded Ezra, suggest that a tens unit has dropped out of “seventh” in Ezra 7:7, and that the date of Ezra’s return should be the 27th (438 BC<\/span>) or 37th year (428 BC<\/span>) of Artaxerxes I, making Ezra’s return a few years after Nehemiah’s. While this is plausible, there remains strong support for the traditional view. It accords with the order of the two books in the OT and requires no textual emendation. It also accounts for the section in Ezra 4:7-23, where, in the reign of Artaxerxes, an abortive effort was made by a recently returned group to rebuild the wall of Jerusalem. Nehemiah 1:1-4 suggests that this was regarded as important and its abrupt termination, by a decree of the king, caused Nehemiah great distress. The probability is that Ezra, recently returned, realized that little could be done in the way of major religious reformation until Jerusalem was secure, but in attempting to rebuild the wall he exceeded his mandate and was not able to function adequately until Nehemiah arrived, when the new security of Jerusalem allowed the great Law-reading ceremony of Nehemiah 8:1-12 to take place.<\/p>\nEzra’s ministry concerned the teaching of the Law of Moses, the Pentateuch, which had long been extant in its final form by this time. Ezra 7 shows that Artaxerxes was following the traditional Persian policy of encouraging good relationships with his subject peoples. Ezra’s appointment (Ezr 7:12) was to a state office; it has frequently been paraphrased as “Secretary of State for Jewish Religious Affairs.”<\/p>\n\nNehemiah’s Return and Ministry<\/p>\nHanani and others (Neh 1:1-3) informed Nehemiah of the complete failure of a recent attempt to rebuild the wall, probably that recorded in Ezra 4:7-23, and sought his mediation before the very king who had authorized the decree that compelled work on the wall to cease. A friend in high places was vital, and Nehemiah, a trusted and influential member of the court (Neh 1:11), was approached for this delicate and dangerous task. Nehemiah 1:4–2:8 shows how well he prepared for and seized his opportunity. His appointment as the governor of Judah (5:14) involved the removal of this area from the control of the governor of Samaria, which accounts for the unrelenting hostility of Sanballat (2:19; 4:1). The evidence of Nehemiah 3 suggests that the extent of Judah at this time was limited, probably not reaching as far north as Bethel or as far south as Hebron. Nehemiah was faced with opposition that included ridicule (2:19; 4:1-3), armed force (4:8, 11), discouragement (v 10), internal economic problems (5:1-18), intrigue (6:1-2), intimidation, and blackmail (vv 5-14). In spite of these obstacles, the wall was completed in the incredibly brief period of 52 days (v 15).<\/p>\nIn addition to this monumental achievement, Nehemiah completely reorganized the social and economic life of Jerusalem, dealing with alienated mortgages, excessive interest rates (Neh 5:1-13), mixed marriages (10:30; 13:23-30), Sabbath observance (10:31; 13:15-21), and temple supplies (10:32-40; 13:10-13). Almost certainly, it was this political and economic security that allowed Ezra, who probably arrived 13 years earlier, to proceed with his great religious reformation based on the Law. Nehemiah’s book, usually called the “Nehemiah Memoirs,” was probably presented by him in the temple as a “votive offering” (as indicated by the form of 5:19; 13:14, 22, 31).<\/p>\nThe Remainder of the Persian Period<\/p>\nPersian control, which probably centered on Lachish, was traditionally mild, except where her interests were directly threatened. There is no evidence of any major discontent in Judah, which enjoyed a considerable degree of autonomy. The Phoenician revolt of 351 BC<\/span>, which took Artaxerxes III (359–338 BC<\/span>) three years to subdue, was the only serious disturbance in the area. While Artaxerxes deported some Jews to Hyrcania, southeast of the Caspian Sea, that was probably a precautionary measure, and Judah does not appear to have been greatly involved in the revolt. The Jerusalem priests were allowed to mint their own coinage and levy a temple tax. Under the wider influence of the Persian Empire, Hebrew gradually fell out of popular usage as a spoken language, being replaced by Aramaic. As the international stature of Greece increased, so the influence of Hellenism began to be felt, even in Judah.<\/p>\nReligious Features of the Postexilic Period<\/p>\n<h5>The Decline of Prophecy<\/h5>\nThere were three main reasons for this:<\/p>\n1. The prophetic movement as a whole became discredited after Jerusalem fell in 586 BC<\/span>. The large number of popular cult prophets who had foretold a sudden end to the Babylonian oppression (e.g., Jer 28:1-4) were proved decisively wrong. The suspicion that henceforth became attached to prophecy was increased further in the Persian period, when large numbers of itinerant “prophets” of various religions traveled widely. Zechariah 13:2-6 shows the stern measures advocated against such false prophets and fortune-tellers.<\/p>\n<li>2. There was a markedly different historical situation. The chastened remnant that survived had turned away from the blatant apostasy that characterized the preexilic period, so that the prophetic condemnation was not required with the same urgency. The temple and the Law had acquired a new prominence, and postexilic prophecy generally was concerned either with the rebuilding of the temple (e.g., Haggai and Zechariah) or the purification of its cult (e.g., Malachi). Once this goal had been realized, the role of the prophet was diminished. Another historical factor was the relatively large number of priests who returned from captivity, doubtless encouraged by the prospect of serving in the rebuilt temple. The main need at this time was for the priest, who revealed God’s will on the basis of the Law.<\/li>\n<li>3. There was an increasing stress on the transcendence of God, caused partly by an emphasis upon priestly mediation and partly by a fear of God that resulted from the recent judgment. The apocalyptic movement, with its emphasis on angelic intermediaries between humans and a transcendent God, encouraged this tendency. Correspondingly, the prophetic appeal for a personal, moral walk with God weakened.<\/li>\n<h5>The Rise of the Synagogue<\/h5>\nSome type of local worship, independent of the temple and its sacrifices, must have developed in the Captivity, with the Law increasingly occupying a dominant position. Later on, the prophetic books were read and expounded, but the primary stress was always on the Law. This mode of worship later took root in the homeland, and the synagogue gradually developed into the focal point of the community for social relationships, education, and worship. It facilitated the worldwide continuance and expansion of the Jewish faith, independent of Jerusalem.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Chronology of the Bible (Old Testament); Diaspora of the Jews; Ezra, Book of; Haggai, Book of; Israel, History of; Nehemiah, Book of; Zechariah, Book of.<\/p>","summary_ro":"POSTEXILIC PERIOD* A period in the Jews’ history after their exile to Babylon. This period extends from 539–c. 331 BC. Preview • The Biblical Perspective • The Collapse of the Babylonian Empire • The Policy of Persia • The Return from Exile • The Return of Ezra • Nehemiah’s Return and Ministry • The Remainder of the Persian Period • Religious Features of the Postexilic Period The Biblical Perspective The books that specifically cover the history of the postexilic or Persian period are Ezra, N...","summary_en":"POSTEXILIC PERIOD* A period in the Jews’ history after their exile to Babylon. This period extends from 539–c. 331 BC. Preview • The Biblical Perspective • The Collapse of the Babylonian Empire • The Policy of Persia • The Return from Exile • The Return of Ezra • Nehemiah’s Return and Ministry • The Remainder of the Persian Period • Religious Features of the Postexilic Period The Biblical Perspective The books that specifically cover the history of the postexilic or Persian period are Ezra, N...","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":37491,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Tobijah","title_en":"Tobijah","content_ro":"<h3>TOBIJAH<\/h3>\n<li>1. Levite sent by King Jehoshaphat to teach the law in the cities of Judah (2 Chr 17:8).<\/li>\n<li>2. One of four men who returned from Babylon to Jerusalem with gold and silver used to make a crown for the high priest Joshua (nlt<\/span> “Jeshua,” Zec 6:10, 14).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>TOBIJAH<\/h3>\n<li>1. Levite sent by King Jehoshaphat to teach the law in the cities of Judah (2 Chr 17:8).<\/li>\n<li>2. One of four men who returned from Babylon to Jerusalem with gold and silver used to make a crown for the high priest Joshua (nlt<\/span> “Jeshua,” Zec 6:10, 14).<\/li>","summary_ro":"TOBIJAH 1. Levite sent by King Jehoshaphat to teach the law in the cities of Judah (2 Chr 17:8). 2. One of four men who returned from Babylon to Jerusalem with gold and silver used to make a crown for the high priest Joshua (nlt “Jeshua,” Zec 6:10, 14).","summary_en":"TOBIJAH 1. Levite sent by King Jehoshaphat to teach the law in the cities of Judah (2 Chr 17:8). 2. One of four men who returned from Babylon to Jerusalem with gold and silver used to make a crown for the high priest Joshua (nlt “Jeshua,” Zec 6:10, 14).","source":"Articles\/T.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":39178,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Zephaniah (Person)","title_en":"Zephaniah (Person)","content_ro":"<h3>ZEPHANIAH (Person<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<li>1. Priest during the reign of Zedekiah who was executed at Riblah by the king of Babylon (2 Kgs 25:18; Jer 52:24). He was the second priest under Seraiah the chief priest and served as Zedekiah’s envoy to Jeremiah during the period prior to the fall of Jerusalem (Jer 21:1; 29:25-29; 37:3).<\/li>\n<li>2. Ancestor of Heman who was among the Kohathite Levites whom David placed in charge of the service of music in the house of the Lord (1 Chr 6:33-36). Zephaniah is listed as the father of Azariah and the son of Tahath.<\/li>\n<li>3. Author of the book of Zephaniah (Zep 1:1). Though little is known about Zephaniah, it is possible that his ancestor Hezekiah is the same as the king by that name. See<\/em> Zephaniah, Book of.<\/li>\n<li>4. Father of Josiah in whose house Joshua was crowned as high priest (Zec 6:10-14).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>ZEPHANIAH (Person<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<li>1. Priest during the reign of Zedekiah who was executed at Riblah by the king of Babylon (2 Kgs 25:18; Jer 52:24). He was the second priest under Seraiah the chief priest and served as Zedekiah’s envoy to Jeremiah during the period prior to the fall of Jerusalem (Jer 21:1; 29:25-29; 37:3).<\/li>\n<li>2. Ancestor of Heman who was among the Kohathite Levites whom David placed in charge of the service of music in the house of the Lord (1 Chr 6:33-36). Zephaniah is listed as the father of Azariah and the son of Tahath.<\/li>\n<li>3. Author of the book of Zephaniah (Zep 1:1). Though little is known about Zephaniah, it is possible that his ancestor Hezekiah is the same as the king by that name. See<\/em> Zephaniah, Book of.<\/li>\n<li>4. Father of Josiah in whose house Joshua was crowned as high priest (Zec 6:10-14).<\/li>","summary_ro":"ZEPHANIAH (Person) 1. Priest during the reign of Zedekiah who was executed at Riblah by the king of Babylon (2 Kgs 25:18; Jer 52:24). He was the second priest under Seraiah the chief priest and served as Zedekiah’s envoy to Jeremiah during the period prior to the fall of Jerusalem (Jer 21:1; 29:25-29; 37:3). 2. Ancestor of Heman who was among the Kohathite Levites whom David placed in charge of the service of music in the house of the Lord (1 Chr 6:33-36). Zephaniah is listed as the father of...","summary_en":"ZEPHANIAH (Person) 1. Priest during the reign of Zedekiah who was executed at Riblah by the king of Babylon (2 Kgs 25:18; Jer 52:24). He was the second priest under Seraiah the chief priest and served as Zedekiah’s envoy to Jeremiah during the period prior to the fall of Jerusalem (Jer 21:1; 29:25-29; 37:3). 2. Ancestor of Heman who was among the Kohathite Levites whom David placed in charge of the service of music in the house of the Lord (1 Chr 6:33-36). Zephaniah is listed as the father of...","source":"Articles\/Z.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":54310,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Zaharia 6:10","title_en":"Study Note: Zaharia 6:10","content_ro":"6:10<\/strong> Heldai, Tobijah, and Jedaiah<\/em> were apparently couriers designated by Jews in Babylon to carry donations to the Temple building fund.<\/p>","content_en":"6:10<\/strong> Heldai, Tobijah, and Jedaiah<\/em> were apparently couriers designated by Jews in Babylon to carry donations to the Temple building fund.<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:10 Heldai, Tobijah, and Jedaiah were apparently couriers designated by Jews in Babylon to carry donations to the Temple building fund.","summary_en":"6:10 Heldai, Tobijah, and Jedaiah were apparently couriers designated by Jews in Babylon to carry donations to the Temple building fund.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":81936,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Zaharia 6:10","title_en":"Study Note: Zaharia 6:10","content_ro":"6:10<\/strong> Heldai, Tobijah, and Jedaiah<\/em> were apparently couriers designated by Jews in Babylon to carry donations to the Temple building fund.<\/p>","content_en":"6:10<\/strong> Heldai, Tobijah, and Jedaiah<\/em> were apparently couriers designated by Jews in Babylon to carry donations to the Temple building fund.<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:10 Heldai, Tobijah, and Jedaiah were apparently couriers designated by Jews in Babylon to carry donations to the Temple building fund.","summary_en":"6:10 Heldai, Tobijah, and Jedaiah were apparently couriers designated by Jews in Babylon to carry donations to the Temple building fund.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":109562,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Zaharia 6:10","title_en":"Study Note: Zaharia 6:10","content_ro":"6:10<\/strong> Heldai, Tobijah, and Jedaiah<\/em> were apparently couriers designated by Jews in Babylon to carry donations to the Temple building fund.<\/p>","content_en":"6:10<\/strong> Heldai, Tobijah, and Jedaiah<\/em> were apparently couriers designated by Jews in Babylon to carry donations to the Temple building fund.<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:10 Heldai, Tobijah, and Jedaiah were apparently couriers designated by Jews in Babylon to carry donations to the Temple building fund.","summary_en":"6:10 Heldai, Tobijah, and Jedaiah were apparently couriers designated by Jews in Babylon to carry donations to the Temple building fund.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":137188,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Zaharia 6:10","title_en":"Study Note: Zaharia 6:10","content_ro":"6:10<\/strong> Heldai, Tobijah, and Jedaiah<\/em> were apparently couriers designated by Jews in Babylon to carry donations to the Temple building fund.<\/p>","content_en":"6:10<\/strong> Heldai, Tobijah, and Jedaiah<\/em> were apparently couriers designated by Jews in Babylon to carry donations to the Temple building fund.<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:10 Heldai, Tobijah, and Jedaiah were apparently couriers designated by Jews in Babylon to carry donations to the Temple building fund.","summary_en":"6:10 Heldai, Tobijah, and Jedaiah were apparently couriers designated by Jews in Babylon to carry donations to the Temple building fund.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"11":[{"id":8164,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Crown","title_en":"Crown","content_ro":"<h3>CROWN<\/h3>\nHeadpiece symbolizing honor or high office. In addition to using the word metaphorically, the OT refers to three kinds of crowns. One type of crown was worn by the high priest and Hebrew kings. The high priest’s “holy crown” was a gold plate engraved with the words “Holy to the Lord” fastened to the front of a turban (Ex 29:6; 39:30). It symbolized his consecration as the people’s representative before God. The Hebrew kings wore a crown light enough to be worn into battle (2 Sm 1:10)—perhaps a narrow band of silk studded with jewels. Like the high priest’s, the king’s crown also indicated a divinely appointed office (2 Kgs 11:12; Pss 89:39; 132:18). A second type of crown was a massive gold and jeweled symbol of office worn by pagan kings and idols (2 Sm 12:30; Est 1:11). The prophet Zechariah placed such a crown on Joshua the high priest to indicate the union of royal and priestly functions (Zec 6:11, 14). A third type of crown was a wreath of flowers used at a banquet to symbolize joy and celebration (Sg 3:11; Is 28:1; Wisd of Sol 2:8).<\/p>\nThe word “crown” is used metaphorically to indicate rule or royalty (Na 3:17, kjv<\/span>), glory or honor (Jb 19:9; Ps 8:5; Ez 16:12), joy (Ez 23:42), or pride (Jb 31:36; Is 28:3).<\/p>\nIn the NT the most common word for “crown” means a laurel wreath worn at banquets or a prize given as a civic or military honor. The apostle Paul alluded to its use as an athletic prize when he urged Christians to be disciplined in striving for a “crown” that would not wither (1 Cor 9:25; 2 Tm 2:5). Paul regarded his converts as his “joy and crown” (Phil 4:1; 1 Thes 2:19).<\/p>\nA victor’s wreath symbolizes the eternal life inherited by Christians who have persevered (Jas 1:12; 1 Pt 5:4; Rv 2:10; 3:11). In the book of Revelation the victories of the locusts (9:7), the woman (12:1), and Christ (6:2; 14:14) are symbolized by laurel crowns. A different Greek word, meaning a royal crown, is used for the diadems on the heads of the dragon (12:3), the beast from the sea (13:1), and Christ (19:12).<\/p>\nJesus’ crown of thorns was a circlet formed from a prickly shrub—an ironic parody of a victor’s wreath (Mk 15:17-18). Its combination with the robe, scepter (Mt 27:27-29), and satirical inscription on the cross that Jesus was “the King of the Jews” (Mk 15:26), were all meant to mock him as a defeated messianic aspirant.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>CROWN<\/h3>\nHeadpiece symbolizing honor or high office. In addition to using the word metaphorically, the OT refers to three kinds of crowns. One type of crown was worn by the high priest and Hebrew kings. The high priest’s “holy crown” was a gold plate engraved with the words “Holy to the Lord” fastened to the front of a turban (Ex 29:6; 39:30). It symbolized his consecration as the people’s representative before God. The Hebrew kings wore a crown light enough to be worn into battle (2 Sm 1:10)—perhaps a narrow band of silk studded with jewels. Like the high priest’s, the king’s crown also indicated a divinely appointed office (2 Kgs 11:12; Pss 89:39; 132:18). A second type of crown was a massive gold and jeweled symbol of office worn by pagan kings and idols (2 Sm 12:30; Est 1:11). The prophet Zechariah placed such a crown on Joshua the high priest to indicate the union of royal and priestly functions (Zec 6:11, 14). A third type of crown was a wreath of flowers used at a banquet to symbolize joy and celebration (Sg 3:11; Is 28:1; Wisd of Sol 2:8).<\/p>\nThe word “crown” is used metaphorically to indicate rule or royalty (Na 3:17, kjv<\/span>), glory or honor (Jb 19:9; Ps 8:5; Ez 16:12), joy (Ez 23:42), or pride (Jb 31:36; Is 28:3).<\/p>\nIn the NT the most common word for “crown” means a laurel wreath worn at banquets or a prize given as a civic or military honor. The apostle Paul alluded to its use as an athletic prize when he urged Christians to be disciplined in striving for a “crown” that would not wither (1 Cor 9:25; 2 Tm 2:5). Paul regarded his converts as his “joy and crown” (Phil 4:1; 1 Thes 2:19).<\/p>\nA victor’s wreath symbolizes the eternal life inherited by Christians who have persevered (Jas 1:12; 1 Pt 5:4; Rv 2:10; 3:11). In the book of Revelation the victories of the locusts (9:7), the woman (12:1), and Christ (6:2; 14:14) are symbolized by laurel crowns. A different Greek word, meaning a royal crown, is used for the diadems on the heads of the dragon (12:3), the beast from the sea (13:1), and Christ (19:12).<\/p>\nJesus’ crown of thorns was a circlet formed from a prickly shrub—an ironic parody of a victor’s wreath (Mk 15:17-18). Its combination with the robe, scepter (Mt 27:27-29), and satirical inscription on the cross that Jesus was “the King of the Jews” (Mk 15:26), were all meant to mock him as a defeated messianic aspirant.<\/p>","summary_ro":"CROWN Headpiece symbolizing honor or high office. In addition to using the word metaphorically, the OT refers to three kinds of crowns. One type of crown was worn by the high priest and Hebrew kings. The high priest’s “holy crown” was a gold plate engraved with the words “Holy to the Lord” fastened to the front of a turban (Ex 29:6; 39:30). It symbolized his consecration as the people’s representative before God. The Hebrew kings wore a crown light enough to be worn into battle (2 Sm 1:10)—pe...","summary_en":"CROWN Headpiece symbolizing honor or high office. In addition to using the word metaphorically, the OT refers to three kinds of crowns. One type of crown was worn by the high priest and Hebrew kings. The high priest’s “holy crown” was a gold plate engraved with the words “Holy to the Lord” fastened to the front of a turban (Ex 29:6; 39:30). It symbolized his consecration as the people’s representative before God. The Hebrew kings wore a crown light enough to be worn into battle (2 Sm 1:10)—pe...","source":"Articles\/C.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":19342,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Jeshua (Person)","title_en":"Jeshua (Person)","content_ro":"<h3>JESHUA (Person<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<li>1. Levite and head of the ninth of 24 divisions of priests formed during David’s reign (1 Chr 24:11). He was perhaps the forefather of 973 descendants who returned with Zerubbabel to Judah following the exile (Ezr 2:36; Neh 7:39).<\/li>\n<li>2. One of the Levites assisting Kore in the distribution of the offerings among his fellow priests living in the priestly cities of Judah during the days of King Hezekiah (2 Chr 31:15).<\/li>\n<li>3. Son of Jozadak (alternately “Jehozadak”) the high priest. Jozadak was deported by Nebuchadnezzar to Babylon (1 Chr 6:14-15). Jeshua, Jozadak’s successor as high priest, returned with Zerubbabel to Jerusalem after the exile (Ezr 2:2; Neh 7:7; 12:1). Upon arrival, he led his fellow priests in making the altar of God (Ezr 3:2; 5:2) and eventually headed up a construction program to rebuild the temple (3:8). Confirmed as God’s leader by Haggai and Zechariah (Hg 1:1-14; 2:2, 4; Zec 3:1-9; 6:11), Jeshua (alternately “Joshua” in these passages) resolutely resisted attempts by adversaries to infiltrate his people and hinder the work on the temple (Ezr 4:3). Joiakim was Jeshua’s son and successor as high priest, serving in the days of Nehemiah and Ezra (Neh 12:12, 26).<\/li>\n<li>4. Descendant of Pahath-moab and the forefather of a family of Jews who returned with Zerubbabel to Judah following the Babylonian captivity (Ezr 2:6; Neh 7:11).<\/li>\n<li>5. Father of a family of Levites who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel (Ezr 2:40; Neh 7:43; 12:8). He and his sons were responsible for overseeing the workmen building the temple (Ezr 3:9; this Jeshua may be identical with #3 above).<\/li>\n<li>6. Levite and Jozabad’s father. Jozabad assisted Meremoth, Eleazar, and Noadiah with taking inventory of the temple’s precious metals and vessels during the days of Ezra (Ezr 8:33).<\/li>\n<li>7. Ezer’s father. Ezer was ruler of Mizpah, who repaired a section of the Jerusalem wall during the days of Nehemiah (Neh 3:19).<\/li>\n<li>8. Azaniah’s son and a leader of the Levites in the days of Ezra and Nehemiah. Jeshua assisted Ezra with teaching the people the law (Neh 8:7) and later set his seal on Ezra’s covenant (10:9).<\/li>\n<li>9. Alternate spelling of Joshua, the son of Nun, in Nehemiah 8:17. See<\/em> Joshua (Person) #1.<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>JESHUA (Person<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<li>1. Levite and head of the ninth of 24 divisions of priests formed during David’s reign (1 Chr 24:11). He was perhaps the forefather of 973 descendants who returned with Zerubbabel to Judah following the exile (Ezr 2:36; Neh 7:39).<\/li>\n<li>2. One of the Levites assisting Kore in the distribution of the offerings among his fellow priests living in the priestly cities of Judah during the days of King Hezekiah (2 Chr 31:15).<\/li>\n<li>3. Son of Jozadak (alternately “Jehozadak”) the high priest. Jozadak was deported by Nebuchadnezzar to Babylon (1 Chr 6:14-15). Jeshua, Jozadak’s successor as high priest, returned with Zerubbabel to Jerusalem after the exile (Ezr 2:2; Neh 7:7; 12:1). Upon arrival, he led his fellow priests in making the altar of God (Ezr 3:2; 5:2) and eventually headed up a construction program to rebuild the temple (3:8). Confirmed as God’s leader by Haggai and Zechariah (Hg 1:1-14; 2:2, 4; Zec 3:1-9; 6:11), Jeshua (alternately “Joshua” in these passages) resolutely resisted attempts by adversaries to infiltrate his people and hinder the work on the temple (Ezr 4:3). Joiakim was Jeshua’s son and successor as high priest, serving in the days of Nehemiah and Ezra (Neh 12:12, 26).<\/li>\n<li>4. Descendant of Pahath-moab and the forefather of a family of Jews who returned with Zerubbabel to Judah following the Babylonian captivity (Ezr 2:6; Neh 7:11).<\/li>\n<li>5. Father of a family of Levites who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel (Ezr 2:40; Neh 7:43; 12:8). He and his sons were responsible for overseeing the workmen building the temple (Ezr 3:9; this Jeshua may be identical with #3 above).<\/li>\n<li>6. Levite and Jozabad’s father. Jozabad assisted Meremoth, Eleazar, and Noadiah with taking inventory of the temple’s precious metals and vessels during the days of Ezra (Ezr 8:33).<\/li>\n<li>7. Ezer’s father. Ezer was ruler of Mizpah, who repaired a section of the Jerusalem wall during the days of Nehemiah (Neh 3:19).<\/li>\n<li>8. Azaniah’s son and a leader of the Levites in the days of Ezra and Nehemiah. Jeshua assisted Ezra with teaching the people the law (Neh 8:7) and later set his seal on Ezra’s covenant (10:9).<\/li>\n<li>9. Alternate spelling of Joshua, the son of Nun, in Nehemiah 8:17. See<\/em> Joshua (Person) #1.<\/li>","summary_ro":"JESHUA (Person) 1. Levite and head of the ninth of 24 divisions of priests formed during David’s reign (1 Chr 24:11). He was perhaps the forefather of 973 descendants who returned with Zerubbabel to Judah following the exile (Ezr 2:36; Neh 7:39). 2. One of the Levites assisting Kore in the distribution of the offerings among his fellow priests living in the priestly cities of Judah during the days of King Hezekiah (2 Chr 31:15). 3. Son of Jozadak (alternately “Jehozadak”) the high priest. Joz...","summary_en":"JESHUA (Person) 1. Levite and head of the ninth of 24 divisions of priests formed during David’s reign (1 Chr 24:11). He was perhaps the forefather of 973 descendants who returned with Zerubbabel to Judah following the exile (Ezr 2:36; Neh 7:39). 2. One of the Levites assisting Kore in the distribution of the offerings among his fellow priests living in the priestly cities of Judah during the days of King Hezekiah (2 Chr 31:15). 3. Son of Jozadak (alternately “Jehozadak”) the high priest. Joz...","source":"Articles\/J.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":20529,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Josedech*","title_en":"Josedech*","content_ro":"<h3>JOSEDECH*<\/h3>\nKJV spelling of Jozadak, Joshua’s father, in Haggai 1:1, 12, 14; 2:2, 4; and Zechariah 6:11. See<\/em> Jozadak.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>JOSEDECH*<\/h3>\nKJV spelling of Jozadak, Joshua’s father, in Haggai 1:1, 12, 14; 2:2, 4; and Zechariah 6:11. See<\/em> Jozadak.<\/p>","summary_ro":"JOSEDECH* KJV spelling of Jozadak, Joshua’s father, in Haggai 1:1, 12, 14; 2:2, 4; and Zechariah 6:11. See Jozadak.","summary_en":"JOSEDECH* KJV spelling of Jozadak, Joshua’s father, in Haggai 1:1, 12, 14; 2:2, 4; and Zechariah 6:11. See Jozadak.","source":"Articles\/J.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":20652,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Joshua (Person)","title_en":"Joshua (Person)","content_ro":"<h3>JOSHUA (Person<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<li>1. Son of Nun, Moses’ assistant and successor, and the military leader whom God chose to lead the Israelites in the conquest of Canaan (Nm 13:16, kjv<\/span> “Jehoshua”; also spelled “Jehoshuah” in 1 Chr 7:27 and “Jeshua” in Neh 8:17).<\/li>\nEarly in the exodus, Joshua was sent by Moses to fight against the Amalekites (Ex 17:8-15). Joshua defeated Amalek, and Moses wrote of the event and built an altar that he called “The Lord<\/span> Is My Banner” (v 15).<\/p>\nWhen Moses sent 12 men from Kadesh-barnea to spy out the land of Canaan, Joshua represented the tribe of Ephraim (Nm 13:8). At that time Joshua was called Hoshea, but Moses changed his name to Joshua (vv 8, 16). Joshua and Caleb were the only two spies to bring back an affirmative report concerning an Israelite invasion of the land (14:6-9). Consequently, of all the adult Israelite males to leave Egypt in the exodus, only these two crossed the Jordan River and entered the Promised Land (v 30).<\/p>\nWhen the Lord announced to Moses his impending death, Moses asked about his successor, and the Lord appointed Joshua to that position (Nm 27:12-23). After the death of Moses on Mt Nebo, Joshua’s leadership was confirmed (34:17), and the Lord told Joshua to go over the Jordan and take the land (Jos 1:1-2).<\/p>\nFrom the Transjordan, Joshua sent two men across the river to reconnoiter Jericho (ch 2). In Jericho they were concealed by Rahab and later safely made their way back to Joshua to report that the people of the land were fainthearted because of the Israelites (vv 23-24).<\/p>\nWhen Israel had crossed the river, the Lord instructed Joshua to set up a circle of 12 stones at Gilgal to commemorate this passage (Jos 4:1-7). The Lord then commanded all of the males who had been born during the exodus to be circumcised (5:2-9).<\/p>\nWhile camped at Gilgal, near Jericho, Joshua was confronted by a man with a drawn sword. When Joshua challenged the man, he learned that it was the Lord, who told him to remove his shoes, for the ground was holy (Jos 5:13-15). The Lord gave Joshua directions for the destruction of Jericho; these were followed explicitly and the city fell (ch 6). The attack on Ai ended in temporary defeat, until the matter of Achan’s sin was discovered and judged (7:10-26). Then Ai was taken and destroyed.<\/p>\nJoshua built an altar on Mt Ebal (Jos 8:30-32), and the blessings and curses were read, as commanded by God through Moses (Jos 8:33-35; cf. Dt 27–28).<\/p>\nBecause the Israelites failed to ask direction from the Lord (Jos 9:14), Joshua was tricked into making a covenant of peace with the Hivites of Gibeon. Joshua then reduced them to doing menial tasks in Israel (vv 21-27).<\/p>\nThe kings of the various Canaanite cities allied themselves against the Israelite threat (Jos 9:1-2) and a league of five Amorite cities (Jerusalem, Hebron, Jarmuth, Lachish, and Eglon) attacked Gibeon (10:1-5). The Gibeonites appealed to Joshua for help; he responded quickly against this Amorite confederation and routed the Amorite forces. It was on this occasion that Joshua commanded the sun and the moon to stand still so that Israel could have more time to defeat these adversaries (vv 12-14). This victory was followed by a series of successful attacks on enemy towns (vv 28-43).<\/p>\nA northern alliance headed by Jabin, king of Hazor, was the next opposition (Jos 11:1-5). The Lord assured Joshua of success, and the city of Hazor was taken and destroyed by fire (vv 6-15). Joshua 11:23 summarizes the conquest of the land, and chapter 12 enumerates the kings who were conquered.<\/p>\nJoshua was now old, and the Lord told him that much land remained to be possessed. These territories are listed, but the Lord directed Joshua to proceed with the division of the land among the nine and a half tribes (Jos 13:7; cf. 13:8–18:28). Joshua himself was given the city he asked for, Timnath-serah, in the hill country of Ephraim, which he rebuilt and settled (19:49-50).<\/p>\nThe Lord told Joshua to appoint cities of refuge to which a person guilty of manslaughter could flee to escape the avenger of blood (Jos 20). Then the Levites came to Eleazar the priest and Joshua to request that they be given their cities, as the Lord had commanded through Moses (21:1-42).<\/p>\n\nIn his advanced years Joshua summoned all Israel and solemnly charged them to continue in faithfulness to the Lord (Jos 23). Finally, he called all Israel to Shechem, where he gave them his farewell message. He summed up the Lord’s dealings with them from the time of Abraham and again challenged them to serve the Lord, putting before them the well-known choice and decision: “Choose today whom you will serve. . . . As for me and my family, we will serve the Lord<\/span>” (24:15, nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nJoshua died at the age of 110 years and was buried in the land of his inheritance at Timnath-serah (Jos 24:29-30; the parallel account in Jgs 2:8-9 reads “Timnath-heres,” nlt<\/span> mg). Israel served the Lord during all the days of Joshua and the elders who outlived him (Jos 24:31; Jgs 2:7).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Conquest and Allotment of the Land; Israel, History of; Joshua, Book of.<\/p>\n<li>2. Inhabitant of Beth-shemesh. It was his grainfield into which the cart carrying the ark sent by the Philistines came. It stopped by a large stone which was then used to commemorate this event (1 Sm 6:14, 18).<\/li>\n<li>3. Governor of Jerusalem during King Josiah’s reign (2 Kgs 23:8).<\/li>\n<li>4. Jozadak’s son and high priest during the days of Zerubbabel in postexilic Jerusalem (Hg 1:1-14; 2:2-4; Zec 3:1-9; 6:11; nlt<\/span> “Jeshua”). Joshua is alternately called Jeshua in Ezra and Nehemiah. See<\/em> Jeshua (Person) #3.<\/li>\n<li>5. Eliezer’s son and an ancestor of Jesus Christ (Lk 3:29). See<\/em> Genealogy of Jesus Christ.<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>JOSHUA (Person<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<li>1. Son of Nun, Moses’ assistant and successor, and the military leader whom God chose to lead the Israelites in the conquest of Canaan (Nm 13:16, kjv<\/span> “Jehoshua”; also spelled “Jehoshuah” in 1 Chr 7:27 and “Jeshua” in Neh 8:17).<\/li>\nEarly in the exodus, Joshua was sent by Moses to fight against the Amalekites (Ex 17:8-15). Joshua defeated Amalek, and Moses wrote of the event and built an altar that he called “The Lord<\/span> Is My Banner” (v 15).<\/p>\nWhen Moses sent 12 men from Kadesh-barnea to spy out the land of Canaan, Joshua represented the tribe of Ephraim (Nm 13:8). At that time Joshua was called Hoshea, but Moses changed his name to Joshua (vv 8, 16). Joshua and Caleb were the only two spies to bring back an affirmative report concerning an Israelite invasion of the land (14:6-9). Consequently, of all the adult Israelite males to leave Egypt in the exodus, only these two crossed the Jordan River and entered the Promised Land (v 30).<\/p>\nWhen the Lord announced to Moses his impending death, Moses asked about his successor, and the Lord appointed Joshua to that position (Nm 27:12-23). After the death of Moses on Mt Nebo, Joshua’s leadership was confirmed (34:17), and the Lord told Joshua to go over the Jordan and take the land (Jos 1:1-2).<\/p>\nFrom the Transjordan, Joshua sent two men across the river to reconnoiter Jericho (ch 2). In Jericho they were concealed by Rahab and later safely made their way back to Joshua to report that the people of the land were fainthearted because of the Israelites (vv 23-24).<\/p>\nWhen Israel had crossed the river, the Lord instructed Joshua to set up a circle of 12 stones at Gilgal to commemorate this passage (Jos 4:1-7). The Lord then commanded all of the males who had been born during the exodus to be circumcised (5:2-9).<\/p>\nWhile camped at Gilgal, near Jericho, Joshua was confronted by a man with a drawn sword. When Joshua challenged the man, he learned that it was the Lord, who told him to remove his shoes, for the ground was holy (Jos 5:13-15). The Lord gave Joshua directions for the destruction of Jericho; these were followed explicitly and the city fell (ch 6). The attack on Ai ended in temporary defeat, until the matter of Achan’s sin was discovered and judged (7:10-26). Then Ai was taken and destroyed.<\/p>\nJoshua built an altar on Mt Ebal (Jos 8:30-32), and the blessings and curses were read, as commanded by God through Moses (Jos 8:33-35; cf. Dt 27–28).<\/p>\nBecause the Israelites failed to ask direction from the Lord (Jos 9:14), Joshua was tricked into making a covenant of peace with the Hivites of Gibeon. Joshua then reduced them to doing menial tasks in Israel (vv 21-27).<\/p>\nThe kings of the various Canaanite cities allied themselves against the Israelite threat (Jos 9:1-2) and a league of five Amorite cities (Jerusalem, Hebron, Jarmuth, Lachish, and Eglon) attacked Gibeon (10:1-5). The Gibeonites appealed to Joshua for help; he responded quickly against this Amorite confederation and routed the Amorite forces. It was on this occasion that Joshua commanded the sun and the moon to stand still so that Israel could have more time to defeat these adversaries (vv 12-14). This victory was followed by a series of successful attacks on enemy towns (vv 28-43).<\/p>\nA northern alliance headed by Jabin, king of Hazor, was the next opposition (Jos 11:1-5). The Lord assured Joshua of success, and the city of Hazor was taken and destroyed by fire (vv 6-15). Joshua 11:23 summarizes the conquest of the land, and chapter 12 enumerates the kings who were conquered.<\/p>\nJoshua was now old, and the Lord told him that much land remained to be possessed. These territories are listed, but the Lord directed Joshua to proceed with the division of the land among the nine and a half tribes (Jos 13:7; cf. 13:8–18:28). Joshua himself was given the city he asked for, Timnath-serah, in the hill country of Ephraim, which he rebuilt and settled (19:49-50).<\/p>\nThe Lord told Joshua to appoint cities of refuge to which a person guilty of manslaughter could flee to escape the avenger of blood (Jos 20). Then the Levites came to Eleazar the priest and Joshua to request that they be given their cities, as the Lord had commanded through Moses (21:1-42).<\/p>\n\nIn his advanced years Joshua summoned all Israel and solemnly charged them to continue in faithfulness to the Lord (Jos 23). Finally, he called all Israel to Shechem, where he gave them his farewell message. He summed up the Lord’s dealings with them from the time of Abraham and again challenged them to serve the Lord, putting before them the well-known choice and decision: “Choose today whom you will serve. . . . As for me and my family, we will serve the Lord<\/span>” (24:15, nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nJoshua died at the age of 110 years and was buried in the land of his inheritance at Timnath-serah (Jos 24:29-30; the parallel account in Jgs 2:8-9 reads “Timnath-heres,” nlt<\/span> mg). Israel served the Lord during all the days of Joshua and the elders who outlived him (Jos 24:31; Jgs 2:7).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Conquest and Allotment of the Land; Israel, History of; Joshua, Book of.<\/p>\n<li>2. Inhabitant of Beth-shemesh. It was his grainfield into which the cart carrying the ark sent by the Philistines came. It stopped by a large stone which was then used to commemorate this event (1 Sm 6:14, 18).<\/li>\n<li>3. Governor of Jerusalem during King Josiah’s reign (2 Kgs 23:8).<\/li>\n<li>4. Jozadak’s son and high priest during the days of Zerubbabel in postexilic Jerusalem (Hg 1:1-14; 2:2-4; Zec 3:1-9; 6:11; nlt<\/span> “Jeshua”). Joshua is alternately called Jeshua in Ezra and Nehemiah. See<\/em> Jeshua (Person) #3.<\/li>\n<li>5. Eliezer’s son and an ancestor of Jesus Christ (Lk 3:29). See<\/em> Genealogy of Jesus Christ.<\/li>","summary_ro":"JOSHUA (Person) 1. Son of Nun, Moses’ assistant and successor, and the military leader whom God chose to lead the Israelites in the conquest of Canaan (Nm 13:16, kjv “Jehoshua”; also spelled “Jehoshuah” in 1 Chr 7:27 and “Jeshua” in Neh 8:17). Early in the exodus, Joshua was sent by Moses to fight against the Amalekites (Ex 17:8-15). Joshua defeated Amalek, and Moses wrote of the event and built an altar that he called “The Lord Is My Banner” (v 15). When Moses sent 12 men from Kadesh-barnea ...","summary_en":"JOSHUA (Person) 1. Son of Nun, Moses’ assistant and successor, and the military leader whom God chose to lead the Israelites in the conquest of Canaan (Nm 13:16, kjv “Jehoshua”; also spelled “Jehoshuah” in 1 Chr 7:27 and “Jeshua” in Neh 8:17). Early in the exodus, Joshua was sent by Moses to fight against the Amalekites (Ex 17:8-15). Joshua defeated Amalek, and Moses wrote of the event and built an altar that he called “The Lord Is My Banner” (v 15). When Moses sent 12 men from Kadesh-barnea ...","source":"Articles\/J.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":20958,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Jozadak*","title_en":"Jozadak*","content_ro":"<h3>JOZADAK*<\/h3>\nSeraiah’s son and one of the exiles transported by Nebuchadnezzar to Babylonia (1 Chr 6:14-15). He was the father of Jeshua (also called Joshua), the high priest in postexilic Jerusalem during the days of Zerubbabel (Ezr 3:2, 8; 5:2; 10:18; Neh 12:26; Hg 1:1-14; 2:2-4; Zec 6:11). Jozadak is alternately called Jehozadak.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>JOZADAK*<\/h3>\nSeraiah’s son and one of the exiles transported by Nebuchadnezzar to Babylonia (1 Chr 6:14-15). He was the father of Jeshua (also called Joshua), the high priest in postexilic Jerusalem during the days of Zerubbabel (Ezr 3:2, 8; 5:2; 10:18; Neh 12:26; Hg 1:1-14; 2:2-4; Zec 6:11). Jozadak is alternately called Jehozadak.<\/p>","summary_ro":"JOZADAK* Seraiah’s son and one of the exiles transported by Nebuchadnezzar to Babylonia (1 Chr 6:14-15). He was the father of Jeshua (also called Joshua), the high priest in postexilic Jerusalem during the days of Zerubbabel (Ezr 3:2, 8; 5:2; 10:18; Neh 12:26; Hg 1:1-14; 2:2-4; Zec 6:11). Jozadak is alternately called Jehozadak.","summary_en":"JOZADAK* Seraiah’s son and one of the exiles transported by Nebuchadnezzar to Babylonia (1 Chr 6:14-15). He was the father of Jeshua (also called Joshua), the high priest in postexilic Jerusalem during the days of Zerubbabel (Ezr 3:2, 8; 5:2; 10:18; Neh 12:26; Hg 1:1-14; 2:2-4; Zec 6:11). Jozadak is alternately called Jehozadak.","source":"Articles\/J.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":25884,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Minerals* and Metals","title_en":"Minerals* and Metals","content_ro":"<h3>MINERALS* AND METALS<\/h3>\nA “mineral” is a naturally occurring substance, normally an ore that must be mined and treated before the metal can be extracted. A “metal” is a chemical element such as iron or copper, which is free from contamination by other materials. Metals in a pure form generally do not occur in nature, though there are exceptions.<\/p>\nIn Palestine, mining and smelting are ancient arts, practiced long before the Israelites arrived. The quarrying of suitable stones, such as flint, for toolmaking goes back to the Stone Age; the quarrying of stone for building is also an ancient craft. In particular, metals, native gold, copper, and meteoric iron were known and used in the Middle East before 4000 BC<\/span>. From 4000 to 3000 BC<\/span>, native silver became known as well as copper and lead ores. The art of smelting was discovered probably almost by accident, resulting in the production of alloys like bronze. Then the reduction of oxidized iron was discovered. From 3000 to 2000 BC<\/span>, important advances were made. Copper sulfides and tin oxides were reduced to metal, and metallic tin and copper became important items of trade.<\/p>\nIn the years 2000 to 1000 BC<\/span>, bellows came into use for furnaces, and iron was reduced from its ores and forged. The art of making brass from copper and zinc was discovered about 1500 BC<\/span> but did not become significant till somewhat later. Bronze, known for many centuries, was made sometimes with a high tin content to form speculum for mirrors. By this time the Israelites were settled in the land and the kingdom was established. From 1000 BC<\/span> to the start of the Christian era, the production of metals, especially iron, greatly expanded. A form of steel was made and used for weapons and tools.<\/p>\nBy the time of David and Solomon, the Israelites had learned many skills in the preparation and working of metals. Under David, Edom, with its rich copper and iron deposits, was conquered (2 Sm 8:13-14) and there was a lot of activity in the casting of metals in the Jordan Valley (1 Kgs 7:13-14, 45-46). In this activity Solomon had the assistance of Hiram, a Phoenician artisan. Israelite tradition associated the origins of metallurgy with Tubal-cain (Gn 4:22), who is said to have forged all kinds of tools out of bronze and iron. Deuteronomy 8:9 refers to the presence of iron and copper in the land to which Israel was going.<\/p>\nWhile the Israelites eventually undertook their own metalworking processes, it is evident from 1 Samuel 13:19-22 that on at least one occasion, in the days of Philistine domination, they were obliged to have their agricultural tools made by their enemies. Similarly, the manufacture of cult vessels for Solomon’s temple was supervised by Phoenician artisans (1 Kgs 7:13-50).<\/p>\nMinerals, metals, and precious stones were also important items of trade. Israel was never a land rich in these commodities and was obliged to import a wide variety of them. The visit of the queen of Sheba was partly diplomatic and partly for trade (1 Kgs 10:2, 10-11).<\/p>\nMetals and precious stones featured also among the booty carried off by invaders, notably—but not only—by the Egyptians and Assyrians. These items were in constant demand as they were needed for agriculture and making weapons of war, and for the manufacture of jewelry and items of personal adornment.<\/p>\nMinerals<\/p>\nA mineral is an inorganic substance with a definite chemical composition and structure, sometimes occurring alone or sometimes combined with others. “Ore” refers to any mineral or mineral aggregate containing chemical compounds of metals in sufficient quantity and grade to make the extraction of the metal commercially profitable. The essential element, the metal, occurs in nature as a chemical compound, such as a sulfide, an oxide, a carbonate, or some other compound, though the sulfides and oxides are the most common. Minerals exhibit a variety of properties, such as color, luster, crystal form, cleavage, fracture, hardness, and density, which help in their identification and exercise control on the commercial and industrial uses of the particular mineral.<\/p>\nMetals<\/p>\nA metal in its pure form is a chemically pure element with its own fixed physical properties, such as density, tensile strength, crystalline structure, melting point, ductility, conductivity, and the like. Metals form alloys with other metals, but this process destroys their purity. In both the ancient world and the modern world the alloy is extremely important.<\/p>\nIn order to obtain a pure metal, the ore in which the metal is contained must be smelted—a process known as metallurgy. In ancient Israel pure metals were widely used—among them were gold, silver, iron, and lead. Yet alloys such as bronze and brass were even more widely used.<\/p>\n<h5>Metallurgy and Metal Extraction<\/h5>\nThe method of producing hard wrought iron was discovered by the Hittites of Asia Minor about 1300 BC<\/span>, and was taken up by the Philistines (1 Sm 13:19-20). At first, the iron obtained from simple furnaces was drawn off and hammered to drive out slag (Dt 4:20; 1 Kgs 8:51; Jer 11:4). Later, the addition of carbon produced an early form of steel.<\/p>\nThe lead sulfide ore is heated with lime in a flow of air. A slag with rock particles forms. The air is then cut off and the temperature is raised. Finally, the lead flows free.<\/p>\nThe OT refers to the mining of silver (Jb 28:1), the refining of the metal (Zec 13:9; Mal 3:3), the melting of scrap metals or jeweler’s remnants (Ez 22:20-22), and of multiple refinings in a crucible (Prv 17:3; 27:21) to produce refined silver (1 Chr 29:4; Ps 12:6; Prv 10:20).<\/p>\n<h5>Specific Metals<\/h5>\nAlthough several OT passages suggest that the science of metallurgy was known in biblical times, comparatively little archaeological evidence is available. The processing plants were small and were used for the treatment of copper and iron. The archaeological record is far from complete, but the general impression is that metallic ores were comparatively rare in Palestine; imports must have been considerable. However, numerous molds for casting agricultural and military tools have come to light in excavations. Evidently, some refined metal was available locally, but perhaps most of it was imported. The metal was then heated and poured into the appropriate earthenware or pottery mold.<\/p>\nThere are many references to metals in the Bible, but especially to gold, silver, iron, and lead. While copper was widely used, it was normally in the form of its alloys, bronze and brass. There are comparatively few references to tin as such, though it was used in manufacturing bronze. Similarly zinc, though used in the manufacture of brass, is not mentioned in the Bible.<\/p>\nGold is referred to hundreds of times in the OT and NT, more frequently than any other metal. It is often mentioned together with silver, and in the majority of cases silver is mentioned first, reflecting a time when gold was less valued.<\/p>\nGold was used in the manufacture of ornaments for personal use (Gn 24:53; 41:42; Ex 3:22; 11:2; 12:35). Gold was important in worship both in Israel and among the non-Israelites. References to pagan gods occur in several passages (Ex 20:23; 32:2-4; Ps 115:4; Is 2:20; 30:22; 31:7; 40:19; 46:6; Hos 8:4). It seems that the gold was melted down and later engraved so that the replicas could be called both molten images (Ex 32:24) and graven images. The tabernacle and the temple used a great deal of gold. The wooden ark was covered inside and outside with gold (25:11). Other timber pieces were overlaid with gold (25:11; 1 Kgs 6:20-22, 30).<\/p>\nThe vessels and utensils used in the tabernacle and temple were made of “pure gold”: the cherubim (Ex 25:18; 37:7), the mercy seat (25:17; 37:6), the candlestick (Ex 25:31; Zec 4:2), various vessels (Ex 25:38; 2 Kgs 24:13), chains to carry the ephod (Ex 28:14), and the bells on the high priest’s robe. The high priest’s crown, ephod, and breastplate were also of gold (39:2-30). The offerings collected for the manufacture of such articles in the wilderness include golden dishes weighing 120 shekels (Nm 7:86). The more lavishly adorned temple apparently used more gold than the tabernacle (1 Kgs 6:20-28; 1 Chr 29:2-7; 2 Chr 3:4–4:22). The number of specific references to gold in the tabernacle and temple is far too great to mention all of them here. The large amount of gold used in the temple was attractive to invaders, who would strip the temple of its gold and carry it off as booty (1 Kgs 14:26; 2 Kgs 16:8; 18:14; 24:13; 25:15; 2 Chr 12:9).<\/p>\nGold had commercial value. It was imported in Solomon’s day, and up to 666 talents were brought to Israel annually (1 Kgs 10:14). Hiram of Tyre gave Solomon 120 talents of gold (9:14), possibly as a loan. Certainly Solomon used a lot of gold in the temple (10:16-17). Gold was useful, too, for buying off an enemy (2 Kgs 16:8) or simply as tribute (18:14). Evidence of this comes also from the Assyrian annals, where the tribute taken from various lands often included gold.<\/p>\nThe possession of gold was not in itself an evil thing, but preoccupation with its accumulation was condemned (Jb 28:15-17; Prv 3:14; 8:10, 19; 16:16). The possession of wisdom and the knowledge of God was of greater value than the possession of much gold (Pss 19:10; 119:72, 127; Prv 20:15). Job rejected trust in gold (Jb 31:24). Gold would not save a man in the day of judgment (Zep 1:18).<\/p>\nIn the NT gold was regarded as perishable (Jas 5:3; 1 Pt 1:18) and as an unnecessary burden to carry (Mt 10:9; Acts 3:6). The wearing of a gold ring was certainly no measure of a man’s worth (Jas 2:2); indeed, both Paul and Peter forbade it (1 Tm 2:9; 1 Pt 3:3).<\/p>\nThe use of gold in itself was no measure of piety. The elders of Revelation 4:4 wore golden crowns, but the great harlot was “bedecked with gold” (Rv 17:4), as was the harlot city Babylon (18:16). By contrast, there are some positive statements in the NT about the value of gold (3:18). The wise men brought gold to the infant Jesus as a symbol of his kingly character (Mt 2:11), and the Holy City, the new Jerusalem, was a city of gold, clear as glass (Rv 21:18).<\/p>\nIn the OT, silver is mentioned in several connections. Being a precious metal, once considered more precious than gold, it was regularly used in commerce for the payments of debts. Small pieces of silver were weighed into a balance against a standard weight. Abraham bought the cave at Machpelah as a burial place for Sarah for 400 shekels of silver and weighed out the “money” according to the weight’s current value with the merchant (Gn 23:15-16). Joseph’s brothers received 20 pieces of silver in payment for Joseph (37:28), and Benjamin was given a money gift by Joseph in pieces of silver (45:22).<\/p>\nThere are other examples of payment in silver for commodities or services (Gn 20:16; Ex 21:32; Lv 27:16; Jos 24:32; Jgs 17:10; 2 Sm 24:24; Neh 7:72; Jb 28:15; Is 7:23; 46:6; Am 2:6; 8:6). Silver was a measure of a man’s wealth (Gn 13:2; 24:35; Ex 25:3; Nm 22:18; Dt 7:25; Zep 1:18; Hg 2:8; Zec 6:11). An unusual comment in 1 Kings 10:21 notes that in Solomon’s day “it was not considered as anything,” apparently because it was so plentiful. It was regularly taken as booty (Jos 6:19; 7:21; 1 Kgs 15:18). Sometimes the drinking cup of an important man was made of silver (Gn 44:2). Sometimes, too, a royal crown was made of gold and silver (Zec 6:11). It was important in the manufacture of personal ornaments (Gn 24:53; Ex 3:22; 12:35), and one example is given of ornaments of gold studded with silver (Sg 1:11).<\/p>\nThe process of refining silver was used as a metaphor for the trying of people’s hearts (Ps 66:10; Is 48:10), and the tarnishing and deterioration of silver was a picture of the disintegration of one’s character (Is 1:22; Jer 6:30). God’s Word is pictured as “pure” silver refined and purified in a furnace. Despite silver’s great value, wisdom excels it (Job 28:15; Prv 3:14; 8:19; 10:20; 16:16; 22:1; 25:11).<\/p>\nNative copper is mentioned in Deuteronomy 8:9, though the reference may be to one of its ores. More commonly, biblical references are to brass, the alloy of copper and zinc. However, the chemical analysis of copper-based tools and implements during the middle and late Bronze Ages (c. 2000–1200 BC<\/span>) shows that the material was bronze. References to brass in the kjv<\/span> are therefore to bronze.<\/p>\nBy NT times, copper in the form of alloys (bronze and brass) was widely used. Bronze coinage was well known and this may be the sense of Matthew 10:9. The widow’s mite was a tiny bronze coin, the lepton. Bronze utensils and vessels were well known (Rv 9:20; 18:12). The reference to “sounding brass” (kjv<\/span>) in 1 Corinthians 13:1 may actually be to brass, which was a bright, shining alloy, and was used in musical instruments. In the vision of John in Revelation (Rv 1:15; 2:18), the Son of Man had feet of fine brass (nlt<\/span> “bronze”).<\/p>\nThe Iron Age began in Palestine about 1200 BC<\/span>, that is, in the days of the judges, though native iron had been known in Egypt in the predynastic period. Archaeological evidence suggests that the smelting of iron ore was discovered by the Hittites about 1400 BC<\/span>. The Philistines seem to have introduced iron to Palestine about 1300 BC<\/span>. In the days of Moses an encounter with the Midianites produced much tribute, among which iron is mentioned (Nm 31:22). When Israel captured Jericho, the spoils included iron (Jos 6:24). Manasseh’s half-tribe also took booty including iron (22:8). In the days of the judges the Canaanites were equipped with chariots of iron (Jos 17:16-18; Jgs 1:19; 4:3).<\/p>\nThese early references point to the arrival of iron at the start of the Iron Age. The Philistines enjoyed a local monopoly in its use (1 Sm 13:19-21), and their mighty warrior Goliath was armed with an iron spear (17:7). It was not long, however, before Israel learned the use of iron (2 Sm 12:31; 23:7). Evidently, by Solomon’s time, iron was widely used, because builders of the temple were forbidden to use iron tools (1 Kgs 6:7). The false prophet Zedekiah in Ahab’s day used the horns of iron to thrust toward Syria as he spoke of their defeat (22:11).<\/p>\nThe prophet Isaiah in the eighth century BC<\/span> referred to iron (Is 10:34), and Jeremiah later spoke of the metal in several places (Jer 1:18; 6:28; 11:4; 15:12; 17:1; 28:13-14). Ezekiel made use of an iron plate in one of his symbolic actions (Ez 4:3), referred to iron in his description of smelting (22:18, 20), and listed it as a commodity for trade (27:12, 19). The prophet Amos spoke of threshing instruments of iron (Am 1:3). Micah used iron as a symbol for military might (Mi 4:13). The book of Daniel makes several references to it (Dn 2:33-35, 40-45; 4:15, 23; 7:7, 19).<\/p>\nBy Roman times, iron weapons were the regular implements of war. Gates of iron were used to close prisons (Acts 12:10), and in a symbolic usage powerful rulers were said to rule with a rod of iron (Rv 2:27; 9:9; 12:5; 19:15). The term “iron” was used also in some metaphorical expressions. The smelting of iron was a symbol of testing and suffering (Dt 4:20; 1 Kgs 8:51; Jer 11:4; Ez 22:18), a pillar of iron was symbolic of strength (Jer 1:18), and an iron rod of harsh rule (Ps 2:9; Rv 2:27; 12:5; 19:15).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Coppersmith; Goldsmith; Ironsmith; Mason, Masonry; Silversmith; Stones, Precious.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>MINERALS* AND METALS<\/h3>\nA “mineral” is a naturally occurring substance, normally an ore that must be mined and treated before the metal can be extracted. A “metal” is a chemical element such as iron or copper, which is free from contamination by other materials. Metals in a pure form generally do not occur in nature, though there are exceptions.<\/p>\nIn Palestine, mining and smelting are ancient arts, practiced long before the Israelites arrived. The quarrying of suitable stones, such as flint, for toolmaking goes back to the Stone Age; the quarrying of stone for building is also an ancient craft. In particular, metals, native gold, copper, and meteoric iron were known and used in the Middle East before 4000 BC<\/span>. From 4000 to 3000 BC<\/span>, native silver became known as well as copper and lead ores. The art of smelting was discovered probably almost by accident, resulting in the production of alloys like bronze. Then the reduction of oxidized iron was discovered. From 3000 to 2000 BC<\/span>, important advances were made. Copper sulfides and tin oxides were reduced to metal, and metallic tin and copper became important items of trade.<\/p>\nIn the years 2000 to 1000 BC<\/span>, bellows came into use for furnaces, and iron was reduced from its ores and forged. The art of making brass from copper and zinc was discovered about 1500 BC<\/span> but did not become significant till somewhat later. Bronze, known for many centuries, was made sometimes with a high tin content to form speculum for mirrors. By this time the Israelites were settled in the land and the kingdom was established. From 1000 BC<\/span> to the start of the Christian era, the production of metals, especially iron, greatly expanded. A form of steel was made and used for weapons and tools.<\/p>\nBy the time of David and Solomon, the Israelites had learned many skills in the preparation and working of metals. Under David, Edom, with its rich copper and iron deposits, was conquered (2 Sm 8:13-14) and there was a lot of activity in the casting of metals in the Jordan Valley (1 Kgs 7:13-14, 45-46). In this activity Solomon had the assistance of Hiram, a Phoenician artisan. Israelite tradition associated the origins of metallurgy with Tubal-cain (Gn 4:22), who is said to have forged all kinds of tools out of bronze and iron. Deuteronomy 8:9 refers to the presence of iron and copper in the land to which Israel was going.<\/p>\nWhile the Israelites eventually undertook their own metalworking processes, it is evident from 1 Samuel 13:19-22 that on at least one occasion, in the days of Philistine domination, they were obliged to have their agricultural tools made by their enemies. Similarly, the manufacture of cult vessels for Solomon’s temple was supervised by Phoenician artisans (1 Kgs 7:13-50).<\/p>\nMinerals, metals, and precious stones were also important items of trade. Israel was never a land rich in these commodities and was obliged to import a wide variety of them. The visit of the queen of Sheba was partly diplomatic and partly for trade (1 Kgs 10:2, 10-11).<\/p>\nMetals and precious stones featured also among the booty carried off by invaders, notably—but not only—by the Egyptians and Assyrians. These items were in constant demand as they were needed for agriculture and making weapons of war, and for the manufacture of jewelry and items of personal adornment.<\/p>\nMinerals<\/p>\nA mineral is an inorganic substance with a definite chemical composition and structure, sometimes occurring alone or sometimes combined with others. “Ore” refers to any mineral or mineral aggregate containing chemical compounds of metals in sufficient quantity and grade to make the extraction of the metal commercially profitable. The essential element, the metal, occurs in nature as a chemical compound, such as a sulfide, an oxide, a carbonate, or some other compound, though the sulfides and oxides are the most common. Minerals exhibit a variety of properties, such as color, luster, crystal form, cleavage, fracture, hardness, and density, which help in their identification and exercise control on the commercial and industrial uses of the particular mineral.<\/p>\nMetals<\/p>\nA metal in its pure form is a chemically pure element with its own fixed physical properties, such as density, tensile strength, crystalline structure, melting point, ductility, conductivity, and the like. Metals form alloys with other metals, but this process destroys their purity. In both the ancient world and the modern world the alloy is extremely important.<\/p>\nIn order to obtain a pure metal, the ore in which the metal is contained must be smelted—a process known as metallurgy. In ancient Israel pure metals were widely used—among them were gold, silver, iron, and lead. Yet alloys such as bronze and brass were even more widely used.<\/p>\n<h5>Metallurgy and Metal Extraction<\/h5>\nThe method of producing hard wrought iron was discovered by the Hittites of Asia Minor about 1300 BC<\/span>, and was taken up by the Philistines (1 Sm 13:19-20). At first, the iron obtained from simple furnaces was drawn off and hammered to drive out slag (Dt 4:20; 1 Kgs 8:51; Jer 11:4). Later, the addition of carbon produced an early form of steel.<\/p>\nThe lead sulfide ore is heated with lime in a flow of air. A slag with rock particles forms. The air is then cut off and the temperature is raised. Finally, the lead flows free.<\/p>\nThe OT refers to the mining of silver (Jb 28:1), the refining of the metal (Zec 13:9; Mal 3:3), the melting of scrap metals or jeweler’s remnants (Ez 22:20-22), and of multiple refinings in a crucible (Prv 17:3; 27:21) to produce refined silver (1 Chr 29:4; Ps 12:6; Prv 10:20).<\/p>\n<h5>Specific Metals<\/h5>\nAlthough several OT passages suggest that the science of metallurgy was known in biblical times, comparatively little archaeological evidence is available. The processing plants were small and were used for the treatment of copper and iron. The archaeological record is far from complete, but the general impression is that metallic ores were comparatively rare in Palestine; imports must have been considerable. However, numerous molds for casting agricultural and military tools have come to light in excavations. Evidently, some refined metal was available locally, but perhaps most of it was imported. The metal was then heated and poured into the appropriate earthenware or pottery mold.<\/p>\nThere are many references to metals in the Bible, but especially to gold, silver, iron, and lead. While copper was widely used, it was normally in the form of its alloys, bronze and brass. There are comparatively few references to tin as such, though it was used in manufacturing bronze. Similarly zinc, though used in the manufacture of brass, is not mentioned in the Bible.<\/p>\nGold is referred to hundreds of times in the OT and NT, more frequently than any other metal. It is often mentioned together with silver, and in the majority of cases silver is mentioned first, reflecting a time when gold was less valued.<\/p>\nGold was used in the manufacture of ornaments for personal use (Gn 24:53; 41:42; Ex 3:22; 11:2; 12:35). Gold was important in worship both in Israel and among the non-Israelites. References to pagan gods occur in several passages (Ex 20:23; 32:2-4; Ps 115:4; Is 2:20; 30:22; 31:7; 40:19; 46:6; Hos 8:4). It seems that the gold was melted down and later engraved so that the replicas could be called both molten images (Ex 32:24) and graven images. The tabernacle and the temple used a great deal of gold. The wooden ark was covered inside and outside with gold (25:11). Other timber pieces were overlaid with gold (25:11; 1 Kgs 6:20-22, 30).<\/p>\nThe vessels and utensils used in the tabernacle and temple were made of “pure gold”: the cherubim (Ex 25:18; 37:7), the mercy seat (25:17; 37:6), the candlestick (Ex 25:31; Zec 4:2), various vessels (Ex 25:38; 2 Kgs 24:13), chains to carry the ephod (Ex 28:14), and the bells on the high priest’s robe. The high priest’s crown, ephod, and breastplate were also of gold (39:2-30). The offerings collected for the manufacture of such articles in the wilderness include golden dishes weighing 120 shekels (Nm 7:86). The more lavishly adorned temple apparently used more gold than the tabernacle (1 Kgs 6:20-28; 1 Chr 29:2-7; 2 Chr 3:4–4:22). The number of specific references to gold in the tabernacle and temple is far too great to mention all of them here. The large amount of gold used in the temple was attractive to invaders, who would strip the temple of its gold and carry it off as booty (1 Kgs 14:26; 2 Kgs 16:8; 18:14; 24:13; 25:15; 2 Chr 12:9).<\/p>\nGold had commercial value. It was imported in Solomon’s day, and up to 666 talents were brought to Israel annually (1 Kgs 10:14). Hiram of Tyre gave Solomon 120 talents of gold (9:14), possibly as a loan. Certainly Solomon used a lot of gold in the temple (10:16-17). Gold was useful, too, for buying off an enemy (2 Kgs 16:8) or simply as tribute (18:14). Evidence of this comes also from the Assyrian annals, where the tribute taken from various lands often included gold.<\/p>\nThe possession of gold was not in itself an evil thing, but preoccupation with its accumulation was condemned (Jb 28:15-17; Prv 3:14; 8:10, 19; 16:16). The possession of wisdom and the knowledge of God was of greater value than the possession of much gold (Pss 19:10; 119:72, 127; Prv 20:15). Job rejected trust in gold (Jb 31:24). Gold would not save a man in the day of judgment (Zep 1:18).<\/p>\nIn the NT gold was regarded as perishable (Jas 5:3; 1 Pt 1:18) and as an unnecessary burden to carry (Mt 10:9; Acts 3:6). The wearing of a gold ring was certainly no measure of a man’s worth (Jas 2:2); indeed, both Paul and Peter forbade it (1 Tm 2:9; 1 Pt 3:3).<\/p>\nThe use of gold in itself was no measure of piety. The elders of Revelation 4:4 wore golden crowns, but the great harlot was “bedecked with gold” (Rv 17:4), as was the harlot city Babylon (18:16). By contrast, there are some positive statements in the NT about the value of gold (3:18). The wise men brought gold to the infant Jesus as a symbol of his kingly character (Mt 2:11), and the Holy City, the new Jerusalem, was a city of gold, clear as glass (Rv 21:18).<\/p>\nIn the OT, silver is mentioned in several connections. Being a precious metal, once considered more precious than gold, it was regularly used in commerce for the payments of debts. Small pieces of silver were weighed into a balance against a standard weight. Abraham bought the cave at Machpelah as a burial place for Sarah for 400 shekels of silver and weighed out the “money” according to the weight’s current value with the merchant (Gn 23:15-16). Joseph’s brothers received 20 pieces of silver in payment for Joseph (37:28), and Benjamin was given a money gift by Joseph in pieces of silver (45:22).<\/p>\nThere are other examples of payment in silver for commodities or services (Gn 20:16; Ex 21:32; Lv 27:16; Jos 24:32; Jgs 17:10; 2 Sm 24:24; Neh 7:72; Jb 28:15; Is 7:23; 46:6; Am 2:6; 8:6). Silver was a measure of a man’s wealth (Gn 13:2; 24:35; Ex 25:3; Nm 22:18; Dt 7:25; Zep 1:18; Hg 2:8; Zec 6:11). An unusual comment in 1 Kings 10:21 notes that in Solomon’s day “it was not considered as anything,” apparently because it was so plentiful. It was regularly taken as booty (Jos 6:19; 7:21; 1 Kgs 15:18). Sometimes the drinking cup of an important man was made of silver (Gn 44:2). Sometimes, too, a royal crown was made of gold and silver (Zec 6:11). It was important in the manufacture of personal ornaments (Gn 24:53; Ex 3:22; 12:35), and one example is given of ornaments of gold studded with silver (Sg 1:11).<\/p>\nThe process of refining silver was used as a metaphor for the trying of people’s hearts (Ps 66:10; Is 48:10), and the tarnishing and deterioration of silver was a picture of the disintegration of one’s character (Is 1:22; Jer 6:30). God’s Word is pictured as “pure” silver refined and purified in a furnace. Despite silver’s great value, wisdom excels it (Job 28:15; Prv 3:14; 8:19; 10:20; 16:16; 22:1; 25:11).<\/p>\nNative copper is mentioned in Deuteronomy 8:9, though the reference may be to one of its ores. More commonly, biblical references are to brass, the alloy of copper and zinc. However, the chemical analysis of copper-based tools and implements during the middle and late Bronze Ages (c. 2000–1200 BC<\/span>) shows that the material was bronze. References to brass in the kjv<\/span> are therefore to bronze.<\/p>\nBy NT times, copper in the form of alloys (bronze and brass) was widely used. Bronze coinage was well known and this may be the sense of Matthew 10:9. The widow’s mite was a tiny bronze coin, the lepton. Bronze utensils and vessels were well known (Rv 9:20; 18:12). The reference to “sounding brass” (kjv<\/span>) in 1 Corinthians 13:1 may actually be to brass, which was a bright, shining alloy, and was used in musical instruments. In the vision of John in Revelation (Rv 1:15; 2:18), the Son of Man had feet of fine brass (nlt<\/span> “bronze”).<\/p>\nThe Iron Age began in Palestine about 1200 BC<\/span>, that is, in the days of the judges, though native iron had been known in Egypt in the predynastic period. Archaeological evidence suggests that the smelting of iron ore was discovered by the Hittites about 1400 BC<\/span>. The Philistines seem to have introduced iron to Palestine about 1300 BC<\/span>. In the days of Moses an encounter with the Midianites produced much tribute, among which iron is mentioned (Nm 31:22). When Israel captured Jericho, the spoils included iron (Jos 6:24). Manasseh’s half-tribe also took booty including iron (22:8). In the days of the judges the Canaanites were equipped with chariots of iron (Jos 17:16-18; Jgs 1:19; 4:3).<\/p>\nThese early references point to the arrival of iron at the start of the Iron Age. The Philistines enjoyed a local monopoly in its use (1 Sm 13:19-21), and their mighty warrior Goliath was armed with an iron spear (17:7). It was not long, however, before Israel learned the use of iron (2 Sm 12:31; 23:7). Evidently, by Solomon’s time, iron was widely used, because builders of the temple were forbidden to use iron tools (1 Kgs 6:7). The false prophet Zedekiah in Ahab’s day used the horns of iron to thrust toward Syria as he spoke of their defeat (22:11).<\/p>\nThe prophet Isaiah in the eighth century BC<\/span> referred to iron (Is 10:34), and Jeremiah later spoke of the metal in several places (Jer 1:18; 6:28; 11:4; 15:12; 17:1; 28:13-14). Ezekiel made use of an iron plate in one of his symbolic actions (Ez 4:3), referred to iron in his description of smelting (22:18, 20), and listed it as a commodity for trade (27:12, 19). The prophet Amos spoke of threshing instruments of iron (Am 1:3). Micah used iron as a symbol for military might (Mi 4:13). The book of Daniel makes several references to it (Dn 2:33-35, 40-45; 4:15, 23; 7:7, 19).<\/p>\nBy Roman times, iron weapons were the regular implements of war. Gates of iron were used to close prisons (Acts 12:10), and in a symbolic usage powerful rulers were said to rule with a rod of iron (Rv 2:27; 9:9; 12:5; 19:15). The term “iron” was used also in some metaphorical expressions. The smelting of iron was a symbol of testing and suffering (Dt 4:20; 1 Kgs 8:51; Jer 11:4; Ez 22:18), a pillar of iron was symbolic of strength (Jer 1:18), and an iron rod of harsh rule (Ps 2:9; Rv 2:27; 12:5; 19:15).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Coppersmith; Goldsmith; Ironsmith; Mason, Masonry; Silversmith; Stones, Precious.<\/p>","summary_ro":"MINERALS* AND METALS A “mineral” is a naturally occurring substance, normally an ore that must be mined and treated before the metal can be extracted. A “metal” is a chemical element such as iron or copper, which is free from contamination by other materials. Metals in a pure form generally do not occur in nature, though there are exceptions. In Palestine, mining and smelting are ancient arts, practiced long before the Israelites arrived. The quarrying of suitable stones, such as flint, for t...","summary_en":"MINERALS* AND METALS A “mineral” is a naturally occurring substance, normally an ore that must be mined and treated before the metal can be extracted. A “metal” is a chemical element such as iron or copper, which is free from contamination by other materials. Metals in a pure form generally do not occur in nature, though there are exceptions. In Palestine, mining and smelting are ancient arts, practiced long before the Israelites arrived. The quarrying of suitable stones, such as flint, for t...","source":"Articles\/M.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":54311,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Zaharia 6:11","title_en":"Study Note: Zaharia 6:11","content_ro":"6:11<\/strong> This crown<\/em> was probably made of two bands of metal, one gold and one silver. Each band represented one of the offices (king and priest) to which Jeshua<\/em> was appointed.<\/p>","content_en":"6:11<\/strong> This crown<\/em> was probably made of two bands of metal, one gold and one silver. Each band represented one of the offices (king and priest) to which Jeshua<\/em> was appointed.<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:11 This crown was probably made of two bands of metal, one gold and one silver. Each band represented one of the offices (king and priest) to which Jeshua was appointed.","summary_en":"6:11 This crown was probably made of two bands of metal, one gold and one silver. Each band represented one of the offices (king and priest) to which Jeshua was appointed.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":81937,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Zaharia 6:11","title_en":"Study Note: Zaharia 6:11","content_ro":"6:11<\/strong> This crown<\/em> was probably made of two bands of metal, one gold and one silver. Each band represented one of the offices (king and priest) to which Jeshua<\/em> was appointed.<\/p>","content_en":"6:11<\/strong> This crown<\/em> was probably made of two bands of metal, one gold and one silver. Each band represented one of the offices (king and priest) to which Jeshua<\/em> was appointed.<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:11 This crown was probably made of two bands of metal, one gold and one silver. Each band represented one of the offices (king and priest) to which Jeshua was appointed.","summary_en":"6:11 This crown was probably made of two bands of metal, one gold and one silver. Each band represented one of the offices (king and priest) to which Jeshua was appointed.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":109563,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Zaharia 6:11","title_en":"Study Note: Zaharia 6:11","content_ro":"6:11<\/strong> This crown<\/em> was probably made of two bands of metal, one gold and one silver. Each band represented one of the offices (king and priest) to which Jeshua<\/em> was appointed.<\/p>","content_en":"6:11<\/strong> This crown<\/em> was probably made of two bands of metal, one gold and one silver. Each band represented one of the offices (king and priest) to which Jeshua<\/em> was appointed.<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:11 This crown was probably made of two bands of metal, one gold and one silver. Each band represented one of the offices (king and priest) to which Jeshua was appointed.","summary_en":"6:11 This crown was probably made of two bands of metal, one gold and one silver. Each band represented one of the offices (king and priest) to which Jeshua was appointed.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":137189,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Zaharia 6:11","title_en":"Study Note: Zaharia 6:11","content_ro":"6:11<\/strong> This crown<\/em> was probably made of two bands of metal, one gold and one silver. Each band represented one of the offices (king and priest) to which Jeshua<\/em> was appointed.<\/p>","content_en":"6:11<\/strong> This crown<\/em> was probably made of two bands of metal, one gold and one silver. Each band represented one of the offices (king and priest) to which Jeshua<\/em> was appointed.<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:11 This crown was probably made of two bands of metal, one gold and one silver. Each band represented one of the offices (king and priest) to which Jeshua was appointed.","summary_en":"6:11 This crown was probably made of two bands of metal, one gold and one silver. Each band represented one of the offices (king and priest) to which Jeshua was appointed.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"12":[{"id":19394,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"of Jesse*, Root","title_en":"of Jesse*, Root","content_ro":"<h3>JESSE*, Root of<\/h3>\nFigure of speech used by Isaiah (Is 11:10) to express the hope of a messianic king from the line of David. The “root” of a family is its progenitor. Jesse, David’s father, is listed as an ancestor of the Messiah (Is 11:1, 10; Mt 1:5-6; Lk 3:32; Acts 13:22-23). Isaiah pictures God’s judgment upon Assyria as the cutting down of a forest (Is 10:33-34); Judah likewise will be felled and the proud tree of David’s sovereignty hewn down, but a remnant will remain, described by Isaiah as a shoot from a stump (6:13). The messianic shoot will come forth from the stump of Jesse as a branch from his roots. The Spirit of the Lord will rest upon this one who stands as an ensign to the people, so that the nations will seek him in the glory of his dwelling place (Is 11:1-10; see Is 53:2; Jer 23:5; 33:15; Ez 17:22-23; Zec 3:8; 6:12).<\/p>\nThe apostle Paul, quoting Isaiah’s prophecy, identified Jesus as “the root of Jesse” in whom the Gentiles hope (Rom 15:12). Christ is not only “a shoot from the stump of Jesse” (Is 11:1) but is himself the “root of Jesse” (Is 11:10; Rom 15:12; see Rv 5:5; 22:16, “root of David”). This means that Jesus not only came from Jesse’s line but that Jesse (and David) came from Jesus. In other words, the image points to Jesus’ divinity. While Jesus was the son of David, Jesus was also David’s “Lord.” This is the point Jesus made in his debate with the religious leaders of his day who recognized only that the Messiah was a human descendant of David. Matthew 22:42-45 reads: “ ‘What do you think about the Messiah? Whose son is he?’ They replied, ‘He is the son of David.’ Jesus responded, ‘Then why does David, speaking under the inspiration of the Holy Spirit, call him Lord? For David said, “The Lord<\/span> said to my Lord, sit in honor at my right hand until I humble your enemies beneath your feet.” Since David called him Lord, how can he be his son at the same time?’ ”<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Christology; David; Genealogy of Jesus Christ; Jesse (Person); Jesus Christ, Teachings of.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>JESSE*, Root of<\/h3>\nFigure of speech used by Isaiah (Is 11:10) to express the hope of a messianic king from the line of David. The “root” of a family is its progenitor. Jesse, David’s father, is listed as an ancestor of the Messiah (Is 11:1, 10; Mt 1:5-6; Lk 3:32; Acts 13:22-23). Isaiah pictures God’s judgment upon Assyria as the cutting down of a forest (Is 10:33-34); Judah likewise will be felled and the proud tree of David’s sovereignty hewn down, but a remnant will remain, described by Isaiah as a shoot from a stump (6:13). The messianic shoot will come forth from the stump of Jesse as a branch from his roots. The Spirit of the Lord will rest upon this one who stands as an ensign to the people, so that the nations will seek him in the glory of his dwelling place (Is 11:1-10; see Is 53:2; Jer 23:5; 33:15; Ez 17:22-23; Zec 3:8; 6:12).<\/p>\nThe apostle Paul, quoting Isaiah’s prophecy, identified Jesus as “the root of Jesse” in whom the Gentiles hope (Rom 15:12). Christ is not only “a shoot from the stump of Jesse” (Is 11:1) but is himself the “root of Jesse” (Is 11:10; Rom 15:12; see Rv 5:5; 22:16, “root of David”). This means that Jesus not only came from Jesse’s line but that Jesse (and David) came from Jesus. In other words, the image points to Jesus’ divinity. While Jesus was the son of David, Jesus was also David’s “Lord.” This is the point Jesus made in his debate with the religious leaders of his day who recognized only that the Messiah was a human descendant of David. Matthew 22:42-45 reads: “ ‘What do you think about the Messiah? Whose son is he?’ They replied, ‘He is the son of David.’ Jesus responded, ‘Then why does David, speaking under the inspiration of the Holy Spirit, call him Lord? For David said, “The Lord<\/span> said to my Lord, sit in honor at my right hand until I humble your enemies beneath your feet.” Since David called him Lord, how can he be his son at the same time?’ ”<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Christology; David; Genealogy of Jesus Christ; Jesse (Person); Jesus Christ, Teachings of.<\/p>","summary_ro":"JESSE*, Root of Figure of speech used by Isaiah (Is 11:10) to express the hope of a messianic king from the line of David. The “root” of a family is its progenitor. Jesse, David’s father, is listed as an ancestor of the Messiah (Is 11:1, 10; Mt 1:5-6; Lk 3:32; Acts 13:22-23). Isaiah pictures God’s judgment upon Assyria as the cutting down of a forest (Is 10:33-34); Judah likewise will be felled and the proud tree of David’s sovereignty hewn down, but a remnant will remain, described by Isaiah...","summary_en":"JESSE*, Root of Figure of speech used by Isaiah (Is 11:10) to express the hope of a messianic king from the line of David. The “root” of a family is its progenitor. Jesse, David’s father, is listed as an ancestor of the Messiah (Is 11:1, 10; Mt 1:5-6; Lk 3:32; Acts 13:22-23). Isaiah pictures God’s judgment upon Assyria as the cutting down of a forest (Is 10:33-34); Judah likewise will be felled and the proud tree of David’s sovereignty hewn down, but a remnant will remain, described by Isaiah...","source":"Articles\/J.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":34470,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Servant of the Lord","title_en":"Servant of the Lord","content_ro":"<h3>SERVANT OF THE LORD<\/h3>\nTitle applied to a variety of persons in the Bible. The basic term, “servant,” covers a range of meanings. Used some 800 times in the OT alone, “servant” refers to a slave, to an officer close to the king, or to the chosen leader of God’s people.<\/p>\nIsaiah 41:8-9 defines this highest servanthood as something granted by God’s grace: “But you, Israel, my servant, Jacob whom I have chosen . . . ; you whom I took from the ends of the earth, and called from its farthest corners, saying to you, ‘You are my servant. . . . ’ ” (rsv<\/span>). This title is thus applicable to heroes of faith and action—to the patriarchs (Gn 26:24; Ez 28:25; 37:25), to Moses (Ex 14:31; 1 Kgs 8:53, 56), to David (2 Sm 7:26-29; Jer 33:21-26; Ez 37:24) and his descendants (as Hezekiah, Eliakim, Zerubbabel—Hg 2:23), to the prophets (2 Kgs 10:10; 14:25), and to other faithful Israelites, such as Joshua and Caleb (Nm 14:24; Jos 24:29; Jgs 2:8).<\/p>\nProphets other than Isaiah employ this term, but only Zechariah joins him in giving an apparently messianic prediction to this name. Zechariah 3:8 says, “Hear now, O Joshua the high priest, you and your friends who sit before you, for they are men of good omen: behold, I will bring my servant the Branch” (rsv<\/span>). Some would see Zerubbabel as the individual in view here (cf. Zec 6:12); however, the use of “Branch” is decidedly messianic in Isaiah (Is 11:1) and Jeremiah (Jer 33:15).<\/p>\n“The<\/em> servant of the Lord,” in specialized biblical usage, points to the Messiah while also alluding to Isaiah’s central message. Though Isaiah, with others, employs “servant” with a range of significations, he composed some passages known as the Servant Songs. These distinctive sections of his book are distinguishable in content, but they cannot be extracted from the surrounding context without disrupting the flow of prophecy. Isaiah’s focus is on the future Messiah-servant. None can question the NT’s unanimous messianic interpretation of Isaiah’s servant, nor its application of this understanding to Jesus Christ.<\/p>\nA “servant Christology” pervades Acts (Acts 3:13, 26; 4:27, 30), and 1 Peter, with numerous allusions in the Gospels. Jesus himself quotes Isaiah 53 explicitly only in Luke 22:37, but he seems to allude to it in Mark 10:45, 14:24, and possibly 9:12. Peter not only emphasizes vicarious, redemptive suffering (1 Pt 2:21-25; 3:18) but seems to highlight the theme of Isaiah 53 in summing up OT prophecy (1:11) as predicting “the sufferings of Christ and the glories that would follow.” Paul includes these elements (1 Cor 15:3; Phil 2:6-11; cf. Rom 4:25; 5:19; 2 Cor 5:21), and John’s “Lamb of God” title derives from Isaiah 53:7 no less than from the entire sacrificial system.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Christology; Isaiah, Book of.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>SERVANT OF THE LORD<\/h3>\nTitle applied to a variety of persons in the Bible. The basic term, “servant,” covers a range of meanings. Used some 800 times in the OT alone, “servant” refers to a slave, to an officer close to the king, or to the chosen leader of God’s people.<\/p>\nIsaiah 41:8-9 defines this highest servanthood as something granted by God’s grace: “But you, Israel, my servant, Jacob whom I have chosen . . . ; you whom I took from the ends of the earth, and called from its farthest corners, saying to you, ‘You are my servant. . . . ’ ” (rsv<\/span>). This title is thus applicable to heroes of faith and action—to the patriarchs (Gn 26:24; Ez 28:25; 37:25), to Moses (Ex 14:31; 1 Kgs 8:53, 56), to David (2 Sm 7:26-29; Jer 33:21-26; Ez 37:24) and his descendants (as Hezekiah, Eliakim, Zerubbabel—Hg 2:23), to the prophets (2 Kgs 10:10; 14:25), and to other faithful Israelites, such as Joshua and Caleb (Nm 14:24; Jos 24:29; Jgs 2:8).<\/p>\nProphets other than Isaiah employ this term, but only Zechariah joins him in giving an apparently messianic prediction to this name. Zechariah 3:8 says, “Hear now, O Joshua the high priest, you and your friends who sit before you, for they are men of good omen: behold, I will bring my servant the Branch” (rsv<\/span>). Some would see Zerubbabel as the individual in view here (cf. Zec 6:12); however, the use of “Branch” is decidedly messianic in Isaiah (Is 11:1) and Jeremiah (Jer 33:15).<\/p>\n“The<\/em> servant of the Lord,” in specialized biblical usage, points to the Messiah while also alluding to Isaiah’s central message. Though Isaiah, with others, employs “servant” with a range of significations, he composed some passages known as the Servant Songs. These distinctive sections of his book are distinguishable in content, but they cannot be extracted from the surrounding context without disrupting the flow of prophecy. Isaiah’s focus is on the future Messiah-servant. None can question the NT’s unanimous messianic interpretation of Isaiah’s servant, nor its application of this understanding to Jesus Christ.<\/p>\nA “servant Christology” pervades Acts (Acts 3:13, 26; 4:27, 30), and 1 Peter, with numerous allusions in the Gospels. Jesus himself quotes Isaiah 53 explicitly only in Luke 22:37, but he seems to allude to it in Mark 10:45, 14:24, and possibly 9:12. Peter not only emphasizes vicarious, redemptive suffering (1 Pt 2:21-25; 3:18) but seems to highlight the theme of Isaiah 53 in summing up OT prophecy (1:11) as predicting “the sufferings of Christ and the glories that would follow.” Paul includes these elements (1 Cor 15:3; Phil 2:6-11; cf. Rom 4:25; 5:19; 2 Cor 5:21), and John’s “Lamb of God” title derives from Isaiah 53:7 no less than from the entire sacrificial system.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Christology; Isaiah, Book of.<\/p>","summary_ro":"SERVANT OF THE LORD Title applied to a variety of persons in the Bible. The basic term, “servant,” covers a range of meanings. Used some 800 times in the OT alone, “servant” refers to a slave, to an officer close to the king, or to the chosen leader of God’s people. Isaiah 41:8-9 defines this highest servanthood as something granted by God’s grace: “But you, Israel, my servant, Jacob whom I have chosen . . . ; you whom I took from the ends of the earth, and called from its farthest corners, s...","summary_en":"SERVANT OF THE LORD Title applied to a variety of persons in the Bible. The basic term, “servant,” covers a range of meanings. Used some 800 times in the OT alone, “servant” refers to a slave, to an officer close to the king, or to the chosen leader of God’s people. Isaiah 41:8-9 defines this highest servanthood as something granted by God’s grace: “But you, Israel, my servant, Jacob whom I have chosen . . . ; you whom I took from the ends of the earth, and called from its farthest corners, s...","source":"Articles\/S.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":39278,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Zerubbabel","title_en":"Zerubbabel","content_ro":"<h3>ZERUBBABEL<\/h3>\nBabylonian-born Jew who returned to Palestine in 538 BC<\/span> to serve as governor of Jerusalem under Persian rule. The name presumably means “seed [offspring] of Babylon,” referring to someone born in Babylon.<\/p>\nThe exact identity of Zerubbabel’s biological father is uncertain. All biblical references except one mention Shealtiel as his father (Ezr 3:2, 8; 5:2; Neh 12:1; Hg 1:1, 12-14; 2:2, 23; Mt 1:12-13; Lk 3:27). This would make Zerubbabel the grandson of the Davidic king Jehoiachin. However, 1 Chronicles 3:19 identifies Pedaiah, the brother of Shealtiel, as Zerubbabel’s father.<\/p>\nTwo solutions have been proposed. Many scholars have assumed that Shealtiel died before fathering an heir. His brother, Pedaiah, would then have fathered Zerubbabel by Shealtiel’s widow. Hence, Zerubbabel would have retained the name of Shealtiel rather than Pedaiah in accordance with the law of levirate marriage (Dt 25:5-10). This solution is weakened by its lack of textual support; similarly, the Chronicler would hardly have failed to state such an important piece of information if he had been desirous of “correcting” an error pertaining to Zerubbabel’s parentage.<\/p>\nA simpler solution is obtained by reading the Septuagint text of 1 Chronicles 3:19, which lists Salathiel (Shealtiel) as the father of Zerubbabel. In this way, the single reference to 1 Chronicles may be harmonized with the other verses cited above.<\/p>\nIn either case, whether Shealtiel or Pedaiah was Zerubbabel’s biological father, it is clear that Zerubbabel was of Davidic lineage and was viewed by members of the Israelite community as a viable candidate for leading them back to a position of power.<\/p>\nFollowing the edict of Cyrus in 538 BC<\/span>, Jews were permitted to return to Palestine and reclaim their former homeland. Zerubbabel was appointed governor, and probably by the decade of 529–520 had started work on the reconstruction of the Jerusalem temple. However, because of several discouraging events, little was accomplished until the year 520 BC<\/span>.<\/p>\nThe writings of Haggai and Zechariah reveal much information about Zerubbabel’s standing in the community. These two prophets evidently viewed Jeshua and Zerubbabel as the two men chosen by God for the task. Accordingly, in many of their oracles, support for one or both men is openly stated (e.g., Hg 2:21-23; Zec 3:8; 4:6-7; 6:12). The prophets viewed Jeshua and Zerubbabel’s work as being messianic. This is most clearly seen in the vision of Zechariah (Zec 4:11-14). In the vision, two olive branches, one on either side of the lampstand, are identified as “the two anointed who stand by the Lord of the whole earth.” As the context clearly shows, none other than Jeshua (or Joshua; named in 3:1-9) and Zerubbabel (named in 4:6-10) are meant. Because of his association with the rebuilding of the temple in Jerusalem, Zerubbabel had been accorded a place of great honor in Jewish tradition.<\/p>\nSome hold that Zerubbabel was known to the Persians as Sheshbazzar. See<\/em> Sheshbazzar.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ZERUBBABEL<\/h3>\nBabylonian-born Jew who returned to Palestine in 538 BC<\/span> to serve as governor of Jerusalem under Persian rule. The name presumably means “seed [offspring] of Babylon,” referring to someone born in Babylon.<\/p>\nThe exact identity of Zerubbabel’s biological father is uncertain. All biblical references except one mention Shealtiel as his father (Ezr 3:2, 8; 5:2; Neh 12:1; Hg 1:1, 12-14; 2:2, 23; Mt 1:12-13; Lk 3:27). This would make Zerubbabel the grandson of the Davidic king Jehoiachin. However, 1 Chronicles 3:19 identifies Pedaiah, the brother of Shealtiel, as Zerubbabel’s father.<\/p>\nTwo solutions have been proposed. Many scholars have assumed that Shealtiel died before fathering an heir. His brother, Pedaiah, would then have fathered Zerubbabel by Shealtiel’s widow. Hence, Zerubbabel would have retained the name of Shealtiel rather than Pedaiah in accordance with the law of levirate marriage (Dt 25:5-10). This solution is weakened by its lack of textual support; similarly, the Chronicler would hardly have failed to state such an important piece of information if he had been desirous of “correcting” an error pertaining to Zerubbabel’s parentage.<\/p>\nA simpler solution is obtained by reading the Septuagint text of 1 Chronicles 3:19, which lists Salathiel (Shealtiel) as the father of Zerubbabel. In this way, the single reference to 1 Chronicles may be harmonized with the other verses cited above.<\/p>\nIn either case, whether Shealtiel or Pedaiah was Zerubbabel’s biological father, it is clear that Zerubbabel was of Davidic lineage and was viewed by members of the Israelite community as a viable candidate for leading them back to a position of power.<\/p>\nFollowing the edict of Cyrus in 538 BC<\/span>, Jews were permitted to return to Palestine and reclaim their former homeland. Zerubbabel was appointed governor, and probably by the decade of 529–520 had started work on the reconstruction of the Jerusalem temple. However, because of several discouraging events, little was accomplished until the year 520 BC<\/span>.<\/p>\nThe writings of Haggai and Zechariah reveal much information about Zerubbabel’s standing in the community. These two prophets evidently viewed Jeshua and Zerubbabel as the two men chosen by God for the task. Accordingly, in many of their oracles, support for one or both men is openly stated (e.g., Hg 2:21-23; Zec 3:8; 4:6-7; 6:12). The prophets viewed Jeshua and Zerubbabel’s work as being messianic. This is most clearly seen in the vision of Zechariah (Zec 4:11-14). In the vision, two olive branches, one on either side of the lampstand, are identified as “the two anointed who stand by the Lord of the whole earth.” As the context clearly shows, none other than Jeshua (or Joshua; named in 3:1-9) and Zerubbabel (named in 4:6-10) are meant. Because of his association with the rebuilding of the temple in Jerusalem, Zerubbabel had been accorded a place of great honor in Jewish tradition.<\/p>\nSome hold that Zerubbabel was known to the Persians as Sheshbazzar. See<\/em> Sheshbazzar.<\/p>","summary_ro":"ZERUBBABEL Babylonian-born Jew who returned to Palestine in 538 BC to serve as governor of Jerusalem under Persian rule. The name presumably means “seed [offspring] of Babylon,” referring to someone born in Babylon. The exact identity of Zerubbabel’s biological father is uncertain. All biblical references except one mention Shealtiel as his father (Ezr 3:2, 8; 5:2; Neh 12:1; Hg 1:1, 12-14; 2:2, 23; Mt 1:12-13; Lk 3:27). This would make Zerubbabel the grandson of the Davidic king Jehoiachin. H...","summary_en":"ZERUBBABEL Babylonian-born Jew who returned to Palestine in 538 BC to serve as governor of Jerusalem under Persian rule. The name presumably means “seed [offspring] of Babylon,” referring to someone born in Babylon. The exact identity of Zerubbabel’s biological father is uncertain. All biblical references except one mention Shealtiel as his father (Ezr 3:2, 8; 5:2; Neh 12:1; Hg 1:1, 12-14; 2:2, 23; Mt 1:12-13; Lk 3:27). This would make Zerubbabel the grandson of the Davidic king Jehoiachin. H...","source":"Articles\/Z.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":40226,"type":"textbox","type_label":"Notă explicativă","type_icon":"💡","type_color":"#8b5cf6","title_ro":"The Branch: A Symbol for the Messiah","title_en":"The Branch: A Symbol for the Messiah","content_ro":"<h3>The Branch: A Symbol for the Messiah<\/h3>\n<blockquote>In the following key passages, the “branch” is used as a symbol for the Messiah:<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<li>1. Isaiah 4:2-6 is the first occurrence of “branch” as a title: “In that day the branch of the Lord<\/span> shall be beautiful and glorious, and the fruit of the land shall be the pride and glory of the survivors of Israel” (rsv<\/span>). Many scholars interpret “branch” here to mean the Messiah for several reasons: (a) The whole tenor of the chapter makes it likely that it refers to the Messiah, who provides the harvest, establishes holiness, executes judgment, and creates “glory” in the land. (b) Isaiah 28:5 describes the Lord in similar terms, making a messianic interpretation of Isaiah 4:2 more probable. (c) Jeremiah 23:5 and 33:15, which seem to be commentaries on Isaiah 4:2, interpret it to refer to the Messiah. Mention of a righteous remnant illustrates a concept developing along with the “branch” imagery and amplifying its meaning. The branch will become the “beauty and glory” of the remnant of Israel and will wreak destruction on apostate Israel (Is 4:4).<\/li>\n<li>2. Isaiah 11:1 adds a Davidic element to Isaiah 4:2, since Jesse was David’s father. The “shoot” grew out of the “stump of Jesse,” that is, the royal line of David. The Davidic line is pictured as a fallen dynasty, a tree cut down (the passage probably mentions Jesse rather than David to stress a lowly origin). The stump remains, however, and there is still life within it. That stump is insignificant in contrast to the mighty forest of Assyria, but the Lord will level that forest (Is 10:15-19, 33-34) and bring forth from Jesse’s stump a fruitful shoot who will recover the Israelite remnant (Is 11:4, 11-12), destroy their adversaries, and reign in wisdom through the Spirit of the Lord.<\/li>\n<li>3. Jeremiah 23:5 and 33:15 contrast the righteous reign of the Branch with the evil leadership of King Zedekiah. In both passages a remnant is pictured under the metaphor of a flock gathered back to their fold under caring shepherds (Jer 23:3-4; cf. 33:12-13). The shepherds are ruled by the Branch, who is given the title “The Lord<\/span> is our righteousness” (33:16). That phrase in Hebrew is a deliberate wordplay on the name “Zedekiah” (meaning “the Lord is my vindication”). Zedekiah was righteous in name but not in reign. The Branch of the Lord, in contrast, will rule justly.<\/li>\n<li>4. Zechariah 3:8 and 6:12 apply the branch metaphor in a different context—that of the postexilic task of rebuilding the temple. Zechariah described Joshua the high priest as a symbol of the future “servant- Branch” to be sent from the Lord. The Branch is seen as performing a priestly function in restoring righteous worship to the land. The royal line would be reinstated and the glories of the priestly line would also be reconstituted in the Branch. The servant of the Branch is probably taken from Isaiah’s servant songs, where similar language is used (Is 53:2). Zechariah specifically related the priestly activity to rebuilding the temple. Zerubbabel had earlier been given the task of completing the literal building (Zec 4:7-9), so the allusion must go beyond that to the “spiritual temple” to come. (Since Zerubbabel’s name means “shoot of Babylon,” the connection seems deliberate). Finally, Zechariah combines the two messianic aspects of the Branch: “He will build the Lord<\/span>’s Temple, and he will receive royal honor and will rule as king from his throne. He will also serve as priest from his throne, and there will be perfect harmony between the two” (6:13, nlt<\/span>).<\/li>\n“Branch” is never used as a title in the NT. Yet there are hints of that concept’s influence, as in the familiar “vine and branches” metaphor (Jn 15:1-8), in the use of palm branches at Jesus’ triumphal entry into Jerusalem (12:13; cf. Mk 11:8 and parallels), and possibly in the origin of the titles “Righteous One” (Acts 3:14; 7:52; cf. Jas 5:6) and “Just One” (Acts 22:14). Some have also taken an enigmatic reference to Christ, “He shall be called a Nazarene” as an allusion to the “branch” because in Isaiah 11:1 and other references netzer<\/span> is similar to “Nazarene.”<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Branch: A Symbol for the Messiah<\/h3>\n<blockquote>In the following key passages, the “branch” is used as a symbol for the Messiah:<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<li>1. Isaiah 4:2-6 is the first occurrence of “branch” as a title: “In that day the branch of the Lord<\/span> shall be beautiful and glorious, and the fruit of the land shall be the pride and glory of the survivors of Israel” (rsv<\/span>). Many scholars interpret “branch” here to mean the Messiah for several reasons: (a) The whole tenor of the chapter makes it likely that it refers to the Messiah, who provides the harvest, establishes holiness, executes judgment, and creates “glory” in the land. (b) Isaiah 28:5 describes the Lord in similar terms, making a messianic interpretation of Isaiah 4:2 more probable. (c) Jeremiah 23:5 and 33:15, which seem to be commentaries on Isaiah 4:2, interpret it to refer to the Messiah. Mention of a righteous remnant illustrates a concept developing along with the “branch” imagery and amplifying its meaning. The branch will become the “beauty and glory” of the remnant of Israel and will wreak destruction on apostate Israel (Is 4:4).<\/li>\n<li>2. Isaiah 11:1 adds a Davidic element to Isaiah 4:2, since Jesse was David’s father. The “shoot” grew out of the “stump of Jesse,” that is, the royal line of David. The Davidic line is pictured as a fallen dynasty, a tree cut down (the passage probably mentions Jesse rather than David to stress a lowly origin). The stump remains, however, and there is still life within it. That stump is insignificant in contrast to the mighty forest of Assyria, but the Lord will level that forest (Is 10:15-19, 33-34) and bring forth from Jesse’s stump a fruitful shoot who will recover the Israelite remnant (Is 11:4, 11-12), destroy their adversaries, and reign in wisdom through the Spirit of the Lord.<\/li>\n<li>3. Jeremiah 23:5 and 33:15 contrast the righteous reign of the Branch with the evil leadership of King Zedekiah. In both passages a remnant is pictured under the metaphor of a flock gathered back to their fold under caring shepherds (Jer 23:3-4; cf. 33:12-13). The shepherds are ruled by the Branch, who is given the title “The Lord<\/span> is our righteousness” (33:16). That phrase in Hebrew is a deliberate wordplay on the name “Zedekiah” (meaning “the Lord is my vindication”). Zedekiah was righteous in name but not in reign. The Branch of the Lord, in contrast, will rule justly.<\/li>\n<li>4. Zechariah 3:8 and 6:12 apply the branch metaphor in a different context—that of the postexilic task of rebuilding the temple. Zechariah described Joshua the high priest as a symbol of the future “servant- Branch” to be sent from the Lord. The Branch is seen as performing a priestly function in restoring righteous worship to the land. The royal line would be reinstated and the glories of the priestly line would also be reconstituted in the Branch. The servant of the Branch is probably taken from Isaiah’s servant songs, where similar language is used (Is 53:2). Zechariah specifically related the priestly activity to rebuilding the temple. Zerubbabel had earlier been given the task of completing the literal building (Zec 4:7-9), so the allusion must go beyond that to the “spiritual temple” to come. (Since Zerubbabel’s name means “shoot of Babylon,” the connection seems deliberate). Finally, Zechariah combines the two messianic aspects of the Branch: “He will build the Lord<\/span>’s Temple, and he will receive royal honor and will rule as king from his throne. He will also serve as priest from his throne, and there will be perfect harmony between the two” (6:13, nlt<\/span>).<\/li>\n“Branch” is never used as a title in the NT. Yet there are hints of that concept’s influence, as in the familiar “vine and branches” metaphor (Jn 15:1-8), in the use of palm branches at Jesus’ triumphal entry into Jerusalem (12:13; cf. Mk 11:8 and parallels), and possibly in the origin of the titles “Righteous One” (Acts 3:14; 7:52; cf. Jas 5:6) and “Just One” (Acts 22:14). Some have also taken an enigmatic reference to Christ, “He shall be called a Nazarene” as an allusion to the “branch” because in Isaiah 11:1 and other references netzer<\/span> is similar to “Nazarene.”<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Branch: A Symbol for the Messiah In the following key passages, the “branch” is used as a symbol for the Messiah: 1. Isaiah 4:2-6 is the first occurrence of “branch” as a title: “In that day the branch of the Lord shall be beautiful and glorious, and the fruit of the land shall be the pride and glory of the survivors of Israel” (rsv). Many scholars interpret “branch” here to mean the Messiah for several reasons: (a) The whole tenor of the chapter makes it likely that it refers to the Mess...","summary_en":"The Branch: A Symbol for the Messiah In the following key passages, the “branch” is used as a symbol for the Messiah: 1. Isaiah 4:2-6 is the first occurrence of “branch” as a title: “In that day the branch of the Lord shall be beautiful and glorious, and the fruit of the land shall be the pride and glory of the survivors of Israel” (rsv). Many scholars interpret “branch” here to mean the Messiah for several reasons: (a) The whole tenor of the chapter makes it likely that it refers to the Mess...","source":"Textboxes\/Textboxes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":54312,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Zaharia 6:12","title_en":"Study Note: Zaharia 6:12","content_ro":"6:12-13<\/strong> The Branch<\/em> is a title for the Messiah (see 3:8), whom Jeshua represents. • he will build the Temple of the<\/em> Lord<\/span>:<\/em> Just as Jeshua the high priest helped to build the Temple in Jerusalem (Ezra 3:1-2, 8-9; 5:2), Jesus the Messiah would build the eternal heavenly Temple through his death, burial, and resurrection (John 2:19-22; 4:23-24; Eph 2:19-22; Heb 8:1-2). • The Messiah would rule as king<\/em>,<\/em> a role associated with David and the tribe of Judah (2 Sam 7:12-16). • He will also serve as priest from his throne:<\/em> The Messiah’s priestly role is associated with Aaron and the tribe of Levi (Exod 29:44). • Jeshua’s crown represents his two roles<\/em>. Melchizedek also fulfilled the double functions of priest and king (Gen 14:17-20), as does the Messiah (Ps 110:4; Heb 7:1-3, 15-17).<\/p>","content_en":"6:12-13<\/strong> The Branch<\/em> is a title for the Messiah (see 3:8), whom Jeshua represents. • he will build the Temple of the<\/em> Lord<\/span>:<\/em> Just as Jeshua the high priest helped to build the Temple in Jerusalem (Ezra 3:1-2, 8-9; 5:2), Jesus the Messiah would build the eternal heavenly Temple through his death, burial, and resurrection (John 2:19-22; 4:23-24; Eph 2:19-22; Heb 8:1-2). • The Messiah would rule as king<\/em>,<\/em> a role associated with David and the tribe of Judah (2 Sam 7:12-16). • He will also serve as priest from his throne:<\/em> The Messiah’s priestly role is associated with Aaron and the tribe of Levi (Exod 29:44). • Jeshua’s crown represents his two roles<\/em>. Melchizedek also fulfilled the double functions of priest and king (Gen 14:17-20), as does the Messiah (Ps 110:4; Heb 7:1-3, 15-17).<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:12-13 The Branch is a title for the Messiah (see 3:8), whom Jeshua represents. • he will build the Temple of the Lord: Just as Jeshua the high priest helped to build the Temple in Jerusalem (Ezra 3:1-2, 8-9; 5:2), Jesus the Messiah would build the eternal heavenly Temple through his death, burial, and resurrection (John 2:19-22; 4:23-24; Eph 2:19-22; Heb 8:1-2). • The Messiah would rule as king, a role associated with David and the tribe of Judah (2 Sam 7:12-16). • He will also serve as pri...","summary_en":"6:12-13 The Branch is a title for the Messiah (see 3:8), whom Jeshua represents. • he will build the Temple of the Lord: Just as Jeshua the high priest helped to build the Temple in Jerusalem (Ezra 3:1-2, 8-9; 5:2), Jesus the Messiah would build the eternal heavenly Temple through his death, burial, and resurrection (John 2:19-22; 4:23-24; Eph 2:19-22; Heb 8:1-2). • The Messiah would rule as king, a role associated with David and the tribe of Judah (2 Sam 7:12-16). • He will also serve as pri...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":81938,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Zaharia 6:12","title_en":"Study Note: Zaharia 6:12","content_ro":"6:12-13<\/strong> The Branch<\/em> is a title for the Messiah (see 3:8), whom Jeshua represents. • he will build the Temple of the<\/em> Lord<\/span>:<\/em> Just as Jeshua the high priest helped to build the Temple in Jerusalem (Ezra 3:1-2, 8-9; 5:2), Jesus the Messiah would build the eternal heavenly Temple through his death, burial, and resurrection (John 2:19-22; 4:23-24; Eph 2:19-22; Heb 8:1-2). • The Messiah would rule as king<\/em>,<\/em> a role associated with David and the tribe of Judah (2 Sam 7:12-16). • He will also serve as priest from his throne:<\/em> The Messiah’s priestly role is associated with Aaron and the tribe of Levi (Exod 29:44). • Jeshua’s crown represents his two roles<\/em>. Melchizedek also fulfilled the double functions of priest and king (Gen 14:17-20), as does the Messiah (Ps 110:4; Heb 7:1-3, 15-17).<\/p>","content_en":"6:12-13<\/strong> The Branch<\/em> is a title for the Messiah (see 3:8), whom Jeshua represents. • he will build the Temple of the<\/em> Lord<\/span>:<\/em> Just as Jeshua the high priest helped to build the Temple in Jerusalem (Ezra 3:1-2, 8-9; 5:2), Jesus the Messiah would build the eternal heavenly Temple through his death, burial, and resurrection (John 2:19-22; 4:23-24; Eph 2:19-22; Heb 8:1-2). • The Messiah would rule as king<\/em>,<\/em> a role associated with David and the tribe of Judah (2 Sam 7:12-16). • He will also serve as priest from his throne:<\/em> The Messiah’s priestly role is associated with Aaron and the tribe of Levi (Exod 29:44). • Jeshua’s crown represents his two roles<\/em>. Melchizedek also fulfilled the double functions of priest and king (Gen 14:17-20), as does the Messiah (Ps 110:4; Heb 7:1-3, 15-17).<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:12-13 The Branch is a title for the Messiah (see 3:8), whom Jeshua represents. • he will build the Temple of the Lord: Just as Jeshua the high priest helped to build the Temple in Jerusalem (Ezra 3:1-2, 8-9; 5:2), Jesus the Messiah would build the eternal heavenly Temple through his death, burial, and resurrection (John 2:19-22; 4:23-24; Eph 2:19-22; Heb 8:1-2). • The Messiah would rule as king, a role associated with David and the tribe of Judah (2 Sam 7:12-16). • He will also serve as pri...","summary_en":"6:12-13 The Branch is a title for the Messiah (see 3:8), whom Jeshua represents. • he will build the Temple of the Lord: Just as Jeshua the high priest helped to build the Temple in Jerusalem (Ezra 3:1-2, 8-9; 5:2), Jesus the Messiah would build the eternal heavenly Temple through his death, burial, and resurrection (John 2:19-22; 4:23-24; Eph 2:19-22; Heb 8:1-2). • The Messiah would rule as king, a role associated with David and the tribe of Judah (2 Sam 7:12-16). • He will also serve as pri...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":109564,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Zaharia 6:12","title_en":"Study Note: Zaharia 6:12","content_ro":"6:12-13<\/strong> The Branch<\/em> is a title for the Messiah (see 3:8), whom Jeshua represents. • he will build the Temple of the<\/em> Lord<\/span>:<\/em> Just as Jeshua the high priest helped to build the Temple in Jerusalem (Ezra 3:1-2, 8-9; 5:2), Jesus the Messiah would build the eternal heavenly Temple through his death, burial, and resurrection (John 2:19-22; 4:23-24; Eph 2:19-22; Heb 8:1-2). • The Messiah would rule as king<\/em>,<\/em> a role associated with David and the tribe of Judah (2 Sam 7:12-16). • He will also serve as priest from his throne:<\/em> The Messiah’s priestly role is associated with Aaron and the tribe of Levi (Exod 29:44). • Jeshua’s crown represents his two roles<\/em>. Melchizedek also fulfilled the double functions of priest and king (Gen 14:17-20), as does the Messiah (Ps 110:4; Heb 7:1-3, 15-17).<\/p>","content_en":"6:12-13<\/strong> The Branch<\/em> is a title for the Messiah (see 3:8), whom Jeshua represents. • he will build the Temple of the<\/em> Lord<\/span>:<\/em> Just as Jeshua the high priest helped to build the Temple in Jerusalem (Ezra 3:1-2, 8-9; 5:2), Jesus the Messiah would build the eternal heavenly Temple through his death, burial, and resurrection (John 2:19-22; 4:23-24; Eph 2:19-22; Heb 8:1-2). • The Messiah would rule as king<\/em>,<\/em> a role associated with David and the tribe of Judah (2 Sam 7:12-16). • He will also serve as priest from his throne:<\/em> The Messiah’s priestly role is associated with Aaron and the tribe of Levi (Exod 29:44). • Jeshua’s crown represents his two roles<\/em>. Melchizedek also fulfilled the double functions of priest and king (Gen 14:17-20), as does the Messiah (Ps 110:4; Heb 7:1-3, 15-17).<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:12-13 The Branch is a title for the Messiah (see 3:8), whom Jeshua represents. • he will build the Temple of the Lord: Just as Jeshua the high priest helped to build the Temple in Jerusalem (Ezra 3:1-2, 8-9; 5:2), Jesus the Messiah would build the eternal heavenly Temple through his death, burial, and resurrection (John 2:19-22; 4:23-24; Eph 2:19-22; Heb 8:1-2). • The Messiah would rule as king, a role associated with David and the tribe of Judah (2 Sam 7:12-16). • He will also serve as pri...","summary_en":"6:12-13 The Branch is a title for the Messiah (see 3:8), whom Jeshua represents. • he will build the Temple of the Lord: Just as Jeshua the high priest helped to build the Temple in Jerusalem (Ezra 3:1-2, 8-9; 5:2), Jesus the Messiah would build the eternal heavenly Temple through his death, burial, and resurrection (John 2:19-22; 4:23-24; Eph 2:19-22; Heb 8:1-2). • The Messiah would rule as king, a role associated with David and the tribe of Judah (2 Sam 7:12-16). • He will also serve as pri...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":137190,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Zaharia 6:12","title_en":"Study Note: Zaharia 6:12","content_ro":"6:12-13<\/strong> The Branch<\/em> is a title for the Messiah (see 3:8), whom Jeshua represents. • he will build the Temple of the<\/em> Lord<\/span>:<\/em> Just as Jeshua the high priest helped to build the Temple in Jerusalem (Ezra 3:1-2, 8-9; 5:2), Jesus the Messiah would build the eternal heavenly Temple through his death, burial, and resurrection (John 2:19-22; 4:23-24; Eph 2:19-22; Heb 8:1-2). • The Messiah would rule as king<\/em>,<\/em> a role associated with David and the tribe of Judah (2 Sam 7:12-16). • He will also serve as priest from his throne:<\/em> The Messiah’s priestly role is associated with Aaron and the tribe of Levi (Exod 29:44). • Jeshua’s crown represents his two roles<\/em>. Melchizedek also fulfilled the double functions of priest and king (Gen 14:17-20), as does the Messiah (Ps 110:4; Heb 7:1-3, 15-17).<\/p>","content_en":"6:12-13<\/strong> The Branch<\/em> is a title for the Messiah (see 3:8), whom Jeshua represents. • he will build the Temple of the<\/em> Lord<\/span>:<\/em> Just as Jeshua the high priest helped to build the Temple in Jerusalem (Ezra 3:1-2, 8-9; 5:2), Jesus the Messiah would build the eternal heavenly Temple through his death, burial, and resurrection (John 2:19-22; 4:23-24; Eph 2:19-22; Heb 8:1-2). • The Messiah would rule as king<\/em>,<\/em> a role associated with David and the tribe of Judah (2 Sam 7:12-16). • He will also serve as priest from his throne:<\/em> The Messiah’s priestly role is associated with Aaron and the tribe of Levi (Exod 29:44). • Jeshua’s crown represents his two roles<\/em>. Melchizedek also fulfilled the double functions of priest and king (Gen 14:17-20), as does the Messiah (Ps 110:4; Heb 7:1-3, 15-17).<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:12-13 The Branch is a title for the Messiah (see 3:8), whom Jeshua represents. • he will build the Temple of the Lord: Just as Jeshua the high priest helped to build the Temple in Jerusalem (Ezra 3:1-2, 8-9; 5:2), Jesus the Messiah would build the eternal heavenly Temple through his death, burial, and resurrection (John 2:19-22; 4:23-24; Eph 2:19-22; Heb 8:1-2). • The Messiah would rule as king, a role associated with David and the tribe of Judah (2 Sam 7:12-16). • He will also serve as pri...","summary_en":"6:12-13 The Branch is a title for the Messiah (see 3:8), whom Jeshua represents. • he will build the Temple of the Lord: Just as Jeshua the high priest helped to build the Temple in Jerusalem (Ezra 3:1-2, 8-9; 5:2), Jesus the Messiah would build the eternal heavenly Temple through his death, burial, and resurrection (John 2:19-22; 4:23-24; Eph 2:19-22; Heb 8:1-2). • The Messiah would rule as king, a role associated with David and the tribe of Judah (2 Sam 7:12-16). • He will also serve as pri...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":67212,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Church as God’s Temple","title_en":"The Church as God’s Temple","content_ro":"<h3>The Church as God’s Temple<\/h3>\nThe imagery of the church as the temple of God has its roots in the Old Testament. David and Solomon received a promise that the Temple in Jerusalem would be the place of God’s abiding presence with his people (see 2 Sam 7:12-16; 1 Kgs 9:1-9). That Temple was completed in 960 BC<\/span> but was destroyed in 586 BC<\/span>. Yet the prophets of Israel looked forward to a new temple; they announced a message of hope that God would once again live among his people (see, e.g., Isa 56:7; Ezek 40–43).<\/p>\nWhile the Temple in Jerusalem was rebuilt after the Exile—and reached a pinnacle during the renovations of Herod the Great—the hopes of God’s people were ultimately fulfilled in the coming of Jesus (see John 1:14; 2:19-22; 4:21-24). He himself is God’s temple, the place where God’s holiness resides, and he calls his people to join him. Thus, God’s people are to be a holy temple of God, a dwelling place for the Holy Spirit (see 1 Cor 3:16-17; 6:19; 2 Cor 6:16; Eph 2:21; 1 Pet 2:5; Rev 3:12).<\/p>\nPaul called on believers to realize their identity as God’s “holy people” (2 Cor 1:1) in two ways: They were to separate themselves from moral evil, and they were to be dedicated to God in holy living and service. Christians are therefore urged, “Let us cleanse ourselves from everything that can defile our body or spirit. And let us work toward complete holiness because we fear God” (2 Cor 7:1).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n2 Sam 7:12-16; 1 Kgs 8:12-53; 2 Chr 6:20; Pss 11:4; 27:4-6; Zech 6:12-15; Matt 18:20; John 2:18-22; 14:20; 17:23; Rom 8:10; 1 Cor 3:10-17; 6:18-20; 9:11-14; 2 Cor 6:14–7:1; Gal 2:20; Eph 2:20-22; 3:17-19; Col 1:27; Heb 3:6; 12:18-24; 1 Pet 2:4-9; Rev 1:12-16; 3:12, 20; 21:22<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Church as God’s Temple<\/h3>\nThe imagery of the church as the temple of God has its roots in the Old Testament. David and Solomon received a promise that the Temple in Jerusalem would be the place of God’s abiding presence with his people (see 2 Sam 7:12-16; 1 Kgs 9:1-9). That Temple was completed in 960 BC<\/span> but was destroyed in 586 BC<\/span>. Yet the prophets of Israel looked forward to a new temple; they announced a message of hope that God would once again live among his people (see, e.g., Isa 56:7; Ezek 40–43).<\/p>\nWhile the Temple in Jerusalem was rebuilt after the Exile—and reached a pinnacle during the renovations of Herod the Great—the hopes of God’s people were ultimately fulfilled in the coming of Jesus (see John 1:14; 2:19-22; 4:21-24). He himself is God’s temple, the place where God’s holiness resides, and he calls his people to join him. Thus, God’s people are to be a holy temple of God, a dwelling place for the Holy Spirit (see 1 Cor 3:16-17; 6:19; 2 Cor 6:16; Eph 2:21; 1 Pet 2:5; Rev 3:12).<\/p>\nPaul called on believers to realize their identity as God’s “holy people” (2 Cor 1:1) in two ways: They were to separate themselves from moral evil, and they were to be dedicated to God in holy living and service. Christians are therefore urged, “Let us cleanse ourselves from everything that can defile our body or spirit. And let us work toward complete holiness because we fear God” (2 Cor 7:1).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n2 Sam 7:12-16; 1 Kgs 8:12-53; 2 Chr 6:20; Pss 11:4; 27:4-6; Zech 6:12-15; Matt 18:20; John 2:18-22; 14:20; 17:23; Rom 8:10; 1 Cor 3:10-17; 6:18-20; 9:11-14; 2 Cor 6:14–7:1; Gal 2:20; Eph 2:20-22; 3:17-19; Col 1:27; Heb 3:6; 12:18-24; 1 Pet 2:4-9; Rev 1:12-16; 3:12, 20; 21:22<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Church as God’s Temple The imagery of the church as the temple of God has its roots in the Old Testament. David and Solomon received a promise that the Temple in Jerusalem would be the place of God’s abiding presence with his people (see 2 Sam 7:12-16; 1 Kgs 9:1-9). That Temple was completed in 960 BC but was destroyed in 586 BC. Yet the prophets of Israel looked forward to a new temple; they announced a message of hope that God would once again live among his people (see, e.g., Isa 56:7;...","summary_en":"The Church as God’s Temple The imagery of the church as the temple of God has its roots in the Old Testament. David and Solomon received a promise that the Temple in Jerusalem would be the place of God’s abiding presence with his people (see 2 Sam 7:12-16; 1 Kgs 9:1-9). That Temple was completed in 960 BC but was destroyed in 586 BC. Yet the prophets of Israel looked forward to a new temple; they announced a message of hope that God would once again live among his people (see, e.g., Isa 56:7;...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":94838,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Church as God’s Temple","title_en":"The Church as God’s Temple","content_ro":"<h3>The Church as God’s Temple<\/h3>\nThe imagery of the church as the temple of God has its roots in the Old Testament. David and Solomon received a promise that the Temple in Jerusalem would be the place of God’s abiding presence with his people (see 2 Sam 7:12-16; 1 Kgs 9:1-9). That Temple was completed in 960 BC<\/span> but was destroyed in 586 BC<\/span>. Yet the prophets of Israel looked forward to a new temple; they announced a message of hope that God would once again live among his people (see, e.g., Isa 56:7; Ezek 40–43).<\/p>\nWhile the Temple in Jerusalem was rebuilt after the Exile—and reached a pinnacle during the renovations of Herod the Great—the hopes of God’s people were ultimately fulfilled in the coming of Jesus (see John 1:14; 2:19-22; 4:21-24). He himself is God’s temple, the place where God’s holiness resides, and he calls his people to join him. Thus, God’s people are to be a holy temple of God, a dwelling place for the Holy Spirit (see 1 Cor 3:16-17; 6:19; 2 Cor 6:16; Eph 2:21; 1 Pet 2:5; Rev 3:12).<\/p>\nPaul called on believers to realize their identity as God’s “holy people” (2 Cor 1:1) in two ways: They were to separate themselves from moral evil, and they were to be dedicated to God in holy living and service. Christians are therefore urged, “Let us cleanse ourselves from everything that can defile our body or spirit. And let us work toward complete holiness because we fear God” (2 Cor 7:1).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n2 Sam 7:12-16; 1 Kgs 8:12-53; 2 Chr 6:20; Pss 11:4; 27:4-6; Zech 6:12-15; Matt 18:20; John 2:18-22; 14:20; 17:23; Rom 8:10; 1 Cor 3:10-17; 6:18-20; 9:11-14; 2 Cor 6:14–7:1; Gal 2:20; Eph 2:20-22; 3:17-19; Col 1:27; Heb 3:6; 12:18-24; 1 Pet 2:4-9; Rev 1:12-16; 3:12, 20; 21:22<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Church as God’s Temple<\/h3>\nThe imagery of the church as the temple of God has its roots in the Old Testament. David and Solomon received a promise that the Temple in Jerusalem would be the place of God’s abiding presence with his people (see 2 Sam 7:12-16; 1 Kgs 9:1-9). That Temple was completed in 960 BC<\/span> but was destroyed in 586 BC<\/span>. Yet the prophets of Israel looked forward to a new temple; they announced a message of hope that God would once again live among his people (see, e.g., Isa 56:7; Ezek 40–43).<\/p>\nWhile the Temple in Jerusalem was rebuilt after the Exile—and reached a pinnacle during the renovations of Herod the Great—the hopes of God’s people were ultimately fulfilled in the coming of Jesus (see John 1:14; 2:19-22; 4:21-24). He himself is God’s temple, the place where God’s holiness resides, and he calls his people to join him. Thus, God’s people are to be a holy temple of God, a dwelling place for the Holy Spirit (see 1 Cor 3:16-17; 6:19; 2 Cor 6:16; Eph 2:21; 1 Pet 2:5; Rev 3:12).<\/p>\nPaul called on believers to realize their identity as God’s “holy people” (2 Cor 1:1) in two ways: They were to separate themselves from moral evil, and they were to be dedicated to God in holy living and service. Christians are therefore urged, “Let us cleanse ourselves from everything that can defile our body or spirit. And let us work toward complete holiness because we fear God” (2 Cor 7:1).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n2 Sam 7:12-16; 1 Kgs 8:12-53; 2 Chr 6:20; Pss 11:4; 27:4-6; Zech 6:12-15; Matt 18:20; John 2:18-22; 14:20; 17:23; Rom 8:10; 1 Cor 3:10-17; 6:18-20; 9:11-14; 2 Cor 6:14–7:1; Gal 2:20; Eph 2:20-22; 3:17-19; Col 1:27; Heb 3:6; 12:18-24; 1 Pet 2:4-9; Rev 1:12-16; 3:12, 20; 21:22<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Church as God’s Temple The imagery of the church as the temple of God has its roots in the Old Testament. David and Solomon received a promise that the Temple in Jerusalem would be the place of God’s abiding presence with his people (see 2 Sam 7:12-16; 1 Kgs 9:1-9). That Temple was completed in 960 BC but was destroyed in 586 BC. Yet the prophets of Israel looked forward to a new temple; they announced a message of hope that God would once again live among his people (see, e.g., Isa 56:7;...","summary_en":"The Church as God’s Temple The imagery of the church as the temple of God has its roots in the Old Testament. David and Solomon received a promise that the Temple in Jerusalem would be the place of God’s abiding presence with his people (see 2 Sam 7:12-16; 1 Kgs 9:1-9). That Temple was completed in 960 BC but was destroyed in 586 BC. Yet the prophets of Israel looked forward to a new temple; they announced a message of hope that God would once again live among his people (see, e.g., Isa 56:7;...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":122464,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Church as God’s Temple","title_en":"The Church as God’s Temple","content_ro":"<h3>The Church as God’s Temple<\/h3>\nThe imagery of the church as the temple of God has its roots in the Old Testament. David and Solomon received a promise that the Temple in Jerusalem would be the place of God’s abiding presence with his people (see 2 Sam 7:12-16; 1 Kgs 9:1-9). That Temple was completed in 960 BC<\/span> but was destroyed in 586 BC<\/span>. Yet the prophets of Israel looked forward to a new temple; they announced a message of hope that God would once again live among his people (see, e.g., Isa 56:7; Ezek 40–43).<\/p>\nWhile the Temple in Jerusalem was rebuilt after the Exile—and reached a pinnacle during the renovations of Herod the Great—the hopes of God’s people were ultimately fulfilled in the coming of Jesus (see John 1:14; 2:19-22; 4:21-24). He himself is God’s temple, the place where God’s holiness resides, and he calls his people to join him. Thus, God’s people are to be a holy temple of God, a dwelling place for the Holy Spirit (see 1 Cor 3:16-17; 6:19; 2 Cor 6:16; Eph 2:21; 1 Pet 2:5; Rev 3:12).<\/p>\nPaul called on believers to realize their identity as God’s “holy people” (2 Cor 1:1) in two ways: They were to separate themselves from moral evil, and they were to be dedicated to God in holy living and service. Christians are therefore urged, “Let us cleanse ourselves from everything that can defile our body or spirit. And let us work toward complete holiness because we fear God” (2 Cor 7:1).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n2 Sam 7:12-16; 1 Kgs 8:12-53; 2 Chr 6:20; Pss 11:4; 27:4-6; Zech 6:12-15; Matt 18:20; John 2:18-22; 14:20; 17:23; Rom 8:10; 1 Cor 3:10-17; 6:18-20; 9:11-14; 2 Cor 6:14–7:1; Gal 2:20; Eph 2:20-22; 3:17-19; Col 1:27; Heb 3:6; 12:18-24; 1 Pet 2:4-9; Rev 1:12-16; 3:12, 20; 21:22<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Church as God’s Temple<\/h3>\nThe imagery of the church as the temple of God has its roots in the Old Testament. David and Solomon received a promise that the Temple in Jerusalem would be the place of God’s abiding presence with his people (see 2 Sam 7:12-16; 1 Kgs 9:1-9). That Temple was completed in 960 BC<\/span> but was destroyed in 586 BC<\/span>. Yet the prophets of Israel looked forward to a new temple; they announced a message of hope that God would once again live among his people (see, e.g., Isa 56:7; Ezek 40–43).<\/p>\nWhile the Temple in Jerusalem was rebuilt after the Exile—and reached a pinnacle during the renovations of Herod the Great—the hopes of God’s people were ultimately fulfilled in the coming of Jesus (see John 1:14; 2:19-22; 4:21-24). He himself is God’s temple, the place where God’s holiness resides, and he calls his people to join him. Thus, God’s people are to be a holy temple of God, a dwelling place for the Holy Spirit (see 1 Cor 3:16-17; 6:19; 2 Cor 6:16; Eph 2:21; 1 Pet 2:5; Rev 3:12).<\/p>\nPaul called on believers to realize their identity as God’s “holy people” (2 Cor 1:1) in two ways: They were to separate themselves from moral evil, and they were to be dedicated to God in holy living and service. Christians are therefore urged, “Let us cleanse ourselves from everything that can defile our body or spirit. And let us work toward complete holiness because we fear God” (2 Cor 7:1).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n2 Sam 7:12-16; 1 Kgs 8:12-53; 2 Chr 6:20; Pss 11:4; 27:4-6; Zech 6:12-15; Matt 18:20; John 2:18-22; 14:20; 17:23; Rom 8:10; 1 Cor 3:10-17; 6:18-20; 9:11-14; 2 Cor 6:14–7:1; Gal 2:20; Eph 2:20-22; 3:17-19; Col 1:27; Heb 3:6; 12:18-24; 1 Pet 2:4-9; Rev 1:12-16; 3:12, 20; 21:22<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Church as God’s Temple The imagery of the church as the temple of God has its roots in the Old Testament. David and Solomon received a promise that the Temple in Jerusalem would be the place of God’s abiding presence with his people (see 2 Sam 7:12-16; 1 Kgs 9:1-9). That Temple was completed in 960 BC but was destroyed in 586 BC. Yet the prophets of Israel looked forward to a new temple; they announced a message of hope that God would once again live among his people (see, e.g., Isa 56:7;...","summary_en":"The Church as God’s Temple The imagery of the church as the temple of God has its roots in the Old Testament. David and Solomon received a promise that the Temple in Jerusalem would be the place of God’s abiding presence with his people (see 2 Sam 7:12-16; 1 Kgs 9:1-9). That Temple was completed in 960 BC but was destroyed in 586 BC. Yet the prophets of Israel looked forward to a new temple; they announced a message of hope that God would once again live among his people (see, e.g., Isa 56:7;...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":150090,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Church as God’s Temple","title_en":"The Church as God’s Temple","content_ro":"<h3>The Church as God’s Temple<\/h3>\nThe imagery of the church as the temple of God has its roots in the Old Testament. David and Solomon received a promise that the Temple in Jerusalem would be the place of God’s abiding presence with his people (see 2 Sam 7:12-16; 1 Kgs 9:1-9). That Temple was completed in 960 BC<\/span> but was destroyed in 586 BC<\/span>. Yet the prophets of Israel looked forward to a new temple; they announced a message of hope that God would once again live among his people (see, e.g., Isa 56:7; Ezek 40–43).<\/p>\nWhile the Temple in Jerusalem was rebuilt after the Exile—and reached a pinnacle during the renovations of Herod the Great—the hopes of God’s people were ultimately fulfilled in the coming of Jesus (see John 1:14; 2:19-22; 4:21-24). He himself is God’s temple, the place where God’s holiness resides, and he calls his people to join him. Thus, God’s people are to be a holy temple of God, a dwelling place for the Holy Spirit (see 1 Cor 3:16-17; 6:19; 2 Cor 6:16; Eph 2:21; 1 Pet 2:5; Rev 3:12).<\/p>\nPaul called on believers to realize their identity as God’s “holy people” (2 Cor 1:1) in two ways: They were to separate themselves from moral evil, and they were to be dedicated to God in holy living and service. Christians are therefore urged, “Let us cleanse ourselves from everything that can defile our body or spirit. And let us work toward complete holiness because we fear God” (2 Cor 7:1).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n2 Sam 7:12-16; 1 Kgs 8:12-53; 2 Chr 6:20; Pss 11:4; 27:4-6; Zech 6:12-15; Matt 18:20; John 2:18-22; 14:20; 17:23; Rom 8:10; 1 Cor 3:10-17; 6:18-20; 9:11-14; 2 Cor 6:14–7:1; Gal 2:20; Eph 2:20-22; 3:17-19; Col 1:27; Heb 3:6; 12:18-24; 1 Pet 2:4-9; Rev 1:12-16; 3:12, 20; 21:22<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Church as God’s Temple<\/h3>\nThe imagery of the church as the temple of God has its roots in the Old Testament. David and Solomon received a promise that the Temple in Jerusalem would be the place of God’s abiding presence with his people (see 2 Sam 7:12-16; 1 Kgs 9:1-9). That Temple was completed in 960 BC<\/span> but was destroyed in 586 BC<\/span>. Yet the prophets of Israel looked forward to a new temple; they announced a message of hope that God would once again live among his people (see, e.g., Isa 56:7; Ezek 40–43).<\/p>\nWhile the Temple in Jerusalem was rebuilt after the Exile—and reached a pinnacle during the renovations of Herod the Great—the hopes of God’s people were ultimately fulfilled in the coming of Jesus (see John 1:14; 2:19-22; 4:21-24). He himself is God’s temple, the place where God’s holiness resides, and he calls his people to join him. Thus, God’s people are to be a holy temple of God, a dwelling place for the Holy Spirit (see 1 Cor 3:16-17; 6:19; 2 Cor 6:16; Eph 2:21; 1 Pet 2:5; Rev 3:12).<\/p>\nPaul called on believers to realize their identity as God’s “holy people” (2 Cor 1:1) in two ways: They were to separate themselves from moral evil, and they were to be dedicated to God in holy living and service. Christians are therefore urged, “Let us cleanse ourselves from everything that can defile our body or spirit. And let us work toward complete holiness because we fear God” (2 Cor 7:1).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n2 Sam 7:12-16; 1 Kgs 8:12-53; 2 Chr 6:20; Pss 11:4; 27:4-6; Zech 6:12-15; Matt 18:20; John 2:18-22; 14:20; 17:23; Rom 8:10; 1 Cor 3:10-17; 6:18-20; 9:11-14; 2 Cor 6:14–7:1; Gal 2:20; Eph 2:20-22; 3:17-19; Col 1:27; Heb 3:6; 12:18-24; 1 Pet 2:4-9; Rev 1:12-16; 3:12, 20; 21:22<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Church as God’s Temple The imagery of the church as the temple of God has its roots in the Old Testament. David and Solomon received a promise that the Temple in Jerusalem would be the place of God’s abiding presence with his people (see 2 Sam 7:12-16; 1 Kgs 9:1-9). That Temple was completed in 960 BC but was destroyed in 586 BC. Yet the prophets of Israel looked forward to a new temple; they announced a message of hope that God would once again live among his people (see, e.g., Isa 56:7;...","summary_en":"The Church as God’s Temple The imagery of the church as the temple of God has its roots in the Old Testament. David and Solomon received a promise that the Temple in Jerusalem would be the place of God’s abiding presence with his people (see 2 Sam 7:12-16; 1 Kgs 9:1-9). That Temple was completed in 960 BC but was destroyed in 586 BC. Yet the prophets of Israel looked forward to a new temple; they announced a message of hope that God would once again live among his people (see, e.g., Isa 56:7;...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"13":[{"id":15033,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Book of Haggai","title_en":"Book of Haggai","content_ro":"<h3>HAGGAI, Book of<\/h3>\nTenth of the 12 short prophetic books at the end of the OT.<\/p>\nPreview<\/p>\n• Author and Date<\/p>\n• Purpose<\/p>\n• Teaching<\/p>\n• Content<\/p>\nAuthor and Date<\/p>\nHaggai was among the Jewish colonists at Jerusalem in the year 520 BC<\/span> when his prophetic words were recorded (Ezr 5:1-2; 6:14). The four messages the Lord gave to Haggai were to be directed to specific individuals. The first was to Zerubbabel the governor and Joshua the high priest (Hg 1:1). The second was to Zerubbabel, Joshua, and the remnant of the people (2:2). The third was a word to the priests (v 11). The final message was limited to Zerubbabel (v 21).<\/p>\nPurpose<\/p>\nThe key phrase of Haggai’s prophecies is “Consider your ways” or “Consider” (1:5, 7; 2:15, 18). The purpose of God’s messages to the Judean leadership and people, therefore, was to awaken them to their spiritual responsibilities. Two different classes of Judeans had to be turned from their indifference. The true believers needed to be reminded that God was merciful. The situation could be remedied, even though they thought the sins committed by their fathers were unforgivable. The hypocrites among the Judeans had only sought the promised blessings. They had only exchanged one form of idolatry for another. When the blessings did not materialize, they were disappointed.<\/p>\nThe unifying message was that today gives no key to what God will do tomorrow. God’s fulfillment of his promises cannot be judged by appearances. Haggai’s message was twofold: reproof and encouragement. The colonists needed to be chastised for their indifference and consoled in the midst of their troubles.<\/p>\nTeaching<\/p>\nHaggai is a practical book, dealing with the believer’s service to God. Procrastination and indifference have been debilitating sins among God’s people throughout all ages. Concern and a sense of urgency are always pleasing to God (Rom 13:11-14).<\/p>\nThe presence of God is the primary motivation for boldness and the means of banishing discouragement (Mt 28:19-20; Eph 3:8-21; Heb 13:5-6).<\/p>\nSeparation from contaminating influences and sin is demanded of all believers (2 Cor 6:14–7:1). Without this quality of life, the believer cannot expect to be found fit for God’s service (2 Tm 2:19-26). The disobedient child of God can expect removal of blessing and chastisement from God (Heb 12:3-13; Jas 4:1-3).<\/p>\nThe message concerning God’s judgment of sin and the establishment of the messianic kingdom is a message of hope to the NT believer as well as the Jews of Haggai’s day (Rom 15:4-13; 2 Pt 3:10-18).<\/p>\nThe key phrase of Haggai (“consider your ways”) has echoes in 1 Corinthians 11:28 and 2 Corinthians 13:5, as do his writings about the effects of sin and the blessings of God (Jude 1:1-25).<\/p>\nThe God of Haggai is given the title “Lord of hosts” (“Lord<\/span> Almighty”) 14 times in the book. This title is characteristic of the postexilic prophetic books, Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi, where it is found more than 80 times. It teaches that God is all-powerful and is Master of all spirit beings in heaven and all created beings on the earth.<\/p>\nHaggai also testifies to the God-breathed quality of the Word of God and its divine authority. Over and over the prophet announces ways that God has spoken to him and is the author of these messages (at least 25 times in the space of 28 verses).<\/p>\nContent<\/p>\n<h5>First Message<\/h5>\nThe first message Haggai was to deliver to the Judeans was given to him “on the first day of the month” (Hg 1:1). Upon the first day of each month, the Jews were to bring special offerings to the sanctuary (Nm 28:11-15). God chose this special time to reveal the sin of the people with regard to the unfinished sanctuary.<\/p>\nThe leaders of the Judeans were singled out for the first message from the Lord (Hg 1:1). Zerubbabel was the civil leader or governor, and Joshua was the spiritual leader or high priest. Together, they were responsible for the activity (or inactivity) of God’s people.<\/p>\nThe word of the Lord revealed the procrastination of the people (1:2). God’s temple had not been completed because his people had determined for themselves that “the time is not come.” The energies and finances of God’s people had been channeled selfishly into their own homes (v 4).<\/p>\n“Now” (1:5, rsv<\/span>) focused the attention of the Jews upon the present requirement of God in the light of their sinful indifference. They were to give attention to their own condition spiritually and materially: “Consider how you have fared.” This key phrase of Haggai’s prophecies is literally “Set your heart on your ways” or “Lay your ways to your heart.” Self-examination would reveal that their procrastination had robbed them of more than just 16 years.<\/p>\nVerse 6 reveals the poverty in which the Jews were living as a result of God’s chastisement for their sin. The blessings of God had been withdrawn in accord with his covenant (see Dt 28:15–29:1).<\/p>\nFollowing another exhortation to “consider” their ways (Hg 1:7), the Lord revealed the remedy for the Jews’ cursed condition: “rebuild my house” (v 8). The disobedience with regard to the completion of the temple was the reason for their poverty (vv 9-11).<\/p>\nThe response of the leaders and the people was encouraging. The resumption of the construction of the temple was a definite manifestation of belief in the word of God (1:12). Immediate obedience also testified to the acceptance of the ministry of Haggai, who was “the Lord<\/span>’s messenger” delivering “the Lord<\/span>’s message” (v 13).<\/p>\n<h5>Second Message<\/h5>\nApproximately one month later Haggai was summoned again by the Lord (2:1). The second message continued the note of encouragement with which the first message closed. Perhaps the builders had begun to feel the pressures of their service. Perhaps the old doubts and discouragements had plagued their faith again. The adversaries had reappeared to hinder them (Ezr 5:3–6:12). Haggai’s second message was similar to Ezra’s claim that “the eye of their God was upon the elders of the Jews” (Ezr 5:5, rsv<\/span>). The Lord not only sees his servants’ needs but also sends relief and encouragement.<\/p>\nThe day of this second message was the last day of the Feast of Tabernacles (Lv 23:33-43). Perhaps this reminder of God’s glorious presence with their ancestors in the wilderness made their present situation all the more discouraging. Therefore, the Lord spoke to all the people rather than just to their leaders (Hg 2:2). Was there any survivor of the preexilic days who had personally beheld the glory of God as it resided in the Solomonic temple (cf. 1 Kgs 8:1-11; Ez 9:1–11:23)? Was the present temple “as nothing” in comparison (Hg 2:3)? The Babylonian Talmud listed five things that were absent in the new temple that had been present in the Solomonic temple: (1) the ark of the covenant, (2) the sacred fire, (3) the shekinah glory, (4) the Holy Spirit, and (5) the Urim and Thummim.<\/p>\nAgain, “now” calls attention to God’s remedy. Three times the command “take courage” is proclaimed (2:4). Each time the command is given, one of the recipients of God’s message is addressed (cf. v 2). The concluding command was “work.” The reason for the strength and the activity was God’s presence. The Holy Spirit might seem to be absent from the temple, but he would remain among the people “according to the word” of God (v 5).<\/p>\nTo encourage the workers further, God revealed the future glory of his house (2:6-9). That glory would come to pass after a time of judgment (vv 6-7a), when the treasures of all nations come in (v 7b). The exact meaning of this verse has been variously interpreted. The views center around two different translations: “the desire of all nations shall come” (kjv<\/span>) and “and the treasures of all the nations will come to this Temple” (nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nThe arguments for the messianic interpretation based on the first translation may be summarized as follows: (1) The vast majority of both Christian and Jewish interpreters took this phrase as a reference to the Messiah. (2) The abstract noun “desire” may have the concrete concept of the one who is desirable. (3) Though the verb in the Hebrew is plural, it is grammatically possible for the agreement of subject and predicate to be based upon the second noun (“nations”) in a genitive relationship. (4) The time element is suitable since God has just judged the nations and the hour of Christ’s coming would be at hand. (5) An alternate translation is available that meets the grammatical difficulties but retains the messianic import: “They [the nations] have come to the desire of all the nations.”<\/p>\nIn spite of the weight of the arguments for this first view, it seems better to accept the second translation and corresponding view. The arguments are as follows: (1) The vast majority of early Christian and Jewish interpreters base their view on the Latin Vulgate translation (c. AD<\/span> 400), while the second translation is in agreement with an older version, the Greek Septuagint (c. 300 BC<\/span>). (2) The singular “desire” may be taken as a collective noun referring to “features” or “wealth.” (3) The principle of Hebrew grammar that allows the noun “nations” to be the one with which the verb agrees is a rare occurrence in poetic books for such constructions as this. It is unlikely that such phraseology would be used without Haggai’s declaring the exact meaning in the immediate context. (4) The immediate context does solve the difficulty by the plain declaration that the silver and the gold belong to the Lord (2:8). (5) The kingdom context of these verses accords well with such parallel passages as Isaiah 60:5, 11 and Revelation 21:24.<\/p>\nThe conclusion to this message of encouragement is that the future glory of the temple (cf. Hg 2:3) will be greater than in the days of the Solomonic temple (v 9), because the shekinah glory will return (Hg 2:7; Ez 43:1-5) and the building will have great beauty (cf. Hg 2:8; Is 60:13, 17). God will also grant peace (Hg 2:9) in his kingdom at the time of this future glorious temple (see Is 9:6-7; 66:12; Zec 6:13).<\/p>\n<h5>Third Message<\/h5>\nAbout two months later Haggai received a third message from God (Hg 2:10). This time exhortation would be the theme, and the message was directed to the priests alone (v 11). Haggai used questions concerning the law of Moses to instruct the priests in the polluting character of sin. Something clean or holy cannot transfer its sanctity to something else (v 12). But that which is unholy can<\/em> transfer its<\/em> character to something clean, defiling it (Hg 2:13; cf. Lv 22:4-6; Nm 19:11).<\/p>\nThe application of this principle to the Judeans was clear: the offerings they brought during their years of disobedience were unacceptable to God because of Judah’s uncleanness (Hg 2:14).<\/p>\nBy reviving the memory of past disobedience and chastisement, God was exhorting the Jews to constantly “consider” (2:15, 18) the consequences of disobedience. Such consideration should prevent future spiritual indifference. The conclusion of the message was a reminder of the blessing of God upon the obedient (v 19).<\/p>\n<h5>Fourth Message<\/h5>\nOn the same day Haggai received another message from God (2:20). This message was to be directed toward Zerubbabel (v 21), who was to be encouraged by the permanency of his inherited Davidic office (cf. Hg 1:1; 2 Sm 7:4-17; 1 Chr 3:1, 5, 10, 17-20). The gentile nations would be judged and the kingdoms of the world overthrown (Hg 2:6-7, 21-22). This would be but the preparation for God’s rule (cf. Rv 11:15-18).<\/p>\nThe promise to Zerubbabel in Haggai 2:23 was God’s means of confirming that his promises to David were still operative even after the 70-year Babylonian captivity and the 16-year stagnation among the Judeans who had returned to Jerusalem. Zerubbabel was appointed “as a signet ring” by God. A signet was a personal cylinder or ring seal and a sign of the authenticity of their signature. Kings used them for identifying their decrees (Est 3:10; 8:8-10) and for confirming the authority of their deputies (Gn 41:42). God’s appointment of Zerubbabel “as a signet ring,” therefore, meant that Zerubbabel would be God’s seal of authority on the continuation of the Davidic line from which the Messiah should come and reign (cf. Mt 1:12; Lk 3:27).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Haggai (Person); Israel, History of; Postexilic Period; Prophecy; Prophet, Prophetess.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>HAGGAI, Book of<\/h3>\nTenth of the 12 short prophetic books at the end of the OT.<\/p>\nPreview<\/p>\n• Author and Date<\/p>\n• Purpose<\/p>\n• Teaching<\/p>\n• Content<\/p>\nAuthor and Date<\/p>\nHaggai was among the Jewish colonists at Jerusalem in the year 520 BC<\/span> when his prophetic words were recorded (Ezr 5:1-2; 6:14). The four messages the Lord gave to Haggai were to be directed to specific individuals. The first was to Zerubbabel the governor and Joshua the high priest (Hg 1:1). The second was to Zerubbabel, Joshua, and the remnant of the people (2:2). The third was a word to the priests (v 11). The final message was limited to Zerubbabel (v 21).<\/p>\nPurpose<\/p>\nThe key phrase of Haggai’s prophecies is “Consider your ways” or “Consider” (1:5, 7; 2:15, 18). The purpose of God’s messages to the Judean leadership and people, therefore, was to awaken them to their spiritual responsibilities. Two different classes of Judeans had to be turned from their indifference. The true believers needed to be reminded that God was merciful. The situation could be remedied, even though they thought the sins committed by their fathers were unforgivable. The hypocrites among the Judeans had only sought the promised blessings. They had only exchanged one form of idolatry for another. When the blessings did not materialize, they were disappointed.<\/p>\nThe unifying message was that today gives no key to what God will do tomorrow. God’s fulfillment of his promises cannot be judged by appearances. Haggai’s message was twofold: reproof and encouragement. The colonists needed to be chastised for their indifference and consoled in the midst of their troubles.<\/p>\nTeaching<\/p>\nHaggai is a practical book, dealing with the believer’s service to God. Procrastination and indifference have been debilitating sins among God’s people throughout all ages. Concern and a sense of urgency are always pleasing to God (Rom 13:11-14).<\/p>\nThe presence of God is the primary motivation for boldness and the means of banishing discouragement (Mt 28:19-20; Eph 3:8-21; Heb 13:5-6).<\/p>\nSeparation from contaminating influences and sin is demanded of all believers (2 Cor 6:14–7:1). Without this quality of life, the believer cannot expect to be found fit for God’s service (2 Tm 2:19-26). The disobedient child of God can expect removal of blessing and chastisement from God (Heb 12:3-13; Jas 4:1-3).<\/p>\nThe message concerning God’s judgment of sin and the establishment of the messianic kingdom is a message of hope to the NT believer as well as the Jews of Haggai’s day (Rom 15:4-13; 2 Pt 3:10-18).<\/p>\nThe key phrase of Haggai (“consider your ways”) has echoes in 1 Corinthians 11:28 and 2 Corinthians 13:5, as do his writings about the effects of sin and the blessings of God (Jude 1:1-25).<\/p>\nThe God of Haggai is given the title “Lord of hosts” (“Lord<\/span> Almighty”) 14 times in the book. This title is characteristic of the postexilic prophetic books, Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi, where it is found more than 80 times. It teaches that God is all-powerful and is Master of all spirit beings in heaven and all created beings on the earth.<\/p>\nHaggai also testifies to the God-breathed quality of the Word of God and its divine authority. Over and over the prophet announces ways that God has spoken to him and is the author of these messages (at least 25 times in the space of 28 verses).<\/p>\nContent<\/p>\n<h5>First Message<\/h5>\nThe first message Haggai was to deliver to the Judeans was given to him “on the first day of the month” (Hg 1:1). Upon the first day of each month, the Jews were to bring special offerings to the sanctuary (Nm 28:11-15). God chose this special time to reveal the sin of the people with regard to the unfinished sanctuary.<\/p>\nThe leaders of the Judeans were singled out for the first message from the Lord (Hg 1:1). Zerubbabel was the civil leader or governor, and Joshua was the spiritual leader or high priest. Together, they were responsible for the activity (or inactivity) of God’s people.<\/p>\nThe word of the Lord revealed the procrastination of the people (1:2). God’s temple had not been completed because his people had determined for themselves that “the time is not come.” The energies and finances of God’s people had been channeled selfishly into their own homes (v 4).<\/p>\n“Now” (1:5, rsv<\/span>) focused the attention of the Jews upon the present requirement of God in the light of their sinful indifference. They were to give attention to their own condition spiritually and materially: “Consider how you have fared.” This key phrase of Haggai’s prophecies is literally “Set your heart on your ways” or “Lay your ways to your heart.” Self-examination would reveal that their procrastination had robbed them of more than just 16 years.<\/p>\nVerse 6 reveals the poverty in which the Jews were living as a result of God’s chastisement for their sin. The blessings of God had been withdrawn in accord with his covenant (see Dt 28:15–29:1).<\/p>\nFollowing another exhortation to “consider” their ways (Hg 1:7), the Lord revealed the remedy for the Jews’ cursed condition: “rebuild my house” (v 8). The disobedience with regard to the completion of the temple was the reason for their poverty (vv 9-11).<\/p>\nThe response of the leaders and the people was encouraging. The resumption of the construction of the temple was a definite manifestation of belief in the word of God (1:12). Immediate obedience also testified to the acceptance of the ministry of Haggai, who was “the Lord<\/span>’s messenger” delivering “the Lord<\/span>’s message” (v 13).<\/p>\n<h5>Second Message<\/h5>\nApproximately one month later Haggai was summoned again by the Lord (2:1). The second message continued the note of encouragement with which the first message closed. Perhaps the builders had begun to feel the pressures of their service. Perhaps the old doubts and discouragements had plagued their faith again. The adversaries had reappeared to hinder them (Ezr 5:3–6:12). Haggai’s second message was similar to Ezra’s claim that “the eye of their God was upon the elders of the Jews” (Ezr 5:5, rsv<\/span>). The Lord not only sees his servants’ needs but also sends relief and encouragement.<\/p>\nThe day of this second message was the last day of the Feast of Tabernacles (Lv 23:33-43). Perhaps this reminder of God’s glorious presence with their ancestors in the wilderness made their present situation all the more discouraging. Therefore, the Lord spoke to all the people rather than just to their leaders (Hg 2:2). Was there any survivor of the preexilic days who had personally beheld the glory of God as it resided in the Solomonic temple (cf. 1 Kgs 8:1-11; Ez 9:1–11:23)? Was the present temple “as nothing” in comparison (Hg 2:3)? The Babylonian Talmud listed five things that were absent in the new temple that had been present in the Solomonic temple: (1) the ark of the covenant, (2) the sacred fire, (3) the shekinah glory, (4) the Holy Spirit, and (5) the Urim and Thummim.<\/p>\nAgain, “now” calls attention to God’s remedy. Three times the command “take courage” is proclaimed (2:4). Each time the command is given, one of the recipients of God’s message is addressed (cf. v 2). The concluding command was “work.” The reason for the strength and the activity was God’s presence. The Holy Spirit might seem to be absent from the temple, but he would remain among the people “according to the word” of God (v 5).<\/p>\nTo encourage the workers further, God revealed the future glory of his house (2:6-9). That glory would come to pass after a time of judgment (vv 6-7a), when the treasures of all nations come in (v 7b). The exact meaning of this verse has been variously interpreted. The views center around two different translations: “the desire of all nations shall come” (kjv<\/span>) and “and the treasures of all the nations will come to this Temple” (nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nThe arguments for the messianic interpretation based on the first translation may be summarized as follows: (1) The vast majority of both Christian and Jewish interpreters took this phrase as a reference to the Messiah. (2) The abstract noun “desire” may have the concrete concept of the one who is desirable. (3) Though the verb in the Hebrew is plural, it is grammatically possible for the agreement of subject and predicate to be based upon the second noun (“nations”) in a genitive relationship. (4) The time element is suitable since God has just judged the nations and the hour of Christ’s coming would be at hand. (5) An alternate translation is available that meets the grammatical difficulties but retains the messianic import: “They [the nations] have come to the desire of all the nations.”<\/p>\nIn spite of the weight of the arguments for this first view, it seems better to accept the second translation and corresponding view. The arguments are as follows: (1) The vast majority of early Christian and Jewish interpreters base their view on the Latin Vulgate translation (c. AD<\/span> 400), while the second translation is in agreement with an older version, the Greek Septuagint (c. 300 BC<\/span>). (2) The singular “desire” may be taken as a collective noun referring to “features” or “wealth.” (3) The principle of Hebrew grammar that allows the noun “nations” to be the one with which the verb agrees is a rare occurrence in poetic books for such constructions as this. It is unlikely that such phraseology would be used without Haggai’s declaring the exact meaning in the immediate context. (4) The immediate context does solve the difficulty by the plain declaration that the silver and the gold belong to the Lord (2:8). (5) The kingdom context of these verses accords well with such parallel passages as Isaiah 60:5, 11 and Revelation 21:24.<\/p>\nThe conclusion to this message of encouragement is that the future glory of the temple (cf. Hg 2:3) will be greater than in the days of the Solomonic temple (v 9), because the shekinah glory will return (Hg 2:7; Ez 43:1-5) and the building will have great beauty (cf. Hg 2:8; Is 60:13, 17). God will also grant peace (Hg 2:9) in his kingdom at the time of this future glorious temple (see Is 9:6-7; 66:12; Zec 6:13).<\/p>\n<h5>Third Message<\/h5>\nAbout two months later Haggai received a third message from God (Hg 2:10). This time exhortation would be the theme, and the message was directed to the priests alone (v 11). Haggai used questions concerning the law of Moses to instruct the priests in the polluting character of sin. Something clean or holy cannot transfer its sanctity to something else (v 12). But that which is unholy can<\/em> transfer its<\/em> character to something clean, defiling it (Hg 2:13; cf. Lv 22:4-6; Nm 19:11).<\/p>\nThe application of this principle to the Judeans was clear: the offerings they brought during their years of disobedience were unacceptable to God because of Judah’s uncleanness (Hg 2:14).<\/p>\nBy reviving the memory of past disobedience and chastisement, God was exhorting the Jews to constantly “consider” (2:15, 18) the consequences of disobedience. Such consideration should prevent future spiritual indifference. The conclusion of the message was a reminder of the blessing of God upon the obedient (v 19).<\/p>\n<h5>Fourth Message<\/h5>\nOn the same day Haggai received another message from God (2:20). This message was to be directed toward Zerubbabel (v 21), who was to be encouraged by the permanency of his inherited Davidic office (cf. Hg 1:1; 2 Sm 7:4-17; 1 Chr 3:1, 5, 10, 17-20). The gentile nations would be judged and the kingdoms of the world overthrown (Hg 2:6-7, 21-22). This would be but the preparation for God’s rule (cf. Rv 11:15-18).<\/p>\nThe promise to Zerubbabel in Haggai 2:23 was God’s means of confirming that his promises to David were still operative even after the 70-year Babylonian captivity and the 16-year stagnation among the Judeans who had returned to Jerusalem. Zerubbabel was appointed “as a signet ring” by God. A signet was a personal cylinder or ring seal and a sign of the authenticity of their signature. Kings used them for identifying their decrees (Est 3:10; 8:8-10) and for confirming the authority of their deputies (Gn 41:42). God’s appointment of Zerubbabel “as a signet ring,” therefore, meant that Zerubbabel would be God’s seal of authority on the continuation of the Davidic line from which the Messiah should come and reign (cf. Mt 1:12; Lk 3:27).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Haggai (Person); Israel, History of; Postexilic Period; Prophecy; Prophet, Prophetess.<\/p>","summary_ro":"HAGGAI, Book of Tenth of the 12 short prophetic books at the end of the OT. Preview • Author and Date • Purpose • Teaching • Content Author and Date Haggai was among the Jewish colonists at Jerusalem in the year 520 BC when his prophetic words were recorded (Ezr 5:1-2; 6:14). The four messages the Lord gave to Haggai were to be directed to specific individuals. The first was to Zerubbabel the governor and Joshua the high priest (Hg 1:1). The second was to Zerubbabel, Joshua, and the remnant o...","summary_en":"HAGGAI, Book of Tenth of the 12 short prophetic books at the end of the OT. Preview • Author and Date • Purpose • Teaching • Content Author and Date Haggai was among the Jewish colonists at Jerusalem in the year 520 BC when his prophetic words were recorded (Ezr 5:1-2; 6:14). The four messages the Lord gave to Haggai were to be directed to specific individuals. The first was to Zerubbabel the governor and Joshua the high priest (Hg 1:1). The second was to Zerubbabel, Joshua, and the remnant o...","source":"Articles\/H.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":40229,"type":"textbox","type_label":"Notă explicativă","type_icon":"💡","type_color":"#8b5cf6","title_ro":"The Branch: A Symbol for the Messiah","title_en":"The Branch: A Symbol for the Messiah","content_ro":"<h3>The Branch: A Symbol for the Messiah<\/h3>\n<blockquote>In the following key passages, the “branch” is used as a symbol for the Messiah:<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<li>1. Isaiah 4:2-6 is the first occurrence of “branch” as a title: “In that day the branch of the Lord<\/span> shall be beautiful and glorious, and the fruit of the land shall be the pride and glory of the survivors of Israel” (rsv<\/span>). Many scholars interpret “branch” here to mean the Messiah for several reasons: (a) The whole tenor of the chapter makes it likely that it refers to the Messiah, who provides the harvest, establishes holiness, executes judgment, and creates “glory” in the land. (b) Isaiah 28:5 describes the Lord in similar terms, making a messianic interpretation of Isaiah 4:2 more probable. (c) Jeremiah 23:5 and 33:15, which seem to be commentaries on Isaiah 4:2, interpret it to refer to the Messiah. Mention of a righteous remnant illustrates a concept developing along with the “branch” imagery and amplifying its meaning. The branch will become the “beauty and glory” of the remnant of Israel and will wreak destruction on apostate Israel (Is 4:4).<\/li>\n<li>2. Isaiah 11:1 adds a Davidic element to Isaiah 4:2, since Jesse was David’s father. The “shoot” grew out of the “stump of Jesse,” that is, the royal line of David. The Davidic line is pictured as a fallen dynasty, a tree cut down (the passage probably mentions Jesse rather than David to stress a lowly origin). The stump remains, however, and there is still life within it. That stump is insignificant in contrast to the mighty forest of Assyria, but the Lord will level that forest (Is 10:15-19, 33-34) and bring forth from Jesse’s stump a fruitful shoot who will recover the Israelite remnant (Is 11:4, 11-12), destroy their adversaries, and reign in wisdom through the Spirit of the Lord.<\/li>\n<li>3. Jeremiah 23:5 and 33:15 contrast the righteous reign of the Branch with the evil leadership of King Zedekiah. In both passages a remnant is pictured under the metaphor of a flock gathered back to their fold under caring shepherds (Jer 23:3-4; cf. 33:12-13). The shepherds are ruled by the Branch, who is given the title “The Lord<\/span> is our righteousness” (33:16). That phrase in Hebrew is a deliberate wordplay on the name “Zedekiah” (meaning “the Lord is my vindication”). Zedekiah was righteous in name but not in reign. The Branch of the Lord, in contrast, will rule justly.<\/li>\n<li>4. Zechariah 3:8 and 6:12 apply the branch metaphor in a different context—that of the postexilic task of rebuilding the temple. Zechariah described Joshua the high priest as a symbol of the future “servant- Branch” to be sent from the Lord. The Branch is seen as performing a priestly function in restoring righteous worship to the land. The royal line would be reinstated and the glories of the priestly line would also be reconstituted in the Branch. The servant of the Branch is probably taken from Isaiah’s servant songs, where similar language is used (Is 53:2). Zechariah specifically related the priestly activity to rebuilding the temple. Zerubbabel had earlier been given the task of completing the literal building (Zec 4:7-9), so the allusion must go beyond that to the “spiritual temple” to come. (Since Zerubbabel’s name means “shoot of Babylon,” the connection seems deliberate). Finally, Zechariah combines the two messianic aspects of the Branch: “He will build the Lord<\/span>’s Temple, and he will receive royal honor and will rule as king from his throne. He will also serve as priest from his throne, and there will be perfect harmony between the two” (6:13, nlt<\/span>).<\/li>\n“Branch” is never used as a title in the NT. Yet there are hints of that concept’s influence, as in the familiar “vine and branches” metaphor (Jn 15:1-8), in the use of palm branches at Jesus’ triumphal entry into Jerusalem (12:13; cf. Mk 11:8 and parallels), and possibly in the origin of the titles “Righteous One” (Acts 3:14; 7:52; cf. Jas 5:6) and “Just One” (Acts 22:14). Some have also taken an enigmatic reference to Christ, “He shall be called a Nazarene” as an allusion to the “branch” because in Isaiah 11:1 and other references netzer<\/span> is similar to “Nazarene.”<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Branch: A Symbol for the Messiah<\/h3>\n<blockquote>In the following key passages, the “branch” is used as a symbol for the Messiah:<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<li>1. Isaiah 4:2-6 is the first occurrence of “branch” as a title: “In that day the branch of the Lord<\/span> shall be beautiful and glorious, and the fruit of the land shall be the pride and glory of the survivors of Israel” (rsv<\/span>). Many scholars interpret “branch” here to mean the Messiah for several reasons: (a) The whole tenor of the chapter makes it likely that it refers to the Messiah, who provides the harvest, establishes holiness, executes judgment, and creates “glory” in the land. (b) Isaiah 28:5 describes the Lord in similar terms, making a messianic interpretation of Isaiah 4:2 more probable. (c) Jeremiah 23:5 and 33:15, which seem to be commentaries on Isaiah 4:2, interpret it to refer to the Messiah. Mention of a righteous remnant illustrates a concept developing along with the “branch” imagery and amplifying its meaning. The branch will become the “beauty and glory” of the remnant of Israel and will wreak destruction on apostate Israel (Is 4:4).<\/li>\n<li>2. Isaiah 11:1 adds a Davidic element to Isaiah 4:2, since Jesse was David’s father. The “shoot” grew out of the “stump of Jesse,” that is, the royal line of David. The Davidic line is pictured as a fallen dynasty, a tree cut down (the passage probably mentions Jesse rather than David to stress a lowly origin). The stump remains, however, and there is still life within it. That stump is insignificant in contrast to the mighty forest of Assyria, but the Lord will level that forest (Is 10:15-19, 33-34) and bring forth from Jesse’s stump a fruitful shoot who will recover the Israelite remnant (Is 11:4, 11-12), destroy their adversaries, and reign in wisdom through the Spirit of the Lord.<\/li>\n<li>3. Jeremiah 23:5 and 33:15 contrast the righteous reign of the Branch with the evil leadership of King Zedekiah. In both passages a remnant is pictured under the metaphor of a flock gathered back to their fold under caring shepherds (Jer 23:3-4; cf. 33:12-13). The shepherds are ruled by the Branch, who is given the title “The Lord<\/span> is our righteousness” (33:16). That phrase in Hebrew is a deliberate wordplay on the name “Zedekiah” (meaning “the Lord is my vindication”). Zedekiah was righteous in name but not in reign. The Branch of the Lord, in contrast, will rule justly.<\/li>\n<li>4. Zechariah 3:8 and 6:12 apply the branch metaphor in a different context—that of the postexilic task of rebuilding the temple. Zechariah described Joshua the high priest as a symbol of the future “servant- Branch” to be sent from the Lord. The Branch is seen as performing a priestly function in restoring righteous worship to the land. The royal line would be reinstated and the glories of the priestly line would also be reconstituted in the Branch. The servant of the Branch is probably taken from Isaiah’s servant songs, where similar language is used (Is 53:2). Zechariah specifically related the priestly activity to rebuilding the temple. Zerubbabel had earlier been given the task of completing the literal building (Zec 4:7-9), so the allusion must go beyond that to the “spiritual temple” to come. (Since Zerubbabel’s name means “shoot of Babylon,” the connection seems deliberate). Finally, Zechariah combines the two messianic aspects of the Branch: “He will build the Lord<\/span>’s Temple, and he will receive royal honor and will rule as king from his throne. He will also serve as priest from his throne, and there will be perfect harmony between the two” (6:13, nlt<\/span>).<\/li>\n“Branch” is never used as a title in the NT. Yet there are hints of that concept’s influence, as in the familiar “vine and branches” metaphor (Jn 15:1-8), in the use of palm branches at Jesus’ triumphal entry into Jerusalem (12:13; cf. Mk 11:8 and parallels), and possibly in the origin of the titles “Righteous One” (Acts 3:14; 7:52; cf. Jas 5:6) and “Just One” (Acts 22:14). Some have also taken an enigmatic reference to Christ, “He shall be called a Nazarene” as an allusion to the “branch” because in Isaiah 11:1 and other references netzer<\/span> is similar to “Nazarene.”<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Branch: A Symbol for the Messiah In the following key passages, the “branch” is used as a symbol for the Messiah: 1. Isaiah 4:2-6 is the first occurrence of “branch” as a title: “In that day the branch of the Lord shall be beautiful and glorious, and the fruit of the land shall be the pride and glory of the survivors of Israel” (rsv). Many scholars interpret “branch” here to mean the Messiah for several reasons: (a) The whole tenor of the chapter makes it likely that it refers to the Mess...","summary_en":"The Branch: A Symbol for the Messiah In the following key passages, the “branch” is used as a symbol for the Messiah: 1. Isaiah 4:2-6 is the first occurrence of “branch” as a title: “In that day the branch of the Lord shall be beautiful and glorious, and the fruit of the land shall be the pride and glory of the survivors of Israel” (rsv). Many scholars interpret “branch” here to mean the Messiah for several reasons: (a) The whole tenor of the chapter makes it likely that it refers to the Mess...","source":"Textboxes\/Textboxes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"14":[{"id":16087,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Helem","title_en":"Helem","content_ro":"<h3>HELEM<\/h3>\n<li>1. Member of Asher’s tribe (1 Chr 7:35), called Hotham in verse 32.<\/li>\n<li>2. KJV rendering for Heldai in Zechariah 6:14. See<\/em> Heldai #2.<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>HELEM<\/h3>\n<li>1. Member of Asher’s tribe (1 Chr 7:35), called Hotham in verse 32.<\/li>\n<li>2. KJV rendering for Heldai in Zechariah 6:14. See<\/em> Heldai #2.<\/li>","summary_ro":"HELEM 1. Member of Asher’s tribe (1 Chr 7:35), called Hotham in verse 32. 2. KJV rendering for Heldai in Zechariah 6:14. See Heldai #2.","summary_en":"HELEM 1. Member of Asher’s tribe (1 Chr 7:35), called Hotham in verse 32. 2. KJV rendering for Heldai in Zechariah 6:14. See Heldai #2.","source":"Articles\/H.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":16211,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Hen* (Person)","title_en":"Hen* (Person)","content_ro":"<h3>HEN* (Person<\/span>)<\/h3>\nKJV alternate name for Josiah, Zephaniah’s son, in Zechariah 6:14. See<\/em> Josiah #2.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>HEN* (Person<\/span>)<\/h3>\nKJV alternate name for Josiah, Zephaniah’s son, in Zechariah 6:14. See<\/em> Josiah #2.<\/p>","summary_ro":"HEN* (Person) KJV alternate name for Josiah, Zephaniah’s son, in Zechariah 6:14. See Josiah #2.","summary_en":"HEN* (Person) KJV alternate name for Josiah, Zephaniah’s son, in Zechariah 6:14. See Josiah #2.","source":"Articles\/H.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":54313,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Zaharia 6:14","title_en":"Study Note: Zaharia 6:14","content_ro":"6:14<\/strong> The symbolic crown<\/em> that united kingship and priesthood was placed in the Temple as a memorial<\/em> to the donors of gold and silver. It was also a permanent reminder of Jeshua’s coronation as priest-king and a visual aid for priests in teaching this new development. • Josiah<\/em> was honored for his role as broker for the meeting between Zechariah and the three former exiles.<\/p>","content_en":"6:14<\/strong> The symbolic crown<\/em> that united kingship and priesthood was placed in the Temple as a memorial<\/em> to the donors of gold and silver. It was also a permanent reminder of Jeshua’s coronation as priest-king and a visual aid for priests in teaching this new development. • Josiah<\/em> was honored for his role as broker for the meeting between Zechariah and the three former exiles.<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:14 The symbolic crown that united kingship and priesthood was placed in the Temple as a memorial to the donors of gold and silver. It was also a permanent reminder of Jeshua’s coronation as priest-king and a visual aid for priests in teaching this new development. • Josiah was honored for his role as broker for the meeting between Zechariah and the three former exiles.","summary_en":"6:14 The symbolic crown that united kingship and priesthood was placed in the Temple as a memorial to the donors of gold and silver. It was also a permanent reminder of Jeshua’s coronation as priest-king and a visual aid for priests in teaching this new development. • Josiah was honored for his role as broker for the meeting between Zechariah and the three former exiles.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":81939,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Zaharia 6:14","title_en":"Study Note: Zaharia 6:14","content_ro":"6:14<\/strong> The symbolic crown<\/em> that united kingship and priesthood was placed in the Temple as a memorial<\/em> to the donors of gold and silver. It was also a permanent reminder of Jeshua’s coronation as priest-king and a visual aid for priests in teaching this new development. • Josiah<\/em> was honored for his role as broker for the meeting between Zechariah and the three former exiles.<\/p>","content_en":"6:14<\/strong> The symbolic crown<\/em> that united kingship and priesthood was placed in the Temple as a memorial<\/em> to the donors of gold and silver. It was also a permanent reminder of Jeshua’s coronation as priest-king and a visual aid for priests in teaching this new development. • Josiah<\/em> was honored for his role as broker for the meeting between Zechariah and the three former exiles.<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:14 The symbolic crown that united kingship and priesthood was placed in the Temple as a memorial to the donors of gold and silver. It was also a permanent reminder of Jeshua’s coronation as priest-king and a visual aid for priests in teaching this new development. • Josiah was honored for his role as broker for the meeting between Zechariah and the three former exiles.","summary_en":"6:14 The symbolic crown that united kingship and priesthood was placed in the Temple as a memorial to the donors of gold and silver. It was also a permanent reminder of Jeshua’s coronation as priest-king and a visual aid for priests in teaching this new development. • Josiah was honored for his role as broker for the meeting between Zechariah and the three former exiles.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":109565,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Zaharia 6:14","title_en":"Study Note: Zaharia 6:14","content_ro":"6:14<\/strong> The symbolic crown<\/em> that united kingship and priesthood was placed in the Temple as a memorial<\/em> to the donors of gold and silver. It was also a permanent reminder of Jeshua’s coronation as priest-king and a visual aid for priests in teaching this new development. • Josiah<\/em> was honored for his role as broker for the meeting between Zechariah and the three former exiles.<\/p>","content_en":"6:14<\/strong> The symbolic crown<\/em> that united kingship and priesthood was placed in the Temple as a memorial<\/em> to the donors of gold and silver. It was also a permanent reminder of Jeshua’s coronation as priest-king and a visual aid for priests in teaching this new development. • Josiah<\/em> was honored for his role as broker for the meeting between Zechariah and the three former exiles.<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:14 The symbolic crown that united kingship and priesthood was placed in the Temple as a memorial to the donors of gold and silver. It was also a permanent reminder of Jeshua’s coronation as priest-king and a visual aid for priests in teaching this new development. • Josiah was honored for his role as broker for the meeting between Zechariah and the three former exiles.","summary_en":"6:14 The symbolic crown that united kingship and priesthood was placed in the Temple as a memorial to the donors of gold and silver. It was also a permanent reminder of Jeshua’s coronation as priest-king and a visual aid for priests in teaching this new development. • Josiah was honored for his role as broker for the meeting between Zechariah and the three former exiles.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":137191,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Zaharia 6:14","title_en":"Study Note: Zaharia 6:14","content_ro":"6:14<\/strong> The symbolic crown<\/em> that united kingship and priesthood was placed in the Temple as a memorial<\/em> to the donors of gold and silver. It was also a permanent reminder of Jeshua’s coronation as priest-king and a visual aid for priests in teaching this new development. • Josiah<\/em> was honored for his role as broker for the meeting between Zechariah and the three former exiles.<\/p>","content_en":"6:14<\/strong> The symbolic crown<\/em> that united kingship and priesthood was placed in the Temple as a memorial<\/em> to the donors of gold and silver. It was also a permanent reminder of Jeshua’s coronation as priest-king and a visual aid for priests in teaching this new development. • Josiah<\/em> was honored for his role as broker for the meeting between Zechariah and the three former exiles.<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:14 The symbolic crown that united kingship and priesthood was placed in the Temple as a memorial to the donors of gold and silver. It was also a permanent reminder of Jeshua’s coronation as priest-king and a visual aid for priests in teaching this new development. • Josiah was honored for his role as broker for the meeting between Zechariah and the three former exiles.","summary_en":"6:14 The symbolic crown that united kingship and priesthood was placed in the Temple as a memorial to the donors of gold and silver. It was also a permanent reminder of Jeshua’s coronation as priest-king and a visual aid for priests in teaching this new development. • Josiah was honored for his role as broker for the meeting between Zechariah and the three former exiles.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"15":[{"id":39088,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Book of Zechariah","title_en":"Book of Zechariah","content_ro":"<h3>ZECHARIAH, Book of<\/h3>\nLongest book of the Minor Prophets and the most difficult to understand. One reason for this difficulty is the numerous visions that call for an interpreter. At times an interpreting angel is present to tell what the vision means (Zec 1:9-10, 19-20; 4:1-6; 5:5-6), but at other times, when an interpretation is really needed, there is no angel to give one. The obscure meaning of many passages has spawned numerous theories concerning the date, authorship, unity, and interpretation of this book. One thing that makes the book of Zechariah significant for the Christian is its use in the NT. The last part of Zechariah (chs 9–11) is the most quoted section of the Prophets in the Gospel Passion narratives, and, other than Ezekiel, Zechariah influenced the book of Revelation more than any other OT book.<\/p>\nPreview<\/p>\n• Author<\/p>\n• Date<\/p>\n• Background<\/p>\n• Purpose and Message<\/p>\n• Content<\/p>\nAuthor<\/p>\nThe name Zechariah probably means “the Lord remembers” or “the Lord is renowned.” Zechariah is a common name in the OT and NT. At least 30 different people in the OT are named Zechariah. There is a problem in identifying the prophet’s father. In Zechariah 1:1 and 1:7, the prophet is called “the son of Berechiah, the son of Iddo,” but in Ezra 5:1 and 6:14 he is called simply “the son of Iddo.” There was another Zechariah in Isaiah’s time whose father was named Jeberechiah (Is 8:2). Another prophet by the name of Zechariah, the son of Jehoiada the priest, lived much earlier during the reign of Joash, king of Judah (835–796 BC<\/span>). This prophet was stoned to death because he proclaimed that the Lord had forsaken his people because of their sins (2 Chr 24:20-22). Jesus seemed to refer to this or a similar unrecorded incident, but he calls the prophet the son of Berechiah, the last of the martyrs among the prophets (Mt 23:35). However, Luke’s account of what Jesus said about Zechariah (Lk 11:51) does not include the words “the son of Berechiah.” Since Jesus was quoting 2 Chronicles, which was the last book in the Hebrew Bible, he was simply indicating the sweep of time from the first murder (Abel) to the last (Zechariah, the son of Jehoiada). There is no evidence that the prophet of the book of Zechariah was martyred; therefore, the best solution to the problem is to consider Berechiah the father, and Iddo the grandfather, of this prophet.<\/p>\nDate<\/p>\nThe first part of the book of Zechariah (chs 1–8) is easy to date. The first date is in the first verse, “the eighth month of the second year of Darius.” This was Darius, king of Persia (521–486 BC<\/span>). The eighth month of Darius’s second year would be October 520 BC<\/span>. This date seems to be the first time the “word of the Lord” came to Zechariah. The second date in Zechariah is in 1:7: “On the twenty-fourth day of the eleventh month which is the month of Shebat, in the second year of Darius . . .” (rsv<\/span>). This date would be February 15, 519 BC<\/span>. The word of the Lord that came to Zechariah on this date seems to include the account of eight night visions, along with some oracles, from an angel who talked with him. The third date in Zechariah is in 7:1: “In the fourth year of King Darius . . . on the fourth day of the ninth month, which is Chislev . . .” (rsv<\/span>). This date would be the equivalent of December 7, 518 BC<\/span>.<\/p>\nThere are no dates in Zechariah 9–14. Zechariah’s name is never mentioned, and neither is Darius or any king. A period of relative peace and stability gives place to war. The temple is standing (11:13; 14:20), and evidently Greek soldiers are present (9:13). Any attempt to assign specific dates to Zechariah 9–14 would be speculation.<\/p>\nBackground<\/p>\nThe temple in Jerusalem was destroyed by Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon, in 586 BC<\/span>. Nebuchadnezzar made several raids against Jerusalem before and after it fell, taking many captives to Babylon (cf. 2 Kgs 24:1-17; Dn 1:1). On two occasions, Jeremiah had predicted that captivity would last 70 years (Jer 25:11; 29:10; cf. Dn 9:2). In the time of Zechariah, the period of 70 years since the fall of Jerusalem was coming to an end (Zec 1:12; 7:5). It had been 66 years since Jerusalem fell, when the first “word of the Lord” came to Zechariah in the second year of Darius (520 BC<\/span>). The Babylonian Empire had fallen to the Persians in 538 BC<\/span>, and Cyrus the first king of Persia signed a decree permitting all captives to return to their homes (2 Chr 36:23; Ezr 1:1-4). Evidently, the first contingent of Jewish captives returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel and Joshua the priest about 536 BC<\/span>. One of the first objectives of the returnees was to rebuild the temple (Ezr 1:3), but internal strife and external opposition from the Samaritans prohibited the immediate rebuilding of the temple. After Darius I became king of Persia in 521 BC<\/span>, a wave of expectation and enthusiasm swept over the Jewish communities in Jerusalem and Babylon. Two prophets, possibly from the Babylonian exiles, Haggai and Zechariah, began preaching so powerfully that work on the second temple began in 520 BC<\/span> and was finished in 516 BC<\/span> (Ezr 5:1, 14-15; Hg 1–2; Zec 1–8).<\/p>\nThe book of Zechariah opens in the second year of Darius (520 BC<\/span>). Some of the captives had been back in Jerusalem for 16 years, but nothing was being done about rebuilding the temple. Zechariah’s first message called for the people to repent and not repeat the mistake of their fathers, whose sins and refusal to repent led to the exile and destruction of the temple (Zec 1:1-6). Then a series of eight night visions follows (1:7–6:8), assuring the people that the temple would be rebuilt by Zerubbabel (1:16; 4:9; 6:15). Two verses in Zechariah speak volumes concerning the hardships and difficulties in Jerusalem before the temple was rebuilt: “This is what the Lord<\/span> Almighty says: Take heart and finish the task! You have heard what the prophets have been saying about building the Temple of the Lord<\/span> Almighty ever since the foundation was laid. Before the work on the Temple began, there were no jobs and no wages for either people or animals. No traveler was safe from the enemy, for there were enemies on all sides. I had turned everyone against each other” (8:9-10, nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nThe first eight chapters of Zechariah are set against the social, political, and religious situations in Jerusalem from 520 to 518 BC<\/span>. But beginning with chapter 9, historical moorings are lost. Chapter 9 opens with an oracle against Syria, including Damascus, Tyre, and Sidon, and against Philistia. Each of these places will be conquered and cleansed and will become like a clan in Judah. There is the promise of a new king coming triumphantly to Jerusalem, yet humbly riding on a donkey. His reign will be peaceful and universal. The next oracle speaks of setting the captives free, but this may not refer to the Babylonian captives, because of a reference to the Greeks. Zechariah 9–12 is almost wholly concerned with the future. Some scholars call this part apocalyptic literature. The nations attack Jerusalem and are defeated (chs 12, 14). The temple is standing (11:13), but it does not seem to have a place of great prominence in the new Jerusalem and in the kingdom of God (14:6-9).<\/p>\nPurpose and Message<\/p>\nThe purpose of the book is to reassure and encourage. The restored Jewish community of 520 BC<\/span> needed the assurance that the temple would be rebuilt, and later groups of God’s people needed to know that ultimately the kingdom of God would come in its fullness. There are three messages in the book of Zechariah: the need for repentance (1:1–5:11); the eight night visions (1:7–6:8) signifying that the temple would be rebuilt and God’s glory would return to Jerusalem; and the coming kingdom of God (chs 9–14).<\/p>\nContent<\/p>\nThe book of Zechariah may be divided into two main parts: chapters 1–8 and 9–14. The first part is dated between 520 BC<\/span> and 518 BC<\/span>. It consists of oracles and visions of Zechariah the son of Berechiah. Mainly prose, its primary concern is to assure the restored Jewish community that the temple will be rebuilt. The second part (chs 9–14) is undated. There are no references to Zechariah. The temple is standing, and much of the language is eschatological and apocalyptic. The second part itself has two parts: chapters 9–11 and 12–14. Chapters 9 and 12 begin essentially the same way: “The oracle of the word of the Lord.”<\/p>\nThe first part of Zechariah (chs 1–8) has four main sections: superscription and first oracle (1:1-6); eight night visions and related oracles (1:7–6:8); the symbolic crowning of Joshua (6:9-15); and the question about fasting and morality (7:1–8:23).<\/p>\n<h5>The Superscription (1:1)<\/h5>\nThis section is dated specifically “in the eighth month” of the Babylonian calendar, which was from mid-October to mid-November. The second year of Darius, king of Persia, was 520 BC<\/span>. The date is important in relating the work of Zechariah to that of Haggai (cf. Hg 1:1, 15; 2:1, 10, 18-20) and to the reconstruction of the temple under Zerubbabel. The first oracle concerns the need for repentance. The first message of Zechariah came between Haggai’s second and third message. He, like Haggai, probably attributed the failure of the crops and other hardships to a failure to rebuild the temple (cf. Hg 1:6-11). Zechariah calls for the people to repent so that they can persevere with work on the temple.<\/p>\n<h5>The Eight Night Visions and Related Oracles (1:7–6:8)<\/h5>\nThese visions that Zechariah saw in Jerusalem all seem to have been given on the night of the 24th day of the 11th month (Shebat) in the second year of Darius (mid-January to mid-February 519 BC<\/span>). Seven of the eight visions have essentially the same form. Four of the visions begin with the words “Then I looked up and saw” (1:18; 2:1; 5:1; 6:1). One begins, “In a vision during the night” (1:8). Another begins, “Then the angel who had been talking with me returned and woke me, as though I had been asleep. ‘What do you see now?’ he asked” (4:1-2, nlt<\/span>). Still another (the seventh) vision begins, “Then the angel who was talking with me came forward and said . . .” (5:5). However, the fourth vision is different from the other seven. It begins, “Then he showed me” (3:1, cf. Am 7:1, 4, 7). This message in the third person contains no interpreting angel nor any direct message to Zechariah, as if he were merely an observer. This fourth vision is so different from the other seven that it was not a part of the original series of eight.<\/p>\nAn overall pattern to the eight visions is not evident. Some scholars have seen some significance in the fact that the visions move from the evening or night in the first vision to the sunrise in the last vision. Others have detected some relationships in pairs of visions. The first and last visions involve horses and riders or chariots. The second and third visions involve the restoration of Judah and Jerusalem (1:18-21; 2:1-5). The fourth and fifth deal with the place of the two leaders in the restored community: Joshua will be cleansed and restored as the high priest (3:1-5) and Zerubbabel the governor will complete the temple (4:1-14). The sixth and seventh visions involve the cleansing of the land. A flying scroll enters the house of every thief and false witness and consumes it (5:1-4). Wickedness personified as a woman will be carried in an ephah (basket) to the land of Shinar (vv 5-11). Interspersed in the vision accounts are four oracles (1:14-17; 2:8-13; 3:6-10; 4:8-14). Each of these passages begins with the messenger formula, “Thus says the Lord,” or the expression “Cry out” (1:14, 17). The first oracle assures the people that the temple, the cities, and the choice of Jerusalem will be renewed. The second oracle exhorts any exiles remaining in Babylon to return to Judah and Jerusalem (2:7-12). Zechariah 2:12-13 are interesting. Verse 12 is the only OT reference to Palestine as “the Holy Land,” and verse 13 is similar to the call to worship in Habakkuk 2:20: “Be silent before the Lord<\/span>, all humanity, for he is springing into action from his holy dwelling” (Zec 2:13, nlt<\/span>). The third oracle in the visionary accounts concerns Joshua the high priest as a sign of the coming of God’s servant, the Branch who removes the guilt of the land in a single day (3:6-10).<\/p>\n<h5>The Symbolic Crowning of Joshua (6:9-15)<\/h5>\nZechariah is told to go into the house of Josiah son of Zephaniah, take silver and gold from some returnees from Babylon, make a crown, and put it on the head of Joshua the priest as a symbol of the royal and priestly king, the Branch, the builder of the temple. After the ceremony the crown is to be hung in the temple as a memorial of those who gave the silver and the gold. The last verse (6:15) seems to say that just as gold and silver from exiles was used to symbolize the crowning of the coming king of the kingdom, so exiles, “those who are far off,” will also participate in the completion of the temple. Then Zechariah’s hearers will know God sent him to prophesy. This will all take place when and if they will diligently obey the voice of the Lord.<\/p>\n<h5>The Question about Fasting and Morality (7:1–8:23)<\/h5>\nA delegation from Bethel (10 miles or 16.1 kilometers north of Jerusalem) came to Jerusalem in the fourth year of Darius (518 BC<\/span>). Work on the temple had been going on for two years. The purpose of this visit was to entreat the favor of the Lord (7:2) and to ask the priests and the prophets if they should continue to fast as they had done since the temple was destroyed 70 years earlier (v 3). The Lord told Zechariah to ask why they were fasting—for the Lord or for selfish motives? The answer to the question of fasting seems to be that God desires truth, justice, and covenant-love more than fasting. Zechariah reiterates the message the Lord had already given his people by the former prophets. The last section in the first part of Zechariah is a decalogue of promises (8:1-23). The ten promises begin with the words “Thus says the Lord” or “The word of the Lord came to me.” The last word of God is not judgment but promise, hope, forgiveness, and restoration.<\/p>\n<h5>The Oracles of the Lord (chs 9–12)<\/h5>\nThe last half of the book of Zechariah (chs 9–14) falls into two nearly equal parts: chapters 9–11 (46 verses) and chapters 12–14 (44 verses). Each part begins with the words “An oracle” (9:1; 12:1). Both “oracles” are primarily eschatological. The first part (chs 9–11) is concerned with the restoration of the tribes to Palestine (9:11-17; 10:6-12). In order to accomplish this, the Lord will rid Palestine and Syria of opponents to his rule (9:1-8; 11:1-3), remove the evil shepherds (rulers; 10:2b-5; 11:4-17), and the Prince of Peace will come (9:9-10). The last “oracle” of Zechariah (12:1–14:21) is also eschatological. This time the concern is primarily that of Jerusalem and Judah. Twice Jerusalem is attacked by the nations (12:1-8; 14:1-5). Each time the Lord fights for Jerusalem, Judah, and the house of David. Jerusalem weeps and mourns for an unidentified martyr (12:10-14). The martyr could be called the “good” shepherd who is killed and his sheep scattered (13:7-9). Jesus referred to this passage in connection with his arrest (Mt 26:31; Mk 14:27). A fountain will be opened for the house of David, and the inhabitants of Jerusalem will be cleansed from sin, idolatry, and false prophets (Zec 13:1-6). The new Jerusalem will remain aloft on its site and the land around it will be turned into a plain (14:10-11). There will be no night nor extreme temperatures in the new Jerusalem. Living waters will flow from Jerusalem, and the Lord will become King of all the earth. Those who fight against Jerusalem will be destroyed, but those who survive will worship the Lord year by year by keeping the Feast of Booths.<\/p>\nThe last scene in the book of Zechariah is a picture of the world after Armageddon, a new world cleansed of sin. It will be a time of peace and security. When God comes to reign, everything will become holy. The warhorses will become as holy as the priest’s turban, and the ordinary cooking vessel will be as temple vessels. The Canaanite or trader will be eliminated. There will be no difference between Jew and Gentile, as long as one worships the Lord of Hosts as King.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Israel, History of; Postexilic Period; Prophecy; Prophet, Prophetess; Zechariah (Person) #20.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ZECHARIAH, Book of<\/h3>\nLongest book of the Minor Prophets and the most difficult to understand. One reason for this difficulty is the numerous visions that call for an interpreter. At times an interpreting angel is present to tell what the vision means (Zec 1:9-10, 19-20; 4:1-6; 5:5-6), but at other times, when an interpretation is really needed, there is no angel to give one. The obscure meaning of many passages has spawned numerous theories concerning the date, authorship, unity, and interpretation of this book. One thing that makes the book of Zechariah significant for the Christian is its use in the NT. The last part of Zechariah (chs 9–11) is the most quoted section of the Prophets in the Gospel Passion narratives, and, other than Ezekiel, Zechariah influenced the book of Revelation more than any other OT book.<\/p>\nPreview<\/p>\n• Author<\/p>\n• Date<\/p>\n• Background<\/p>\n• Purpose and Message<\/p>\n• Content<\/p>\nAuthor<\/p>\nThe name Zechariah probably means “the Lord remembers” or “the Lord is renowned.” Zechariah is a common name in the OT and NT. At least 30 different people in the OT are named Zechariah. There is a problem in identifying the prophet’s father. In Zechariah 1:1 and 1:7, the prophet is called “the son of Berechiah, the son of Iddo,” but in Ezra 5:1 and 6:14 he is called simply “the son of Iddo.” There was another Zechariah in Isaiah’s time whose father was named Jeberechiah (Is 8:2). Another prophet by the name of Zechariah, the son of Jehoiada the priest, lived much earlier during the reign of Joash, king of Judah (835–796 BC<\/span>). This prophet was stoned to death because he proclaimed that the Lord had forsaken his people because of their sins (2 Chr 24:20-22). Jesus seemed to refer to this or a similar unrecorded incident, but he calls the prophet the son of Berechiah, the last of the martyrs among the prophets (Mt 23:35). However, Luke’s account of what Jesus said about Zechariah (Lk 11:51) does not include the words “the son of Berechiah.” Since Jesus was quoting 2 Chronicles, which was the last book in the Hebrew Bible, he was simply indicating the sweep of time from the first murder (Abel) to the last (Zechariah, the son of Jehoiada). There is no evidence that the prophet of the book of Zechariah was martyred; therefore, the best solution to the problem is to consider Berechiah the father, and Iddo the grandfather, of this prophet.<\/p>\nDate<\/p>\nThe first part of the book of Zechariah (chs 1–8) is easy to date. The first date is in the first verse, “the eighth month of the second year of Darius.” This was Darius, king of Persia (521–486 BC<\/span>). The eighth month of Darius’s second year would be October 520 BC<\/span>. This date seems to be the first time the “word of the Lord” came to Zechariah. The second date in Zechariah is in 1:7: “On the twenty-fourth day of the eleventh month which is the month of Shebat, in the second year of Darius . . .” (rsv<\/span>). This date would be February 15, 519 BC<\/span>. The word of the Lord that came to Zechariah on this date seems to include the account of eight night visions, along with some oracles, from an angel who talked with him. The third date in Zechariah is in 7:1: “In the fourth year of King Darius . . . on the fourth day of the ninth month, which is Chislev . . .” (rsv<\/span>). This date would be the equivalent of December 7, 518 BC<\/span>.<\/p>\nThere are no dates in Zechariah 9–14. Zechariah’s name is never mentioned, and neither is Darius or any king. A period of relative peace and stability gives place to war. The temple is standing (11:13; 14:20), and evidently Greek soldiers are present (9:13). Any attempt to assign specific dates to Zechariah 9–14 would be speculation.<\/p>\nBackground<\/p>\nThe temple in Jerusalem was destroyed by Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon, in 586 BC<\/span>. Nebuchadnezzar made several raids against Jerusalem before and after it fell, taking many captives to Babylon (cf. 2 Kgs 24:1-17; Dn 1:1). On two occasions, Jeremiah had predicted that captivity would last 70 years (Jer 25:11; 29:10; cf. Dn 9:2). In the time of Zechariah, the period of 70 years since the fall of Jerusalem was coming to an end (Zec 1:12; 7:5). It had been 66 years since Jerusalem fell, when the first “word of the Lord” came to Zechariah in the second year of Darius (520 BC<\/span>). The Babylonian Empire had fallen to the Persians in 538 BC<\/span>, and Cyrus the first king of Persia signed a decree permitting all captives to return to their homes (2 Chr 36:23; Ezr 1:1-4). Evidently, the first contingent of Jewish captives returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel and Joshua the priest about 536 BC<\/span>. One of the first objectives of the returnees was to rebuild the temple (Ezr 1:3), but internal strife and external opposition from the Samaritans prohibited the immediate rebuilding of the temple. After Darius I became king of Persia in 521 BC<\/span>, a wave of expectation and enthusiasm swept over the Jewish communities in Jerusalem and Babylon. Two prophets, possibly from the Babylonian exiles, Haggai and Zechariah, began preaching so powerfully that work on the second temple began in 520 BC<\/span> and was finished in 516 BC<\/span> (Ezr 5:1, 14-15; Hg 1–2; Zec 1–8).<\/p>\nThe book of Zechariah opens in the second year of Darius (520 BC<\/span>). Some of the captives had been back in Jerusalem for 16 years, but nothing was being done about rebuilding the temple. Zechariah’s first message called for the people to repent and not repeat the mistake of their fathers, whose sins and refusal to repent led to the exile and destruction of the temple (Zec 1:1-6). Then a series of eight night visions follows (1:7–6:8), assuring the people that the temple would be rebuilt by Zerubbabel (1:16; 4:9; 6:15). Two verses in Zechariah speak volumes concerning the hardships and difficulties in Jerusalem before the temple was rebuilt: “This is what the Lord<\/span> Almighty says: Take heart and finish the task! You have heard what the prophets have been saying about building the Temple of the Lord<\/span> Almighty ever since the foundation was laid. Before the work on the Temple began, there were no jobs and no wages for either people or animals. No traveler was safe from the enemy, for there were enemies on all sides. I had turned everyone against each other” (8:9-10, nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nThe first eight chapters of Zechariah are set against the social, political, and religious situations in Jerusalem from 520 to 518 BC<\/span>. But beginning with chapter 9, historical moorings are lost. Chapter 9 opens with an oracle against Syria, including Damascus, Tyre, and Sidon, and against Philistia. Each of these places will be conquered and cleansed and will become like a clan in Judah. There is the promise of a new king coming triumphantly to Jerusalem, yet humbly riding on a donkey. His reign will be peaceful and universal. The next oracle speaks of setting the captives free, but this may not refer to the Babylonian captives, because of a reference to the Greeks. Zechariah 9–12 is almost wholly concerned with the future. Some scholars call this part apocalyptic literature. The nations attack Jerusalem and are defeated (chs 12, 14). The temple is standing (11:13), but it does not seem to have a place of great prominence in the new Jerusalem and in the kingdom of God (14:6-9).<\/p>\nPurpose and Message<\/p>\nThe purpose of the book is to reassure and encourage. The restored Jewish community of 520 BC<\/span> needed the assurance that the temple would be rebuilt, and later groups of God’s people needed to know that ultimately the kingdom of God would come in its fullness. There are three messages in the book of Zechariah: the need for repentance (1:1–5:11); the eight night visions (1:7–6:8) signifying that the temple would be rebuilt and God’s glory would return to Jerusalem; and the coming kingdom of God (chs 9–14).<\/p>\nContent<\/p>\nThe book of Zechariah may be divided into two main parts: chapters 1–8 and 9–14. The first part is dated between 520 BC<\/span> and 518 BC<\/span>. It consists of oracles and visions of Zechariah the son of Berechiah. Mainly prose, its primary concern is to assure the restored Jewish community that the temple will be rebuilt. The second part (chs 9–14) is undated. There are no references to Zechariah. The temple is standing, and much of the language is eschatological and apocalyptic. The second part itself has two parts: chapters 9–11 and 12–14. Chapters 9 and 12 begin essentially the same way: “The oracle of the word of the Lord.”<\/p>\nThe first part of Zechariah (chs 1–8) has four main sections: superscription and first oracle (1:1-6); eight night visions and related oracles (1:7–6:8); the symbolic crowning of Joshua (6:9-15); and the question about fasting and morality (7:1–8:23).<\/p>\n<h5>The Superscription (1:1)<\/h5>\nThis section is dated specifically “in the eighth month” of the Babylonian calendar, which was from mid-October to mid-November. The second year of Darius, king of Persia, was 520 BC<\/span>. The date is important in relating the work of Zechariah to that of Haggai (cf. Hg 1:1, 15; 2:1, 10, 18-20) and to the reconstruction of the temple under Zerubbabel. The first oracle concerns the need for repentance. The first message of Zechariah came between Haggai’s second and third message. He, like Haggai, probably attributed the failure of the crops and other hardships to a failure to rebuild the temple (cf. Hg 1:6-11). Zechariah calls for the people to repent so that they can persevere with work on the temple.<\/p>\n<h5>The Eight Night Visions and Related Oracles (1:7–6:8)<\/h5>\nThese visions that Zechariah saw in Jerusalem all seem to have been given on the night of the 24th day of the 11th month (Shebat) in the second year of Darius (mid-January to mid-February 519 BC<\/span>). Seven of the eight visions have essentially the same form. Four of the visions begin with the words “Then I looked up and saw” (1:18; 2:1; 5:1; 6:1). One begins, “In a vision during the night” (1:8). Another begins, “Then the angel who had been talking with me returned and woke me, as though I had been asleep. ‘What do you see now?’ he asked” (4:1-2, nlt<\/span>). Still another (the seventh) vision begins, “Then the angel who was talking with me came forward and said . . .” (5:5). However, the fourth vision is different from the other seven. It begins, “Then he showed me” (3:1, cf. Am 7:1, 4, 7). This message in the third person contains no interpreting angel nor any direct message to Zechariah, as if he were merely an observer. This fourth vision is so different from the other seven that it was not a part of the original series of eight.<\/p>\nAn overall pattern to the eight visions is not evident. Some scholars have seen some significance in the fact that the visions move from the evening or night in the first vision to the sunrise in the last vision. Others have detected some relationships in pairs of visions. The first and last visions involve horses and riders or chariots. The second and third visions involve the restoration of Judah and Jerusalem (1:18-21; 2:1-5). The fourth and fifth deal with the place of the two leaders in the restored community: Joshua will be cleansed and restored as the high priest (3:1-5) and Zerubbabel the governor will complete the temple (4:1-14). The sixth and seventh visions involve the cleansing of the land. A flying scroll enters the house of every thief and false witness and consumes it (5:1-4). Wickedness personified as a woman will be carried in an ephah (basket) to the land of Shinar (vv 5-11). Interspersed in the vision accounts are four oracles (1:14-17; 2:8-13; 3:6-10; 4:8-14). Each of these passages begins with the messenger formula, “Thus says the Lord,” or the expression “Cry out” (1:14, 17). The first oracle assures the people that the temple, the cities, and the choice of Jerusalem will be renewed. The second oracle exhorts any exiles remaining in Babylon to return to Judah and Jerusalem (2:7-12). Zechariah 2:12-13 are interesting. Verse 12 is the only OT reference to Palestine as “the Holy Land,” and verse 13 is similar to the call to worship in Habakkuk 2:20: “Be silent before the Lord<\/span>, all humanity, for he is springing into action from his holy dwelling” (Zec 2:13, nlt<\/span>). The third oracle in the visionary accounts concerns Joshua the high priest as a sign of the coming of God’s servant, the Branch who removes the guilt of the land in a single day (3:6-10).<\/p>\n<h5>The Symbolic Crowning of Joshua (6:9-15)<\/h5>\nZechariah is told to go into the house of Josiah son of Zephaniah, take silver and gold from some returnees from Babylon, make a crown, and put it on the head of Joshua the priest as a symbol of the royal and priestly king, the Branch, the builder of the temple. After the ceremony the crown is to be hung in the temple as a memorial of those who gave the silver and the gold. The last verse (6:15) seems to say that just as gold and silver from exiles was used to symbolize the crowning of the coming king of the kingdom, so exiles, “those who are far off,” will also participate in the completion of the temple. Then Zechariah’s hearers will know God sent him to prophesy. This will all take place when and if they will diligently obey the voice of the Lord.<\/p>\n<h5>The Question about Fasting and Morality (7:1–8:23)<\/h5>\nA delegation from Bethel (10 miles or 16.1 kilometers north of Jerusalem) came to Jerusalem in the fourth year of Darius (518 BC<\/span>). Work on the temple had been going on for two years. The purpose of this visit was to entreat the favor of the Lord (7:2) and to ask the priests and the prophets if they should continue to fast as they had done since the temple was destroyed 70 years earlier (v 3). The Lord told Zechariah to ask why they were fasting—for the Lord or for selfish motives? The answer to the question of fasting seems to be that God desires truth, justice, and covenant-love more than fasting. Zechariah reiterates the message the Lord had already given his people by the former prophets. The last section in the first part of Zechariah is a decalogue of promises (8:1-23). The ten promises begin with the words “Thus says the Lord” or “The word of the Lord came to me.” The last word of God is not judgment but promise, hope, forgiveness, and restoration.<\/p>\n<h5>The Oracles of the Lord (chs 9–12)<\/h5>\nThe last half of the book of Zechariah (chs 9–14) falls into two nearly equal parts: chapters 9–11 (46 verses) and chapters 12–14 (44 verses). Each part begins with the words “An oracle” (9:1; 12:1). Both “oracles” are primarily eschatological. The first part (chs 9–11) is concerned with the restoration of the tribes to Palestine (9:11-17; 10:6-12). In order to accomplish this, the Lord will rid Palestine and Syria of opponents to his rule (9:1-8; 11:1-3), remove the evil shepherds (rulers; 10:2b-5; 11:4-17), and the Prince of Peace will come (9:9-10). The last “oracle” of Zechariah (12:1–14:21) is also eschatological. This time the concern is primarily that of Jerusalem and Judah. Twice Jerusalem is attacked by the nations (12:1-8; 14:1-5). Each time the Lord fights for Jerusalem, Judah, and the house of David. Jerusalem weeps and mourns for an unidentified martyr (12:10-14). The martyr could be called the “good” shepherd who is killed and his sheep scattered (13:7-9). Jesus referred to this passage in connection with his arrest (Mt 26:31; Mk 14:27). A fountain will be opened for the house of David, and the inhabitants of Jerusalem will be cleansed from sin, idolatry, and false prophets (Zec 13:1-6). The new Jerusalem will remain aloft on its site and the land around it will be turned into a plain (14:10-11). There will be no night nor extreme temperatures in the new Jerusalem. Living waters will flow from Jerusalem, and the Lord will become King of all the earth. Those who fight against Jerusalem will be destroyed, but those who survive will worship the Lord year by year by keeping the Feast of Booths.<\/p>\nThe last scene in the book of Zechariah is a picture of the world after Armageddon, a new world cleansed of sin. It will be a time of peace and security. When God comes to reign, everything will become holy. The warhorses will become as holy as the priest’s turban, and the ordinary cooking vessel will be as temple vessels. The Canaanite or trader will be eliminated. There will be no difference between Jew and Gentile, as long as one worships the Lord of Hosts as King.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Israel, History of; Postexilic Period; Prophecy; Prophet, Prophetess; Zechariah (Person) #20.<\/p>","summary_ro":"ZECHARIAH, Book of Longest book of the Minor Prophets and the most difficult to understand. One reason for this difficulty is the numerous visions that call for an interpreter. At times an interpreting angel is present to tell what the vision means (Zec 1:9-10, 19-20; 4:1-6; 5:5-6), but at other times, when an interpretation is really needed, there is no angel to give one. The obscure meaning of many passages has spawned numerous theories concerning the date, authorship, unity, and interpreta...","summary_en":"ZECHARIAH, Book of Longest book of the Minor Prophets and the most difficult to understand. One reason for this difficulty is the numerous visions that call for an interpreter. At times an interpreting angel is present to tell what the vision means (Zec 1:9-10, 19-20; 4:1-6; 5:5-6), but at other times, when an interpretation is really needed, there is no angel to give one. The obscure meaning of many passages has spawned numerous theories concerning the date, authorship, unity, and interpreta...","source":"Articles\/Z.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":54314,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Zaharia 6:15","title_en":"Study Note: Zaharia 6:15","content_ro":"6:15<\/strong> Exiled Jews in Babylon and other distant lands<\/em> helped to rebuild the Temple; all Israel could identify with the structure.<\/p>","content_en":"6:15<\/strong> Exiled Jews in Babylon and other distant lands<\/em> helped to rebuild the Temple; all Israel could identify with the structure.<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:15 Exiled Jews in Babylon and other distant lands helped to rebuild the Temple; all Israel could identify with the structure.","summary_en":"6:15 Exiled Jews in Babylon and other distant lands helped to rebuild the Temple; all Israel could identify with the structure.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":81940,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Zaharia 6:15","title_en":"Study Note: Zaharia 6:15","content_ro":"6:15<\/strong> Exiled Jews in Babylon and other distant lands<\/em> helped to rebuild the Temple; all Israel could identify with the structure.<\/p>","content_en":"6:15<\/strong> Exiled Jews in Babylon and other distant lands<\/em> helped to rebuild the Temple; all Israel could identify with the structure.<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:15 Exiled Jews in Babylon and other distant lands helped to rebuild the Temple; all Israel could identify with the structure.","summary_en":"6:15 Exiled Jews in Babylon and other distant lands helped to rebuild the Temple; all Israel could identify with the structure.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":109566,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Zaharia 6:15","title_en":"Study Note: Zaharia 6:15","content_ro":"6:15<\/strong> Exiled Jews in Babylon and other distant lands<\/em> helped to rebuild the Temple; all Israel could identify with the structure.<\/p>","content_en":"6:15<\/strong> Exiled Jews in Babylon and other distant lands<\/em> helped to rebuild the Temple; all Israel could identify with the structure.<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:15 Exiled Jews in Babylon and other distant lands helped to rebuild the Temple; all Israel could identify with the structure.","summary_en":"6:15 Exiled Jews in Babylon and other distant lands helped to rebuild the Temple; all Israel could identify with the structure.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":137192,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Zaharia 6:15","title_en":"Study Note: Zaharia 6:15","content_ro":"6:15<\/strong> Exiled Jews in Babylon and other distant lands<\/em> helped to rebuild the Temple; all Israel could identify with the structure.<\/p>","content_en":"6:15<\/strong> Exiled Jews in Babylon and other distant lands<\/em> helped to rebuild the Temple; all Israel could identify with the structure.<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:15 Exiled Jews in Babylon and other distant lands helped to rebuild the Temple; all Israel could identify with the structure.","summary_en":"6:15 Exiled Jews in Babylon and other distant lands helped to rebuild the Temple; all Israel could identify with the structure.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":64816,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Return of God’s Presence with His People","title_en":"The Return of God’s Presence with His People","content_ro":"<h3>The Return of God’s Presence with His People<\/h3>\nThe descriptions of the Exile include the tragedy that, as part of his judgment, God withdrew his presence from his people and from the holy city of Jerusalem. This notion is perhaps most clearly demonstrated in a vision of the prophet Ezekiel, who saw a visual depiction of God’s glorious presence leaving the Temple (Ezek 10:1-22; 11:22-23). As such, when the prophets discussed the future restoration of God’s people and their return to the land, they also often spoke of the return of God’s presence (see, e.g., Isa 52:7-8; Ezek 43:1-9).<\/p>\nThe prophet Zechariah placed a strong emphasis on this theme of the Lord returning to his people. He was certain that God would once again live among them and that the glory of the Lord would rest in Jerusalem (1:16; 2:5, 10-11; 8:3, 23). God’s presence would return with the rebuilding of the Temple, and Israel would experience spiritual restoration and renewed agricultural bounty (1:17; 4:8-9; 6:15; see also Hag 2:19). In the future, God’s presence would rescue Jerusalem and the people of Israel from enemy nations. The Lord would be enthroned as King over all the earth, and the whole earth would worship the one true God (Zech 9:16; 10:6; 12:9; 14:9). In both the present and the future, the return of the Lord’s presence to Jerusalem was connected with the enabling work of God’s Spirit (4:6; 12:10; see also Hag 2:5).<\/p>\nZechariah’s promise of the Lord’s presence in Jerusalem anticipated the coming of Jesus the Messiah and the awesome mystery of the Word of God becoming human and living on earth among us (John 1:14).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nGen 26:3; 31:3; Exod 3:12; Deut 31:23; Josh 1:5; Judg 6:16; Isa 7:14; 43:2; 52:8; Ezek 37:27; Joel 3:21; Hag 2:5; Zech 1:16-17; 2:5, 10-11; 4:6; 8:3, 23; 14:9; John 1:14<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Return of God’s Presence with His People<\/h3>\nThe descriptions of the Exile include the tragedy that, as part of his judgment, God withdrew his presence from his people and from the holy city of Jerusalem. This notion is perhaps most clearly demonstrated in a vision of the prophet Ezekiel, who saw a visual depiction of God’s glorious presence leaving the Temple (Ezek 10:1-22; 11:22-23). As such, when the prophets discussed the future restoration of God’s people and their return to the land, they also often spoke of the return of God’s presence (see, e.g., Isa 52:7-8; Ezek 43:1-9).<\/p>\nThe prophet Zechariah placed a strong emphasis on this theme of the Lord returning to his people. He was certain that God would once again live among them and that the glory of the Lord would rest in Jerusalem (1:16; 2:5, 10-11; 8:3, 23). God’s presence would return with the rebuilding of the Temple, and Israel would experience spiritual restoration and renewed agricultural bounty (1:17; 4:8-9; 6:15; see also Hag 2:19). In the future, God’s presence would rescue Jerusalem and the people of Israel from enemy nations. The Lord would be enthroned as King over all the earth, and the whole earth would worship the one true God (Zech 9:16; 10:6; 12:9; 14:9). In both the present and the future, the return of the Lord’s presence to Jerusalem was connected with the enabling work of God’s Spirit (4:6; 12:10; see also Hag 2:5).<\/p>\nZechariah’s promise of the Lord’s presence in Jerusalem anticipated the coming of Jesus the Messiah and the awesome mystery of the Word of God becoming human and living on earth among us (John 1:14).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nGen 26:3; 31:3; Exod 3:12; Deut 31:23; Josh 1:5; Judg 6:16; Isa 7:14; 43:2; 52:8; Ezek 37:27; Joel 3:21; Hag 2:5; Zech 1:16-17; 2:5, 10-11; 4:6; 8:3, 23; 14:9; John 1:14<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Return of God’s Presence with His People The descriptions of the Exile include the tragedy that, as part of his judgment, God withdrew his presence from his people and from the holy city of Jerusalem. This notion is perhaps most clearly demonstrated in a vision of the prophet Ezekiel, who saw a visual depiction of God’s glorious presence leaving the Temple (Ezek 10:1-22; 11:22-23). As such, when the prophets discussed the future restoration of God’s people and their return to the land, th...","summary_en":"The Return of God’s Presence with His People The descriptions of the Exile include the tragedy that, as part of his judgment, God withdrew his presence from his people and from the holy city of Jerusalem. This notion is perhaps most clearly demonstrated in a vision of the prophet Ezekiel, who saw a visual depiction of God’s glorious presence leaving the Temple (Ezek 10:1-22; 11:22-23). As such, when the prophets discussed the future restoration of God’s people and their return to the land, th...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":92442,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Return of God’s Presence with His People","title_en":"The Return of God’s Presence with His People","content_ro":"<h3>The Return of God’s Presence with His People<\/h3>\nThe descriptions of the Exile include the tragedy that, as part of his judgment, God withdrew his presence from his people and from the holy city of Jerusalem. This notion is perhaps most clearly demonstrated in a vision of the prophet Ezekiel, who saw a visual depiction of God’s glorious presence leaving the Temple (Ezek 10:1-22; 11:22-23). As such, when the prophets discussed the future restoration of God’s people and their return to the land, they also often spoke of the return of God’s presence (see, e.g., Isa 52:7-8; Ezek 43:1-9).<\/p>\nThe prophet Zechariah placed a strong emphasis on this theme of the Lord returning to his people. He was certain that God would once again live among them and that the glory of the Lord would rest in Jerusalem (1:16; 2:5, 10-11; 8:3, 23). God’s presence would return with the rebuilding of the Temple, and Israel would experience spiritual restoration and renewed agricultural bounty (1:17; 4:8-9; 6:15; see also Hag 2:19). In the future, God’s presence would rescue Jerusalem and the people of Israel from enemy nations. The Lord would be enthroned as King over all the earth, and the whole earth would worship the one true God (Zech 9:16; 10:6; 12:9; 14:9). In both the present and the future, the return of the Lord’s presence to Jerusalem was connected with the enabling work of God’s Spirit (4:6; 12:10; see also Hag 2:5).<\/p>\nZechariah’s promise of the Lord’s presence in Jerusalem anticipated the coming of Jesus the Messiah and the awesome mystery of the Word of God becoming human and living on earth among us (John 1:14).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nGen 26:3; 31:3; Exod 3:12; Deut 31:23; Josh 1:5; Judg 6:16; Isa 7:14; 43:2; 52:8; Ezek 37:27; Joel 3:21; Hag 2:5; Zech 1:16-17; 2:5, 10-11; 4:6; 8:3, 23; 14:9; John 1:14<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Return of God’s Presence with His People<\/h3>\nThe descriptions of the Exile include the tragedy that, as part of his judgment, God withdrew his presence from his people and from the holy city of Jerusalem. This notion is perhaps most clearly demonstrated in a vision of the prophet Ezekiel, who saw a visual depiction of God’s glorious presence leaving the Temple (Ezek 10:1-22; 11:22-23). As such, when the prophets discussed the future restoration of God’s people and their return to the land, they also often spoke of the return of God’s presence (see, e.g., Isa 52:7-8; Ezek 43:1-9).<\/p>\nThe prophet Zechariah placed a strong emphasis on this theme of the Lord returning to his people. He was certain that God would once again live among them and that the glory of the Lord would rest in Jerusalem (1:16; 2:5, 10-11; 8:3, 23). God’s presence would return with the rebuilding of the Temple, and Israel would experience spiritual restoration and renewed agricultural bounty (1:17; 4:8-9; 6:15; see also Hag 2:19). In the future, God’s presence would rescue Jerusalem and the people of Israel from enemy nations. The Lord would be enthroned as King over all the earth, and the whole earth would worship the one true God (Zech 9:16; 10:6; 12:9; 14:9). In both the present and the future, the return of the Lord’s presence to Jerusalem was connected with the enabling work of God’s Spirit (4:6; 12:10; see also Hag 2:5).<\/p>\nZechariah’s promise of the Lord’s presence in Jerusalem anticipated the coming of Jesus the Messiah and the awesome mystery of the Word of God becoming human and living on earth among us (John 1:14).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nGen 26:3; 31:3; Exod 3:12; Deut 31:23; Josh 1:5; Judg 6:16; Isa 7:14; 43:2; 52:8; Ezek 37:27; Joel 3:21; Hag 2:5; Zech 1:16-17; 2:5, 10-11; 4:6; 8:3, 23; 14:9; John 1:14<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Return of God’s Presence with His People The descriptions of the Exile include the tragedy that, as part of his judgment, God withdrew his presence from his people and from the holy city of Jerusalem. This notion is perhaps most clearly demonstrated in a vision of the prophet Ezekiel, who saw a visual depiction of God’s glorious presence leaving the Temple (Ezek 10:1-22; 11:22-23). As such, when the prophets discussed the future restoration of God’s people and their return to the land, th...","summary_en":"The Return of God’s Presence with His People The descriptions of the Exile include the tragedy that, as part of his judgment, God withdrew his presence from his people and from the holy city of Jerusalem. This notion is perhaps most clearly demonstrated in a vision of the prophet Ezekiel, who saw a visual depiction of God’s glorious presence leaving the Temple (Ezek 10:1-22; 11:22-23). As such, when the prophets discussed the future restoration of God’s people and their return to the land, th...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":120068,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Return of God’s Presence with His People","title_en":"The Return of God’s Presence with His People","content_ro":"<h3>The Return of God’s Presence with His People<\/h3>\nThe descriptions of the Exile include the tragedy that, as part of his judgment, God withdrew his presence from his people and from the holy city of Jerusalem. This notion is perhaps most clearly demonstrated in a vision of the prophet Ezekiel, who saw a visual depiction of God’s glorious presence leaving the Temple (Ezek 10:1-22; 11:22-23). As such, when the prophets discussed the future restoration of God’s people and their return to the land, they also often spoke of the return of God’s presence (see, e.g., Isa 52:7-8; Ezek 43:1-9).<\/p>\nThe prophet Zechariah placed a strong emphasis on this theme of the Lord returning to his people. He was certain that God would once again live among them and that the glory of the Lord would rest in Jerusalem (1:16; 2:5, 10-11; 8:3, 23). God’s presence would return with the rebuilding of the Temple, and Israel would experience spiritual restoration and renewed agricultural bounty (1:17; 4:8-9; 6:15; see also Hag 2:19). In the future, God’s presence would rescue Jerusalem and the people of Israel from enemy nations. The Lord would be enthroned as King over all the earth, and the whole earth would worship the one true God (Zech 9:16; 10:6; 12:9; 14:9). In both the present and the future, the return of the Lord’s presence to Jerusalem was connected with the enabling work of God’s Spirit (4:6; 12:10; see also Hag 2:5).<\/p>\nZechariah’s promise of the Lord’s presence in Jerusalem anticipated the coming of Jesus the Messiah and the awesome mystery of the Word of God becoming human and living on earth among us (John 1:14).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nGen 26:3; 31:3; Exod 3:12; Deut 31:23; Josh 1:5; Judg 6:16; Isa 7:14; 43:2; 52:8; Ezek 37:27; Joel 3:21; Hag 2:5; Zech 1:16-17; 2:5, 10-11; 4:6; 8:3, 23; 14:9; John 1:14<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Return of God’s Presence with His People<\/h3>\nThe descriptions of the Exile include the tragedy that, as part of his judgment, God withdrew his presence from his people and from the holy city of Jerusalem. This notion is perhaps most clearly demonstrated in a vision of the prophet Ezekiel, who saw a visual depiction of God’s glorious presence leaving the Temple (Ezek 10:1-22; 11:22-23). As such, when the prophets discussed the future restoration of God’s people and their return to the land, they also often spoke of the return of God’s presence (see, e.g., Isa 52:7-8; Ezek 43:1-9).<\/p>\nThe prophet Zechariah placed a strong emphasis on this theme of the Lord returning to his people. He was certain that God would once again live among them and that the glory of the Lord would rest in Jerusalem (1:16; 2:5, 10-11; 8:3, 23). God’s presence would return with the rebuilding of the Temple, and Israel would experience spiritual restoration and renewed agricultural bounty (1:17; 4:8-9; 6:15; see also Hag 2:19). In the future, God’s presence would rescue Jerusalem and the people of Israel from enemy nations. The Lord would be enthroned as King over all the earth, and the whole earth would worship the one true God (Zech 9:16; 10:6; 12:9; 14:9). In both the present and the future, the return of the Lord’s presence to Jerusalem was connected with the enabling work of God’s Spirit (4:6; 12:10; see also Hag 2:5).<\/p>\nZechariah’s promise of the Lord’s presence in Jerusalem anticipated the coming of Jesus the Messiah and the awesome mystery of the Word of God becoming human and living on earth among us (John 1:14).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nGen 26:3; 31:3; Exod 3:12; Deut 31:23; Josh 1:5; Judg 6:16; Isa 7:14; 43:2; 52:8; Ezek 37:27; Joel 3:21; Hag 2:5; Zech 1:16-17; 2:5, 10-11; 4:6; 8:3, 23; 14:9; John 1:14<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Return of God’s Presence with His People The descriptions of the Exile include the tragedy that, as part of his judgment, God withdrew his presence from his people and from the holy city of Jerusalem. This notion is perhaps most clearly demonstrated in a vision of the prophet Ezekiel, who saw a visual depiction of God’s glorious presence leaving the Temple (Ezek 10:1-22; 11:22-23). As such, when the prophets discussed the future restoration of God’s people and their return to the land, th...","summary_en":"The Return of God’s Presence with His People The descriptions of the Exile include the tragedy that, as part of his judgment, God withdrew his presence from his people and from the holy city of Jerusalem. This notion is perhaps most clearly demonstrated in a vision of the prophet Ezekiel, who saw a visual depiction of God’s glorious presence leaving the Temple (Ezek 10:1-22; 11:22-23). As such, when the prophets discussed the future restoration of God’s people and their return to the land, th...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":147694,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Return of God’s Presence with His People","title_en":"The Return of God’s Presence with His People","content_ro":"<h3>The Return of God’s Presence with His People<\/h3>\nThe descriptions of the Exile include the tragedy that, as part of his judgment, God withdrew his presence from his people and from the holy city of Jerusalem. This notion is perhaps most clearly demonstrated in a vision of the prophet Ezekiel, who saw a visual depiction of God’s glorious presence leaving the Temple (Ezek 10:1-22; 11:22-23). As such, when the prophets discussed the future restoration of God’s people and their return to the land, they also often spoke of the return of God’s presence (see, e.g., Isa 52:7-8; Ezek 43:1-9).<\/p>\nThe prophet Zechariah placed a strong emphasis on this theme of the Lord returning to his people. He was certain that God would once again live among them and that the glory of the Lord would rest in Jerusalem (1:16; 2:5, 10-11; 8:3, 23). God’s presence would return with the rebuilding of the Temple, and Israel would experience spiritual restoration and renewed agricultural bounty (1:17; 4:8-9; 6:15; see also Hag 2:19). In the future, God’s presence would rescue Jerusalem and the people of Israel from enemy nations. The Lord would be enthroned as King over all the earth, and the whole earth would worship the one true God (Zech 9:16; 10:6; 12:9; 14:9). In both the present and the future, the return of the Lord’s presence to Jerusalem was connected with the enabling work of God’s Spirit (4:6; 12:10; see also Hag 2:5).<\/p>\nZechariah’s promise of the Lord’s presence in Jerusalem anticipated the coming of Jesus the Messiah and the awesome mystery of the Word of God becoming human and living on earth among us (John 1:14).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nGen 26:3; 31:3; Exod 3:12; Deut 31:23; Josh 1:5; Judg 6:16; Isa 7:14; 43:2; 52:8; Ezek 37:27; Joel 3:21; Hag 2:5; Zech 1:16-17; 2:5, 10-11; 4:6; 8:3, 23; 14:9; John 1:14<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Return of God’s Presence with His People<\/h3>\nThe descriptions of the Exile include the tragedy that, as part of his judgment, God withdrew his presence from his people and from the holy city of Jerusalem. This notion is perhaps most clearly demonstrated in a vision of the prophet Ezekiel, who saw a visual depiction of God’s glorious presence leaving the Temple (Ezek 10:1-22; 11:22-23). As such, when the prophets discussed the future restoration of God’s people and their return to the land, they also often spoke of the return of God’s presence (see, e.g., Isa 52:7-8; Ezek 43:1-9).<\/p>\nThe prophet Zechariah placed a strong emphasis on this theme of the Lord returning to his people. He was certain that God would once again live among them and that the glory of the Lord would rest in Jerusalem (1:16; 2:5, 10-11; 8:3, 23). God’s presence would return with the rebuilding of the Temple, and Israel would experience spiritual restoration and renewed agricultural bounty (1:17; 4:8-9; 6:15; see also Hag 2:19). In the future, God’s presence would rescue Jerusalem and the people of Israel from enemy nations. The Lord would be enthroned as King over all the earth, and the whole earth would worship the one true God (Zech 9:16; 10:6; 12:9; 14:9). In both the present and the future, the return of the Lord’s presence to Jerusalem was connected with the enabling work of God’s Spirit (4:6; 12:10; see also Hag 2:5).<\/p>\nZechariah’s promise of the Lord’s presence in Jerusalem anticipated the coming of Jesus the Messiah and the awesome mystery of the Word of God becoming human and living on earth among us (John 1:14).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nGen 26:3; 31:3; Exod 3:12; Deut 31:23; Josh 1:5; Judg 6:16; Isa 7:14; 43:2; 52:8; Ezek 37:27; Joel 3:21; Hag 2:5; Zech 1:16-17; 2:5, 10-11; 4:6; 8:3, 23; 14:9; John 1:14<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Return of God’s Presence with His People The descriptions of the Exile include the tragedy that, as part of his judgment, God withdrew his presence from his people and from the holy city of Jerusalem. This notion is perhaps most clearly demonstrated in a vision of the prophet Ezekiel, who saw a visual depiction of God’s glorious presence leaving the Temple (Ezek 10:1-22; 11:22-23). As such, when the prophets discussed the future restoration of God’s people and their return to the land, th...","summary_en":"The Return of God’s Presence with His People The descriptions of the Exile include the tragedy that, as part of his judgment, God withdrew his presence from his people and from the holy city of Jerusalem. This notion is perhaps most clearly demonstrated in a vision of the prophet Ezekiel, who saw a visual depiction of God’s glorious presence leaving the Temple (Ezek 10:1-22; 11:22-23). As such, when the prophets discussed the future restoration of God’s people and their return to the land, th...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}]},"labels":{"article":"Articol","map":"Hartă","chart":"Diagramă","textbox":"Notă explicativă","picture":"Imagine","profile":"Profil","study_note":"Notă de studiu","theme_note":"Temă biblică"},"icons":{"article":"📖","map":"🗺️","chart":"📊","textbox":"💡","picture":"🖼️","profile":"👤","study_note":"📝","theme_note":"🎯"},"typeColors":{"article":"#d4af37","map":"#2d7d46","chart":"#3b82f6","textbox":"#8b5cf6","picture":"#ec4899","profile":"#f59e0b","study_note":"#06b6d4","theme_note":"#ef4444"}}

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