Isaia 10
1 Vai de cei ce rostesc hotărâri nelegiuite, şi de cei ce scriu porunci nedrepte,
2 ca să nu facă dreptate săracilor, şi să răpească dreptul nenorociţilor poporului Meu, ca să facă pe văduve prada lor, şi să jăfuiască pe orfani!
3 ,,Ce veţi face voi în ziua pedepsei, şi a pieirii, care va veni din depărtare peste voi?`` ,,La cine veţi fugi după ajutor, şi unde vă veţi lăsa bogăţia?``
4 Unii vor fi îngenunchiaţi între cei prinşi în război, iar alţii vor cădea între cei morţi. Cu toate acestea, mânia Lui nu se potoleşte, şi mâna Lui tot întinsă este.
5 ,,Vai de Asirian-zice Domnul-nuiaua mâniei Mele, care poartă în mână toiagul urgiei Mele!
6 I-am dat drumul împotriva unui neam nelegiuit, l-am trimes împotriva unui popor pe care sânt mâniat, ca să-l prădeze şi să-l jăfuiască, să-l calce în picioare ca noroiul de pe uliţe.
7 Dar el nu judecă aşa, şi nu acesta este gândul inimii lui; ci el nu se gândeşte decât să nimicească, decât să prăpădească neamurile cu grămada.
8 Căci el zice: ,Nu sânt voivozii mei tot atîţia împăraţi?`
9 ,Nu s-a întâmplat cu Calno la fel ca şi cu Carchemişul?` ,Nu s-a întâmplat cu Hamatul ca şi cu Arpadul?` ,Nu s-a întâmplat Samariei la fel ca Damascului?`
10 ,După cum mâna mea a pus stăpânire pe împărăţiile idolilor, (unde erau mai multe icoane decât la Ierusalim şi în Samaria),
11 cum am făcut Samariei şi idolilor ei, nu voi face şi Ierusalimului şi icoanelor lui?.``
12 Dar, dupăce Domnul Îşi va împlini toată lucrarea Lui pe muntele Sionului şi la Ierusalim, voi pedepsi-zice Domnul-pe împăratul Asiriei pentru rodul inimii lui îngâmfate, şi pentru trufia privirilor lui semeţe,
13 căci el a zis: ,,Prin puterea mânei mele am făcut aceste lucruri, şi prin înţelepciunea mea, -căci sânt priceput; am împins înapoi hotarele popoarelor, şi le-am jăfuit vistieriile, şi, ca un viteaz, am dat jos pe cei ce şedeau pe scaunele lor de domnie;
14 am pus mâna pe bogăţiile popoarelor, ca pe un cuib, şi, cum se strâng nişte ouă părăsite, aşa am strâns eu tot pământul: niciunul n-a mişcat vreo aripă, nici n-a deschis ciocul, ca să ciripească. -
15 ,Se făleşte oare securea împotriva celui ce se slujeşte de ea?` ,Sau se mândreşte ferestrăul faţă de cel ce-l mânuieşte?` ,Ca şi cum nuiaua ar mişca pe cel ce o ridică, parcă toiagul ar ridica pe cel ce nu este de lemn!``
16 De aceea Domnul, Dumnezeul oştirilor, va trimete ofilirea prin războinicii lui cei voinici; şi între aleşii lui va izbucni un pârjol, ca pârjolul unui foc.
17 Lumina lui Israel se va preface în foc, şi Sfântul lui într-o flacără, care va mistui şi va arde spinii şi mărăcinii lui, într-o zi.
18 Va arde, trup şi suflet, strălucirea pădurii şi câmpiilor lui, de va fi ca un bolnav, care cade în leşin.
19 Ceilalţi copaci din pădurea lui vor putea fi număraţi, şi un copil le-ar putea scrie numărul.
20 În ziua aceea, rămăşiţa lui Israel şi cei scăpaţi din casa lui Iacov, nu se vor mai sprijini pe cel ce îi lovea; ci se vor sprijini cu încredere pe Domnul, Sfântul lui Israel.
21 O rămăşiţă, rămăşiţa lui Iacov, se va întoarce la Dumnezeul cel puternic.
22 Chiar dacă poporul tău, Israele, ar fi ca nisipul mării, totuş numai o rămăşiţă se va întoarce, căci nimicirea este hotărâtă, făcând să se reverse dreptatea.
23 Şi nimicirea aceasta, care a fost hotărâtă, Domnul, Dumnezeul oştirilor, o va aduce la îndeplinire în toată ţara.
24 Totuş, aşa vorbeşte Domnul, Dumnezeul oştirilor: ,,Poporul Meu, care locuieşte în Sion, nu te teme de Asirian; da, el te loveşte cu nuiaua, şi îşi ridică toiagul asupra ta, cum făceau Egiptenii.
25 Dar, peste puţină vreme, pedeapsa va înceta, şi mânia Mea se va întoarce împotriva lui, ca să-l nimicescă.``
26 Domnul oştirilor va învârti biciul împotriva lui, cum a lovit pe Madian la stânca Oreb; şi Îşi va mai ridica toiagul odată asupra mării, ca odinioară în Egipt.
27 În ziua aceea, se va lua povara lui de pe umărul tău, şi jugul lui de pe gâtul tău, ba încă jugul va crăpa de grăsime.
28 El vine asupra Aiatului, străbate Migronul, îşi lasă calabalâcul la Micmaş.
29 Trec trecătoarea, se culcă la Gheba; Rama tremură, Ghibea lui Saul o ia la fugă.
30 ,,Ridică-ţi glasul, fiica Galimului!`` ,,Ia seama, Lais!`` ,,Vai de tine, Anatot!``
31 Madmena se împrăştie, locuitorii din Ghebim fug.
32 Încă o zi de oprire la Nob, şi ameninţă cu mâna lui muntele fiicei Sionului, dealul Ierusalimului.
33 Iată, Domnul, Dumnezeul oştirilor, taie crăcile cu putere; cei mai mari sânt tăiaţi, cei mai înalţi sânt doborîţi.
34 Dă jos cu fierul crângul pădurii, şi Libanul cade supt mâna Celui Puternic.
{"verseMap":{"1":[{"id":1117,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Alms","title_en":"Alms","content_ro":"<h3>ALMS<\/h3>\n<p>Charitable gifts. The practice of giving alms to the poor. The English word “alms” comes from a longer Greek word used in the Septuagint (ancient Greek translation of the OT) to translate a Hebrew word for “righteousness.” The Hebrew term, in general, is unrelated to almsgiving; consequently the OT has no literal reference to almsgiving. Nevertheless, the Israelites were expected to care for the unfortunate in their midst. The Mosaic law contains many admonitions to treat the poor justly and humanely. Important among them is Deuteronomy 15:7-11, which, while recognizing the inevitable existence of poverty, commands Israel to take alleviating action. Thus, every seventh year all fields and gardens were to remain unharvested for the benefit of the poor and disadvantaged (Ex 23:10-11). Every third year one-tenth of all produce had to be given to the Levites (a Hebrew tribe that had no property), the sojourner, the fatherless, and the widow (Dt 14:28-29). Forgotten sheaves and the gleanings from grain fields at each harvest were left for the needy and the stranger (Lv 19:9; 23:22); from every vineyard and olive grove, any fallen fruit and the imperfect and topmost clusters were reserved for them (Lv 19:10; Dt 24:20-21). Likewise, festival pilgrims were expected to share food with those in need (Dt 16:11-14).<\/p>\n\n<p>The OT prophets continued to champion the theme of benevolent treatment for the poor. The strongest expressions of the social justice theme are found in Isaiah (1:23; 3:15; 10:1-2; 11:4-5; 58:5-10) and Amos (2:6-8; 4:1; 5:11; 8:4). Similarly, the Psalms and “Wisdom Literature” (Jb; Prv; Eccl) depict the plight of the poor, holding out hope to the afflicted and appealing to others to take up their cause or to improve their condition. The appeals were based on the conviction that all human beings are created by the one God, who had commanded Israel to deal with the unfortunate in their midst with a compassion that went beyond charity to justice.<\/p>\n<p>During the intertestamental period the giving of alms acquired more importance. The general command to show loving-kindness (cf. Lv 19:18) became defined as specific individual acts believed to contribute to personal merit and security. Thus, “almsgiving atones for sin” (Ecclus 3:30) and “delivers from death” (Tb 4:10). Along with prayer and fasting, almsgiving was elevated as one of the most important expressions of Jewish piety (Tb 12:8-9).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ALMS<\/h3>\n<p>Charitable gifts. The practice of giving alms to the poor. The English word “alms” comes from a longer Greek word used in the Septuagint (ancient Greek translation of the OT) to translate a Hebrew word for “righteousness.” The Hebrew term, in general, is unrelated to almsgiving; consequently the OT has no literal reference to almsgiving. Nevertheless, the Israelites were expected to care for the unfortunate in their midst. The Mosaic law contains many admonitions to treat the poor justly and humanely. Important among them is Deuteronomy 15:7-11, which, while recognizing the inevitable existence of poverty, commands Israel to take alleviating action. Thus, every seventh year all fields and gardens were to remain unharvested for the benefit of the poor and disadvantaged (Ex 23:10-11). Every third year one-tenth of all produce had to be given to the Levites (a Hebrew tribe that had no property), the sojourner, the fatherless, and the widow (Dt 14:28-29). Forgotten sheaves and the gleanings from grain fields at each harvest were left for the needy and the stranger (Lv 19:9; 23:22); from every vineyard and olive grove, any fallen fruit and the imperfect and topmost clusters were reserved for them (Lv 19:10; Dt 24:20-21). Likewise, festival pilgrims were expected to share food with those in need (Dt 16:11-14).<\/p>\n\n<p>The OT prophets continued to champion the theme of benevolent treatment for the poor. The strongest expressions of the social justice theme are found in Isaiah (1:23; 3:15; 10:1-2; 11:4-5; 58:5-10) and Amos (2:6-8; 4:1; 5:11; 8:4). Similarly, the Psalms and “Wisdom Literature” (Jb; Prv; Eccl) depict the plight of the poor, holding out hope to the afflicted and appealing to others to take up their cause or to improve their condition. The appeals were based on the conviction that all human beings are created by the one God, who had commanded Israel to deal with the unfortunate in their midst with a compassion that went beyond charity to justice.<\/p>\n<p>During the intertestamental period the giving of alms acquired more importance. The general command to show loving-kindness (cf. Lv 19:18) became defined as specific individual acts believed to contribute to personal merit and security. Thus, “almsgiving atones for sin” (Ecclus 3:30) and “delivers from death” (Tb 4:10). Along with prayer and fasting, almsgiving was elevated as one of the most important expressions of Jewish piety (Tb 12:8-9).<\/p>","summary_ro":"ALMS Charitable gifts. The practice of giving alms to the poor. The English word “alms” comes from a longer Greek word used in the Septuagint (ancient Greek translation of the OT) to translate a Hebrew word for “righteousness.” The Hebrew term, in general, is unrelated to almsgiving; consequently the OT has no literal reference to almsgiving. Nevertheless, the Israelites were expected to care for the unfortunate in their midst. The Mosaic law contains many admonitions to treat the poor justly...","summary_en":"ALMS Charitable gifts. The practice of giving alms to the poor. The English word “alms” comes from a longer Greek word used in the Septuagint (ancient Greek translation of the OT) to translate a Hebrew word for “righteousness.” The Hebrew term, in general, is unrelated to almsgiving; consequently the OT has no literal reference to almsgiving. Nevertheless, the Israelites were expected to care for the unfortunate in their midst. The Mosaic law contains many admonitions to treat the poor justly...","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":19381,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Jesse (Person)","title_en":"Jesse (Person)","content_ro":"<h3>JESSE (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<p>Son of Obed and grandson of Ruth and Boaz (Ru 4:17, 22). Jesse was a shepherd from Bethlehem. He had eight sons, of whom David was the youngest. He had at least two daughters, Zeruiah and Abigail, who became mothers of famous warriors.<\/p>\n<p>When Samuel went to Jesse’s home to search for and anoint a king, Jesse did not at first feel it worthwhile to call David for examination (1 Sm 16:11). Later he sent David to play the lyre for Saul (vv 19-21). After David became a fugitive from Saul, Jesse and others of the family came to David in the cave of Adullam. David then brought his father and mother to Mizpah in Moab (22:3). Nothing further is heard of Jesse.<\/p>\n<p>After Saul broke with David, he commonly spoke of David derisively as a “son of Jesse” to underscore his humble origins (1 Sm 20:31; 22:7). This same emphasis on Jesse’s modest station in life is found in such messianic references as Isaiah 11:1 and 10, which speak of the “shoot from the stump of Jesse” and “the root of Jesse” (<span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> David; Jesse, Root of.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>JESSE (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<p>Son of Obed and grandson of Ruth and Boaz (Ru 4:17, 22). Jesse was a shepherd from Bethlehem. He had eight sons, of whom David was the youngest. He had at least two daughters, Zeruiah and Abigail, who became mothers of famous warriors.<\/p>\n<p>When Samuel went to Jesse’s home to search for and anoint a king, Jesse did not at first feel it worthwhile to call David for examination (1 Sm 16:11). Later he sent David to play the lyre for Saul (vv 19-21). After David became a fugitive from Saul, Jesse and others of the family came to David in the cave of Adullam. David then brought his father and mother to Mizpah in Moab (22:3). Nothing further is heard of Jesse.<\/p>\n<p>After Saul broke with David, he commonly spoke of David derisively as a “son of Jesse” to underscore his humble origins (1 Sm 20:31; 22:7). This same emphasis on Jesse’s modest station in life is found in such messianic references as Isaiah 11:1 and 10, which speak of the “shoot from the stump of Jesse” and “the root of Jesse” (<span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> David; Jesse, Root of.<\/p>","summary_ro":"JESSE (Person) Son of Obed and grandson of Ruth and Boaz (Ru 4:17, 22). Jesse was a shepherd from Bethlehem. He had eight sons, of whom David was the youngest. He had at least two daughters, Zeruiah and Abigail, who became mothers of famous warriors. When Samuel went to Jesse’s home to search for and anoint a king, Jesse did not at first feel it worthwhile to call David for examination (1 Sm 16:11). Later he sent David to play the lyre for Saul (vv 19-21). After David became a fugitive from S...","summary_en":"JESSE (Person) Son of Obed and grandson of Ruth and Boaz (Ru 4:17, 22). Jesse was a shepherd from Bethlehem. He had eight sons, of whom David was the youngest. He had at least two daughters, Zeruiah and Abigail, who became mothers of famous warriors. When Samuel went to Jesse’s home to search for and anoint a king, Jesse did not at first feel it worthwhile to call David for examination (1 Sm 16:11). Later he sent David to play the lyre for Saul (vv 19-21). After David became a fugitive from S...","source":"Articles\/J.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":31522,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Prophecy","title_en":"Prophecy","content_ro":"<h3>PROPHECY<\/h3>\n<p>Term, along with its English cognates (“prophet,” “to prophesy,” “prophetism,” and “prophetic”), derived from a group of Greek words that, in secular Greek, mean “speak forth,” “proclaim,” “announce.” In biblical Greek, however, these terms always carry the connotation of speaking, proclaiming, or announcing something under the influence of spiritual inspiration.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Prophecy in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>• Types of Old Testament Prophets<\/p>\n<p>• The Message of the Prophets<\/p>\n<p>• Prophecy in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>• The Role of the Christian Prophet<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ProphecyintheOldTestament\">Prophecy in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>One of the clearest and most significant statements on the nature of prophetic inspiration in the OT is found in Numbers 12:6-8: “The <span>Lord<\/span> said to them, ‘Now listen to me! Even with prophets, I the <span>Lord<\/span> communicate by visions and dreams. But that is not how I communicate with my servant Moses. He is entrusted with my entire house. I speak to him face to face, directly and not in riddles! He sees the <span>Lord<\/span> as he is’ ” (<span>nlt<\/span>). Several important insights into the nature of prophetic inspiration are found in this passage: (1) The prophetic gift of Moses was unique in that he alone received revelations directly from God. (2) Ordinarily, prophetic revelation was received through the medium of a dream or a vision. (3) The meaning of prophetic revelation is not always completely clear; prophecy is sometimes ambiguous.<\/p>\n<p>Further insight into the nature of prophetic revelation is found in Deuteronomy 18:18: “I [God] will raise up for them a prophet like you [Moses] from among their brethren; and I will put my words in his mouth, and he shall speak to them all that I command him” (<span>rsv<\/span>). While this passage is of interest because Jesus was identified as “the prophet like Moses” who came in fulfillment of this prediction (Acts 3:22; 7:37), the more immediate historical reference is to the succession of prophets that guided Israel from Joshua to Malachi. The phrase “I will put my words in his mouth” refers to the process of divine inspiration and is reminiscent of the common OT prophetic formula “the word of the Lord came to [such and such a prophet]” (for examples, see 1 Sm 15:10; 2 Sm 24:11; 1 Kgs 19:9; Jon 1:1; Hg 1:1; 2:1, 20; Zec 7:1, 8; 8:1). A true prophet is one who speaks (or repeats) all that God has told him.<\/p>\n<h5>Modes of Prophetic Inspiration<\/h5>\n<p>Dreams were a commonly recognized mode of inspiration throughout the ancient world, though they were more highly regarded in Greece than in ancient Israel. Revelatory dreams in the Bible fall into two major categories: (1) dreams whose meaning is self-evident, and (2) symbolic dreams that usually require the expertise of an interpreter of dreams. Both types normally involve both visual and auditory elements. In those dreams whose meaning is self-evident, normally a supernatural being (God or an angel) appears to the dreamer and speaks to him or her in a straightforward manner.<\/p>\n<p>More frequently, revelatory dreams have symbolic elements that require interpretation. The two great dream interpreters of the OT are Joseph and Daniel; the latter is clearly a prophet. The two symbolic dreams that Joseph himself dreamed (Gn 37:5-11) had sufficiently self-evident meaning so that his brothers and father were able to interpret them immediately. More complex were the dreams of the butler and baker (40:1-19) and of Pharaoh (41:1-36), which Joseph was able to interpret with the help of God. Similarly, Daniel was enabled to interpret the dreams of Nebuchadnezzar (Dn 2:25-45; 4:4-27). The skill in interpreting such dreams was attributed by both Joseph and Daniel to God (Gn 40:8; 41:16, 25; Dn 2:27-30; cf. 4:9). While dreams are used almost interchangeably with visions in referring to modes of prophetic inspiration (Jl 2:28), dreams do not occupy a significant part in the prophetic revelations of any of the OT prophets, with the exception of Daniel.<\/p>\n<p>One of the most characteristic modes of prophetic inspiration was the vision (Nm 12:6; 24:4, 16; Hos 12:10). The revelatory visions experienced by the prophets were not limited to visual phenomena alone but also included the auditory dimension as well. In Isaiah 1:1, the author describes his entire prophetic book as a “vision”: “These visions concerning Judah and Jerusalem came to Isaiah son of Amoz during the reigns of Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah—all kings of Judah” (<span>nlt<\/span>). Yet in the very next verse, Isaiah says, “Hear, O heavens! Listen, O earth! This is what the <span>Lord<\/span> says.” Again, in Amos 1:1, “The <em>words<\/em> of Amos, who was among the shepherds of Tekoa, which he <em>saw<\/em> concerning Israel” (<span>rsv<\/span>, emphasis added).<\/p>\n<h5>Manifestations of Prophetic Inspiration<\/h5>\n<p>All prophecy, whether biblical or not, presupposes that the prophet either possessed or was possessed by a personal supernatural power. The external behavioral manifestations of this possession can exhibit great variety.<\/p>\n<p>The prophetic phenomenon generally designated “ecstatic” prophecy appears to have existed in Canaan prior to the arrival of the Hebrew tribes in the 13th century <span>BC<\/span>. The first reference to ecstatic prophecy in Israel occurs in 1 Samuel 10:5-13 (11th century <span>BC<\/span>), and it persisted at least till the sixth century <span>BC<\/span> (Jer 29:26).<\/p>\n<p>The ecstatic prophet achieves a trancelike state by self-induced means. The most common devices used to achieve a state of ecstasy were musical instruments, such as the harp, tambourine, flute, and lyre (1 Sm 10:5). Among the prophets of Baal, self-flagellation was another means of inducing ecstasy (1 Kgs 18:28-29).<\/p>\n<p>This kind of prophetic ecstasy was usually practiced by groups of prophets (1 Sm 10:5), and such ecstasy was contagious. When Saul met a band of such prophets, the Spirit of God came upon him and he, too, began to prophesy (vv 10-13), a phenomenon that occurred repeatedly to various messengers sent by Saul on a later occasion (19:20-22). At that time Saul again prophesied, and his ecstatic behavior is described in 1 Samuel 19:24. When Elisha was asked to prophesy for King Jehoram of Israel, he first requested a minstrel. When the minstrel played, the power of the Lord came upon him (2 Kgs 3:15).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TypesofOldTestamentProphets\">Types of Old Testament Prophets<\/p>\n<p>There are two basic types of prophetic commission in the OT. One type is that of a narrative call by God to a particular individual whose objections to the call are gradually overcome in a dialogue between himself and God. The classic example of this type of prophetic commission is found in Jeremiah 1:4-8:<\/p>\n<p>The <span>Lord<\/span> gave me a message. He said, “I knew you before I formed you in your mother’s womb. Before you were born I set you apart and appointed you as my spokesman to the world.”<\/p>\n<blockquote><p>“O Sovereign <span>Lord<\/span>,” I said, “I can’t speak for you! I’m too young!”<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<blockquote><p>“Don’t say that,” the <span>Lord<\/span> replied, “for you must go wherever I send you and say whatever I tell you. And don’t be afraid of the people, for I will be with you and take care of you. I, the <span>Lord<\/span>, have spoken!” (<span>nlt<\/span>)<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<p>Similar prophetic commissions including such dialogues are associated with the calls of Moses (Ex 3:1–4:17) and Gideon (Jgs 6:11-17).<\/p>\n<p>The second major form of prophetic commission is the “throne vision.” An outstanding example is Isaiah 6:1-8:<\/p>\n<p>In the year King Uzziah died, I saw the Lord. He was sitting on a lofty throne, and the train of his robe filled the Temple. . . .<\/p>\n<blockquote><p>Then I said, “My destruction is sealed, for I am a sinful man and a member of a sinful race. Yet I have seen the King, the <span>Lord<\/span> Almighty!”<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<blockquote><p>Then one of the seraphim flew over to the altar, and he picked up a burning coal with a pair of tongs. He touched my lips with it and said, “See, this coal has touched your lips. Now your guilt is removed, and your sins are forgiven.”<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<blockquote><p>Then I heard the Lord asking, “Whom should I send as a messenger to my people? Who will go for us?”<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<blockquote><p>And I said, “Lord, I’ll go! Send me.” (<span>nlt<\/span>)<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<p>Here we have an account of the visionary presence of a prophet in the heavenly council; in this case, however, the prophet participates in the deliberations and thereby receives a prophetic commission. Though few prophets have left accounts of their divine commissions, most of them appear to have been conscious of having been “sent” by God (Is 48:16; Hos 8:1; Am 7:14-15). According to Jeremiah, false prophets did not receive such divine commissions (Jer 23:21, 32; 28:15).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheMessageoftheProphets\">The Message of the Prophets<\/p>\n<h5>The Form of the Message<\/h5>\n<p>The most common introductory formula for prophetic oracles in the OT is the phrase “Thus says the Lord,” which occurs hundreds of times in prophetic contexts. This formula clearly implies that the pronouncement so introduced is not the word of the prophet who utters the oracle but of the God of Israel who delivered his word to his prophet. The use of this formula also reiterates the prophet’s sense of divine commission. In oracles introduced in this manner, God speaks in the first person. In fact, virtually all Israelite prophetic utterance is formulated as the direct speech of the God of Israel.<\/p>\n<p>The prophets used many literary forms in which to express their oracles. Two of the more widely used forms of prophetic speech are the judgment speech and the oracle of salvation. The judgment speech is composed of at least two central elements: the speech of rebuke or invective, and the pronouncement of judgment (see 2 Kgs 1:3-4). The second common prophetic speech form is the oracle of salvation (see Is 41:8-13). Other fixed forms of prophetic speech include the prophecy of salvation (43:14-21), the proclamation of salvation (41:17-20; 42:14-17; 43:16-21; 49:7-12), and the woe oracle (Is 5:8-10; 10:1-4; Am 5:18-24; 6:1-7; Mi 2:1-5).<\/p>\n<h5>The Content of the Message<\/h5>\n<p>The common adage that OT prophets were not “foretellers” but “forthtellers” is not strictly correct. All of the prophets predict the future. Such prediction, however, is based not on human curiosity of what the future will hold but rather is rooted in the future consequences of past or present violations of the covenant, or on a future act of deliverance that will provide hope for a discouraged people. Most of the prophetic speeches that have been preserved in the OT were originally delivered as public proclamations or sermons. Most of these prophetic proclamations were evoked by the iniquity and apostasy of Israel. Hosea and Jeremiah condemned Israel because she had broken the covenant (Jer 11:2-3; Hos 8:1).<\/p>\n<p>The prophets are frequently associated with social justice and social reform, and these elements were unquestionably an important dimension of their message. Amos denounced the rich who afflicted the poor (Am 2:6-8; 4:1; 5:11; 8:4-6). He railed against sexual immorality (2:6-8) and against those who take bribes (5:12). Hosea provided a list of prevalent vices, including lying, killing, stealing, adultery, and idolatry (Hos 4:2). Idolatry was a particular target for his denunciations (8:5; 11:2). The background for such heated denunciations of Israel’s behavior is God’s unquenchable love for Israel (Is 43:4; Jer 31:3; Hos 3:1; 11:1-4; 14:4; Mal 1:2), which is inseparable from his election of Israel (Is 43:1; Jer 33:24; Ez 20:5; Hos 3).<\/p>\n<p>The prophets were concerned not only with the transgressions of Israel and the historical judgment that would inevitably follow but also with the achievement of a final future time of bliss. The message of many of the prophets is thoroughly eschatological (i.e., pertaining to the end times). One such eschatological concept is that of the Day of the Lord. The concept of the Day of the Lord first appears in Amos, where the emphasis lies on the disaster that will befall Israel on that day. Amos’s emphasis on disaster notwithstanding, the Day of the Lord is a conception that had both salvific as well as judgmental overtones for Israel. While the disaster that will occur in the Day of the Lord can be viewed in terms of a literal historical fulfillment in the tragic events of 722 <span>BC<\/span> (the fall of Samaria) and 586 <span>BC<\/span> (the fall of Judah), there are nevertheless features of these predictions that transcend historical fulfillment and reach toward eschatological fulfillment.<\/p>\n<p>Since the Israelite conception of “salvation” was largely temporal in its dimensions, it included such blessings as length of life, fruitfulness of the womb and field, peace and victory over one’s enemies, the abundance of water, and so on. In harmony with this conception of salvation, the future age is conceived in precisely those terms, as in Amos 9:13-15.<\/p>\n<p>The prophets pictured a time when David himself, or someone very much like him, would return and inaugurate a golden era reminiscent of the great Davidic and Solomonic period. The covenant of God with David was not a conditional covenant but rather one that was absolutely inviolable (2 Sm 7:4-17; Ps 89; Jer 33:19-22), and it was with this knowledge that the prophets could look forward confidently to a restoration of David’s throne (Jer 17:24-26; 23:5-6; 33:14-15).<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ProphecyintheNewTestament\">Prophecy in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>In contrast to the few self-proclaimed prophets of the intertestamental period, early Christianity began with a flurry of prophetic activity that lasted well into the second century <span>AD<\/span>. Jesus, his disciples and followers, and the early Christians were convinced that the times in which they lived were times in which OT prophecy was being fulfilled (Mk 1:14-15; Acts 2:16-21; Rom 16:25-27; 1 Cor 10:11). Yet this era was not only one of fulfillment but also one of the renewal of the prophetic gift.<\/p>\n<h5>John the Baptist<\/h5>\n<p>John the Baptist is remembered in the NT primarily as the forerunner of Jesus whose coming was predicted by Malachi (Mal 4:5-6). Yet, in his own right, John proclaimed the imminent judgment of God with a flair of denunciation and rebuke reminiscent of the OT prophets. John’s costume, consisting of a hairy cloak and a leather girdle (Mk 1:6), was reminiscent of the typical garb of OT prophets (1 Kgs 19:19; 2 Kgs 1:8; 2:13-14; Zec 13:4). John was regarded as a prophet by people everywhere (Mt 14:5; 17:10-13; Mk 9:11-13; 11:32; Lk 1:76; 7:26). Luke reports, in a style similar to the OT prophetic narratives, that “the word of God came to John” (Lk 3:2). Two short prophetic speeches have been preserved in Matthew 3:7-10 (cf. Lk 3:7-9) and Mark 1:7-8 (cf. Mt 3:11-12; Lk 3:15-18). In the first speech, John denounced those of his generation who had transgressed the covenant law and exhorted them to change their manner of life. In the second speech, John predicted the coming of the Mighty One, Jesus (Mt 3:11; Mk 1:7; Lk 3:16; Jn 1:15, 27, 30; Acts 13:25). John’s style, however, was not precisely that of the OT prophets. His pronouncements were made on his own authority; never did he use formulas such as “thus says the Lord,” or present his prophetic utterances as if they were speeches made by God. Yet, in spite of these differences, John is appropriately regarded as the last representative of the OT prophetic tradition (Mt 11:13; Lk 16:16).<\/p>\n<h5>Jesus of Nazareth<\/h5>\n<p>Jesus was popularly regarded as a prophet (Mt 16:14; 21:10-11; Mk 6:14-15; 8:28; Lk 7:16, 39; 9:8, 19; Jn 6:14; 7:40, 52). This assessment was based as much on the mighty deeds Jesus performed as on his prophetic speeches and predictions. Though Jesus nowhere claimed prophetic status directly, that claim is implicit in Mark 6:4: “A prophet is honored everywhere except in his own hometown” (cf. Mt 13:57; Lk 4:24). It is implicit as well in Luke 13:33: “Yes, today, tomorrow, and the next day I must proceed on my way. For it wouldn’t do for a prophet of God to be killed except in Jerusalem!” (<span>nlt<\/span>). In Acts, Jesus is regarded as “the prophet like Moses” predicted in Deuteronomy 18:18 (Acts 3:22; 7:37). Matthew presents Jesus as the New Moses, but he does not particularly emphasize his prophetic role. John, however, like Luke, emphasizes Jesus’ role as the prophet (Jn 4:19; 6:14-15; 7:40).<\/p>\n<p>While the Gospels and Acts reflect the notion that Jesus was a prophet, they also emphasize the fact that he was much more than a prophet. Nevertheless, the notion of prophetism was sufficiently important in early Judaism that Jesus’ recognition as a prophet is very significant. There are 12 solid reasons for regarding Jesus as a prophet in the OT tradition: (1) The sovereign authority of Jesus’ teaching (Mk 1:27), a feature underlined by his use of the introductory formula “(Amen) I say to you,” which is reminiscent of the formula “thus says the Lord” used by the OT prophets. (2) The poetic character of many of Jesus’ sayings is unlike contemporary rabbinic teaching but is similar to the poetic rhetoric of the OT prophets. (3) Jesus experienced visions (Lk 10:18) like the ancient prophets. (4) Jesus, like the prophets, made many predictions (Mt 23:38; Mk 13:2; 14:58; Lk 13:35; etc.). (5) Like the OT prophets, Jesus performed symbolic acts (such as the cleansing of the temple, the entry into Jerusalem, and the Last Supper). (6) Jesus, like the prophets, when necessary, rejected the formal observance of religious ritual and emphasized the moral and spiritual dimensions of obedience to God. (7) Jesus announced the imminent arrival of the kingdom of God—an eschatological proclamation similar to those made by the prophets. (8) Like the OT prophets, Jesus functioned as a preacher of repentance. (9) Jesus, like many of the prophets, was conscious of a special calling of God (Mt 15:24; Mk 8:31; 9:37; 14:36; Lk 4:18-26). (10) Jesus, like the prophets, received divine revelation through intimate communion with God (Mt 11:27; Lk 10:22). (11) Like the prophets, Jesus represented God; to obey him was to obey God, to reject him was to reject God (Mk 9:37; cf. Ez 33:30-33). (12) Like the prophets, Jesus was conscious of a mission to all Israel (Mt 15:24; 19:28; Lk 22:30).<\/p>\n<p>Among the many prophetic predictions of Jesus are the following:<\/p>\n<p>1. Predictions of the imminent arrival of the kingdom of God (Mt 10:7-8, 23; 23:39; Mk 1:15; 9:1; 13:28-29)<\/p>\n<li>2. Predictions of the destruction of Jerusalem and the temple (Mt 23:37-39; 24:2; 26:61; 27:40; Mk 13:2; 14:58; 15:29; Lk 13:34-35; 21:6; Jn 2:19-21)<\/li>\n<li>3. Predictions of the coming of the Son of Man (Mt 10:23, 32-33; 12:40; 13:40-41; 16:27; 24:27, 37-39; Mk 8:38; 13:26-27; 14:62; Lk 9:26; 11:30; 12:8-9; 17:24, 26)<\/li>\n<li>4. Predictions of the end of the age. The longest prophetic section in the Gospels is the eschatological discourse of Jesus in Mark 13:1-32 (cf. Mt 24:1-36; Lk 21:5-33), in which a number of predictions concerning the destruction of Jerusalem and the end of the age are woven into a lengthy discourse to the disciples.<\/li>\n<h5>Prophecy as a Gift for the Believers<\/h5>\n<p>The beginning of prophetic activity in early Christianity, according to Acts, coincided with the outpouring of the Holy Spirit upon the earliest Christians on the Day of Pentecost (Acts 2:1-21). Peter’s sermon on the Day of Pentecost indicates that the outpouring of the Spirit fulfilled Joel’s prophecy (Acts 2:4, 17-21; cf. Jl 2:28-32). Further, since the Spirit had been poured out upon all early Christians (that Spirit being a Spirit of prophecy), all are actual or potential prophets.<\/p>\n<p>According to 1 Corinthians 12:28 (see also Rom 12:6; Eph 4:11), God has appointed in the church first apostles, second prophets, and third teachers. The names of several early Christian prophets have been preserved. These include Agabus (Acts 11:27-28; 21:10-11); Judas and Silas (15:32); Barnabas, Simeon Niger, Lucius of Cyrene, Manaen, and Paul (13:1); and the four virgin daughters of Philip the evangelist (21:8-9). John, the author of Revelation, was certainly a prophet (Rv 1:3; 22:9, 18), though he never directly assumed that title.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheRoleoftheChristianProphet\">The Role of the Christian Prophet<\/p>\n<p>Christian prophets were leaders in early Christian communities (1 Cor 12:28; Eph 4:11), who exercised their gift in church gatherings (Acts 13:1-3; 11:27-28; 1 Cor 12–14; Rv 1:10). Since the Spirit of God was particularly active in Christian worship, prophecy was a major means whereby God communicated with his people. Prophets, like apostles and teachers, did not hold offices in local communities like bishops, elders, and deacons. Rather, they were chosen, not by individual congregations, but by divine commission and so were honored and accepted in all local communities.<\/p>\n<p>Early Christian prophets were both itinerant and settled, though itinerant prophets seem to have been more prevalent in Syria-Palestine and Asia Minor than in the European churches.<\/p>\n<h5>The Function of Prophecy<\/h5>\n<p>According to Paul, the central purpose of prophecy (as of all other spiritual gifts) is that of building up or edifying the church. According to 1 Corinthians 14:3, “one who prophesies is helping others grow in the Lord, encouraging and comforting them” (<span>nlt<\/span>). Again, in 1 Corinthians 14:4, Paul states that the “one who speaks a word of prophecy strengthens the entire church.” Paul discussed the subject of spiritual gifts, particularly tongues speaking and prophecy, because the Corinthians had placed an excessive emphasis on speaking in tongues. Paul did not object to speaking in tongues (1 Cor 14:18, 39), but he did point out that, since it was generally incomprehensible, the church could not be edified by it. Prophecy, which consisted of comprehensible speech inspired by the Spirit, contributed to the mutual edification, encouragement, and consolation of all present (1 Cor 14:20-25, 39).<\/p>\n<h5>The Content of Christian Prophecy<\/h5>\n<p>We know only a little about the content of prophecies uttered in the first-century church. Prophetic utterance occasionally provided divine guidance in making important decisions in early Christianity. Through a prophetic utterance, Paul and Barnabas were selected for a particular mission (Acts 13:1-3; cf. 1 Tm 1:18; 4:14). Probably through prophetic utterance, Paul and Timothy were forbidden to preach the gospel in Asia (Acts 16:6), and they were similarly forbidden by the Spirit of Jesus to go into Bithynia (v 7). Perhaps the most frequent use of prophecy is the prediction of the future. Agabus predicted a universal famine (11:28) and the imminent arrest of Paul (21:11). Other prophets had also predicted his impending imprisonment (20:23). The prophecies contained in the Revelation of John are all oriented toward the future events that will gradually unfold in the last days. Yet the purpose of John’s elaborate prophecy is not to satisfy the curiosity of his audience but rather to comfort and encourage them in the midst of persecution.<\/p>\n<h5>The Form of Christian Prophecy<\/h5>\n<p>Unlike the prophets of the OT, Christian prophets did not always present their message in the form of a direct speech from God or Jesus. There are few, if any, formal indicators of the presence of prophetic speech in early Christian literature. The book of Revelation is one notable exception.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Dreams; Oracle; Promise; Prophet, Prophetess; Prophets, False; Visions.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>PROPHECY<\/h3>\n<p>Term, along with its English cognates (“prophet,” “to prophesy,” “prophetism,” and “prophetic”), derived from a group of Greek words that, in secular Greek, mean “speak forth,” “proclaim,” “announce.” In biblical Greek, however, these terms always carry the connotation of speaking, proclaiming, or announcing something under the influence of spiritual inspiration.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Prophecy in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>• Types of Old Testament Prophets<\/p>\n<p>• The Message of the Prophets<\/p>\n<p>• Prophecy in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>• The Role of the Christian Prophet<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ProphecyintheOldTestament\">Prophecy in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>One of the clearest and most significant statements on the nature of prophetic inspiration in the OT is found in Numbers 12:6-8: “The <span>Lord<\/span> said to them, ‘Now listen to me! Even with prophets, I the <span>Lord<\/span> communicate by visions and dreams. But that is not how I communicate with my servant Moses. He is entrusted with my entire house. I speak to him face to face, directly and not in riddles! He sees the <span>Lord<\/span> as he is’ ” (<span>nlt<\/span>). Several important insights into the nature of prophetic inspiration are found in this passage: (1) The prophetic gift of Moses was unique in that he alone received revelations directly from God. (2) Ordinarily, prophetic revelation was received through the medium of a dream or a vision. (3) The meaning of prophetic revelation is not always completely clear; prophecy is sometimes ambiguous.<\/p>\n<p>Further insight into the nature of prophetic revelation is found in Deuteronomy 18:18: “I [God] will raise up for them a prophet like you [Moses] from among their brethren; and I will put my words in his mouth, and he shall speak to them all that I command him” (<span>rsv<\/span>). While this passage is of interest because Jesus was identified as “the prophet like Moses” who came in fulfillment of this prediction (Acts 3:22; 7:37), the more immediate historical reference is to the succession of prophets that guided Israel from Joshua to Malachi. The phrase “I will put my words in his mouth” refers to the process of divine inspiration and is reminiscent of the common OT prophetic formula “the word of the Lord came to [such and such a prophet]” (for examples, see 1 Sm 15:10; 2 Sm 24:11; 1 Kgs 19:9; Jon 1:1; Hg 1:1; 2:1, 20; Zec 7:1, 8; 8:1). A true prophet is one who speaks (or repeats) all that God has told him.<\/p>\n<h5>Modes of Prophetic Inspiration<\/h5>\n<p>Dreams were a commonly recognized mode of inspiration throughout the ancient world, though they were more highly regarded in Greece than in ancient Israel. Revelatory dreams in the Bible fall into two major categories: (1) dreams whose meaning is self-evident, and (2) symbolic dreams that usually require the expertise of an interpreter of dreams. Both types normally involve both visual and auditory elements. In those dreams whose meaning is self-evident, normally a supernatural being (God or an angel) appears to the dreamer and speaks to him or her in a straightforward manner.<\/p>\n<p>More frequently, revelatory dreams have symbolic elements that require interpretation. The two great dream interpreters of the OT are Joseph and Daniel; the latter is clearly a prophet. The two symbolic dreams that Joseph himself dreamed (Gn 37:5-11) had sufficiently self-evident meaning so that his brothers and father were able to interpret them immediately. More complex were the dreams of the butler and baker (40:1-19) and of Pharaoh (41:1-36), which Joseph was able to interpret with the help of God. Similarly, Daniel was enabled to interpret the dreams of Nebuchadnezzar (Dn 2:25-45; 4:4-27). The skill in interpreting such dreams was attributed by both Joseph and Daniel to God (Gn 40:8; 41:16, 25; Dn 2:27-30; cf. 4:9). While dreams are used almost interchangeably with visions in referring to modes of prophetic inspiration (Jl 2:28), dreams do not occupy a significant part in the prophetic revelations of any of the OT prophets, with the exception of Daniel.<\/p>\n<p>One of the most characteristic modes of prophetic inspiration was the vision (Nm 12:6; 24:4, 16; Hos 12:10). The revelatory visions experienced by the prophets were not limited to visual phenomena alone but also included the auditory dimension as well. In Isaiah 1:1, the author describes his entire prophetic book as a “vision”: “These visions concerning Judah and Jerusalem came to Isaiah son of Amoz during the reigns of Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah—all kings of Judah” (<span>nlt<\/span>). Yet in the very next verse, Isaiah says, “Hear, O heavens! Listen, O earth! This is what the <span>Lord<\/span> says.” Again, in Amos 1:1, “The <em>words<\/em> of Amos, who was among the shepherds of Tekoa, which he <em>saw<\/em> concerning Israel” (<span>rsv<\/span>, emphasis added).<\/p>\n<h5>Manifestations of Prophetic Inspiration<\/h5>\n<p>All prophecy, whether biblical or not, presupposes that the prophet either possessed or was possessed by a personal supernatural power. The external behavioral manifestations of this possession can exhibit great variety.<\/p>\n<p>The prophetic phenomenon generally designated “ecstatic” prophecy appears to have existed in Canaan prior to the arrival of the Hebrew tribes in the 13th century <span>BC<\/span>. The first reference to ecstatic prophecy in Israel occurs in 1 Samuel 10:5-13 (11th century <span>BC<\/span>), and it persisted at least till the sixth century <span>BC<\/span> (Jer 29:26).<\/p>\n<p>The ecstatic prophet achieves a trancelike state by self-induced means. The most common devices used to achieve a state of ecstasy were musical instruments, such as the harp, tambourine, flute, and lyre (1 Sm 10:5). Among the prophets of Baal, self-flagellation was another means of inducing ecstasy (1 Kgs 18:28-29).<\/p>\n<p>This kind of prophetic ecstasy was usually practiced by groups of prophets (1 Sm 10:5), and such ecstasy was contagious. When Saul met a band of such prophets, the Spirit of God came upon him and he, too, began to prophesy (vv 10-13), a phenomenon that occurred repeatedly to various messengers sent by Saul on a later occasion (19:20-22). At that time Saul again prophesied, and his ecstatic behavior is described in 1 Samuel 19:24. When Elisha was asked to prophesy for King Jehoram of Israel, he first requested a minstrel. When the minstrel played, the power of the Lord came upon him (2 Kgs 3:15).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TypesofOldTestamentProphets\">Types of Old Testament Prophets<\/p>\n<p>There are two basic types of prophetic commission in the OT. One type is that of a narrative call by God to a particular individual whose objections to the call are gradually overcome in a dialogue between himself and God. The classic example of this type of prophetic commission is found in Jeremiah 1:4-8:<\/p>\n<p>The <span>Lord<\/span> gave me a message. He said, “I knew you before I formed you in your mother’s womb. Before you were born I set you apart and appointed you as my spokesman to the world.”<\/p>\n<blockquote><p>“O Sovereign <span>Lord<\/span>,” I said, “I can’t speak for you! I’m too young!”<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<blockquote><p>“Don’t say that,” the <span>Lord<\/span> replied, “for you must go wherever I send you and say whatever I tell you. And don’t be afraid of the people, for I will be with you and take care of you. I, the <span>Lord<\/span>, have spoken!” (<span>nlt<\/span>)<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<p>Similar prophetic commissions including such dialogues are associated with the calls of Moses (Ex 3:1–4:17) and Gideon (Jgs 6:11-17).<\/p>\n<p>The second major form of prophetic commission is the “throne vision.” An outstanding example is Isaiah 6:1-8:<\/p>\n<p>In the year King Uzziah died, I saw the Lord. He was sitting on a lofty throne, and the train of his robe filled the Temple. . . .<\/p>\n<blockquote><p>Then I said, “My destruction is sealed, for I am a sinful man and a member of a sinful race. Yet I have seen the King, the <span>Lord<\/span> Almighty!”<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<blockquote><p>Then one of the seraphim flew over to the altar, and he picked up a burning coal with a pair of tongs. He touched my lips with it and said, “See, this coal has touched your lips. Now your guilt is removed, and your sins are forgiven.”<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<blockquote><p>Then I heard the Lord asking, “Whom should I send as a messenger to my people? Who will go for us?”<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<blockquote><p>And I said, “Lord, I’ll go! Send me.” (<span>nlt<\/span>)<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<p>Here we have an account of the visionary presence of a prophet in the heavenly council; in this case, however, the prophet participates in the deliberations and thereby receives a prophetic commission. Though few prophets have left accounts of their divine commissions, most of them appear to have been conscious of having been “sent” by God (Is 48:16; Hos 8:1; Am 7:14-15). According to Jeremiah, false prophets did not receive such divine commissions (Jer 23:21, 32; 28:15).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheMessageoftheProphets\">The Message of the Prophets<\/p>\n<h5>The Form of the Message<\/h5>\n<p>The most common introductory formula for prophetic oracles in the OT is the phrase “Thus says the Lord,” which occurs hundreds of times in prophetic contexts. This formula clearly implies that the pronouncement so introduced is not the word of the prophet who utters the oracle but of the God of Israel who delivered his word to his prophet. The use of this formula also reiterates the prophet’s sense of divine commission. In oracles introduced in this manner, God speaks in the first person. In fact, virtually all Israelite prophetic utterance is formulated as the direct speech of the God of Israel.<\/p>\n<p>The prophets used many literary forms in which to express their oracles. Two of the more widely used forms of prophetic speech are the judgment speech and the oracle of salvation. The judgment speech is composed of at least two central elements: the speech of rebuke or invective, and the pronouncement of judgment (see 2 Kgs 1:3-4). The second common prophetic speech form is the oracle of salvation (see Is 41:8-13). Other fixed forms of prophetic speech include the prophecy of salvation (43:14-21), the proclamation of salvation (41:17-20; 42:14-17; 43:16-21; 49:7-12), and the woe oracle (Is 5:8-10; 10:1-4; Am 5:18-24; 6:1-7; Mi 2:1-5).<\/p>\n<h5>The Content of the Message<\/h5>\n<p>The common adage that OT prophets were not “foretellers” but “forthtellers” is not strictly correct. All of the prophets predict the future. Such prediction, however, is based not on human curiosity of what the future will hold but rather is rooted in the future consequences of past or present violations of the covenant, or on a future act of deliverance that will provide hope for a discouraged people. Most of the prophetic speeches that have been preserved in the OT were originally delivered as public proclamations or sermons. Most of these prophetic proclamations were evoked by the iniquity and apostasy of Israel. Hosea and Jeremiah condemned Israel because she had broken the covenant (Jer 11:2-3; Hos 8:1).<\/p>\n<p>The prophets are frequently associated with social justice and social reform, and these elements were unquestionably an important dimension of their message. Amos denounced the rich who afflicted the poor (Am 2:6-8; 4:1; 5:11; 8:4-6). He railed against sexual immorality (2:6-8) and against those who take bribes (5:12). Hosea provided a list of prevalent vices, including lying, killing, stealing, adultery, and idolatry (Hos 4:2). Idolatry was a particular target for his denunciations (8:5; 11:2). The background for such heated denunciations of Israel’s behavior is God’s unquenchable love for Israel (Is 43:4; Jer 31:3; Hos 3:1; 11:1-4; 14:4; Mal 1:2), which is inseparable from his election of Israel (Is 43:1; Jer 33:24; Ez 20:5; Hos 3).<\/p>\n<p>The prophets were concerned not only with the transgressions of Israel and the historical judgment that would inevitably follow but also with the achievement of a final future time of bliss. The message of many of the prophets is thoroughly eschatological (i.e., pertaining to the end times). One such eschatological concept is that of the Day of the Lord. The concept of the Day of the Lord first appears in Amos, where the emphasis lies on the disaster that will befall Israel on that day. Amos’s emphasis on disaster notwithstanding, the Day of the Lord is a conception that had both salvific as well as judgmental overtones for Israel. While the disaster that will occur in the Day of the Lord can be viewed in terms of a literal historical fulfillment in the tragic events of 722 <span>BC<\/span> (the fall of Samaria) and 586 <span>BC<\/span> (the fall of Judah), there are nevertheless features of these predictions that transcend historical fulfillment and reach toward eschatological fulfillment.<\/p>\n<p>Since the Israelite conception of “salvation” was largely temporal in its dimensions, it included such blessings as length of life, fruitfulness of the womb and field, peace and victory over one’s enemies, the abundance of water, and so on. In harmony with this conception of salvation, the future age is conceived in precisely those terms, as in Amos 9:13-15.<\/p>\n<p>The prophets pictured a time when David himself, or someone very much like him, would return and inaugurate a golden era reminiscent of the great Davidic and Solomonic period. The covenant of God with David was not a conditional covenant but rather one that was absolutely inviolable (2 Sm 7:4-17; Ps 89; Jer 33:19-22), and it was with this knowledge that the prophets could look forward confidently to a restoration of David’s throne (Jer 17:24-26; 23:5-6; 33:14-15).<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ProphecyintheNewTestament\">Prophecy in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>In contrast to the few self-proclaimed prophets of the intertestamental period, early Christianity began with a flurry of prophetic activity that lasted well into the second century <span>AD<\/span>. Jesus, his disciples and followers, and the early Christians were convinced that the times in which they lived were times in which OT prophecy was being fulfilled (Mk 1:14-15; Acts 2:16-21; Rom 16:25-27; 1 Cor 10:11). Yet this era was not only one of fulfillment but also one of the renewal of the prophetic gift.<\/p>\n<h5>John the Baptist<\/h5>\n<p>John the Baptist is remembered in the NT primarily as the forerunner of Jesus whose coming was predicted by Malachi (Mal 4:5-6). Yet, in his own right, John proclaimed the imminent judgment of God with a flair of denunciation and rebuke reminiscent of the OT prophets. John’s costume, consisting of a hairy cloak and a leather girdle (Mk 1:6), was reminiscent of the typical garb of OT prophets (1 Kgs 19:19; 2 Kgs 1:8; 2:13-14; Zec 13:4). John was regarded as a prophet by people everywhere (Mt 14:5; 17:10-13; Mk 9:11-13; 11:32; Lk 1:76; 7:26). Luke reports, in a style similar to the OT prophetic narratives, that “the word of God came to John” (Lk 3:2). Two short prophetic speeches have been preserved in Matthew 3:7-10 (cf. Lk 3:7-9) and Mark 1:7-8 (cf. Mt 3:11-12; Lk 3:15-18). In the first speech, John denounced those of his generation who had transgressed the covenant law and exhorted them to change their manner of life. In the second speech, John predicted the coming of the Mighty One, Jesus (Mt 3:11; Mk 1:7; Lk 3:16; Jn 1:15, 27, 30; Acts 13:25). John’s style, however, was not precisely that of the OT prophets. His pronouncements were made on his own authority; never did he use formulas such as “thus says the Lord,” or present his prophetic utterances as if they were speeches made by God. Yet, in spite of these differences, John is appropriately regarded as the last representative of the OT prophetic tradition (Mt 11:13; Lk 16:16).<\/p>\n<h5>Jesus of Nazareth<\/h5>\n<p>Jesus was popularly regarded as a prophet (Mt 16:14; 21:10-11; Mk 6:14-15; 8:28; Lk 7:16, 39; 9:8, 19; Jn 6:14; 7:40, 52). This assessment was based as much on the mighty deeds Jesus performed as on his prophetic speeches and predictions. Though Jesus nowhere claimed prophetic status directly, that claim is implicit in Mark 6:4: “A prophet is honored everywhere except in his own hometown” (cf. Mt 13:57; Lk 4:24). It is implicit as well in Luke 13:33: “Yes, today, tomorrow, and the next day I must proceed on my way. For it wouldn’t do for a prophet of God to be killed except in Jerusalem!” (<span>nlt<\/span>). In Acts, Jesus is regarded as “the prophet like Moses” predicted in Deuteronomy 18:18 (Acts 3:22; 7:37). Matthew presents Jesus as the New Moses, but he does not particularly emphasize his prophetic role. John, however, like Luke, emphasizes Jesus’ role as the prophet (Jn 4:19; 6:14-15; 7:40).<\/p>\n<p>While the Gospels and Acts reflect the notion that Jesus was a prophet, they also emphasize the fact that he was much more than a prophet. Nevertheless, the notion of prophetism was sufficiently important in early Judaism that Jesus’ recognition as a prophet is very significant. There are 12 solid reasons for regarding Jesus as a prophet in the OT tradition: (1) The sovereign authority of Jesus’ teaching (Mk 1:27), a feature underlined by his use of the introductory formula “(Amen) I say to you,” which is reminiscent of the formula “thus says the Lord” used by the OT prophets. (2) The poetic character of many of Jesus’ sayings is unlike contemporary rabbinic teaching but is similar to the poetic rhetoric of the OT prophets. (3) Jesus experienced visions (Lk 10:18) like the ancient prophets. (4) Jesus, like the prophets, made many predictions (Mt 23:38; Mk 13:2; 14:58; Lk 13:35; etc.). (5) Like the OT prophets, Jesus performed symbolic acts (such as the cleansing of the temple, the entry into Jerusalem, and the Last Supper). (6) Jesus, like the prophets, when necessary, rejected the formal observance of religious ritual and emphasized the moral and spiritual dimensions of obedience to God. (7) Jesus announced the imminent arrival of the kingdom of God—an eschatological proclamation similar to those made by the prophets. (8) Like the OT prophets, Jesus functioned as a preacher of repentance. (9) Jesus, like many of the prophets, was conscious of a special calling of God (Mt 15:24; Mk 8:31; 9:37; 14:36; Lk 4:18-26). (10) Jesus, like the prophets, received divine revelation through intimate communion with God (Mt 11:27; Lk 10:22). (11) Like the prophets, Jesus represented God; to obey him was to obey God, to reject him was to reject God (Mk 9:37; cf. Ez 33:30-33). (12) Like the prophets, Jesus was conscious of a mission to all Israel (Mt 15:24; 19:28; Lk 22:30).<\/p>\n<p>Among the many prophetic predictions of Jesus are the following:<\/p>\n<p>1. Predictions of the imminent arrival of the kingdom of God (Mt 10:7-8, 23; 23:39; Mk 1:15; 9:1; 13:28-29)<\/p>\n<li>2. Predictions of the destruction of Jerusalem and the temple (Mt 23:37-39; 24:2; 26:61; 27:40; Mk 13:2; 14:58; 15:29; Lk 13:34-35; 21:6; Jn 2:19-21)<\/li>\n<li>3. Predictions of the coming of the Son of Man (Mt 10:23, 32-33; 12:40; 13:40-41; 16:27; 24:27, 37-39; Mk 8:38; 13:26-27; 14:62; Lk 9:26; 11:30; 12:8-9; 17:24, 26)<\/li>\n<li>4. Predictions of the end of the age. The longest prophetic section in the Gospels is the eschatological discourse of Jesus in Mark 13:1-32 (cf. Mt 24:1-36; Lk 21:5-33), in which a number of predictions concerning the destruction of Jerusalem and the end of the age are woven into a lengthy discourse to the disciples.<\/li>\n<h5>Prophecy as a Gift for the Believers<\/h5>\n<p>The beginning of prophetic activity in early Christianity, according to Acts, coincided with the outpouring of the Holy Spirit upon the earliest Christians on the Day of Pentecost (Acts 2:1-21). Peter’s sermon on the Day of Pentecost indicates that the outpouring of the Spirit fulfilled Joel’s prophecy (Acts 2:4, 17-21; cf. Jl 2:28-32). Further, since the Spirit had been poured out upon all early Christians (that Spirit being a Spirit of prophecy), all are actual or potential prophets.<\/p>\n<p>According to 1 Corinthians 12:28 (see also Rom 12:6; Eph 4:11), God has appointed in the church first apostles, second prophets, and third teachers. The names of several early Christian prophets have been preserved. These include Agabus (Acts 11:27-28; 21:10-11); Judas and Silas (15:32); Barnabas, Simeon Niger, Lucius of Cyrene, Manaen, and Paul (13:1); and the four virgin daughters of Philip the evangelist (21:8-9). John, the author of Revelation, was certainly a prophet (Rv 1:3; 22:9, 18), though he never directly assumed that title.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheRoleoftheChristianProphet\">The Role of the Christian Prophet<\/p>\n<p>Christian prophets were leaders in early Christian communities (1 Cor 12:28; Eph 4:11), who exercised their gift in church gatherings (Acts 13:1-3; 11:27-28; 1 Cor 12–14; Rv 1:10). Since the Spirit of God was particularly active in Christian worship, prophecy was a major means whereby God communicated with his people. Prophets, like apostles and teachers, did not hold offices in local communities like bishops, elders, and deacons. Rather, they were chosen, not by individual congregations, but by divine commission and so were honored and accepted in all local communities.<\/p>\n<p>Early Christian prophets were both itinerant and settled, though itinerant prophets seem to have been more prevalent in Syria-Palestine and Asia Minor than in the European churches.<\/p>\n<h5>The Function of Prophecy<\/h5>\n<p>According to Paul, the central purpose of prophecy (as of all other spiritual gifts) is that of building up or edifying the church. According to 1 Corinthians 14:3, “one who prophesies is helping others grow in the Lord, encouraging and comforting them” (<span>nlt<\/span>). Again, in 1 Corinthians 14:4, Paul states that the “one who speaks a word of prophecy strengthens the entire church.” Paul discussed the subject of spiritual gifts, particularly tongues speaking and prophecy, because the Corinthians had placed an excessive emphasis on speaking in tongues. Paul did not object to speaking in tongues (1 Cor 14:18, 39), but he did point out that, since it was generally incomprehensible, the church could not be edified by it. Prophecy, which consisted of comprehensible speech inspired by the Spirit, contributed to the mutual edification, encouragement, and consolation of all present (1 Cor 14:20-25, 39).<\/p>\n<h5>The Content of Christian Prophecy<\/h5>\n<p>We know only a little about the content of prophecies uttered in the first-century church. Prophetic utterance occasionally provided divine guidance in making important decisions in early Christianity. Through a prophetic utterance, Paul and Barnabas were selected for a particular mission (Acts 13:1-3; cf. 1 Tm 1:18; 4:14). Probably through prophetic utterance, Paul and Timothy were forbidden to preach the gospel in Asia (Acts 16:6), and they were similarly forbidden by the Spirit of Jesus to go into Bithynia (v 7). Perhaps the most frequent use of prophecy is the prediction of the future. Agabus predicted a universal famine (11:28) and the imminent arrest of Paul (21:11). Other prophets had also predicted his impending imprisonment (20:23). The prophecies contained in the Revelation of John are all oriented toward the future events that will gradually unfold in the last days. Yet the purpose of John’s elaborate prophecy is not to satisfy the curiosity of his audience but rather to comfort and encourage them in the midst of persecution.<\/p>\n<h5>The Form of Christian Prophecy<\/h5>\n<p>Unlike the prophets of the OT, Christian prophets did not always present their message in the form of a direct speech from God or Jesus. There are few, if any, formal indicators of the presence of prophetic speech in early Christian literature. The book of Revelation is one notable exception.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Dreams; Oracle; Promise; Prophet, Prophetess; Prophets, False; Visions.<\/p>","summary_ro":"PROPHECY Term, along with its English cognates (“prophet,” “to prophesy,” “prophetism,” and “prophetic”), derived from a group of Greek words that, in secular Greek, mean “speak forth,” “proclaim,” “announce.” In biblical Greek, however, these terms always carry the connotation of speaking, proclaiming, or announcing something under the influence of spiritual inspiration. Preview • Prophecy in the Old Testament • Types of Old Testament Prophets • The Message of the Prophets • Prophecy in the ...","summary_en":"PROPHECY Term, along with its English cognates (“prophet,” “to prophesy,” “prophetism,” and “prophetic”), derived from a group of Greek words that, in secular Greek, mean “speak forth,” “proclaim,” “announce.” In biblical Greek, however, these terms always carry the connotation of speaking, proclaiming, or announcing something under the influence of spiritual inspiration. Preview • Prophecy in the Old Testament • Types of Old Testament Prophets • The Message of the Prophets • Prophecy in the ...","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":51171,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 10:1","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 10:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>10:1-4<\/strong> This prophecy was directed against Judah’s leaders, who used their positions to enrich themselves at the people’s expense.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>10:1-4<\/strong> This prophecy was directed against Judah’s leaders, who used their positions to enrich themselves at the people’s expense.<\/p>","summary_ro":"10:1-4 This prophecy was directed against Judah’s leaders, who used their positions to enrich themselves at the people’s expense.","summary_en":"10:1-4 This prophecy was directed against Judah’s leaders, who used their positions to enrich themselves at the people’s expense.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":51172,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 10:1","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 10:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>10:1<\/strong> <em>What sorrow<\/em> introduces a threat of divine judgment.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>10:1<\/strong> <em>What sorrow<\/em> introduces a threat of divine judgment.<\/p>","summary_ro":"10:1 What sorrow introduces a threat of divine judgment.","summary_en":"10:1 What sorrow introduces a threat of divine judgment.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":78797,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 10:1","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 10:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>10:1-4<\/strong> This prophecy was directed against Judah’s leaders, who used their positions to enrich themselves at the people’s expense.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>10:1-4<\/strong> This prophecy was directed against Judah’s leaders, who used their positions to enrich themselves at the people’s expense.<\/p>","summary_ro":"10:1-4 This prophecy was directed against Judah’s leaders, who used their positions to enrich themselves at the people’s expense.","summary_en":"10:1-4 This prophecy was directed against Judah’s leaders, who used their positions to enrich themselves at the people’s expense.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":78798,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 10:1","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 10:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>10:1<\/strong> <em>What sorrow<\/em> introduces a threat of divine judgment.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>10:1<\/strong> <em>What sorrow<\/em> introduces a threat of divine judgment.<\/p>","summary_ro":"10:1 What sorrow introduces a threat of divine judgment.","summary_en":"10:1 What sorrow introduces a threat of divine judgment.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":106423,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 10:1","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 10:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>10:1-4<\/strong> This prophecy was directed against Judah’s leaders, who used their positions to enrich themselves at the people’s expense.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>10:1-4<\/strong> This prophecy was directed against Judah’s leaders, who used their positions to enrich themselves at the people’s expense.<\/p>","summary_ro":"10:1-4 This prophecy was directed against Judah’s leaders, who used their positions to enrich themselves at the people’s expense.","summary_en":"10:1-4 This prophecy was directed against Judah’s leaders, who used their positions to enrich themselves at the people’s expense.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":106424,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 10:1","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 10:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>10:1<\/strong> <em>What sorrow<\/em> introduces a threat of divine judgment.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>10:1<\/strong> <em>What sorrow<\/em> introduces a threat of divine judgment.<\/p>","summary_ro":"10:1 What sorrow introduces a threat of divine judgment.","summary_en":"10:1 What sorrow introduces a threat of divine judgment.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":134049,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 10:1","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 10:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>10:1-4<\/strong> This prophecy was directed against Judah’s leaders, who used their positions to enrich themselves at the people’s expense.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>10:1-4<\/strong> This prophecy was directed against Judah’s leaders, who used their positions to enrich themselves at the people’s expense.<\/p>","summary_ro":"10:1-4 This prophecy was directed against Judah’s leaders, who used their positions to enrich themselves at the people’s expense.","summary_en":"10:1-4 This prophecy was directed against Judah’s leaders, who used their positions to enrich themselves at the people’s expense.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":134050,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 10:1","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 10:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>10:1<\/strong> <em>What sorrow<\/em> introduces a threat of divine judgment.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>10:1<\/strong> <em>What sorrow<\/em> introduces a threat of divine judgment.<\/p>","summary_ro":"10:1 What sorrow introduces a threat of divine judgment.","summary_en":"10:1 What sorrow introduces a threat of divine judgment.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":60835,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"True Justice","title_en":"True Justice","content_ro":"<h3>True Justice<\/h3>\n<p>The community of God’s people in Old Testament Israel was to be responsible for the well-being of widows, orphans, and foreigners (Deut 27:19). The Israelites were to represent the just God whom they served (see 10:17-19) and always remember that they had been an enslaved and defenseless people in Egypt (see 10:19; 24:18-22). How could they, the beneficiaries of God’s unfailing love and faithfulness, ignore the rights and needs of the most vulnerable who lived among them?<\/p>\n<p>Every society has social structures that separate the powerful from the weak and the privileged from the ill-favored. This was true of Old Testament Israel despite its unique constitution and commission as a “holy nation” (Exod 19:6). Judges and other officials charged with upholding the law might tend to favor individuals with financial means, high social standing, or community influence, especially when these individuals offer bribes (Deut 16:19). However, God cannot be bribed, nor does he show partiality (10:17). The rich and the poor, the powerful and the weak, the exalted and the downtrodden are all alike to him.<\/p>\n<p>The prophets of Israel understood the need for equity and justice and often called for the application of these principles to community and national life (Isa 1:17; 10:1-4; 59:14-19; Ezek 22:23-29; Amos 2:6-8; Hab 1:4). The New Testament also appeals for proper treatment of the poor and disadvantaged and speaks of God’s displeasure when they are neglected (Matt 23:23; 2 Cor 9:6-10; Jas 2:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>Justice that falls short of God’s standard is not true justice, and those responsible for corrupting justice can expect full retribution from the Judge of all the earth (see Deut 25:13-16).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 23:3; Lev 19:15; Deut 10:17-19; 16:19; 24:12-22; 25:13-16; 27:19; Ps 82:1-5; Prov 11:1; Isa 1:17; 10:1-4; 11:3-4; 59:14-19; Jer 22:13-17; Ezek 22:23-29; 45:9-10; Amos 2:6-8; 8:5-6; Hab 1:4; Matt 23:23; Luke 18:6-8; Jas 2:1-7<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>True Justice<\/h3>\n<p>The community of God’s people in Old Testament Israel was to be responsible for the well-being of widows, orphans, and foreigners (Deut 27:19). The Israelites were to represent the just God whom they served (see 10:17-19) and always remember that they had been an enslaved and defenseless people in Egypt (see 10:19; 24:18-22). How could they, the beneficiaries of God’s unfailing love and faithfulness, ignore the rights and needs of the most vulnerable who lived among them?<\/p>\n<p>Every society has social structures that separate the powerful from the weak and the privileged from the ill-favored. This was true of Old Testament Israel despite its unique constitution and commission as a “holy nation” (Exod 19:6). Judges and other officials charged with upholding the law might tend to favor individuals with financial means, high social standing, or community influence, especially when these individuals offer bribes (Deut 16:19). However, God cannot be bribed, nor does he show partiality (10:17). The rich and the poor, the powerful and the weak, the exalted and the downtrodden are all alike to him.<\/p>\n<p>The prophets of Israel understood the need for equity and justice and often called for the application of these principles to community and national life (Isa 1:17; 10:1-4; 59:14-19; Ezek 22:23-29; Amos 2:6-8; Hab 1:4). The New Testament also appeals for proper treatment of the poor and disadvantaged and speaks of God’s displeasure when they are neglected (Matt 23:23; 2 Cor 9:6-10; Jas 2:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>Justice that falls short of God’s standard is not true justice, and those responsible for corrupting justice can expect full retribution from the Judge of all the earth (see Deut 25:13-16).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 23:3; Lev 19:15; Deut 10:17-19; 16:19; 24:12-22; 25:13-16; 27:19; Ps 82:1-5; Prov 11:1; Isa 1:17; 10:1-4; 11:3-4; 59:14-19; Jer 22:13-17; Ezek 22:23-29; 45:9-10; Amos 2:6-8; 8:5-6; Hab 1:4; Matt 23:23; Luke 18:6-8; Jas 2:1-7<\/p>","summary_ro":"True Justice The community of God’s people in Old Testament Israel was to be responsible for the well-being of widows, orphans, and foreigners (Deut 27:19). The Israelites were to represent the just God whom they served (see 10:17-19) and always remember that they had been an enslaved and defenseless people in Egypt (see 10:19; 24:18-22). How could they, the beneficiaries of God’s unfailing love and faithfulness, ignore the rights and needs of the most vulnerable who lived among them? Every s...","summary_en":"True Justice The community of God’s people in Old Testament Israel was to be responsible for the well-being of widows, orphans, and foreigners (Deut 27:19). The Israelites were to represent the just God whom they served (see 10:17-19) and always remember that they had been an enslaved and defenseless people in Egypt (see 10:19; 24:18-22). How could they, the beneficiaries of God’s unfailing love and faithfulness, ignore the rights and needs of the most vulnerable who lived among them? Every s...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":63944,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God’s Justice","title_en":"God’s Justice","content_ro":"<h3>God’s Justice<\/h3>\n<p>God is just (Ps 9:7-8); he detests sin and rewards people and nations justly in accordance with what they do (Ps 67:4; Isa 1:27; Jer 46:28; Joel 3:1-8; Acts 17:31). God is in sovereign control of the natural world (Nah 1:4-6, 8) and of all nations (1:3, 6-10, 15), and the world and its inhabitants stand helpless when opposing him (Job 41:10-11; Isa 40:22-24).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord’s justice (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">mishpat<\/span>) is part of his divine order. A world without justice is a place where people set aside the order planned by the Creator. Since the Creator himself is just (Deut 32:4), it follows that his rule will be just and righteous. His Messiah will usher in a just world (Isa 9:7; 11:2-5; 16:5; 32:1-2), and his Spirit will transform the world into a place of justice, righteousness, and peace (32:15-17). This is good news for the oppressed, whose rights have been denied by the powerful of society (see 25:4-5).<\/p>\n<p>God’s justice may sometimes seem slow in coming (Nah 1:3). This seemingly delayed judgment is the result of his patience and mercy toward people (Jon 3–4; 2 Pet 3:9-15). God does not execute justice with rigid disinterest; he gives justice with love and seeks to bring those who deserve judgment into a relationship with him.<\/p>\n<p>The theme of God’s justice is notably prominent throughout the prophets, and particularly in the book of Isaiah. God expects his people to act justly toward others (Mic 6:8; Zech 7:9; Isa 1:17; 5:7; 58:6-7), and he repeately censures the people of Israel for their injustice, particularly toward the poor and needy (e.g., Amos 5:11-12; Mal 3:5; Isa 3:12-15; 5:7-8; 10:1-4; 29:21). Many of Israel’s prophets proclaim God’s judgment on his people in relation to their injustice. They also relay a number of prophecies against other oppressive, proud, unjust nations. God’s retribution for such behavior is just (see Isa 3:9-11; 13:11; 59:18).<\/p>\n<p>The book of Nahum is specifically filled with the expression of God’s justice toward Nineveh (1:14; 2:13; 3:4). Nahum’s “good news” (Nah 1:15) is that all who trust in God will one day enjoy the peace and well-being that come with the final defeat of evil (see also Isa 11:1-9; Zeph 3:13). The ultimate fulfillment of this promise was inaugurated in the life, death, and resurrection of Jesus Christ (Acts 10:34-43; Rom 10:9-15). Those who believe in the Lord Jesus experience a measure of the blessings of salvation in the present as they await God’s final judgment of evil and the coming of his Kingdom in its fullness (see Rev 20:7–22:5).<\/p>\n<p>In reality, all humanity stands condemned before the just and holy God. Yet God also provides undeserved grace. In Jesus Christ, God poured out his just judgment on a willing substitute, whose death calls people to turn away from their sin and live by God’s righteousness (Rom 6:22-23; 1 Pet 3:18). And when God’s kingdom is fully established through Christ, the world, too, will be just and righteous (Isa 1:26; 28:6; 2 Pet 3:13).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 18:17-19, 25; Exod 34:6-7; Lev 19:15; Deut 16:18-20; 17:8-13; 32:4; Pss 9:7-8; 67:4; 89:14; 119:75; Prov 21:3; Eccl 12:14; Isa 1:17-28; 5:7; 11:1-9; 16:5; 32:1-2, 16-17; 40:22-24; 61:8; Jer 46:27-28; Lam 3:25-39; Ezek 34:15-16; 36:22-36; 37:24-27; Joel 3:1-2; Amos 5:21-24; Jon 3:1–4:11; Mic 6:6-8; Nah 1:3-10; 3:4; Zech 7:9-10; Matt 5:6, 10, 20; Luke 1:74-75; Acts 10:34-43; 17:30-31; 2 Pet 3:11-14; Rev 20:11-15<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God’s Justice<\/h3>\n<p>God is just (Ps 9:7-8); he detests sin and rewards people and nations justly in accordance with what they do (Ps 67:4; Isa 1:27; Jer 46:28; Joel 3:1-8; Acts 17:31). God is in sovereign control of the natural world (Nah 1:4-6, 8) and of all nations (1:3, 6-10, 15), and the world and its inhabitants stand helpless when opposing him (Job 41:10-11; Isa 40:22-24).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord’s justice (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">mishpat<\/span>) is part of his divine order. A world without justice is a place where people set aside the order planned by the Creator. Since the Creator himself is just (Deut 32:4), it follows that his rule will be just and righteous. His Messiah will usher in a just world (Isa 9:7; 11:2-5; 16:5; 32:1-2), and his Spirit will transform the world into a place of justice, righteousness, and peace (32:15-17). This is good news for the oppressed, whose rights have been denied by the powerful of society (see 25:4-5).<\/p>\n<p>God’s justice may sometimes seem slow in coming (Nah 1:3). This seemingly delayed judgment is the result of his patience and mercy toward people (Jon 3–4; 2 Pet 3:9-15). God does not execute justice with rigid disinterest; he gives justice with love and seeks to bring those who deserve judgment into a relationship with him.<\/p>\n<p>The theme of God’s justice is notably prominent throughout the prophets, and particularly in the book of Isaiah. God expects his people to act justly toward others (Mic 6:8; Zech 7:9; Isa 1:17; 5:7; 58:6-7), and he repeately censures the people of Israel for their injustice, particularly toward the poor and needy (e.g., Amos 5:11-12; Mal 3:5; Isa 3:12-15; 5:7-8; 10:1-4; 29:21). Many of Israel’s prophets proclaim God’s judgment on his people in relation to their injustice. They also relay a number of prophecies against other oppressive, proud, unjust nations. God’s retribution for such behavior is just (see Isa 3:9-11; 13:11; 59:18).<\/p>\n<p>The book of Nahum is specifically filled with the expression of God’s justice toward Nineveh (1:14; 2:13; 3:4). Nahum’s “good news” (Nah 1:15) is that all who trust in God will one day enjoy the peace and well-being that come with the final defeat of evil (see also Isa 11:1-9; Zeph 3:13). The ultimate fulfillment of this promise was inaugurated in the life, death, and resurrection of Jesus Christ (Acts 10:34-43; Rom 10:9-15). Those who believe in the Lord Jesus experience a measure of the blessings of salvation in the present as they await God’s final judgment of evil and the coming of his Kingdom in its fullness (see Rev 20:7–22:5).<\/p>\n<p>In reality, all humanity stands condemned before the just and holy God. Yet God also provides undeserved grace. In Jesus Christ, God poured out his just judgment on a willing substitute, whose death calls people to turn away from their sin and live by God’s righteousness (Rom 6:22-23; 1 Pet 3:18). And when God’s kingdom is fully established through Christ, the world, too, will be just and righteous (Isa 1:26; 28:6; 2 Pet 3:13).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 18:17-19, 25; Exod 34:6-7; Lev 19:15; Deut 16:18-20; 17:8-13; 32:4; Pss 9:7-8; 67:4; 89:14; 119:75; Prov 21:3; Eccl 12:14; Isa 1:17-28; 5:7; 11:1-9; 16:5; 32:1-2, 16-17; 40:22-24; 61:8; Jer 46:27-28; Lam 3:25-39; Ezek 34:15-16; 36:22-36; 37:24-27; Joel 3:1-2; Amos 5:21-24; Jon 3:1–4:11; Mic 6:6-8; Nah 1:3-10; 3:4; Zech 7:9-10; Matt 5:6, 10, 20; Luke 1:74-75; Acts 10:34-43; 17:30-31; 2 Pet 3:11-14; Rev 20:11-15<\/p>","summary_ro":"God’s Justice God is just (Ps 9:7-8); he detests sin and rewards people and nations justly in accordance with what they do (Ps 67:4; Isa 1:27; Jer 46:28; Joel 3:1-8; Acts 17:31). God is in sovereign control of the natural world (Nah 1:4-6, 8) and of all nations (1:3, 6-10, 15), and the world and its inhabitants stand helpless when opposing him (Job 41:10-11; Isa 40:22-24). The Lord’s justice (Hebrew mishpat) is part of his divine order. A world without justice is a place where people set asid...","summary_en":"God’s Justice God is just (Ps 9:7-8); he detests sin and rewards people and nations justly in accordance with what they do (Ps 67:4; Isa 1:27; Jer 46:28; Joel 3:1-8; Acts 17:31). God is in sovereign control of the natural world (Nah 1:4-6, 8) and of all nations (1:3, 6-10, 15), and the world and its inhabitants stand helpless when opposing him (Job 41:10-11; Isa 40:22-24). The Lord’s justice (Hebrew mishpat) is part of his divine order. A world without justice is a place where people set asid...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":64655,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Social Justice","title_en":"Social Justice","content_ro":"<h3>Social Justice<\/h3>\n<p>In the Old Testament, prophets often confronted evil in society and articulated a demand for social justice. An early example of this is found in Elijah’s response to the murder of Naboth, followed by his rebuke of Ahab (1 Kgs 21:16-24, 800s <span>BC<\/span>). The social aspect of the prophetic message became even more prominent among the prophets of the 700s <span>BC<\/span> (Hosea and Amos in Israel, Micah and Isaiah in Judah), with Amos as the most articulate spokesman on this issue.<\/p>\n<p>Amos was appalled by Israel’s abuse of the powerless (Amos 2:6-8; 3:10). Unlike the surrounding nations, Israel had known God in a uniquely personal and intimate manner and then turned away from him (2:9-12; 3:1-2). The people of Israel had refused to worship God appropriately and had oppressed the powerless, so God would hold them accountable and meet them in judgment (4:12), not mercy. God wants justice to flow like a mighty river (Amos 5:24). Those who oppose it will be swept away.<\/p>\n<p>The importance of social justice is also made clear in the New Testament. Jesus drew a connection between proper worship and the practice of social justice, warning of the judgment that is coming upon those who do not express their faith in loving action toward others (see Matt 25:31-46). Right understanding must be matched by right practice, which serves as evidence of one’s faith (see Luke 10:25-37; John 13:35). Jesus’ followers recoginzed the significant role social justice needed to play within the early Christian communities (see Acts 2:44-45; Gal 2:9-10; 1 Tim 5:3-16; Jas 1:27–2:26; 1 Jn 3:17-19).<\/p>\n<p>God’s compassion for the oppressed is evidenced throughout Scripture. As followers of Christ, we must not neglect those who are in need, and like the prophets, we must confront injustice wherever it is encountered.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 23:1-12; Lev 19:9-18; Deut 10:17-20; 16:18-20; 24:10-22; 1 Kgs 21:1-24; 2 Chr 19:4-11; Pss 94:20-23; 146:3-9; Prov 22:8-9; 31:8-9; Eccl 5:8-9; Isa 1:17; 5:7; 9:6-7; 10:1-2; 42:1-4; 58:4-12; Amos 2:6-8; 5:7-17, 23-24; Matt 12:15-21; 23:23; Luke 10:25-37; Heb 1:8-9<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Social Justice<\/h3>\n<p>In the Old Testament, prophets often confronted evil in society and articulated a demand for social justice. An early example of this is found in Elijah’s response to the murder of Naboth, followed by his rebuke of Ahab (1 Kgs 21:16-24, 800s <span>BC<\/span>). The social aspect of the prophetic message became even more prominent among the prophets of the 700s <span>BC<\/span> (Hosea and Amos in Israel, Micah and Isaiah in Judah), with Amos as the most articulate spokesman on this issue.<\/p>\n<p>Amos was appalled by Israel’s abuse of the powerless (Amos 2:6-8; 3:10). Unlike the surrounding nations, Israel had known God in a uniquely personal and intimate manner and then turned away from him (2:9-12; 3:1-2). The people of Israel had refused to worship God appropriately and had oppressed the powerless, so God would hold them accountable and meet them in judgment (4:12), not mercy. God wants justice to flow like a mighty river (Amos 5:24). Those who oppose it will be swept away.<\/p>\n<p>The importance of social justice is also made clear in the New Testament. Jesus drew a connection between proper worship and the practice of social justice, warning of the judgment that is coming upon those who do not express their faith in loving action toward others (see Matt 25:31-46). Right understanding must be matched by right practice, which serves as evidence of one’s faith (see Luke 10:25-37; John 13:35). Jesus’ followers recoginzed the significant role social justice needed to play within the early Christian communities (see Acts 2:44-45; Gal 2:9-10; 1 Tim 5:3-16; Jas 1:27–2:26; 1 Jn 3:17-19).<\/p>\n<p>God’s compassion for the oppressed is evidenced throughout Scripture. As followers of Christ, we must not neglect those who are in need, and like the prophets, we must confront injustice wherever it is encountered.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 23:1-12; Lev 19:9-18; Deut 10:17-20; 16:18-20; 24:10-22; 1 Kgs 21:1-24; 2 Chr 19:4-11; Pss 94:20-23; 146:3-9; Prov 22:8-9; 31:8-9; Eccl 5:8-9; Isa 1:17; 5:7; 9:6-7; 10:1-2; 42:1-4; 58:4-12; Amos 2:6-8; 5:7-17, 23-24; Matt 12:15-21; 23:23; Luke 10:25-37; Heb 1:8-9<\/p>","summary_ro":"Social Justice In the Old Testament, prophets often confronted evil in society and articulated a demand for social justice. An early example of this is found in Elijah’s response to the murder of Naboth, followed by his rebuke of Ahab (1 Kgs 21:16-24, 800s BC). The social aspect of the prophetic message became even more prominent among the prophets of the 700s BC (Hosea and Amos in Israel, Micah and Isaiah in Judah), with Amos as the most articulate spokesman on this issue. Amos was appalled ...","summary_en":"Social Justice In the Old Testament, prophets often confronted evil in society and articulated a demand for social justice. An early example of this is found in Elijah’s response to the murder of Naboth, followed by his rebuke of Ahab (1 Kgs 21:16-24, 800s BC). The social aspect of the prophetic message became even more prominent among the prophets of the 700s BC (Hosea and Amos in Israel, Micah and Isaiah in Judah), with Amos as the most articulate spokesman on this issue. Amos was appalled ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":88461,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"True Justice","title_en":"True Justice","content_ro":"<h3>True Justice<\/h3>\n<p>The community of God’s people in Old Testament Israel was to be responsible for the well-being of widows, orphans, and foreigners (Deut 27:19). The Israelites were to represent the just God whom they served (see 10:17-19) and always remember that they had been an enslaved and defenseless people in Egypt (see 10:19; 24:18-22). How could they, the beneficiaries of God’s unfailing love and faithfulness, ignore the rights and needs of the most vulnerable who lived among them?<\/p>\n<p>Every society has social structures that separate the powerful from the weak and the privileged from the ill-favored. This was true of Old Testament Israel despite its unique constitution and commission as a “holy nation” (Exod 19:6). Judges and other officials charged with upholding the law might tend to favor individuals with financial means, high social standing, or community influence, especially when these individuals offer bribes (Deut 16:19). However, God cannot be bribed, nor does he show partiality (10:17). The rich and the poor, the powerful and the weak, the exalted and the downtrodden are all alike to him.<\/p>\n<p>The prophets of Israel understood the need for equity and justice and often called for the application of these principles to community and national life (Isa 1:17; 10:1-4; 59:14-19; Ezek 22:23-29; Amos 2:6-8; Hab 1:4). The New Testament also appeals for proper treatment of the poor and disadvantaged and speaks of God’s displeasure when they are neglected (Matt 23:23; 2 Cor 9:6-10; Jas 2:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>Justice that falls short of God’s standard is not true justice, and those responsible for corrupting justice can expect full retribution from the Judge of all the earth (see Deut 25:13-16).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 23:3; Lev 19:15; Deut 10:17-19; 16:19; 24:12-22; 25:13-16; 27:19; Ps 82:1-5; Prov 11:1; Isa 1:17; 10:1-4; 11:3-4; 59:14-19; Jer 22:13-17; Ezek 22:23-29; 45:9-10; Amos 2:6-8; 8:5-6; Hab 1:4; Matt 23:23; Luke 18:6-8; Jas 2:1-7<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>True Justice<\/h3>\n<p>The community of God’s people in Old Testament Israel was to be responsible for the well-being of widows, orphans, and foreigners (Deut 27:19). The Israelites were to represent the just God whom they served (see 10:17-19) and always remember that they had been an enslaved and defenseless people in Egypt (see 10:19; 24:18-22). How could they, the beneficiaries of God’s unfailing love and faithfulness, ignore the rights and needs of the most vulnerable who lived among them?<\/p>\n<p>Every society has social structures that separate the powerful from the weak and the privileged from the ill-favored. This was true of Old Testament Israel despite its unique constitution and commission as a “holy nation” (Exod 19:6). Judges and other officials charged with upholding the law might tend to favor individuals with financial means, high social standing, or community influence, especially when these individuals offer bribes (Deut 16:19). However, God cannot be bribed, nor does he show partiality (10:17). The rich and the poor, the powerful and the weak, the exalted and the downtrodden are all alike to him.<\/p>\n<p>The prophets of Israel understood the need for equity and justice and often called for the application of these principles to community and national life (Isa 1:17; 10:1-4; 59:14-19; Ezek 22:23-29; Amos 2:6-8; Hab 1:4). The New Testament also appeals for proper treatment of the poor and disadvantaged and speaks of God’s displeasure when they are neglected (Matt 23:23; 2 Cor 9:6-10; Jas 2:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>Justice that falls short of God’s standard is not true justice, and those responsible for corrupting justice can expect full retribution from the Judge of all the earth (see Deut 25:13-16).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 23:3; Lev 19:15; Deut 10:17-19; 16:19; 24:12-22; 25:13-16; 27:19; Ps 82:1-5; Prov 11:1; Isa 1:17; 10:1-4; 11:3-4; 59:14-19; Jer 22:13-17; Ezek 22:23-29; 45:9-10; Amos 2:6-8; 8:5-6; Hab 1:4; Matt 23:23; Luke 18:6-8; Jas 2:1-7<\/p>","summary_ro":"True Justice The community of God’s people in Old Testament Israel was to be responsible for the well-being of widows, orphans, and foreigners (Deut 27:19). The Israelites were to represent the just God whom they served (see 10:17-19) and always remember that they had been an enslaved and defenseless people in Egypt (see 10:19; 24:18-22). How could they, the beneficiaries of God’s unfailing love and faithfulness, ignore the rights and needs of the most vulnerable who lived among them? Every s...","summary_en":"True Justice The community of God’s people in Old Testament Israel was to be responsible for the well-being of widows, orphans, and foreigners (Deut 27:19). The Israelites were to represent the just God whom they served (see 10:17-19) and always remember that they had been an enslaved and defenseless people in Egypt (see 10:19; 24:18-22). How could they, the beneficiaries of God’s unfailing love and faithfulness, ignore the rights and needs of the most vulnerable who lived among them? Every s...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":91570,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God’s Justice","title_en":"God’s Justice","content_ro":"<h3>God’s Justice<\/h3>\n<p>God is just (Ps 9:7-8); he detests sin and rewards people and nations justly in accordance with what they do (Ps 67:4; Isa 1:27; Jer 46:28; Joel 3:1-8; Acts 17:31). God is in sovereign control of the natural world (Nah 1:4-6, 8) and of all nations (1:3, 6-10, 15), and the world and its inhabitants stand helpless when opposing him (Job 41:10-11; Isa 40:22-24).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord’s justice (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">mishpat<\/span>) is part of his divine order. A world without justice is a place where people set aside the order planned by the Creator. Since the Creator himself is just (Deut 32:4), it follows that his rule will be just and righteous. His Messiah will usher in a just world (Isa 9:7; 11:2-5; 16:5; 32:1-2), and his Spirit will transform the world into a place of justice, righteousness, and peace (32:15-17). This is good news for the oppressed, whose rights have been denied by the powerful of society (see 25:4-5).<\/p>\n<p>God’s justice may sometimes seem slow in coming (Nah 1:3). This seemingly delayed judgment is the result of his patience and mercy toward people (Jon 3–4; 2 Pet 3:9-15). God does not execute justice with rigid disinterest; he gives justice with love and seeks to bring those who deserve judgment into a relationship with him.<\/p>\n<p>The theme of God’s justice is notably prominent throughout the prophets, and particularly in the book of Isaiah. God expects his people to act justly toward others (Mic 6:8; Zech 7:9; Isa 1:17; 5:7; 58:6-7), and he repeately censures the people of Israel for their injustice, particularly toward the poor and needy (e.g., Amos 5:11-12; Mal 3:5; Isa 3:12-15; 5:7-8; 10:1-4; 29:21). Many of Israel’s prophets proclaim God’s judgment on his people in relation to their injustice. They also relay a number of prophecies against other oppressive, proud, unjust nations. God’s retribution for such behavior is just (see Isa 3:9-11; 13:11; 59:18).<\/p>\n<p>The book of Nahum is specifically filled with the expression of God’s justice toward Nineveh (1:14; 2:13; 3:4). Nahum’s “good news” (Nah 1:15) is that all who trust in God will one day enjoy the peace and well-being that come with the final defeat of evil (see also Isa 11:1-9; Zeph 3:13). The ultimate fulfillment of this promise was inaugurated in the life, death, and resurrection of Jesus Christ (Acts 10:34-43; Rom 10:9-15). Those who believe in the Lord Jesus experience a measure of the blessings of salvation in the present as they await God’s final judgment of evil and the coming of his Kingdom in its fullness (see Rev 20:7–22:5).<\/p>\n<p>In reality, all humanity stands condemned before the just and holy God. Yet God also provides undeserved grace. In Jesus Christ, God poured out his just judgment on a willing substitute, whose death calls people to turn away from their sin and live by God’s righteousness (Rom 6:22-23; 1 Pet 3:18). And when God’s kingdom is fully established through Christ, the world, too, will be just and righteous (Isa 1:26; 28:6; 2 Pet 3:13).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 18:17-19, 25; Exod 34:6-7; Lev 19:15; Deut 16:18-20; 17:8-13; 32:4; Pss 9:7-8; 67:4; 89:14; 119:75; Prov 21:3; Eccl 12:14; Isa 1:17-28; 5:7; 11:1-9; 16:5; 32:1-2, 16-17; 40:22-24; 61:8; Jer 46:27-28; Lam 3:25-39; Ezek 34:15-16; 36:22-36; 37:24-27; Joel 3:1-2; Amos 5:21-24; Jon 3:1–4:11; Mic 6:6-8; Nah 1:3-10; 3:4; Zech 7:9-10; Matt 5:6, 10, 20; Luke 1:74-75; Acts 10:34-43; 17:30-31; 2 Pet 3:11-14; Rev 20:11-15<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God’s Justice<\/h3>\n<p>God is just (Ps 9:7-8); he detests sin and rewards people and nations justly in accordance with what they do (Ps 67:4; Isa 1:27; Jer 46:28; Joel 3:1-8; Acts 17:31). God is in sovereign control of the natural world (Nah 1:4-6, 8) and of all nations (1:3, 6-10, 15), and the world and its inhabitants stand helpless when opposing him (Job 41:10-11; Isa 40:22-24).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord’s justice (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">mishpat<\/span>) is part of his divine order. A world without justice is a place where people set aside the order planned by the Creator. Since the Creator himself is just (Deut 32:4), it follows that his rule will be just and righteous. His Messiah will usher in a just world (Isa 9:7; 11:2-5; 16:5; 32:1-2), and his Spirit will transform the world into a place of justice, righteousness, and peace (32:15-17). This is good news for the oppressed, whose rights have been denied by the powerful of society (see 25:4-5).<\/p>\n<p>God’s justice may sometimes seem slow in coming (Nah 1:3). This seemingly delayed judgment is the result of his patience and mercy toward people (Jon 3–4; 2 Pet 3:9-15). God does not execute justice with rigid disinterest; he gives justice with love and seeks to bring those who deserve judgment into a relationship with him.<\/p>\n<p>The theme of God’s justice is notably prominent throughout the prophets, and particularly in the book of Isaiah. God expects his people to act justly toward others (Mic 6:8; Zech 7:9; Isa 1:17; 5:7; 58:6-7), and he repeately censures the people of Israel for their injustice, particularly toward the poor and needy (e.g., Amos 5:11-12; Mal 3:5; Isa 3:12-15; 5:7-8; 10:1-4; 29:21). Many of Israel’s prophets proclaim God’s judgment on his people in relation to their injustice. They also relay a number of prophecies against other oppressive, proud, unjust nations. God’s retribution for such behavior is just (see Isa 3:9-11; 13:11; 59:18).<\/p>\n<p>The book of Nahum is specifically filled with the expression of God’s justice toward Nineveh (1:14; 2:13; 3:4). Nahum’s “good news” (Nah 1:15) is that all who trust in God will one day enjoy the peace and well-being that come with the final defeat of evil (see also Isa 11:1-9; Zeph 3:13). The ultimate fulfillment of this promise was inaugurated in the life, death, and resurrection of Jesus Christ (Acts 10:34-43; Rom 10:9-15). Those who believe in the Lord Jesus experience a measure of the blessings of salvation in the present as they await God’s final judgment of evil and the coming of his Kingdom in its fullness (see Rev 20:7–22:5).<\/p>\n<p>In reality, all humanity stands condemned before the just and holy God. Yet God also provides undeserved grace. In Jesus Christ, God poured out his just judgment on a willing substitute, whose death calls people to turn away from their sin and live by God’s righteousness (Rom 6:22-23; 1 Pet 3:18). And when God’s kingdom is fully established through Christ, the world, too, will be just and righteous (Isa 1:26; 28:6; 2 Pet 3:13).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 18:17-19, 25; Exod 34:6-7; Lev 19:15; Deut 16:18-20; 17:8-13; 32:4; Pss 9:7-8; 67:4; 89:14; 119:75; Prov 21:3; Eccl 12:14; Isa 1:17-28; 5:7; 11:1-9; 16:5; 32:1-2, 16-17; 40:22-24; 61:8; Jer 46:27-28; Lam 3:25-39; Ezek 34:15-16; 36:22-36; 37:24-27; Joel 3:1-2; Amos 5:21-24; Jon 3:1–4:11; Mic 6:6-8; Nah 1:3-10; 3:4; Zech 7:9-10; Matt 5:6, 10, 20; Luke 1:74-75; Acts 10:34-43; 17:30-31; 2 Pet 3:11-14; Rev 20:11-15<\/p>","summary_ro":"God’s Justice God is just (Ps 9:7-8); he detests sin and rewards people and nations justly in accordance with what they do (Ps 67:4; Isa 1:27; Jer 46:28; Joel 3:1-8; Acts 17:31). God is in sovereign control of the natural world (Nah 1:4-6, 8) and of all nations (1:3, 6-10, 15), and the world and its inhabitants stand helpless when opposing him (Job 41:10-11; Isa 40:22-24). The Lord’s justice (Hebrew mishpat) is part of his divine order. A world without justice is a place where people set asid...","summary_en":"God’s Justice God is just (Ps 9:7-8); he detests sin and rewards people and nations justly in accordance with what they do (Ps 67:4; Isa 1:27; Jer 46:28; Joel 3:1-8; Acts 17:31). God is in sovereign control of the natural world (Nah 1:4-6, 8) and of all nations (1:3, 6-10, 15), and the world and its inhabitants stand helpless when opposing him (Job 41:10-11; Isa 40:22-24). The Lord’s justice (Hebrew mishpat) is part of his divine order. A world without justice is a place where people set asid...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":92281,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Social Justice","title_en":"Social Justice","content_ro":"<h3>Social Justice<\/h3>\n<p>In the Old Testament, prophets often confronted evil in society and articulated a demand for social justice. An early example of this is found in Elijah’s response to the murder of Naboth, followed by his rebuke of Ahab (1 Kgs 21:16-24, 800s <span>BC<\/span>). The social aspect of the prophetic message became even more prominent among the prophets of the 700s <span>BC<\/span> (Hosea and Amos in Israel, Micah and Isaiah in Judah), with Amos as the most articulate spokesman on this issue.<\/p>\n<p>Amos was appalled by Israel’s abuse of the powerless (Amos 2:6-8; 3:10). Unlike the surrounding nations, Israel had known God in a uniquely personal and intimate manner and then turned away from him (2:9-12; 3:1-2). The people of Israel had refused to worship God appropriately and had oppressed the powerless, so God would hold them accountable and meet them in judgment (4:12), not mercy. God wants justice to flow like a mighty river (Amos 5:24). Those who oppose it will be swept away.<\/p>\n<p>The importance of social justice is also made clear in the New Testament. Jesus drew a connection between proper worship and the practice of social justice, warning of the judgment that is coming upon those who do not express their faith in loving action toward others (see Matt 25:31-46). Right understanding must be matched by right practice, which serves as evidence of one’s faith (see Luke 10:25-37; John 13:35). Jesus’ followers recoginzed the significant role social justice needed to play within the early Christian communities (see Acts 2:44-45; Gal 2:9-10; 1 Tim 5:3-16; Jas 1:27–2:26; 1 Jn 3:17-19).<\/p>\n<p>God’s compassion for the oppressed is evidenced throughout Scripture. As followers of Christ, we must not neglect those who are in need, and like the prophets, we must confront injustice wherever it is encountered.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 23:1-12; Lev 19:9-18; Deut 10:17-20; 16:18-20; 24:10-22; 1 Kgs 21:1-24; 2 Chr 19:4-11; Pss 94:20-23; 146:3-9; Prov 22:8-9; 31:8-9; Eccl 5:8-9; Isa 1:17; 5:7; 9:6-7; 10:1-2; 42:1-4; 58:4-12; Amos 2:6-8; 5:7-17, 23-24; Matt 12:15-21; 23:23; Luke 10:25-37; Heb 1:8-9<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Social Justice<\/h3>\n<p>In the Old Testament, prophets often confronted evil in society and articulated a demand for social justice. An early example of this is found in Elijah’s response to the murder of Naboth, followed by his rebuke of Ahab (1 Kgs 21:16-24, 800s <span>BC<\/span>). The social aspect of the prophetic message became even more prominent among the prophets of the 700s <span>BC<\/span> (Hosea and Amos in Israel, Micah and Isaiah in Judah), with Amos as the most articulate spokesman on this issue.<\/p>\n<p>Amos was appalled by Israel’s abuse of the powerless (Amos 2:6-8; 3:10). Unlike the surrounding nations, Israel had known God in a uniquely personal and intimate manner and then turned away from him (2:9-12; 3:1-2). The people of Israel had refused to worship God appropriately and had oppressed the powerless, so God would hold them accountable and meet them in judgment (4:12), not mercy. God wants justice to flow like a mighty river (Amos 5:24). Those who oppose it will be swept away.<\/p>\n<p>The importance of social justice is also made clear in the New Testament. Jesus drew a connection between proper worship and the practice of social justice, warning of the judgment that is coming upon those who do not express their faith in loving action toward others (see Matt 25:31-46). Right understanding must be matched by right practice, which serves as evidence of one’s faith (see Luke 10:25-37; John 13:35). Jesus’ followers recoginzed the significant role social justice needed to play within the early Christian communities (see Acts 2:44-45; Gal 2:9-10; 1 Tim 5:3-16; Jas 1:27–2:26; 1 Jn 3:17-19).<\/p>\n<p>God’s compassion for the oppressed is evidenced throughout Scripture. As followers of Christ, we must not neglect those who are in need, and like the prophets, we must confront injustice wherever it is encountered.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 23:1-12; Lev 19:9-18; Deut 10:17-20; 16:18-20; 24:10-22; 1 Kgs 21:1-24; 2 Chr 19:4-11; Pss 94:20-23; 146:3-9; Prov 22:8-9; 31:8-9; Eccl 5:8-9; Isa 1:17; 5:7; 9:6-7; 10:1-2; 42:1-4; 58:4-12; Amos 2:6-8; 5:7-17, 23-24; Matt 12:15-21; 23:23; Luke 10:25-37; Heb 1:8-9<\/p>","summary_ro":"Social Justice In the Old Testament, prophets often confronted evil in society and articulated a demand for social justice. An early example of this is found in Elijah’s response to the murder of Naboth, followed by his rebuke of Ahab (1 Kgs 21:16-24, 800s BC). The social aspect of the prophetic message became even more prominent among the prophets of the 700s BC (Hosea and Amos in Israel, Micah and Isaiah in Judah), with Amos as the most articulate spokesman on this issue. Amos was appalled ...","summary_en":"Social Justice In the Old Testament, prophets often confronted evil in society and articulated a demand for social justice. An early example of this is found in Elijah’s response to the murder of Naboth, followed by his rebuke of Ahab (1 Kgs 21:16-24, 800s BC). The social aspect of the prophetic message became even more prominent among the prophets of the 700s BC (Hosea and Amos in Israel, Micah and Isaiah in Judah), with Amos as the most articulate spokesman on this issue. Amos was appalled ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":116087,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"True Justice","title_en":"True Justice","content_ro":"<h3>True Justice<\/h3>\n<p>The community of God’s people in Old Testament Israel was to be responsible for the well-being of widows, orphans, and foreigners (Deut 27:19). The Israelites were to represent the just God whom they served (see 10:17-19) and always remember that they had been an enslaved and defenseless people in Egypt (see 10:19; 24:18-22). How could they, the beneficiaries of God’s unfailing love and faithfulness, ignore the rights and needs of the most vulnerable who lived among them?<\/p>\n<p>Every society has social structures that separate the powerful from the weak and the privileged from the ill-favored. This was true of Old Testament Israel despite its unique constitution and commission as a “holy nation” (Exod 19:6). Judges and other officials charged with upholding the law might tend to favor individuals with financial means, high social standing, or community influence, especially when these individuals offer bribes (Deut 16:19). However, God cannot be bribed, nor does he show partiality (10:17). The rich and the poor, the powerful and the weak, the exalted and the downtrodden are all alike to him.<\/p>\n<p>The prophets of Israel understood the need for equity and justice and often called for the application of these principles to community and national life (Isa 1:17; 10:1-4; 59:14-19; Ezek 22:23-29; Amos 2:6-8; Hab 1:4). The New Testament also appeals for proper treatment of the poor and disadvantaged and speaks of God’s displeasure when they are neglected (Matt 23:23; 2 Cor 9:6-10; Jas 2:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>Justice that falls short of God’s standard is not true justice, and those responsible for corrupting justice can expect full retribution from the Judge of all the earth (see Deut 25:13-16).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 23:3; Lev 19:15; Deut 10:17-19; 16:19; 24:12-22; 25:13-16; 27:19; Ps 82:1-5; Prov 11:1; Isa 1:17; 10:1-4; 11:3-4; 59:14-19; Jer 22:13-17; Ezek 22:23-29; 45:9-10; Amos 2:6-8; 8:5-6; Hab 1:4; Matt 23:23; Luke 18:6-8; Jas 2:1-7<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>True Justice<\/h3>\n<p>The community of God’s people in Old Testament Israel was to be responsible for the well-being of widows, orphans, and foreigners (Deut 27:19). The Israelites were to represent the just God whom they served (see 10:17-19) and always remember that they had been an enslaved and defenseless people in Egypt (see 10:19; 24:18-22). How could they, the beneficiaries of God’s unfailing love and faithfulness, ignore the rights and needs of the most vulnerable who lived among them?<\/p>\n<p>Every society has social structures that separate the powerful from the weak and the privileged from the ill-favored. This was true of Old Testament Israel despite its unique constitution and commission as a “holy nation” (Exod 19:6). Judges and other officials charged with upholding the law might tend to favor individuals with financial means, high social standing, or community influence, especially when these individuals offer bribes (Deut 16:19). However, God cannot be bribed, nor does he show partiality (10:17). The rich and the poor, the powerful and the weak, the exalted and the downtrodden are all alike to him.<\/p>\n<p>The prophets of Israel understood the need for equity and justice and often called for the application of these principles to community and national life (Isa 1:17; 10:1-4; 59:14-19; Ezek 22:23-29; Amos 2:6-8; Hab 1:4). The New Testament also appeals for proper treatment of the poor and disadvantaged and speaks of God’s displeasure when they are neglected (Matt 23:23; 2 Cor 9:6-10; Jas 2:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>Justice that falls short of God’s standard is not true justice, and those responsible for corrupting justice can expect full retribution from the Judge of all the earth (see Deut 25:13-16).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 23:3; Lev 19:15; Deut 10:17-19; 16:19; 24:12-22; 25:13-16; 27:19; Ps 82:1-5; Prov 11:1; Isa 1:17; 10:1-4; 11:3-4; 59:14-19; Jer 22:13-17; Ezek 22:23-29; 45:9-10; Amos 2:6-8; 8:5-6; Hab 1:4; Matt 23:23; Luke 18:6-8; Jas 2:1-7<\/p>","summary_ro":"True Justice The community of God’s people in Old Testament Israel was to be responsible for the well-being of widows, orphans, and foreigners (Deut 27:19). The Israelites were to represent the just God whom they served (see 10:17-19) and always remember that they had been an enslaved and defenseless people in Egypt (see 10:19; 24:18-22). How could they, the beneficiaries of God’s unfailing love and faithfulness, ignore the rights and needs of the most vulnerable who lived among them? Every s...","summary_en":"True Justice The community of God’s people in Old Testament Israel was to be responsible for the well-being of widows, orphans, and foreigners (Deut 27:19). The Israelites were to represent the just God whom they served (see 10:17-19) and always remember that they had been an enslaved and defenseless people in Egypt (see 10:19; 24:18-22). How could they, the beneficiaries of God’s unfailing love and faithfulness, ignore the rights and needs of the most vulnerable who lived among them? Every s...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":119196,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God’s Justice","title_en":"God’s Justice","content_ro":"<h3>God’s Justice<\/h3>\n<p>God is just (Ps 9:7-8); he detests sin and rewards people and nations justly in accordance with what they do (Ps 67:4; Isa 1:27; Jer 46:28; Joel 3:1-8; Acts 17:31). God is in sovereign control of the natural world (Nah 1:4-6, 8) and of all nations (1:3, 6-10, 15), and the world and its inhabitants stand helpless when opposing him (Job 41:10-11; Isa 40:22-24).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord’s justice (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">mishpat<\/span>) is part of his divine order. A world without justice is a place where people set aside the order planned by the Creator. Since the Creator himself is just (Deut 32:4), it follows that his rule will be just and righteous. His Messiah will usher in a just world (Isa 9:7; 11:2-5; 16:5; 32:1-2), and his Spirit will transform the world into a place of justice, righteousness, and peace (32:15-17). This is good news for the oppressed, whose rights have been denied by the powerful of society (see 25:4-5).<\/p>\n<p>God’s justice may sometimes seem slow in coming (Nah 1:3). This seemingly delayed judgment is the result of his patience and mercy toward people (Jon 3–4; 2 Pet 3:9-15). God does not execute justice with rigid disinterest; he gives justice with love and seeks to bring those who deserve judgment into a relationship with him.<\/p>\n<p>The theme of God’s justice is notably prominent throughout the prophets, and particularly in the book of Isaiah. God expects his people to act justly toward others (Mic 6:8; Zech 7:9; Isa 1:17; 5:7; 58:6-7), and he repeately censures the people of Israel for their injustice, particularly toward the poor and needy (e.g., Amos 5:11-12; Mal 3:5; Isa 3:12-15; 5:7-8; 10:1-4; 29:21). Many of Israel’s prophets proclaim God’s judgment on his people in relation to their injustice. They also relay a number of prophecies against other oppressive, proud, unjust nations. God’s retribution for such behavior is just (see Isa 3:9-11; 13:11; 59:18).<\/p>\n<p>The book of Nahum is specifically filled with the expression of God’s justice toward Nineveh (1:14; 2:13; 3:4). Nahum’s “good news” (Nah 1:15) is that all who trust in God will one day enjoy the peace and well-being that come with the final defeat of evil (see also Isa 11:1-9; Zeph 3:13). The ultimate fulfillment of this promise was inaugurated in the life, death, and resurrection of Jesus Christ (Acts 10:34-43; Rom 10:9-15). Those who believe in the Lord Jesus experience a measure of the blessings of salvation in the present as they await God’s final judgment of evil and the coming of his Kingdom in its fullness (see Rev 20:7–22:5).<\/p>\n<p>In reality, all humanity stands condemned before the just and holy God. Yet God also provides undeserved grace. In Jesus Christ, God poured out his just judgment on a willing substitute, whose death calls people to turn away from their sin and live by God’s righteousness (Rom 6:22-23; 1 Pet 3:18). And when God’s kingdom is fully established through Christ, the world, too, will be just and righteous (Isa 1:26; 28:6; 2 Pet 3:13).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 18:17-19, 25; Exod 34:6-7; Lev 19:15; Deut 16:18-20; 17:8-13; 32:4; Pss 9:7-8; 67:4; 89:14; 119:75; Prov 21:3; Eccl 12:14; Isa 1:17-28; 5:7; 11:1-9; 16:5; 32:1-2, 16-17; 40:22-24; 61:8; Jer 46:27-28; Lam 3:25-39; Ezek 34:15-16; 36:22-36; 37:24-27; Joel 3:1-2; Amos 5:21-24; Jon 3:1–4:11; Mic 6:6-8; Nah 1:3-10; 3:4; Zech 7:9-10; Matt 5:6, 10, 20; Luke 1:74-75; Acts 10:34-43; 17:30-31; 2 Pet 3:11-14; Rev 20:11-15<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God’s Justice<\/h3>\n<p>God is just (Ps 9:7-8); he detests sin and rewards people and nations justly in accordance with what they do (Ps 67:4; Isa 1:27; Jer 46:28; Joel 3:1-8; Acts 17:31). God is in sovereign control of the natural world (Nah 1:4-6, 8) and of all nations (1:3, 6-10, 15), and the world and its inhabitants stand helpless when opposing him (Job 41:10-11; Isa 40:22-24).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord’s justice (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">mishpat<\/span>) is part of his divine order. A world without justice is a place where people set aside the order planned by the Creator. Since the Creator himself is just (Deut 32:4), it follows that his rule will be just and righteous. His Messiah will usher in a just world (Isa 9:7; 11:2-5; 16:5; 32:1-2), and his Spirit will transform the world into a place of justice, righteousness, and peace (32:15-17). This is good news for the oppressed, whose rights have been denied by the powerful of society (see 25:4-5).<\/p>\n<p>God’s justice may sometimes seem slow in coming (Nah 1:3). This seemingly delayed judgment is the result of his patience and mercy toward people (Jon 3–4; 2 Pet 3:9-15). God does not execute justice with rigid disinterest; he gives justice with love and seeks to bring those who deserve judgment into a relationship with him.<\/p>\n<p>The theme of God’s justice is notably prominent throughout the prophets, and particularly in the book of Isaiah. God expects his people to act justly toward others (Mic 6:8; Zech 7:9; Isa 1:17; 5:7; 58:6-7), and he repeately censures the people of Israel for their injustice, particularly toward the poor and needy (e.g., Amos 5:11-12; Mal 3:5; Isa 3:12-15; 5:7-8; 10:1-4; 29:21). Many of Israel’s prophets proclaim God’s judgment on his people in relation to their injustice. They also relay a number of prophecies against other oppressive, proud, unjust nations. God’s retribution for such behavior is just (see Isa 3:9-11; 13:11; 59:18).<\/p>\n<p>The book of Nahum is specifically filled with the expression of God’s justice toward Nineveh (1:14; 2:13; 3:4). Nahum’s “good news” (Nah 1:15) is that all who trust in God will one day enjoy the peace and well-being that come with the final defeat of evil (see also Isa 11:1-9; Zeph 3:13). The ultimate fulfillment of this promise was inaugurated in the life, death, and resurrection of Jesus Christ (Acts 10:34-43; Rom 10:9-15). Those who believe in the Lord Jesus experience a measure of the blessings of salvation in the present as they await God’s final judgment of evil and the coming of his Kingdom in its fullness (see Rev 20:7–22:5).<\/p>\n<p>In reality, all humanity stands condemned before the just and holy God. Yet God also provides undeserved grace. In Jesus Christ, God poured out his just judgment on a willing substitute, whose death calls people to turn away from their sin and live by God’s righteousness (Rom 6:22-23; 1 Pet 3:18). And when God’s kingdom is fully established through Christ, the world, too, will be just and righteous (Isa 1:26; 28:6; 2 Pet 3:13).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 18:17-19, 25; Exod 34:6-7; Lev 19:15; Deut 16:18-20; 17:8-13; 32:4; Pss 9:7-8; 67:4; 89:14; 119:75; Prov 21:3; Eccl 12:14; Isa 1:17-28; 5:7; 11:1-9; 16:5; 32:1-2, 16-17; 40:22-24; 61:8; Jer 46:27-28; Lam 3:25-39; Ezek 34:15-16; 36:22-36; 37:24-27; Joel 3:1-2; Amos 5:21-24; Jon 3:1–4:11; Mic 6:6-8; Nah 1:3-10; 3:4; Zech 7:9-10; Matt 5:6, 10, 20; Luke 1:74-75; Acts 10:34-43; 17:30-31; 2 Pet 3:11-14; Rev 20:11-15<\/p>","summary_ro":"God’s Justice God is just (Ps 9:7-8); he detests sin and rewards people and nations justly in accordance with what they do (Ps 67:4; Isa 1:27; Jer 46:28; Joel 3:1-8; Acts 17:31). God is in sovereign control of the natural world (Nah 1:4-6, 8) and of all nations (1:3, 6-10, 15), and the world and its inhabitants stand helpless when opposing him (Job 41:10-11; Isa 40:22-24). The Lord’s justice (Hebrew mishpat) is part of his divine order. A world without justice is a place where people set asid...","summary_en":"God’s Justice God is just (Ps 9:7-8); he detests sin and rewards people and nations justly in accordance with what they do (Ps 67:4; Isa 1:27; Jer 46:28; Joel 3:1-8; Acts 17:31). God is in sovereign control of the natural world (Nah 1:4-6, 8) and of all nations (1:3, 6-10, 15), and the world and its inhabitants stand helpless when opposing him (Job 41:10-11; Isa 40:22-24). The Lord’s justice (Hebrew mishpat) is part of his divine order. A world without justice is a place where people set asid...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":119907,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Social Justice","title_en":"Social Justice","content_ro":"<h3>Social Justice<\/h3>\n<p>In the Old Testament, prophets often confronted evil in society and articulated a demand for social justice. An early example of this is found in Elijah’s response to the murder of Naboth, followed by his rebuke of Ahab (1 Kgs 21:16-24, 800s <span>BC<\/span>). The social aspect of the prophetic message became even more prominent among the prophets of the 700s <span>BC<\/span> (Hosea and Amos in Israel, Micah and Isaiah in Judah), with Amos as the most articulate spokesman on this issue.<\/p>\n<p>Amos was appalled by Israel’s abuse of the powerless (Amos 2:6-8; 3:10). Unlike the surrounding nations, Israel had known God in a uniquely personal and intimate manner and then turned away from him (2:9-12; 3:1-2). The people of Israel had refused to worship God appropriately and had oppressed the powerless, so God would hold them accountable and meet them in judgment (4:12), not mercy. God wants justice to flow like a mighty river (Amos 5:24). Those who oppose it will be swept away.<\/p>\n<p>The importance of social justice is also made clear in the New Testament. Jesus drew a connection between proper worship and the practice of social justice, warning of the judgment that is coming upon those who do not express their faith in loving action toward others (see Matt 25:31-46). Right understanding must be matched by right practice, which serves as evidence of one’s faith (see Luke 10:25-37; John 13:35). Jesus’ followers recoginzed the significant role social justice needed to play within the early Christian communities (see Acts 2:44-45; Gal 2:9-10; 1 Tim 5:3-16; Jas 1:27–2:26; 1 Jn 3:17-19).<\/p>\n<p>God’s compassion for the oppressed is evidenced throughout Scripture. As followers of Christ, we must not neglect those who are in need, and like the prophets, we must confront injustice wherever it is encountered.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 23:1-12; Lev 19:9-18; Deut 10:17-20; 16:18-20; 24:10-22; 1 Kgs 21:1-24; 2 Chr 19:4-11; Pss 94:20-23; 146:3-9; Prov 22:8-9; 31:8-9; Eccl 5:8-9; Isa 1:17; 5:7; 9:6-7; 10:1-2; 42:1-4; 58:4-12; Amos 2:6-8; 5:7-17, 23-24; Matt 12:15-21; 23:23; Luke 10:25-37; Heb 1:8-9<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Social Justice<\/h3>\n<p>In the Old Testament, prophets often confronted evil in society and articulated a demand for social justice. An early example of this is found in Elijah’s response to the murder of Naboth, followed by his rebuke of Ahab (1 Kgs 21:16-24, 800s <span>BC<\/span>). The social aspect of the prophetic message became even more prominent among the prophets of the 700s <span>BC<\/span> (Hosea and Amos in Israel, Micah and Isaiah in Judah), with Amos as the most articulate spokesman on this issue.<\/p>\n<p>Amos was appalled by Israel’s abuse of the powerless (Amos 2:6-8; 3:10). Unlike the surrounding nations, Israel had known God in a uniquely personal and intimate manner and then turned away from him (2:9-12; 3:1-2). The people of Israel had refused to worship God appropriately and had oppressed the powerless, so God would hold them accountable and meet them in judgment (4:12), not mercy. God wants justice to flow like a mighty river (Amos 5:24). Those who oppose it will be swept away.<\/p>\n<p>The importance of social justice is also made clear in the New Testament. Jesus drew a connection between proper worship and the practice of social justice, warning of the judgment that is coming upon those who do not express their faith in loving action toward others (see Matt 25:31-46). Right understanding must be matched by right practice, which serves as evidence of one’s faith (see Luke 10:25-37; John 13:35). Jesus’ followers recoginzed the significant role social justice needed to play within the early Christian communities (see Acts 2:44-45; Gal 2:9-10; 1 Tim 5:3-16; Jas 1:27–2:26; 1 Jn 3:17-19).<\/p>\n<p>God’s compassion for the oppressed is evidenced throughout Scripture. As followers of Christ, we must not neglect those who are in need, and like the prophets, we must confront injustice wherever it is encountered.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 23:1-12; Lev 19:9-18; Deut 10:17-20; 16:18-20; 24:10-22; 1 Kgs 21:1-24; 2 Chr 19:4-11; Pss 94:20-23; 146:3-9; Prov 22:8-9; 31:8-9; Eccl 5:8-9; Isa 1:17; 5:7; 9:6-7; 10:1-2; 42:1-4; 58:4-12; Amos 2:6-8; 5:7-17, 23-24; Matt 12:15-21; 23:23; Luke 10:25-37; Heb 1:8-9<\/p>","summary_ro":"Social Justice In the Old Testament, prophets often confronted evil in society and articulated a demand for social justice. An early example of this is found in Elijah’s response to the murder of Naboth, followed by his rebuke of Ahab (1 Kgs 21:16-24, 800s BC). The social aspect of the prophetic message became even more prominent among the prophets of the 700s BC (Hosea and Amos in Israel, Micah and Isaiah in Judah), with Amos as the most articulate spokesman on this issue. Amos was appalled ...","summary_en":"Social Justice In the Old Testament, prophets often confronted evil in society and articulated a demand for social justice. An early example of this is found in Elijah’s response to the murder of Naboth, followed by his rebuke of Ahab (1 Kgs 21:16-24, 800s BC). The social aspect of the prophetic message became even more prominent among the prophets of the 700s BC (Hosea and Amos in Israel, Micah and Isaiah in Judah), with Amos as the most articulate spokesman on this issue. Amos was appalled ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":143713,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"True Justice","title_en":"True Justice","content_ro":"<h3>True Justice<\/h3>\n<p>The community of God’s people in Old Testament Israel was to be responsible for the well-being of widows, orphans, and foreigners (Deut 27:19). The Israelites were to represent the just God whom they served (see 10:17-19) and always remember that they had been an enslaved and defenseless people in Egypt (see 10:19; 24:18-22). How could they, the beneficiaries of God’s unfailing love and faithfulness, ignore the rights and needs of the most vulnerable who lived among them?<\/p>\n<p>Every society has social structures that separate the powerful from the weak and the privileged from the ill-favored. This was true of Old Testament Israel despite its unique constitution and commission as a “holy nation” (Exod 19:6). Judges and other officials charged with upholding the law might tend to favor individuals with financial means, high social standing, or community influence, especially when these individuals offer bribes (Deut 16:19). However, God cannot be bribed, nor does he show partiality (10:17). The rich and the poor, the powerful and the weak, the exalted and the downtrodden are all alike to him.<\/p>\n<p>The prophets of Israel understood the need for equity and justice and often called for the application of these principles to community and national life (Isa 1:17; 10:1-4; 59:14-19; Ezek 22:23-29; Amos 2:6-8; Hab 1:4). The New Testament also appeals for proper treatment of the poor and disadvantaged and speaks of God’s displeasure when they are neglected (Matt 23:23; 2 Cor 9:6-10; Jas 2:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>Justice that falls short of God’s standard is not true justice, and those responsible for corrupting justice can expect full retribution from the Judge of all the earth (see Deut 25:13-16).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 23:3; Lev 19:15; Deut 10:17-19; 16:19; 24:12-22; 25:13-16; 27:19; Ps 82:1-5; Prov 11:1; Isa 1:17; 10:1-4; 11:3-4; 59:14-19; Jer 22:13-17; Ezek 22:23-29; 45:9-10; Amos 2:6-8; 8:5-6; Hab 1:4; Matt 23:23; Luke 18:6-8; Jas 2:1-7<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>True Justice<\/h3>\n<p>The community of God’s people in Old Testament Israel was to be responsible for the well-being of widows, orphans, and foreigners (Deut 27:19). The Israelites were to represent the just God whom they served (see 10:17-19) and always remember that they had been an enslaved and defenseless people in Egypt (see 10:19; 24:18-22). How could they, the beneficiaries of God’s unfailing love and faithfulness, ignore the rights and needs of the most vulnerable who lived among them?<\/p>\n<p>Every society has social structures that separate the powerful from the weak and the privileged from the ill-favored. This was true of Old Testament Israel despite its unique constitution and commission as a “holy nation” (Exod 19:6). Judges and other officials charged with upholding the law might tend to favor individuals with financial means, high social standing, or community influence, especially when these individuals offer bribes (Deut 16:19). However, God cannot be bribed, nor does he show partiality (10:17). The rich and the poor, the powerful and the weak, the exalted and the downtrodden are all alike to him.<\/p>\n<p>The prophets of Israel understood the need for equity and justice and often called for the application of these principles to community and national life (Isa 1:17; 10:1-4; 59:14-19; Ezek 22:23-29; Amos 2:6-8; Hab 1:4). The New Testament also appeals for proper treatment of the poor and disadvantaged and speaks of God’s displeasure when they are neglected (Matt 23:23; 2 Cor 9:6-10; Jas 2:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>Justice that falls short of God’s standard is not true justice, and those responsible for corrupting justice can expect full retribution from the Judge of all the earth (see Deut 25:13-16).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 23:3; Lev 19:15; Deut 10:17-19; 16:19; 24:12-22; 25:13-16; 27:19; Ps 82:1-5; Prov 11:1; Isa 1:17; 10:1-4; 11:3-4; 59:14-19; Jer 22:13-17; Ezek 22:23-29; 45:9-10; Amos 2:6-8; 8:5-6; Hab 1:4; Matt 23:23; Luke 18:6-8; Jas 2:1-7<\/p>","summary_ro":"True Justice The community of God’s people in Old Testament Israel was to be responsible for the well-being of widows, orphans, and foreigners (Deut 27:19). The Israelites were to represent the just God whom they served (see 10:17-19) and always remember that they had been an enslaved and defenseless people in Egypt (see 10:19; 24:18-22). How could they, the beneficiaries of God’s unfailing love and faithfulness, ignore the rights and needs of the most vulnerable who lived among them? Every s...","summary_en":"True Justice The community of God’s people in Old Testament Israel was to be responsible for the well-being of widows, orphans, and foreigners (Deut 27:19). The Israelites were to represent the just God whom they served (see 10:17-19) and always remember that they had been an enslaved and defenseless people in Egypt (see 10:19; 24:18-22). How could they, the beneficiaries of God’s unfailing love and faithfulness, ignore the rights and needs of the most vulnerable who lived among them? Every s...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":146822,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God’s Justice","title_en":"God’s Justice","content_ro":"<h3>God’s Justice<\/h3>\n<p>God is just (Ps 9:7-8); he detests sin and rewards people and nations justly in accordance with what they do (Ps 67:4; Isa 1:27; Jer 46:28; Joel 3:1-8; Acts 17:31). God is in sovereign control of the natural world (Nah 1:4-6, 8) and of all nations (1:3, 6-10, 15), and the world and its inhabitants stand helpless when opposing him (Job 41:10-11; Isa 40:22-24).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord’s justice (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">mishpat<\/span>) is part of his divine order. A world without justice is a place where people set aside the order planned by the Creator. Since the Creator himself is just (Deut 32:4), it follows that his rule will be just and righteous. His Messiah will usher in a just world (Isa 9:7; 11:2-5; 16:5; 32:1-2), and his Spirit will transform the world into a place of justice, righteousness, and peace (32:15-17). This is good news for the oppressed, whose rights have been denied by the powerful of society (see 25:4-5).<\/p>\n<p>God’s justice may sometimes seem slow in coming (Nah 1:3). This seemingly delayed judgment is the result of his patience and mercy toward people (Jon 3–4; 2 Pet 3:9-15). God does not execute justice with rigid disinterest; he gives justice with love and seeks to bring those who deserve judgment into a relationship with him.<\/p>\n<p>The theme of God’s justice is notably prominent throughout the prophets, and particularly in the book of Isaiah. God expects his people to act justly toward others (Mic 6:8; Zech 7:9; Isa 1:17; 5:7; 58:6-7), and he repeately censures the people of Israel for their injustice, particularly toward the poor and needy (e.g., Amos 5:11-12; Mal 3:5; Isa 3:12-15; 5:7-8; 10:1-4; 29:21). Many of Israel’s prophets proclaim God’s judgment on his people in relation to their injustice. They also relay a number of prophecies against other oppressive, proud, unjust nations. God’s retribution for such behavior is just (see Isa 3:9-11; 13:11; 59:18).<\/p>\n<p>The book of Nahum is specifically filled with the expression of God’s justice toward Nineveh (1:14; 2:13; 3:4). Nahum’s “good news” (Nah 1:15) is that all who trust in God will one day enjoy the peace and well-being that come with the final defeat of evil (see also Isa 11:1-9; Zeph 3:13). The ultimate fulfillment of this promise was inaugurated in the life, death, and resurrection of Jesus Christ (Acts 10:34-43; Rom 10:9-15). Those who believe in the Lord Jesus experience a measure of the blessings of salvation in the present as they await God’s final judgment of evil and the coming of his Kingdom in its fullness (see Rev 20:7–22:5).<\/p>\n<p>In reality, all humanity stands condemned before the just and holy God. Yet God also provides undeserved grace. In Jesus Christ, God poured out his just judgment on a willing substitute, whose death calls people to turn away from their sin and live by God’s righteousness (Rom 6:22-23; 1 Pet 3:18). And when God’s kingdom is fully established through Christ, the world, too, will be just and righteous (Isa 1:26; 28:6; 2 Pet 3:13).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 18:17-19, 25; Exod 34:6-7; Lev 19:15; Deut 16:18-20; 17:8-13; 32:4; Pss 9:7-8; 67:4; 89:14; 119:75; Prov 21:3; Eccl 12:14; Isa 1:17-28; 5:7; 11:1-9; 16:5; 32:1-2, 16-17; 40:22-24; 61:8; Jer 46:27-28; Lam 3:25-39; Ezek 34:15-16; 36:22-36; 37:24-27; Joel 3:1-2; Amos 5:21-24; Jon 3:1–4:11; Mic 6:6-8; Nah 1:3-10; 3:4; Zech 7:9-10; Matt 5:6, 10, 20; Luke 1:74-75; Acts 10:34-43; 17:30-31; 2 Pet 3:11-14; Rev 20:11-15<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God’s Justice<\/h3>\n<p>God is just (Ps 9:7-8); he detests sin and rewards people and nations justly in accordance with what they do (Ps 67:4; Isa 1:27; Jer 46:28; Joel 3:1-8; Acts 17:31). God is in sovereign control of the natural world (Nah 1:4-6, 8) and of all nations (1:3, 6-10, 15), and the world and its inhabitants stand helpless when opposing him (Job 41:10-11; Isa 40:22-24).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord’s justice (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">mishpat<\/span>) is part of his divine order. A world without justice is a place where people set aside the order planned by the Creator. Since the Creator himself is just (Deut 32:4), it follows that his rule will be just and righteous. His Messiah will usher in a just world (Isa 9:7; 11:2-5; 16:5; 32:1-2), and his Spirit will transform the world into a place of justice, righteousness, and peace (32:15-17). This is good news for the oppressed, whose rights have been denied by the powerful of society (see 25:4-5).<\/p>\n<p>God’s justice may sometimes seem slow in coming (Nah 1:3). This seemingly delayed judgment is the result of his patience and mercy toward people (Jon 3–4; 2 Pet 3:9-15). God does not execute justice with rigid disinterest; he gives justice with love and seeks to bring those who deserve judgment into a relationship with him.<\/p>\n<p>The theme of God’s justice is notably prominent throughout the prophets, and particularly in the book of Isaiah. God expects his people to act justly toward others (Mic 6:8; Zech 7:9; Isa 1:17; 5:7; 58:6-7), and he repeately censures the people of Israel for their injustice, particularly toward the poor and needy (e.g., Amos 5:11-12; Mal 3:5; Isa 3:12-15; 5:7-8; 10:1-4; 29:21). Many of Israel’s prophets proclaim God’s judgment on his people in relation to their injustice. They also relay a number of prophecies against other oppressive, proud, unjust nations. God’s retribution for such behavior is just (see Isa 3:9-11; 13:11; 59:18).<\/p>\n<p>The book of Nahum is specifically filled with the expression of God’s justice toward Nineveh (1:14; 2:13; 3:4). Nahum’s “good news” (Nah 1:15) is that all who trust in God will one day enjoy the peace and well-being that come with the final defeat of evil (see also Isa 11:1-9; Zeph 3:13). The ultimate fulfillment of this promise was inaugurated in the life, death, and resurrection of Jesus Christ (Acts 10:34-43; Rom 10:9-15). Those who believe in the Lord Jesus experience a measure of the blessings of salvation in the present as they await God’s final judgment of evil and the coming of his Kingdom in its fullness (see Rev 20:7–22:5).<\/p>\n<p>In reality, all humanity stands condemned before the just and holy God. Yet God also provides undeserved grace. In Jesus Christ, God poured out his just judgment on a willing substitute, whose death calls people to turn away from their sin and live by God’s righteousness (Rom 6:22-23; 1 Pet 3:18). And when God’s kingdom is fully established through Christ, the world, too, will be just and righteous (Isa 1:26; 28:6; 2 Pet 3:13).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 18:17-19, 25; Exod 34:6-7; Lev 19:15; Deut 16:18-20; 17:8-13; 32:4; Pss 9:7-8; 67:4; 89:14; 119:75; Prov 21:3; Eccl 12:14; Isa 1:17-28; 5:7; 11:1-9; 16:5; 32:1-2, 16-17; 40:22-24; 61:8; Jer 46:27-28; Lam 3:25-39; Ezek 34:15-16; 36:22-36; 37:24-27; Joel 3:1-2; Amos 5:21-24; Jon 3:1–4:11; Mic 6:6-8; Nah 1:3-10; 3:4; Zech 7:9-10; Matt 5:6, 10, 20; Luke 1:74-75; Acts 10:34-43; 17:30-31; 2 Pet 3:11-14; Rev 20:11-15<\/p>","summary_ro":"God’s Justice God is just (Ps 9:7-8); he detests sin and rewards people and nations justly in accordance with what they do (Ps 67:4; Isa 1:27; Jer 46:28; Joel 3:1-8; Acts 17:31). God is in sovereign control of the natural world (Nah 1:4-6, 8) and of all nations (1:3, 6-10, 15), and the world and its inhabitants stand helpless when opposing him (Job 41:10-11; Isa 40:22-24). The Lord’s justice (Hebrew mishpat) is part of his divine order. A world without justice is a place where people set asid...","summary_en":"God’s Justice God is just (Ps 9:7-8); he detests sin and rewards people and nations justly in accordance with what they do (Ps 67:4; Isa 1:27; Jer 46:28; Joel 3:1-8; Acts 17:31). God is in sovereign control of the natural world (Nah 1:4-6, 8) and of all nations (1:3, 6-10, 15), and the world and its inhabitants stand helpless when opposing him (Job 41:10-11; Isa 40:22-24). The Lord’s justice (Hebrew mishpat) is part of his divine order. A world without justice is a place where people set asid...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":147533,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Social Justice","title_en":"Social Justice","content_ro":"<h3>Social Justice<\/h3>\n<p>In the Old Testament, prophets often confronted evil in society and articulated a demand for social justice. An early example of this is found in Elijah’s response to the murder of Naboth, followed by his rebuke of Ahab (1 Kgs 21:16-24, 800s <span>BC<\/span>). The social aspect of the prophetic message became even more prominent among the prophets of the 700s <span>BC<\/span> (Hosea and Amos in Israel, Micah and Isaiah in Judah), with Amos as the most articulate spokesman on this issue.<\/p>\n<p>Amos was appalled by Israel’s abuse of the powerless (Amos 2:6-8; 3:10). Unlike the surrounding nations, Israel had known God in a uniquely personal and intimate manner and then turned away from him (2:9-12; 3:1-2). The people of Israel had refused to worship God appropriately and had oppressed the powerless, so God would hold them accountable and meet them in judgment (4:12), not mercy. God wants justice to flow like a mighty river (Amos 5:24). Those who oppose it will be swept away.<\/p>\n<p>The importance of social justice is also made clear in the New Testament. Jesus drew a connection between proper worship and the practice of social justice, warning of the judgment that is coming upon those who do not express their faith in loving action toward others (see Matt 25:31-46). Right understanding must be matched by right practice, which serves as evidence of one’s faith (see Luke 10:25-37; John 13:35). Jesus’ followers recoginzed the significant role social justice needed to play within the early Christian communities (see Acts 2:44-45; Gal 2:9-10; 1 Tim 5:3-16; Jas 1:27–2:26; 1 Jn 3:17-19).<\/p>\n<p>God’s compassion for the oppressed is evidenced throughout Scripture. As followers of Christ, we must not neglect those who are in need, and like the prophets, we must confront injustice wherever it is encountered.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 23:1-12; Lev 19:9-18; Deut 10:17-20; 16:18-20; 24:10-22; 1 Kgs 21:1-24; 2 Chr 19:4-11; Pss 94:20-23; 146:3-9; Prov 22:8-9; 31:8-9; Eccl 5:8-9; Isa 1:17; 5:7; 9:6-7; 10:1-2; 42:1-4; 58:4-12; Amos 2:6-8; 5:7-17, 23-24; Matt 12:15-21; 23:23; Luke 10:25-37; Heb 1:8-9<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Social Justice<\/h3>\n<p>In the Old Testament, prophets often confronted evil in society and articulated a demand for social justice. An early example of this is found in Elijah’s response to the murder of Naboth, followed by his rebuke of Ahab (1 Kgs 21:16-24, 800s <span>BC<\/span>). The social aspect of the prophetic message became even more prominent among the prophets of the 700s <span>BC<\/span> (Hosea and Amos in Israel, Micah and Isaiah in Judah), with Amos as the most articulate spokesman on this issue.<\/p>\n<p>Amos was appalled by Israel’s abuse of the powerless (Amos 2:6-8; 3:10). Unlike the surrounding nations, Israel had known God in a uniquely personal and intimate manner and then turned away from him (2:9-12; 3:1-2). The people of Israel had refused to worship God appropriately and had oppressed the powerless, so God would hold them accountable and meet them in judgment (4:12), not mercy. God wants justice to flow like a mighty river (Amos 5:24). Those who oppose it will be swept away.<\/p>\n<p>The importance of social justice is also made clear in the New Testament. Jesus drew a connection between proper worship and the practice of social justice, warning of the judgment that is coming upon those who do not express their faith in loving action toward others (see Matt 25:31-46). Right understanding must be matched by right practice, which serves as evidence of one’s faith (see Luke 10:25-37; John 13:35). Jesus’ followers recoginzed the significant role social justice needed to play within the early Christian communities (see Acts 2:44-45; Gal 2:9-10; 1 Tim 5:3-16; Jas 1:27–2:26; 1 Jn 3:17-19).<\/p>\n<p>God’s compassion for the oppressed is evidenced throughout Scripture. As followers of Christ, we must not neglect those who are in need, and like the prophets, we must confront injustice wherever it is encountered.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 23:1-12; Lev 19:9-18; Deut 10:17-20; 16:18-20; 24:10-22; 1 Kgs 21:1-24; 2 Chr 19:4-11; Pss 94:20-23; 146:3-9; Prov 22:8-9; 31:8-9; Eccl 5:8-9; Isa 1:17; 5:7; 9:6-7; 10:1-2; 42:1-4; 58:4-12; Amos 2:6-8; 5:7-17, 23-24; Matt 12:15-21; 23:23; Luke 10:25-37; Heb 1:8-9<\/p>","summary_ro":"Social Justice In the Old Testament, prophets often confronted evil in society and articulated a demand for social justice. An early example of this is found in Elijah’s response to the murder of Naboth, followed by his rebuke of Ahab (1 Kgs 21:16-24, 800s BC). The social aspect of the prophetic message became even more prominent among the prophets of the 700s BC (Hosea and Amos in Israel, Micah and Isaiah in Judah), with Amos as the most articulate spokesman on this issue. Amos was appalled ...","summary_en":"Social Justice In the Old Testament, prophets often confronted evil in society and articulated a demand for social justice. An early example of this is found in Elijah’s response to the murder of Naboth, followed by his rebuke of Ahab (1 Kgs 21:16-24, 800s BC). The social aspect of the prophetic message became even more prominent among the prophets of the 700s BC (Hosea and Amos in Israel, Micah and Isaiah in Judah), with Amos as the most articulate spokesman on this issue. Amos was appalled ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"2":[{"id":28639,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Orphan","title_en":"Orphan","content_ro":"<h3>ORPHAN<\/h3>\n<p>Word coming from a Hebrew root meaning “to be alone” or “bereaved,” often rendered as “fatherless.” The idea describes any person who is without legal standing in the covenant community of Israel, who is unprotected or needy, and who is especially exposed to oppression. It also speaks of one who is bereft of one or both earthly parents (cf. Lam 5:3).<\/p>\n<p>Since God has a special concern for the fatherless (Ex 22:22-24; Dt 10:18; Pss 10:14, 18; 27:10; 68:5; 146:9; Is 1:17; Hos 14:3), OT legislation made special provision for them by protecting their rights of inheritance (Nm 27:7-11; Dt 24:17; Prv 23:10), ensuring their freedom to glean the fields and vineyards (Dt 24:19-21), allowing their participation in the great annual feasts (16:11, 14), and allotting them a portion of the tithe crops collected every three years (14:29; 26:12). Strong condemnation awaits those who oppress them (Dt 24:17; 27:19; Mal 3:5).<\/p>\n<p>While the orphans of Israel were sometimes aided by friends and relatives (Jb 29:12; 31:17), there was general failure to meet the requirements of the law, as is witnessed by the accusations of the inspired writers (Jb 6:27; 22:9; 24:3, 9; Ps 94:6; Is 1:23; 10:2; Jer 5:28; Ez 22:7). Consequently, the prophets never tire of pleading the orphan’s cause (Jer 7:6; 22:3; Zec 7:10).<\/p>\n<p>The word is used only twice in the NT—once in a general sense to describe those who are “desolate” or “comfortless” (Jn 14:18), and once in the specific sense to describe the “fatherless” (Jas 1:27). In the spirit of an OT prophet, James declares that true religion involves the care of orphans.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ORPHAN<\/h3>\n<p>Word coming from a Hebrew root meaning “to be alone” or “bereaved,” often rendered as “fatherless.” The idea describes any person who is without legal standing in the covenant community of Israel, who is unprotected or needy, and who is especially exposed to oppression. It also speaks of one who is bereft of one or both earthly parents (cf. Lam 5:3).<\/p>\n<p>Since God has a special concern for the fatherless (Ex 22:22-24; Dt 10:18; Pss 10:14, 18; 27:10; 68:5; 146:9; Is 1:17; Hos 14:3), OT legislation made special provision for them by protecting their rights of inheritance (Nm 27:7-11; Dt 24:17; Prv 23:10), ensuring their freedom to glean the fields and vineyards (Dt 24:19-21), allowing their participation in the great annual feasts (16:11, 14), and allotting them a portion of the tithe crops collected every three years (14:29; 26:12). Strong condemnation awaits those who oppress them (Dt 24:17; 27:19; Mal 3:5).<\/p>\n<p>While the orphans of Israel were sometimes aided by friends and relatives (Jb 29:12; 31:17), there was general failure to meet the requirements of the law, as is witnessed by the accusations of the inspired writers (Jb 6:27; 22:9; 24:3, 9; Ps 94:6; Is 1:23; 10:2; Jer 5:28; Ez 22:7). Consequently, the prophets never tire of pleading the orphan’s cause (Jer 7:6; 22:3; Zec 7:10).<\/p>\n<p>The word is used only twice in the NT—once in a general sense to describe those who are “desolate” or “comfortless” (Jn 14:18), and once in the specific sense to describe the “fatherless” (Jas 1:27). In the spirit of an OT prophet, James declares that true religion involves the care of orphans.<\/p>","summary_ro":"ORPHAN Word coming from a Hebrew root meaning “to be alone” or “bereaved,” often rendered as “fatherless.” The idea describes any person who is without legal standing in the covenant community of Israel, who is unprotected or needy, and who is especially exposed to oppression. It also speaks of one who is bereft of one or both earthly parents (cf. Lam 5:3). Since God has a special concern for the fatherless (Ex 22:22-24; Dt 10:18; Pss 10:14, 18; 27:10; 68:5; 146:9; Is 1:17; Hos 14:3), OT legi...","summary_en":"ORPHAN Word coming from a Hebrew root meaning “to be alone” or “bereaved,” often rendered as “fatherless.” The idea describes any person who is without legal standing in the covenant community of Israel, who is unprotected or needy, and who is especially exposed to oppression. It also speaks of one who is bereft of one or both earthly parents (cf. Lam 5:3). Since God has a special concern for the fatherless (Ex 22:22-24; Dt 10:18; Pss 10:14, 18; 27:10; 68:5; 146:9; Is 1:17; Hos 14:3), OT legi...","source":"Articles\/O.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"3":[{"id":51173,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 10:3","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 10:3","content_ro":"<p><strong>10:3<\/strong> The implied answer to Isaiah’s rhetorical questions was that there would be no one to turn to when God punished Judah. • <em>Disaster<\/em> came first <em>from<\/em> the <em>distant land<\/em> of Assyria and later from Babylon.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>10:3<\/strong> The implied answer to Isaiah’s rhetorical questions was that there would be no one to turn to when God punished Judah. • <em>Disaster<\/em> came first <em>from<\/em> the <em>distant land<\/em> of Assyria and later from Babylon.<\/p>","summary_ro":"10:3 The implied answer to Isaiah’s rhetorical questions was that there would be no one to turn to when God punished Judah. • Disaster came first from the distant land of Assyria and later from Babylon.","summary_en":"10:3 The implied answer to Isaiah’s rhetorical questions was that there would be no one to turn to when God punished Judah. • Disaster came first from the distant land of Assyria and later from Babylon.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":78799,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 10:3","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 10:3","content_ro":"<p><strong>10:3<\/strong> The implied answer to Isaiah’s rhetorical questions was that there would be no one to turn to when God punished Judah. • <em>Disaster<\/em> came first <em>from<\/em> the <em>distant land<\/em> of Assyria and later from Babylon.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>10:3<\/strong> The implied answer to Isaiah’s rhetorical questions was that there would be no one to turn to when God punished Judah. • <em>Disaster<\/em> came first <em>from<\/em> the <em>distant land<\/em> of Assyria and later from Babylon.<\/p>","summary_ro":"10:3 The implied answer to Isaiah’s rhetorical questions was that there would be no one to turn to when God punished Judah. • Disaster came first from the distant land of Assyria and later from Babylon.","summary_en":"10:3 The implied answer to Isaiah’s rhetorical questions was that there would be no one to turn to when God punished Judah. • Disaster came first from the distant land of Assyria and later from Babylon.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":106425,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 10:3","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 10:3","content_ro":"<p><strong>10:3<\/strong> The implied answer to Isaiah’s rhetorical questions was that there would be no one to turn to when God punished Judah. • <em>Disaster<\/em> came first <em>from<\/em> the <em>distant land<\/em> of Assyria and later from Babylon.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>10:3<\/strong> The implied answer to Isaiah’s rhetorical questions was that there would be no one to turn to when God punished Judah. • <em>Disaster<\/em> came first <em>from<\/em> the <em>distant land<\/em> of Assyria and later from Babylon.<\/p>","summary_ro":"10:3 The implied answer to Isaiah’s rhetorical questions was that there would be no one to turn to when God punished Judah. • Disaster came first from the distant land of Assyria and later from Babylon.","summary_en":"10:3 The implied answer to Isaiah’s rhetorical questions was that there would be no one to turn to when God punished Judah. • Disaster came first from the distant land of Assyria and later from Babylon.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":134051,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 10:3","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 10:3","content_ro":"<p><strong>10:3<\/strong> The implied answer to Isaiah’s rhetorical questions was that there would be no one to turn to when God punished Judah. • <em>Disaster<\/em> came first <em>from<\/em> the <em>distant land<\/em> of Assyria and later from Babylon.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>10:3<\/strong> The implied answer to Isaiah’s rhetorical questions was that there would be no one to turn to when God punished Judah. • <em>Disaster<\/em> came first <em>from<\/em> the <em>distant land<\/em> of Assyria and later from Babylon.<\/p>","summary_ro":"10:3 The implied answer to Isaiah’s rhetorical questions was that there would be no one to turn to when God punished Judah. • Disaster came first from the distant land of Assyria and later from Babylon.","summary_en":"10:3 The implied answer to Isaiah’s rhetorical questions was that there would be no one to turn to when God punished Judah. • Disaster came first from the distant land of Assyria and later from Babylon.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"5":[{"id":16803,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Book of Hosea","title_en":"Book of Hosea","content_ro":"<h3>HOSEA, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>First of the 12 minor prophets in the traditional arrangements of the OT books. It was written in the last part of the eighth century <span>BC<\/span>. Hosea’s prophecies were proclaimed to the northern kingdom of Israel in the final years of its existence. Hosea was the only prophet to reside in the northern kingdom and also to preach there. God commissioned Hosea to reveal the widespread apostasy and corruption in the northern kingdom and to exhort his fellow countrymen to repent and return to God. Hosea had the unique privilege of illustrating—in his own life—the steadfast covenant love that God had for Israel.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Authenticity<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Date<\/p>\n<p>• Origin and Destination<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p>• Message<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>Hosea’s ministry extended over a period of at least 38 years (c. 753–715 <span>BC<\/span>), and he appears as a knowledgeable individual, whether he was a peasant or a member of the wealthier class in Israel.<\/p>\n<p>Hosea’s marriage to the prostitute Gomer may have been controversial in his own day, and it has certainly caused a great deal of controversy among Bible students and commentators. It seems best to recognize that Gomer was a publicly known harlot whom Hosea was commanded to marry for the purpose of illustrating Israel’s apostasy and God’s steadfast covenant love.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Authenticity\">Authenticity<\/p>\n<p>The authenticity and unity of Hosea is not seriously questioned, even by higher criticism. But two areas of controversy are (1) passages that refer to Judah (e.g., 1:1, 7, 11; 4:15; 5:5, 10-14; 6:4, 11; 8:14; 11:12; 12:2), and (2) those sections that refer to future blessing or national deliverance (e.g., 11:8-11; 14:2-9).<\/p>\n<p>Hosea’s references to Judah, however, could be expected from a man of God chagrined by the separation of Israel from the legitimate Davidic line. The northern kingdom, with its ungodly kings, was on the verge of judgment from God. Hosea evidently had received divine revelation concerning his dealings with Judah as well as Israel.<\/p>\n<p>The references to the future blessings and deliverance of Israel do not neutralize the condemnation of the sins of Israel, any more than Hosea’s constant love for and reconciliation with adulterous Gomer neutralizes her sin. Restoration and forgiveness need not ignore guilt.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>Hosea lived during the prosperous days of the northern kingdom of Israel under Jeroboam II (793–753 <span>BC<\/span>). He also saw its defeat and the deportation of its people after the invasion by the Assyrians (722 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>In Hosea 1:1 the following kings are named: from the southern kingdom of Judah—Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah; and from the northern kingdom of Israel—Joash and Jeroboam. Uzziah was a contemporary of both Joash and Jeroboam. Ahaz was king of Judah when Israel was taken captive by Assyria. Hezekiah may have been a co-regent with Ahaz at the time of the Assyrian captivity.<\/p>\n<p>Jeroboam reigned over Israel for 41 years and followed the evil example of his father, Nebat (2 Kgs 14:23-24). Though Israel was prosperous and successful during Jeroboam’s reign, the corruption in the government and the degeneracy in the spiritual lives of the people set the stage for more tumultuous times in the days of subsequent kings and paved the way for the fall of Israel. The rich landowners (including the king) oppressed the peasants and caused the lower-class landowners to migrate from the farms to the cities. The social repercussions were soon to engulf Israel in a wave of corruption. Anarchy was a product of those times (Hos 4:1-2; 7:1-7; 8:3-4; 9:15).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Date\">Date<\/p>\n<p>Hosea’s prophetic ministry commenced with the reign of Jeroboam II (793–753 <span>BC<\/span>) and extended to that of Hezekiah of Judah (715–686 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Several factors indicate that Hosea continued prophesying under Hoshea of Israel (732–722 <span>BC<\/span>): (1) “Shalman” (Hos 10:14) may be Shalmaneser of Assyria, who invaded Israel early in the reign of Hoshea (2 Kgs 17:3). (2) “Jareb” (Hos 5:13; 10:6, both <span>kjv<\/span>) may be Sargon II (722–705 <span>BC<\/span>). (3) Predictions of the Assyrian invasion appear to refer to an imminent event (10:5-6; 13:15-16). (4) Mention of Egypt and Israel’s dependence on that nation seem to fit the reign of Hoshea (7:11; 11:11). These factors confirm that the compilation of Hosea’s messages may have taken place very near to the time of Israel’s fall (722 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"OriginandDestination\">Origin and Destination<\/p>\n<p>Hosea prophesied while residing in Israel. He refers to the king in Samaria as “our king” (Hos 7:5). His descriptions of Israel show that he was familiar with the geography of the northern kingdom. Gilead is mentioned by Hosea as though he knew that area from personal observation (6:8; 12:11). Hosea was probably the only prophet to the northern kingdom who actually lived there throughout his ministry.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Purpose\">Purpose<\/p>\n<p>Hosea proclaimed to Israel the need to repent and return to God. He presented the God of Israel as a patient and loving God who remained faithful to his covenant promises. This emphasis is characteristic of Hosea (cf. 2:19).<\/p>\n<p>“Loving-kindness” is the word that best represents the covenant faithfulness and love of Yahweh, and Hosea’s family life was a living illustration of that loving-kindness.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<p>The major divisions and topics of the book of Hosea may be outlined as follows.<\/p>\n<p>The first three chapters of Hosea are concerned with the example of Hosea’s life, stressing Hosea’s faithfulness and love for his unfaithful wife.<\/p>\n<p>God commanded Hosea to marry the harlot Gomer and to have children by her (1:2–3:5). This command has caused difficulties for some commentators, since priests and prophets in Israel simply did not marry prostitutes. Medieval Jewish writers, therefore, regarded the material as symbolic but unhistorical. Some later scholars drew a distinction between chapters 1 and 3, regarding the latter as an intimate description by Hosea of his marriage; the first chapter was held to contain rather general recollections of his early days as a prophet. Other commentators regarded both chapters as literal fact, while certain scholars thought that chapter 1 was historical whereas chapter 3 represented an allegorical interpretation of the marriage by Hosea himself.<\/p>\n<p>Needless to say, the sexual activities of Gomer have also been discussed widely. Two views predominate. (1) Gomer was a faithful wife to Hosea in their early years of marriage. “A wife of harlotry” (1:2, <span>rsv<\/span>), which is not the common term for “prostitute,” has reference to her sinful and wayward nature, which God later caused to be exposed as an illustration of Israel’s idolatry. (2) Gomer was a publicly known harlot whom Hosea was commanded to marry in order to illustrate Israel’s idolatry and God’s faithful and steadfast love. This latter view seems to have the greatest appeal to evangelical scholars, and is the simplest interpretation within a literal, grammatical, and historical framework of Bible interpretation.<\/p>\n<p>Why it was necessary for her to be ransomed by Hosea is not evident, nor is it known why part of the price was paid in grain and the remainder in money. Perhaps the entire transaction was meant to symbolize God’s deliverance of Israel from future exile, although as far as it is known, the 10 northern tribes did not return from exile in Assyria. Such an interpretation could hardly apply to Judah, since Hosea’s message was not directed at the southern kingdom, although Judah did receive a warning (6:11).<\/p>\n<p>The children born to Hosea and Gomer were given symbolic names. The first child was a son named Jezreel (1:4a), signifying God’s judgment on the house of Jehu for Jehu’s slaughter of the house of Ahab in the valley of Jezreel (2 Kgs 10:1-11, 30).<\/p>\n<p>Lo-ruhamah was the second child (Hos 1:6a), whose name means “not compassioned or pitied.” The judgment of Israel was thus symbolized. The spiritual corruption of the northern kingdom had run its course, and it would be defeated and taken away into captivity (1:6b).<\/p>\n<p>Lo-ammi was the third child, a second son, whose name means “not my people” (1:8-9). This rejection of Israel as God’s covenanted people was to be temporary (1:10–2:1). God’s covenant promises to Abraham (cf. 1:10; Gn 22:17) and to Moses (Ex 19:1-7) would be fulfilled in spite of the disobedience of any particular generation.<\/p>\n<p>Not satisfied with her relationship to her husband, Gomer sought other lovers. Israel pursued the same elusive satisfaction in her flirtation and adultery with heathen deities. The good that their merciful God had bestowed upon them they attributed to pagan gods (Hos 2:8, 12). Repentant Israelites would return to their first love after discovering that there was no lasting satisfaction in their season of sin.<\/p>\n<p>Hosea’s declaration of divorce from Gomer for her adultery depicts Yahweh’s divorce from Israel for her adultery (Hos 2:2; cf. Jer 3:1–4:2). Their children represent the individual members of the nation of Israel in Hosea’s day (Hos 2:2-5).<\/p>\n<p>The illustration of restoration in chapter 3 highlights a concise summary of Israel’s history. Israel’s bondage to sin and Satan (cf. Heb 2:14-15) is symbolized by the price paid by Hosea for Gomer (Hos 3:2). The price was that of a female slave, since Gomer had become the slave of her adultery (cf. Ex 21:32). The days of Gomer’s isolation, like the days of Israel’s exile, were established for cleansing (Hos 3:3; cf. Dt 21:13; 30:2).<\/p>\n<p>After the exile period (“afterward”), and “in the latter days,” Israel will return to her husband to enjoy the blessings of the renewed relationship. In a messianic reference, David “their king” will be resurrected to lead Israel to the Lord (Hos 3:5).<\/p>\n<p>The last major section of Hosea deals in detail with what has already been illustrated and briefly explained in chapters 1–3. Israel’s apostasy (4:1–7:16), punishment (8:1–10:15), and restoration (11:1–14:9) are prophesied by Hosea.<\/p>\n<p>Israel was totally given over to ungodly activities and had separated itself from God (4:1-2; cf. Ex 20:1-17). The people had rejected the word of God through their own indifference and the deception of the priests (Hos 4:6-9; cf. Is 5:13; Am 8:11-12; Zep 1:6). Israel followed the example of corrupt spiritual leaders in the same way her kings followed the corrupt leadership of their predecessors (Hos 4:9). In place of God’s word, Israel turned to idolatry and divination for guidance (vv 12-13). Finally, Israel lost its priestly character (4:6; cf. Ex 19:6) because the priests were chiefly responsible for national apostasy (Hos 5:1).<\/p>\n<p>Upon revealing his case against the northern kingdom, God then issues a caution (5:8-14). The trumpet will be raised in the hills of Benjamin (v 8), the buffer zone between Israel and Judah. The alarm in that region will indicate that Israel is being overrun and Judah is endangered (vv 9-12). The northern kingdom had depended upon the commandment of man, not God (v 11). Israel had turned to Assyria for aid but received treachery and defeat at its hands (v 13). In this prophecy of the fall of Israel to the Assyrians (722 <span>BC<\/span>), Hosea depicts God as the ultimate chastiser (v 14).<\/p>\n<p>God’s call for repentance comes hard upon the heels of the revelation of chastisement (5:15–6:3). (The division of chapters at this point is unfortunate. Hosea 6:1-3 belongs with 5:15.) The exhortation to return to Yahweh could have been Hosea’s own heart response to the revelation he had received. However, it is best to take 6:1-3 as the words employed by the future returning remnant. Assyria did not offer healing, nor would any other nation, but God will heal Israel spiritually, politically, and physically (6:1; cf. Ex 15:26; Dt 32:39; Is 53:5; Ez 37:1-14; Mal 4:2).<\/p>\n<p>After the call to repentance, God returns to his concern for Israel (Hos 6:4-11; cf. 4:15). Israel has turned from its Creator and has disobeyed his message (6:7). Gilead is but one example of the murderous character of Israel (v 8). Even the priests are known for their violence (6:9; cf. 1 Sm 2:12-17; Jer 5:31). The sin of Israel is “horrible” (Hos 6:10).<\/p>\n<p>Chapter 7 presents God’s conclusion concerning Israel. Every attempt of God to bring Israel to repentance only reveals more fully the extent of their sin (7:1). They believe they can sin without God taking account (Hos 7:2; cf. Ps 90:8; Mt 12:36-37). Their leaders rejoice that the people are as wicked as the king and the princes themselves (Hos 7:3). All Israel is characterized by habitual adultery (v 4). Israel has not separated itself from the heathen (Hos 7:8; cf. Ex 34:12-16; 2 Cor 6:14–7:1). Like “a cake not turned” (Hos 7:8), Israel is not well balanced spiritually or politically but has one side done to a turn and the other side raw.<\/p>\n<p>In the area of foreign affairs, Israel has flitted about from Egypt to Assyria and back again “like a silly dove” without understanding (Hos 7:11). They did not seek the Lord’s counsel in their time of need but depended upon worldly powers. The lack of faith in Yahweh and the lack of separation from sin will bring chastisement from God (Hos 7:12; cf. 1 Cor 11:32; Heb 12:5-15).<\/p>\n<p>Chapter 8 deals with Israel’s reaping of judgment (cf. Hos 8:7). An alarm is sounded to warn the people of the approach of the Assyrians (Hos 8:1; cf. Ez 17:2-21). They would come against Israel (Hos 8:1) because of their transgression of the Sinai covenant (cf. Dt 27:9–29:29) and disobedience to the law of Moses. Crying falsely to God for deliverance from his rod of punishment (cf. Is 10:5), Israel will receive no answer and Assyria will continue to pursue the 10 tribes (Hos 8:2-3). Other reasons for God’s judgment include setting up kings without God’s direction (v 4a) and idolatry (vv 4b-6). Israel’s sacrifices were unacceptable because of the nation’s disobedience (cf. 1 Sm 15:22; Is 1:11-15). Thus they would go into exile just like the earlier exile in Egypt (Hos 8:13).<\/p>\n<p>The theme of exile is continued in chapter 9 of Hosea. There is no joy for Israel (v 1). The produce of the land will not sustain her because she will no longer dwell in the land (vv 2-3). Some Israelites will flee to Egypt in exile, while others will be taken captive to Assyria. All the sacrifices will cease and the sacrificial wines and meats will be drunk and eaten to satisfy their own needs (vv 4-5). Those Israelites who flee to Egypt will be slain by the Egyptians (v 6).<\/p>\n<p>The recompense of Israel’s evil is further described in chapter 10. Israel is like a luxuriant vine (10:1), but its bounty is misappropriated, being poured out as sacrifice on heathen altars. They are guilty before God, and he is about to destroy their altars and take away their king (vv 2-3). Gibeah is mentioned again (cf. 9:9), reminding Israel that apostasy is not only infectious, it is also indelible (10:9). The “two crimes” (<span>njb<\/span>) of verse 10 may refer to the two calf idols in Bethel and Dan that brought chastisement from God. The punishment will be a sentence of hard labor under a heavy yoke (v 11).<\/p>\n<p>Chapters 11 through 14 close the prophecies of Hosea with a message concerning the restoration of Israel at a future time. The steadfast love of the Father is first given as the ground of future restoration (11:1-12). Israel, as a nation, had been called out of Egypt as a son of Yahweh (Hos 11:1; cf. Ex 4:22-23). Yet Israel did not return the Father’s love, but sought pagan alliances (Hos 11:5) that would only bring judgment upon them (vv 5-7). The words of Yahweh reveal his irreversible judgment in his absolute holiness and righteousness (12:1–13:16). The sins of Israel can only be responded to with just recompense (12:1-2). The responsibility for the destruction of the northern kingdom rests upon Israel herself. In spite of Israel’s sin, God can yet be her help (13:9).<\/p>\n<p>Israel should have repented quickly, but she did not (13:13). Yet the mercy of Yahweh would ultimately bring about the death of death itself so that Israel might live—spiritually, politically, and perhaps physically (Hos 13:14; cf. Ez 37:1-14; Dn 12:1-2, 13).<\/p>\n<p>Chapter 14 of Hosea sets forth the Father’s loving invitation for Israel to repent and return to him in confession, prayer, and praise (Hos 14:2). “Calves of our lips” (v 2, <span>kjv<\/span>) refers to the thank offering, which normally included young bulls (Ex 24:5; Lv 7:11-15; cf. Pss 51:17-19; 69:30-31; Heb 13:15-16). Part of Israel’s confession will involve recognizing that there is no salvation in either Assyria (political alliance) or idols (Hos 14:3).<\/p>\n<p>God repeatedly promises blessing to Israel in their restoration (note “I will,” 14:4-5). Yahweh will heal Israel spiritually, love them freely, prosper them completely, and protect them fully (vv 4-7). Israel will be as beautiful as the lily, durable as the cedar, and fruitful as the olive tree.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Message\">Message<\/p>\n<p>The primary emphasis of Hosea is summarized in the last verse (14:9). The wise will live godly lives, and the foolish will live ungodly lives. The godly will have restoration, victory over death (13:14), and blessing (14:4-7).<\/p>\n<p>Idolatry is essentially anything that usurps the sole place of God in the human heart. In place of Yahweh’s counsel, aid, blessing, and salvation, Israel had substituted heathen deities (4:12-19), national pride (5:5), religious ceremony (6:6), political expediency (7:3), political alliances (7:11), civil government (8:4), building projects (8:14), selfish affluence (10:1), and idolatry (13:2). Only in God could they find true blessing and security (13:4, 9; 14:4-7).<\/p>\n<p>Apostasy is presented by Hosea as infectious. The cycle of apostasy may begin with the spiritual leaders or with the people and spread from one to the other (4:9). Apostasy is punished according to the degree of responsibility (5:1; 13:9; 14:4).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Hosea (Person); Israel, History of; Prophecy; Prophet, Prophetess.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>HOSEA, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>First of the 12 minor prophets in the traditional arrangements of the OT books. It was written in the last part of the eighth century <span>BC<\/span>. Hosea’s prophecies were proclaimed to the northern kingdom of Israel in the final years of its existence. Hosea was the only prophet to reside in the northern kingdom and also to preach there. God commissioned Hosea to reveal the widespread apostasy and corruption in the northern kingdom and to exhort his fellow countrymen to repent and return to God. Hosea had the unique privilege of illustrating—in his own life—the steadfast covenant love that God had for Israel.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Authenticity<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Date<\/p>\n<p>• Origin and Destination<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p>• Message<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>Hosea’s ministry extended over a period of at least 38 years (c. 753–715 <span>BC<\/span>), and he appears as a knowledgeable individual, whether he was a peasant or a member of the wealthier class in Israel.<\/p>\n<p>Hosea’s marriage to the prostitute Gomer may have been controversial in his own day, and it has certainly caused a great deal of controversy among Bible students and commentators. It seems best to recognize that Gomer was a publicly known harlot whom Hosea was commanded to marry for the purpose of illustrating Israel’s apostasy and God’s steadfast covenant love.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Authenticity\">Authenticity<\/p>\n<p>The authenticity and unity of Hosea is not seriously questioned, even by higher criticism. But two areas of controversy are (1) passages that refer to Judah (e.g., 1:1, 7, 11; 4:15; 5:5, 10-14; 6:4, 11; 8:14; 11:12; 12:2), and (2) those sections that refer to future blessing or national deliverance (e.g., 11:8-11; 14:2-9).<\/p>\n<p>Hosea’s references to Judah, however, could be expected from a man of God chagrined by the separation of Israel from the legitimate Davidic line. The northern kingdom, with its ungodly kings, was on the verge of judgment from God. Hosea evidently had received divine revelation concerning his dealings with Judah as well as Israel.<\/p>\n<p>The references to the future blessings and deliverance of Israel do not neutralize the condemnation of the sins of Israel, any more than Hosea’s constant love for and reconciliation with adulterous Gomer neutralizes her sin. Restoration and forgiveness need not ignore guilt.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>Hosea lived during the prosperous days of the northern kingdom of Israel under Jeroboam II (793–753 <span>BC<\/span>). He also saw its defeat and the deportation of its people after the invasion by the Assyrians (722 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>In Hosea 1:1 the following kings are named: from the southern kingdom of Judah—Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah; and from the northern kingdom of Israel—Joash and Jeroboam. Uzziah was a contemporary of both Joash and Jeroboam. Ahaz was king of Judah when Israel was taken captive by Assyria. Hezekiah may have been a co-regent with Ahaz at the time of the Assyrian captivity.<\/p>\n<p>Jeroboam reigned over Israel for 41 years and followed the evil example of his father, Nebat (2 Kgs 14:23-24). Though Israel was prosperous and successful during Jeroboam’s reign, the corruption in the government and the degeneracy in the spiritual lives of the people set the stage for more tumultuous times in the days of subsequent kings and paved the way for the fall of Israel. The rich landowners (including the king) oppressed the peasants and caused the lower-class landowners to migrate from the farms to the cities. The social repercussions were soon to engulf Israel in a wave of corruption. Anarchy was a product of those times (Hos 4:1-2; 7:1-7; 8:3-4; 9:15).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Date\">Date<\/p>\n<p>Hosea’s prophetic ministry commenced with the reign of Jeroboam II (793–753 <span>BC<\/span>) and extended to that of Hezekiah of Judah (715–686 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Several factors indicate that Hosea continued prophesying under Hoshea of Israel (732–722 <span>BC<\/span>): (1) “Shalman” (Hos 10:14) may be Shalmaneser of Assyria, who invaded Israel early in the reign of Hoshea (2 Kgs 17:3). (2) “Jareb” (Hos 5:13; 10:6, both <span>kjv<\/span>) may be Sargon II (722–705 <span>BC<\/span>). (3) Predictions of the Assyrian invasion appear to refer to an imminent event (10:5-6; 13:15-16). (4) Mention of Egypt and Israel’s dependence on that nation seem to fit the reign of Hoshea (7:11; 11:11). These factors confirm that the compilation of Hosea’s messages may have taken place very near to the time of Israel’s fall (722 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"OriginandDestination\">Origin and Destination<\/p>\n<p>Hosea prophesied while residing in Israel. He refers to the king in Samaria as “our king” (Hos 7:5). His descriptions of Israel show that he was familiar with the geography of the northern kingdom. Gilead is mentioned by Hosea as though he knew that area from personal observation (6:8; 12:11). Hosea was probably the only prophet to the northern kingdom who actually lived there throughout his ministry.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Purpose\">Purpose<\/p>\n<p>Hosea proclaimed to Israel the need to repent and return to God. He presented the God of Israel as a patient and loving God who remained faithful to his covenant promises. This emphasis is characteristic of Hosea (cf. 2:19).<\/p>\n<p>“Loving-kindness” is the word that best represents the covenant faithfulness and love of Yahweh, and Hosea’s family life was a living illustration of that loving-kindness.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<p>The major divisions and topics of the book of Hosea may be outlined as follows.<\/p>\n<p>The first three chapters of Hosea are concerned with the example of Hosea’s life, stressing Hosea’s faithfulness and love for his unfaithful wife.<\/p>\n<p>God commanded Hosea to marry the harlot Gomer and to have children by her (1:2–3:5). This command has caused difficulties for some commentators, since priests and prophets in Israel simply did not marry prostitutes. Medieval Jewish writers, therefore, regarded the material as symbolic but unhistorical. Some later scholars drew a distinction between chapters 1 and 3, regarding the latter as an intimate description by Hosea of his marriage; the first chapter was held to contain rather general recollections of his early days as a prophet. Other commentators regarded both chapters as literal fact, while certain scholars thought that chapter 1 was historical whereas chapter 3 represented an allegorical interpretation of the marriage by Hosea himself.<\/p>\n<p>Needless to say, the sexual activities of Gomer have also been discussed widely. Two views predominate. (1) Gomer was a faithful wife to Hosea in their early years of marriage. “A wife of harlotry” (1:2, <span>rsv<\/span>), which is not the common term for “prostitute,” has reference to her sinful and wayward nature, which God later caused to be exposed as an illustration of Israel’s idolatry. (2) Gomer was a publicly known harlot whom Hosea was commanded to marry in order to illustrate Israel’s idolatry and God’s faithful and steadfast love. This latter view seems to have the greatest appeal to evangelical scholars, and is the simplest interpretation within a literal, grammatical, and historical framework of Bible interpretation.<\/p>\n<p>Why it was necessary for her to be ransomed by Hosea is not evident, nor is it known why part of the price was paid in grain and the remainder in money. Perhaps the entire transaction was meant to symbolize God’s deliverance of Israel from future exile, although as far as it is known, the 10 northern tribes did not return from exile in Assyria. Such an interpretation could hardly apply to Judah, since Hosea’s message was not directed at the southern kingdom, although Judah did receive a warning (6:11).<\/p>\n<p>The children born to Hosea and Gomer were given symbolic names. The first child was a son named Jezreel (1:4a), signifying God’s judgment on the house of Jehu for Jehu’s slaughter of the house of Ahab in the valley of Jezreel (2 Kgs 10:1-11, 30).<\/p>\n<p>Lo-ruhamah was the second child (Hos 1:6a), whose name means “not compassioned or pitied.” The judgment of Israel was thus symbolized. The spiritual corruption of the northern kingdom had run its course, and it would be defeated and taken away into captivity (1:6b).<\/p>\n<p>Lo-ammi was the third child, a second son, whose name means “not my people” (1:8-9). This rejection of Israel as God’s covenanted people was to be temporary (1:10–2:1). God’s covenant promises to Abraham (cf. 1:10; Gn 22:17) and to Moses (Ex 19:1-7) would be fulfilled in spite of the disobedience of any particular generation.<\/p>\n<p>Not satisfied with her relationship to her husband, Gomer sought other lovers. Israel pursued the same elusive satisfaction in her flirtation and adultery with heathen deities. The good that their merciful God had bestowed upon them they attributed to pagan gods (Hos 2:8, 12). Repentant Israelites would return to their first love after discovering that there was no lasting satisfaction in their season of sin.<\/p>\n<p>Hosea’s declaration of divorce from Gomer for her adultery depicts Yahweh’s divorce from Israel for her adultery (Hos 2:2; cf. Jer 3:1–4:2). Their children represent the individual members of the nation of Israel in Hosea’s day (Hos 2:2-5).<\/p>\n<p>The illustration of restoration in chapter 3 highlights a concise summary of Israel’s history. Israel’s bondage to sin and Satan (cf. Heb 2:14-15) is symbolized by the price paid by Hosea for Gomer (Hos 3:2). The price was that of a female slave, since Gomer had become the slave of her adultery (cf. Ex 21:32). The days of Gomer’s isolation, like the days of Israel’s exile, were established for cleansing (Hos 3:3; cf. Dt 21:13; 30:2).<\/p>\n<p>After the exile period (“afterward”), and “in the latter days,” Israel will return to her husband to enjoy the blessings of the renewed relationship. In a messianic reference, David “their king” will be resurrected to lead Israel to the Lord (Hos 3:5).<\/p>\n<p>The last major section of Hosea deals in detail with what has already been illustrated and briefly explained in chapters 1–3. Israel’s apostasy (4:1–7:16), punishment (8:1–10:15), and restoration (11:1–14:9) are prophesied by Hosea.<\/p>\n<p>Israel was totally given over to ungodly activities and had separated itself from God (4:1-2; cf. Ex 20:1-17). The people had rejected the word of God through their own indifference and the deception of the priests (Hos 4:6-9; cf. Is 5:13; Am 8:11-12; Zep 1:6). Israel followed the example of corrupt spiritual leaders in the same way her kings followed the corrupt leadership of their predecessors (Hos 4:9). In place of God’s word, Israel turned to idolatry and divination for guidance (vv 12-13). Finally, Israel lost its priestly character (4:6; cf. Ex 19:6) because the priests were chiefly responsible for national apostasy (Hos 5:1).<\/p>\n<p>Upon revealing his case against the northern kingdom, God then issues a caution (5:8-14). The trumpet will be raised in the hills of Benjamin (v 8), the buffer zone between Israel and Judah. The alarm in that region will indicate that Israel is being overrun and Judah is endangered (vv 9-12). The northern kingdom had depended upon the commandment of man, not God (v 11). Israel had turned to Assyria for aid but received treachery and defeat at its hands (v 13). In this prophecy of the fall of Israel to the Assyrians (722 <span>BC<\/span>), Hosea depicts God as the ultimate chastiser (v 14).<\/p>\n<p>God’s call for repentance comes hard upon the heels of the revelation of chastisement (5:15–6:3). (The division of chapters at this point is unfortunate. Hosea 6:1-3 belongs with 5:15.) The exhortation to return to Yahweh could have been Hosea’s own heart response to the revelation he had received. However, it is best to take 6:1-3 as the words employed by the future returning remnant. Assyria did not offer healing, nor would any other nation, but God will heal Israel spiritually, politically, and physically (6:1; cf. Ex 15:26; Dt 32:39; Is 53:5; Ez 37:1-14; Mal 4:2).<\/p>\n<p>After the call to repentance, God returns to his concern for Israel (Hos 6:4-11; cf. 4:15). Israel has turned from its Creator and has disobeyed his message (6:7). Gilead is but one example of the murderous character of Israel (v 8). Even the priests are known for their violence (6:9; cf. 1 Sm 2:12-17; Jer 5:31). The sin of Israel is “horrible” (Hos 6:10).<\/p>\n<p>Chapter 7 presents God’s conclusion concerning Israel. Every attempt of God to bring Israel to repentance only reveals more fully the extent of their sin (7:1). They believe they can sin without God taking account (Hos 7:2; cf. Ps 90:8; Mt 12:36-37). Their leaders rejoice that the people are as wicked as the king and the princes themselves (Hos 7:3). All Israel is characterized by habitual adultery (v 4). Israel has not separated itself from the heathen (Hos 7:8; cf. Ex 34:12-16; 2 Cor 6:14–7:1). Like “a cake not turned” (Hos 7:8), Israel is not well balanced spiritually or politically but has one side done to a turn and the other side raw.<\/p>\n<p>In the area of foreign affairs, Israel has flitted about from Egypt to Assyria and back again “like a silly dove” without understanding (Hos 7:11). They did not seek the Lord’s counsel in their time of need but depended upon worldly powers. The lack of faith in Yahweh and the lack of separation from sin will bring chastisement from God (Hos 7:12; cf. 1 Cor 11:32; Heb 12:5-15).<\/p>\n<p>Chapter 8 deals with Israel’s reaping of judgment (cf. Hos 8:7). An alarm is sounded to warn the people of the approach of the Assyrians (Hos 8:1; cf. Ez 17:2-21). They would come against Israel (Hos 8:1) because of their transgression of the Sinai covenant (cf. Dt 27:9–29:29) and disobedience to the law of Moses. Crying falsely to God for deliverance from his rod of punishment (cf. Is 10:5), Israel will receive no answer and Assyria will continue to pursue the 10 tribes (Hos 8:2-3). Other reasons for God’s judgment include setting up kings without God’s direction (v 4a) and idolatry (vv 4b-6). Israel’s sacrifices were unacceptable because of the nation’s disobedience (cf. 1 Sm 15:22; Is 1:11-15). Thus they would go into exile just like the earlier exile in Egypt (Hos 8:13).<\/p>\n<p>The theme of exile is continued in chapter 9 of Hosea. There is no joy for Israel (v 1). The produce of the land will not sustain her because she will no longer dwell in the land (vv 2-3). Some Israelites will flee to Egypt in exile, while others will be taken captive to Assyria. All the sacrifices will cease and the sacrificial wines and meats will be drunk and eaten to satisfy their own needs (vv 4-5). Those Israelites who flee to Egypt will be slain by the Egyptians (v 6).<\/p>\n<p>The recompense of Israel’s evil is further described in chapter 10. Israel is like a luxuriant vine (10:1), but its bounty is misappropriated, being poured out as sacrifice on heathen altars. They are guilty before God, and he is about to destroy their altars and take away their king (vv 2-3). Gibeah is mentioned again (cf. 9:9), reminding Israel that apostasy is not only infectious, it is also indelible (10:9). The “two crimes” (<span>njb<\/span>) of verse 10 may refer to the two calf idols in Bethel and Dan that brought chastisement from God. The punishment will be a sentence of hard labor under a heavy yoke (v 11).<\/p>\n<p>Chapters 11 through 14 close the prophecies of Hosea with a message concerning the restoration of Israel at a future time. The steadfast love of the Father is first given as the ground of future restoration (11:1-12). Israel, as a nation, had been called out of Egypt as a son of Yahweh (Hos 11:1; cf. Ex 4:22-23). Yet Israel did not return the Father’s love, but sought pagan alliances (Hos 11:5) that would only bring judgment upon them (vv 5-7). The words of Yahweh reveal his irreversible judgment in his absolute holiness and righteousness (12:1–13:16). The sins of Israel can only be responded to with just recompense (12:1-2). The responsibility for the destruction of the northern kingdom rests upon Israel herself. In spite of Israel’s sin, God can yet be her help (13:9).<\/p>\n<p>Israel should have repented quickly, but she did not (13:13). Yet the mercy of Yahweh would ultimately bring about the death of death itself so that Israel might live—spiritually, politically, and perhaps physically (Hos 13:14; cf. Ez 37:1-14; Dn 12:1-2, 13).<\/p>\n<p>Chapter 14 of Hosea sets forth the Father’s loving invitation for Israel to repent and return to him in confession, prayer, and praise (Hos 14:2). “Calves of our lips” (v 2, <span>kjv<\/span>) refers to the thank offering, which normally included young bulls (Ex 24:5; Lv 7:11-15; cf. Pss 51:17-19; 69:30-31; Heb 13:15-16). Part of Israel’s confession will involve recognizing that there is no salvation in either Assyria (political alliance) or idols (Hos 14:3).<\/p>\n<p>God repeatedly promises blessing to Israel in their restoration (note “I will,” 14:4-5). Yahweh will heal Israel spiritually, love them freely, prosper them completely, and protect them fully (vv 4-7). Israel will be as beautiful as the lily, durable as the cedar, and fruitful as the olive tree.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Message\">Message<\/p>\n<p>The primary emphasis of Hosea is summarized in the last verse (14:9). The wise will live godly lives, and the foolish will live ungodly lives. The godly will have restoration, victory over death (13:14), and blessing (14:4-7).<\/p>\n<p>Idolatry is essentially anything that usurps the sole place of God in the human heart. In place of Yahweh’s counsel, aid, blessing, and salvation, Israel had substituted heathen deities (4:12-19), national pride (5:5), religious ceremony (6:6), political expediency (7:3), political alliances (7:11), civil government (8:4), building projects (8:14), selfish affluence (10:1), and idolatry (13:2). Only in God could they find true blessing and security (13:4, 9; 14:4-7).<\/p>\n<p>Apostasy is presented by Hosea as infectious. The cycle of apostasy may begin with the spiritual leaders or with the people and spread from one to the other (4:9). Apostasy is punished according to the degree of responsibility (5:1; 13:9; 14:4).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Hosea (Person); Israel, History of; Prophecy; Prophet, Prophetess.<\/p>","summary_ro":"HOSEA, Book of First of the 12 minor prophets in the traditional arrangements of the OT books. It was written in the last part of the eighth century BC. Hosea’s prophecies were proclaimed to the northern kingdom of Israel in the final years of its existence. Hosea was the only prophet to reside in the northern kingdom and also to preach there. God commissioned Hosea to reveal the widespread apostasy and corruption in the northern kingdom and to exhort his fellow countrymen to repent and retur...","summary_en":"HOSEA, Book of First of the 12 minor prophets in the traditional arrangements of the OT books. It was written in the last part of the eighth century BC. Hosea’s prophecies were proclaimed to the northern kingdom of Israel in the final years of its existence. Hosea was the only prophet to reside in the northern kingdom and also to preach there. God commissioned Hosea to reveal the widespread apostasy and corruption in the northern kingdom and to exhort his fellow countrymen to repent and retur...","source":"Articles\/H.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":23400,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Lord","title_en":"Lord","content_ro":"<h3>LORD<\/h3>\n<p>“Lord” in English is the rendering of the Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">‘adonai<\/span> or of the Greek <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">kurios<\/span><em>.<\/em> The Hebrew YHWH is usually rendered “<span>Lord<\/span>”; <em>See<\/em> Yahweh (YHWH).<\/p>\n<p>God’s rule and authority as Lord rests ultimately upon his creation and ownership of all things and people (Ps 24:1-2). God’s total supremacy over nature is emphasized by his being called the Lord over earthquakes, wind, fire (1 Kgs 19:10-14), stars (Is 40:26), beasts and sea monsters (Jb 40–41), and primeval chaos (Pss 74:12-14; 89:8-10).<\/p>\n<p>The later prophets indicated that God is Lord or King of history because he directs the affairs of humans and nations (1 Kgs 19:15-18; Is 10:5-9; Am 9:7) and he is the Lord of universal morality (Ez 25–32; Am 1:3–2:16). But he is especially the Lord of Israel; his expressed will represents their civil and religious constitution and demands absolute obedience (Ex 20:2). The divine sovereignty was, however, Israel’s comfort under oppression and hope for the future, when a triumphant Day of the Lord would right its wrongs, punish its oppressors, and restore its glory (Is 2:2-4, 11-12; 34:8; Ez 30:1-5; Jl 2:31–3:1).<\/p>\n<p>In the Septuagint, the regular expression for “Lord\/ lord\/master” is <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">kurios<\/span><em>,<\/em> which in the Greek NT also is used of masters, husbands, and rulers (Mt 25:11; Lk 14:21; Acts 25:26; 1 Pt 3:6); of God (Mt 11:25; Heb 8:2); and of pagan gods (1 Cor 8:5). It is used of Jesus as a customary title of respect (“sir,” Mt 8:2; 15:25); it also retains its Septuagint associations of faith, reverence, and worship (Mt 3:3; Lk 7:13; Acts 5:14; 9:10; 1 Cor 6:13-14; Heb 2:3; Jas 5:7); it appears in phrases like “the Lord Jesus,” “the Lord’s Day,” “the Lord’s Table,” “the Spirit of the Lord” (who is also “Lord,” 2 Cor 3:17), “in the Lord,” “from the Lord,” “light in the Lord,” “boast in the Lord.” Sometimes it is not clear whether God or Christ is intended (Acts 9:31; 2 Cor 8:21). The title is attributed to Jesus himself in John 13:13-14; in John 20:28 Jesus accepts the title “My Lord and my God!”<\/p>\n<p>In the first Christian sermon Jesus’ lordship is made central to salvation (Acts 2:21). It appears that the public confession of Jesus as Lord was the approved focus and expression of Christian faith, and the basis of membership in the apostolic church (Acts 16:31; Rom 10:9; 1 Cor 12:3; Phil 2:11). Thus, it could become more a formal statement than a sincere expression of belief—hence, the warnings in Matthew 7:21 and Luke 6:46.<\/p>\n<p>From the first, such a confession was fraught with meaning. In common usage “lord” reflected the slave system and implied the absolute power exercised by the master over the purchased slave. So Paul unhesitatingly expounds the moral implications of Christian redemption (1 Cor 6:19-20; 7:22-23; <em>see<\/em> photo). To Jewish minds, the title had messianic overtones of kingship and authority (Lk 20:41-44), offending both Jews and Romans. Politically, “Lord” was a title claimed by Caesar. Therefore, it is significant that Jesus is called “King of kings and Lord of lords” during the age of Domitian when Caesar worship was mandated (Rv 17:14; 19:16).<\/p>\n\n<p>Among Greek-speaking Jews of the dispersion, familiar with the Septuagint, as among Gentiles, for whom “Lord” was the customary title for the many gods of polytheism, the application to Jesus of the epithet belonging to godhead was blasphemous, especially when associated with “Son of God,” prayer, praise, total devotion, and hope (1 Cor 8:5-6; Phil 2:9-11; 1 Thes 4:14-17). On every level, therefore, the adoring tribute given to Jesus was loaded not only with spiritual meaning but with positive and imminent danger.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Christology; God, Being and Attributes of; God, Names of.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>LORD<\/h3>\n<p>“Lord” in English is the rendering of the Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">‘adonai<\/span> or of the Greek <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">kurios<\/span><em>.<\/em> The Hebrew YHWH is usually rendered “<span>Lord<\/span>”; <em>See<\/em> Yahweh (YHWH).<\/p>\n<p>God’s rule and authority as Lord rests ultimately upon his creation and ownership of all things and people (Ps 24:1-2). God’s total supremacy over nature is emphasized by his being called the Lord over earthquakes, wind, fire (1 Kgs 19:10-14), stars (Is 40:26), beasts and sea monsters (Jb 40–41), and primeval chaos (Pss 74:12-14; 89:8-10).<\/p>\n<p>The later prophets indicated that God is Lord or King of history because he directs the affairs of humans and nations (1 Kgs 19:15-18; Is 10:5-9; Am 9:7) and he is the Lord of universal morality (Ez 25–32; Am 1:3–2:16). But he is especially the Lord of Israel; his expressed will represents their civil and religious constitution and demands absolute obedience (Ex 20:2). The divine sovereignty was, however, Israel’s comfort under oppression and hope for the future, when a triumphant Day of the Lord would right its wrongs, punish its oppressors, and restore its glory (Is 2:2-4, 11-12; 34:8; Ez 30:1-5; Jl 2:31–3:1).<\/p>\n<p>In the Septuagint, the regular expression for “Lord\/ lord\/master” is <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">kurios<\/span><em>,<\/em> which in the Greek NT also is used of masters, husbands, and rulers (Mt 25:11; Lk 14:21; Acts 25:26; 1 Pt 3:6); of God (Mt 11:25; Heb 8:2); and of pagan gods (1 Cor 8:5). It is used of Jesus as a customary title of respect (“sir,” Mt 8:2; 15:25); it also retains its Septuagint associations of faith, reverence, and worship (Mt 3:3; Lk 7:13; Acts 5:14; 9:10; 1 Cor 6:13-14; Heb 2:3; Jas 5:7); it appears in phrases like “the Lord Jesus,” “the Lord’s Day,” “the Lord’s Table,” “the Spirit of the Lord” (who is also “Lord,” 2 Cor 3:17), “in the Lord,” “from the Lord,” “light in the Lord,” “boast in the Lord.” Sometimes it is not clear whether God or Christ is intended (Acts 9:31; 2 Cor 8:21). The title is attributed to Jesus himself in John 13:13-14; in John 20:28 Jesus accepts the title “My Lord and my God!”<\/p>\n<p>In the first Christian sermon Jesus’ lordship is made central to salvation (Acts 2:21). It appears that the public confession of Jesus as Lord was the approved focus and expression of Christian faith, and the basis of membership in the apostolic church (Acts 16:31; Rom 10:9; 1 Cor 12:3; Phil 2:11). Thus, it could become more a formal statement than a sincere expression of belief—hence, the warnings in Matthew 7:21 and Luke 6:46.<\/p>\n<p>From the first, such a confession was fraught with meaning. In common usage “lord” reflected the slave system and implied the absolute power exercised by the master over the purchased slave. So Paul unhesitatingly expounds the moral implications of Christian redemption (1 Cor 6:19-20; 7:22-23; <em>see<\/em> photo). To Jewish minds, the title had messianic overtones of kingship and authority (Lk 20:41-44), offending both Jews and Romans. Politically, “Lord” was a title claimed by Caesar. Therefore, it is significant that Jesus is called “King of kings and Lord of lords” during the age of Domitian when Caesar worship was mandated (Rv 17:14; 19:16).<\/p>\n\n<p>Among Greek-speaking Jews of the dispersion, familiar with the Septuagint, as among Gentiles, for whom “Lord” was the customary title for the many gods of polytheism, the application to Jesus of the epithet belonging to godhead was blasphemous, especially when associated with “Son of God,” prayer, praise, total devotion, and hope (1 Cor 8:5-6; Phil 2:9-11; 1 Thes 4:14-17). On every level, therefore, the adoring tribute given to Jesus was loaded not only with spiritual meaning but with positive and imminent danger.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Christology; God, Being and Attributes of; God, Names of.<\/p>","summary_ro":"LORD “Lord” in English is the rendering of the Hebrew ‘adonai or of the Greek kurios. The Hebrew YHWH is usually rendered “Lord”; See Yahweh (YHWH). God’s rule and authority as Lord rests ultimately upon his creation and ownership of all things and people (Ps 24:1-2). God’s total supremacy over nature is emphasized by his being called the Lord over earthquakes, wind, fire (1 Kgs 19:10-14), stars (Is 40:26), beasts and sea monsters (Jb 40–41), and primeval chaos (Pss 74:12-14; 89:8-10). The la...","summary_en":"LORD “Lord” in English is the rendering of the Hebrew ‘adonai or of the Greek kurios. The Hebrew YHWH is usually rendered “Lord”; See Yahweh (YHWH). God’s rule and authority as Lord rests ultimately upon his creation and ownership of all things and people (Ps 24:1-2). God’s total supremacy over nature is emphasized by his being called the Lord over earthquakes, wind, fire (1 Kgs 19:10-14), stars (Is 40:26), beasts and sea monsters (Jb 40–41), and primeval chaos (Pss 74:12-14; 89:8-10). The la...","source":"Articles\/L.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":51174,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 10:5","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 10:5","content_ro":"<p><strong>10:5–11:16<\/strong> The primacy of the Lord’s moral law was established in 9:8–10:4; this passage works out the implications of the law: (1) Assyria was only a tool in God’s hands and was therefore as liable to judgment by God as any other nation (10:5-19, 28-34); (2) those among God’s people who trusted in him and obeyed his covenant would be rescued (10:20-27); and (3) God would establish his kingdom on earth (ch 11).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>10:5–11:16<\/strong> The primacy of the Lord’s moral law was established in 9:8–10:4; this passage works out the implications of the law: (1) Assyria was only a tool in God’s hands and was therefore as liable to judgment by God as any other nation (10:5-19, 28-34); (2) those among God’s people who trusted in him and obeyed his covenant would be rescued (10:20-27); and (3) God would establish his kingdom on earth (ch 11).<\/p>","summary_ro":"10:5–11:16 The primacy of the Lord’s moral law was established in 9:8–10:4; this passage works out the implications of the law: (1) Assyria was only a tool in God’s hands and was therefore as liable to judgment by God as any other nation (10:5-19, 28-34); (2) those among God’s people who trusted in him and obeyed his covenant would be rescued (10:20-27); and (3) God would establish his kingdom on earth (ch 11).","summary_en":"10:5–11:16 The primacy of the Lord’s moral law was established in 9:8–10:4; this passage works out the implications of the law: (1) Assyria was only a tool in God’s hands and was therefore as liable to judgment by God as any other nation (10:5-19, 28-34); (2) those among God’s people who trusted in him and obeyed his covenant would be rescued (10:20-27); and (3) God would establish his kingdom on earth (ch 11).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":51175,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 10:5","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 10:5","content_ro":"<p><strong>10:5-19<\/strong> This judgment was pronounced on Assyria because of their ruthless destruction of nations (10:7), blasphemous boasting (10:12), oppression (10:13-14), and self-perceived autonomy (10:15).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>10:5-19<\/strong> This judgment was pronounced on Assyria because of their ruthless destruction of nations (10:7), blasphemous boasting (10:12), oppression (10:13-14), and self-perceived autonomy (10:15).<\/p>","summary_ro":"10:5-19 This judgment was pronounced on Assyria because of their ruthless destruction of nations (10:7), blasphemous boasting (10:12), oppression (10:13-14), and self-perceived autonomy (10:15).","summary_en":"10:5-19 This judgment was pronounced on Assyria because of their ruthless destruction of nations (10:7), blasphemous boasting (10:12), oppression (10:13-14), and self-perceived autonomy (10:15).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":51176,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 10:5","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 10:5","content_ro":"<p><strong>10:5<\/strong> The Assyrians were God’s instrument (<em>rod . . . club<\/em>) in judging Syria, Israel, and Judah, but they would not go unpunished for their own wickedness.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>10:5<\/strong> The Assyrians were God’s instrument (<em>rod . . . club<\/em>) in judging Syria, Israel, and Judah, but they would not go unpunished for their own wickedness.<\/p>","summary_ro":"10:5 The Assyrians were God’s instrument (rod . . . club) in judging Syria, Israel, and Judah, but they would not go unpunished for their own wickedness.","summary_en":"10:5 The Assyrians were God’s instrument (rod . . . club) in judging Syria, Israel, and Judah, but they would not go unpunished for their own wickedness.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":78800,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 10:5","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 10:5","content_ro":"<p><strong>10:5–11:16<\/strong> The primacy of the Lord’s moral law was established in 9:8–10:4; this passage works out the implications of the law: (1) Assyria was only a tool in God’s hands and was therefore as liable to judgment by God as any other nation (10:5-19, 28-34); (2) those among God’s people who trusted in him and obeyed his covenant would be rescued (10:20-27); and (3) God would establish his kingdom on earth (ch 11).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>10:5–11:16<\/strong> The primacy of the Lord’s moral law was established in 9:8–10:4; this passage works out the implications of the law: (1) Assyria was only a tool in God’s hands and was therefore as liable to judgment by God as any other nation (10:5-19, 28-34); (2) those among God’s people who trusted in him and obeyed his covenant would be rescued (10:20-27); and (3) God would establish his kingdom on earth (ch 11).<\/p>","summary_ro":"10:5–11:16 The primacy of the Lord’s moral law was established in 9:8–10:4; this passage works out the implications of the law: (1) Assyria was only a tool in God’s hands and was therefore as liable to judgment by God as any other nation (10:5-19, 28-34); (2) those among God’s people who trusted in him and obeyed his covenant would be rescued (10:20-27); and (3) God would establish his kingdom on earth (ch 11).","summary_en":"10:5–11:16 The primacy of the Lord’s moral law was established in 9:8–10:4; this passage works out the implications of the law: (1) Assyria was only a tool in God’s hands and was therefore as liable to judgment by God as any other nation (10:5-19, 28-34); (2) those among God’s people who trusted in him and obeyed his covenant would be rescued (10:20-27); and (3) God would establish his kingdom on earth (ch 11).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":78801,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 10:5","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 10:5","content_ro":"<p><strong>10:5-19<\/strong> This judgment was pronounced on Assyria because of their ruthless destruction of nations (10:7), blasphemous boasting (10:12), oppression (10:13-14), and self-perceived autonomy (10:15).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>10:5-19<\/strong> This judgment was pronounced on Assyria because of their ruthless destruction of nations (10:7), blasphemous boasting (10:12), oppression (10:13-14), and self-perceived autonomy (10:15).<\/p>","summary_ro":"10:5-19 This judgment was pronounced on Assyria because of their ruthless destruction of nations (10:7), blasphemous boasting (10:12), oppression (10:13-14), and self-perceived autonomy (10:15).","summary_en":"10:5-19 This judgment was pronounced on Assyria because of their ruthless destruction of nations (10:7), blasphemous boasting (10:12), oppression (10:13-14), and self-perceived autonomy (10:15).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":78802,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 10:5","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 10:5","content_ro":"<p><strong>10:5<\/strong> The Assyrians were God’s instrument (<em>rod . . . club<\/em>) in judging Syria, Israel, and Judah, but they would not go unpunished for their own wickedness.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>10:5<\/strong> The Assyrians were God’s instrument (<em>rod . . . club<\/em>) in judging Syria, Israel, and Judah, but they would not go unpunished for their own wickedness.<\/p>","summary_ro":"10:5 The Assyrians were God’s instrument (rod . . . club) in judging Syria, Israel, and Judah, but they would not go unpunished for their own wickedness.","summary_en":"10:5 The Assyrians were God’s instrument (rod . . . club) in judging Syria, Israel, and Judah, but they would not go unpunished for their own wickedness.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":106426,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 10:5","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 10:5","content_ro":"<p><strong>10:5–11:16<\/strong> The primacy of the Lord’s moral law was established in 9:8–10:4; this passage works out the implications of the law: (1) Assyria was only a tool in God’s hands and was therefore as liable to judgment by God as any other nation (10:5-19, 28-34); (2) those among God’s people who trusted in him and obeyed his covenant would be rescued (10:20-27); and (3) God would establish his kingdom on earth (ch 11).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>10:5–11:16<\/strong> The primacy of the Lord’s moral law was established in 9:8–10:4; this passage works out the implications of the law: (1) Assyria was only a tool in God’s hands and was therefore as liable to judgment by God as any other nation (10:5-19, 28-34); (2) those among God’s people who trusted in him and obeyed his covenant would be rescued (10:20-27); and (3) God would establish his kingdom on earth (ch 11).<\/p>","summary_ro":"10:5–11:16 The primacy of the Lord’s moral law was established in 9:8–10:4; this passage works out the implications of the law: (1) Assyria was only a tool in God’s hands and was therefore as liable to judgment by God as any other nation (10:5-19, 28-34); (2) those among God’s people who trusted in him and obeyed his covenant would be rescued (10:20-27); and (3) God would establish his kingdom on earth (ch 11).","summary_en":"10:5–11:16 The primacy of the Lord’s moral law was established in 9:8–10:4; this passage works out the implications of the law: (1) Assyria was only a tool in God’s hands and was therefore as liable to judgment by God as any other nation (10:5-19, 28-34); (2) those among God’s people who trusted in him and obeyed his covenant would be rescued (10:20-27); and (3) God would establish his kingdom on earth (ch 11).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":106427,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 10:5","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 10:5","content_ro":"<p><strong>10:5-19<\/strong> This judgment was pronounced on Assyria because of their ruthless destruction of nations (10:7), blasphemous boasting (10:12), oppression (10:13-14), and self-perceived autonomy (10:15).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>10:5-19<\/strong> This judgment was pronounced on Assyria because of their ruthless destruction of nations (10:7), blasphemous boasting (10:12), oppression (10:13-14), and self-perceived autonomy (10:15).<\/p>","summary_ro":"10:5-19 This judgment was pronounced on Assyria because of their ruthless destruction of nations (10:7), blasphemous boasting (10:12), oppression (10:13-14), and self-perceived autonomy (10:15).","summary_en":"10:5-19 This judgment was pronounced on Assyria because of their ruthless destruction of nations (10:7), blasphemous boasting (10:12), oppression (10:13-14), and self-perceived autonomy (10:15).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":106428,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 10:5","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 10:5","content_ro":"<p><strong>10:5<\/strong> The Assyrians were God’s instrument (<em>rod . . . club<\/em>) in judging Syria, Israel, and Judah, but they would not go unpunished for their own wickedness.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>10:5<\/strong> The Assyrians were God’s instrument (<em>rod . . . club<\/em>) in judging Syria, Israel, and Judah, but they would not go unpunished for their own wickedness.<\/p>","summary_ro":"10:5 The Assyrians were God’s instrument (rod . . . club) in judging Syria, Israel, and Judah, but they would not go unpunished for their own wickedness.","summary_en":"10:5 The Assyrians were God’s instrument (rod . . . club) in judging Syria, Israel, and Judah, but they would not go unpunished for their own wickedness.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":134052,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 10:5","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 10:5","content_ro":"<p><strong>10:5–11:16<\/strong> The primacy of the Lord’s moral law was established in 9:8–10:4; this passage works out the implications of the law: (1) Assyria was only a tool in God’s hands and was therefore as liable to judgment by God as any other nation (10:5-19, 28-34); (2) those among God’s people who trusted in him and obeyed his covenant would be rescued (10:20-27); and (3) God would establish his kingdom on earth (ch 11).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>10:5–11:16<\/strong> The primacy of the Lord’s moral law was established in 9:8–10:4; this passage works out the implications of the law: (1) Assyria was only a tool in God’s hands and was therefore as liable to judgment by God as any other nation (10:5-19, 28-34); (2) those among God’s people who trusted in him and obeyed his covenant would be rescued (10:20-27); and (3) God would establish his kingdom on earth (ch 11).<\/p>","summary_ro":"10:5–11:16 The primacy of the Lord’s moral law was established in 9:8–10:4; this passage works out the implications of the law: (1) Assyria was only a tool in God’s hands and was therefore as liable to judgment by God as any other nation (10:5-19, 28-34); (2) those among God’s people who trusted in him and obeyed his covenant would be rescued (10:20-27); and (3) God would establish his kingdom on earth (ch 11).","summary_en":"10:5–11:16 The primacy of the Lord’s moral law was established in 9:8–10:4; this passage works out the implications of the law: (1) Assyria was only a tool in God’s hands and was therefore as liable to judgment by God as any other nation (10:5-19, 28-34); (2) those among God’s people who trusted in him and obeyed his covenant would be rescued (10:20-27); and (3) God would establish his kingdom on earth (ch 11).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":134053,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 10:5","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 10:5","content_ro":"<p><strong>10:5-19<\/strong> This judgment was pronounced on Assyria because of their ruthless destruction of nations (10:7), blasphemous boasting (10:12), oppression (10:13-14), and self-perceived autonomy (10:15).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>10:5-19<\/strong> This judgment was pronounced on Assyria because of their ruthless destruction of nations (10:7), blasphemous boasting (10:12), oppression (10:13-14), and self-perceived autonomy (10:15).<\/p>","summary_ro":"10:5-19 This judgment was pronounced on Assyria because of their ruthless destruction of nations (10:7), blasphemous boasting (10:12), oppression (10:13-14), and self-perceived autonomy (10:15).","summary_en":"10:5-19 This judgment was pronounced on Assyria because of their ruthless destruction of nations (10:7), blasphemous boasting (10:12), oppression (10:13-14), and self-perceived autonomy (10:15).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":134054,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 10:5","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 10:5","content_ro":"<p><strong>10:5<\/strong> The Assyrians were God’s instrument (<em>rod . . . club<\/em>) in judging Syria, Israel, and Judah, but they would not go unpunished for their own wickedness.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>10:5<\/strong> The Assyrians were God’s instrument (<em>rod . . . club<\/em>) in judging Syria, Israel, and Judah, but they would not go unpunished for their own wickedness.<\/p>","summary_ro":"10:5 The Assyrians were God’s instrument (rod . . . club) in judging Syria, Israel, and Judah, but they would not go unpunished for their own wickedness.","summary_en":"10:5 The Assyrians were God’s instrument (rod . . . club) in judging Syria, Israel, and Judah, but they would not go unpunished for their own wickedness.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"6":[{"id":51177,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 10:6","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 10:6","content_ro":"<p><strong>10:6<\/strong> Despite their privileged calling as God’s covenant people, Judah had become a <em>godless nation,<\/em> making them the object of God’s anger (10:4). • The word <em>plunder<\/em> translates both the Hebrew words <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shalal<\/span> and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">baz,<\/span> recalling the name <em>Maher-shalal-hash-baz<\/em> (see 5:19; 8:1, 3, 5-10).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>10:6<\/strong> Despite their privileged calling as God’s covenant people, Judah had become a <em>godless nation,<\/em> making them the object of God’s anger (10:4). • The word <em>plunder<\/em> translates both the Hebrew words <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shalal<\/span> and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">baz,<\/span> recalling the name <em>Maher-shalal-hash-baz<\/em> (see 5:19; 8:1, 3, 5-10).<\/p>","summary_ro":"10:6 Despite their privileged calling as God’s covenant people, Judah had become a godless nation, making them the object of God’s anger (10:4). • The word plunder translates both the Hebrew words shalal and baz, recalling the name Maher-shalal-hash-baz (see 5:19; 8:1, 3, 5-10).","summary_en":"10:6 Despite their privileged calling as God’s covenant people, Judah had become a godless nation, making them the object of God’s anger (10:4). • The word plunder translates both the Hebrew words shalal and baz, recalling the name Maher-shalal-hash-baz (see 5:19; 8:1, 3, 5-10).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":78803,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 10:6","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 10:6","content_ro":"<p><strong>10:6<\/strong> Despite their privileged calling as God’s covenant people, Judah had become a <em>godless nation,<\/em> making them the object of God’s anger (10:4). • The word <em>plunder<\/em> translates both the Hebrew words <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shalal<\/span> and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">baz,<\/span> recalling the name <em>Maher-shalal-hash-baz<\/em> (see 5:19; 8:1, 3, 5-10).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>10:6<\/strong> Despite their privileged calling as God’s covenant people, Judah had become a <em>godless nation,<\/em> making them the object of God’s anger (10:4). • The word <em>plunder<\/em> translates both the Hebrew words <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shalal<\/span> and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">baz,<\/span> recalling the name <em>Maher-shalal-hash-baz<\/em> (see 5:19; 8:1, 3, 5-10).<\/p>","summary_ro":"10:6 Despite their privileged calling as God’s covenant people, Judah had become a godless nation, making them the object of God’s anger (10:4). • The word plunder translates both the Hebrew words shalal and baz, recalling the name Maher-shalal-hash-baz (see 5:19; 8:1, 3, 5-10).","summary_en":"10:6 Despite their privileged calling as God’s covenant people, Judah had become a godless nation, making them the object of God’s anger (10:4). • The word plunder translates both the Hebrew words shalal and baz, recalling the name Maher-shalal-hash-baz (see 5:19; 8:1, 3, 5-10).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":106429,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 10:6","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 10:6","content_ro":"<p><strong>10:6<\/strong> Despite their privileged calling as God’s covenant people, Judah had become a <em>godless nation,<\/em> making them the object of God’s anger (10:4). • The word <em>plunder<\/em> translates both the Hebrew words <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shalal<\/span> and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">baz,<\/span> recalling the name <em>Maher-shalal-hash-baz<\/em> (see 5:19; 8:1, 3, 5-10).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>10:6<\/strong> Despite their privileged calling as God’s covenant people, Judah had become a <em>godless nation,<\/em> making them the object of God’s anger (10:4). • The word <em>plunder<\/em> translates both the Hebrew words <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shalal<\/span> and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">baz,<\/span> recalling the name <em>Maher-shalal-hash-baz<\/em> (see 5:19; 8:1, 3, 5-10).<\/p>","summary_ro":"10:6 Despite their privileged calling as God’s covenant people, Judah had become a godless nation, making them the object of God’s anger (10:4). • The word plunder translates both the Hebrew words shalal and baz, recalling the name Maher-shalal-hash-baz (see 5:19; 8:1, 3, 5-10).","summary_en":"10:6 Despite their privileged calling as God’s covenant people, Judah had become a godless nation, making them the object of God’s anger (10:4). • The word plunder translates both the Hebrew words shalal and baz, recalling the name Maher-shalal-hash-baz (see 5:19; 8:1, 3, 5-10).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":134055,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 10:6","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 10:6","content_ro":"<p><strong>10:6<\/strong> Despite their privileged calling as God’s covenant people, Judah had become a <em>godless nation,<\/em> making them the object of God’s anger (10:4). • The word <em>plunder<\/em> translates both the Hebrew words <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shalal<\/span> and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">baz,<\/span> recalling the name <em>Maher-shalal-hash-baz<\/em> (see 5:19; 8:1, 3, 5-10).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>10:6<\/strong> Despite their privileged calling as God’s covenant people, Judah had become a <em>godless nation,<\/em> making them the object of God’s anger (10:4). • The word <em>plunder<\/em> translates both the Hebrew words <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shalal<\/span> and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">baz,<\/span> recalling the name <em>Maher-shalal-hash-baz<\/em> (see 5:19; 8:1, 3, 5-10).<\/p>","summary_ro":"10:6 Despite their privileged calling as God’s covenant people, Judah had become a godless nation, making them the object of God’s anger (10:4). • The word plunder translates both the Hebrew words shalal and baz, recalling the name Maher-shalal-hash-baz (see 5:19; 8:1, 3, 5-10).","summary_en":"10:6 Despite their privileged calling as God’s covenant people, Judah had become a godless nation, making them the object of God’s anger (10:4). • The word plunder translates both the Hebrew words shalal and baz, recalling the name Maher-shalal-hash-baz (see 5:19; 8:1, 3, 5-10).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"7":[{"id":51178,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 10:7","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 10:7","content_ro":"<p><strong>10:7<\/strong> <em>will not understand:<\/em> The Assyrians did not realize they were following God’s intended purpose to punish Israel and Judah. Because they went about savagely killing and looting other nations of their own accord, God would also hold them guilty.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>10:7<\/strong> <em>will not understand:<\/em> The Assyrians did not realize they were following God’s intended purpose to punish Israel and Judah. Because they went about savagely killing and looting other nations of their own accord, God would also hold them guilty.<\/p>","summary_ro":"10:7 will not understand: The Assyrians did not realize they were following God’s intended purpose to punish Israel and Judah. Because they went about savagely killing and looting other nations of their own accord, God would also hold them guilty.","summary_en":"10:7 will not understand: The Assyrians did not realize they were following God’s intended purpose to punish Israel and Judah. Because they went about savagely killing and looting other nations of their own accord, God would also hold them guilty.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":78804,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 10:7","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 10:7","content_ro":"<p><strong>10:7<\/strong> <em>will not understand:<\/em> The Assyrians did not realize they were following God’s intended purpose to punish Israel and Judah. Because they went about savagely killing and looting other nations of their own accord, God would also hold them guilty.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>10:7<\/strong> <em>will not understand:<\/em> The Assyrians did not realize they were following God’s intended purpose to punish Israel and Judah. Because they went about savagely killing and looting other nations of their own accord, God would also hold them guilty.<\/p>","summary_ro":"10:7 will not understand: The Assyrians did not realize they were following God’s intended purpose to punish Israel and Judah. Because they went about savagely killing and looting other nations of their own accord, God would also hold them guilty.","summary_en":"10:7 will not understand: The Assyrians did not realize they were following God’s intended purpose to punish Israel and Judah. Because they went about savagely killing and looting other nations of their own accord, God would also hold them guilty.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":106430,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 10:7","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 10:7","content_ro":"<p><strong>10:7<\/strong> <em>will not understand:<\/em> The Assyrians did not realize they were following God’s intended purpose to punish Israel and Judah. Because they went about savagely killing and looting other nations of their own accord, God would also hold them guilty.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>10:7<\/strong> <em>will not understand:<\/em> The Assyrians did not realize they were following God’s intended purpose to punish Israel and Judah. Because they went about savagely killing and looting other nations of their own accord, God would also hold them guilty.<\/p>","summary_ro":"10:7 will not understand: The Assyrians did not realize they were following God’s intended purpose to punish Israel and Judah. Because they went about savagely killing and looting other nations of their own accord, God would also hold them guilty.","summary_en":"10:7 will not understand: The Assyrians did not realize they were following God’s intended purpose to punish Israel and Judah. Because they went about savagely killing and looting other nations of their own accord, God would also hold them guilty.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":134056,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 10:7","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 10:7","content_ro":"<p><strong>10:7<\/strong> <em>will not understand:<\/em> The Assyrians did not realize they were following God’s intended purpose to punish Israel and Judah. Because they went about savagely killing and looting other nations of their own accord, God would also hold them guilty.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>10:7<\/strong> <em>will not understand:<\/em> The Assyrians did not realize they were following God’s intended purpose to punish Israel and Judah. Because they went about savagely killing and looting other nations of their own accord, God would also hold them guilty.<\/p>","summary_ro":"10:7 will not understand: The Assyrians did not realize they were following God’s intended purpose to punish Israel and Judah. Because they went about savagely killing and looting other nations of their own accord, God would also hold them guilty.","summary_en":"10:7 will not understand: The Assyrians did not realize they were following God’s intended purpose to punish Israel and Judah. Because they went about savagely killing and looting other nations of their own accord, God would also hold them guilty.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"9":[{"id":2780,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Arpad","title_en":"Arpad","content_ro":"<h3>ARPAD<\/h3>\n<p>City in northern Syria. Arpad was overrun twice by the Assyrians: in 740 <span>BC<\/span> by Tiglath-pileser III and in 720 <span>BC<\/span> by Sargon II. The Assyrians used Arpad and Hamath as examples of the inability of any gods, including Israel’s, to protect cities against Assyria’s attacks (2 Kgs 18:34; 19:13; Is 10:9; 36:19; 37:13). Arpad and Hamath are also mentioned in a later prophecy against the Syrian city of Damascus (Jer 49:23). Arpad has been identified as modern Tell Erfad, north of Aleppo.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ARPAD<\/h3>\n<p>City in northern Syria. Arpad was overrun twice by the Assyrians: in 740 <span>BC<\/span> by Tiglath-pileser III and in 720 <span>BC<\/span> by Sargon II. The Assyrians used Arpad and Hamath as examples of the inability of any gods, including Israel’s, to protect cities against Assyria’s attacks (2 Kgs 18:34; 19:13; Is 10:9; 36:19; 37:13). Arpad and Hamath are also mentioned in a later prophecy against the Syrian city of Damascus (Jer 49:23). Arpad has been identified as modern Tell Erfad, north of Aleppo.<\/p>","summary_ro":"ARPAD City in northern Syria. Arpad was overrun twice by the Assyrians: in 740 BC by Tiglath-pileser III and in 720 BC by Sargon II. The Assyrians used Arpad and Hamath as examples of the inability of any gods, including Israel’s, to protect cities against Assyria’s attacks (2 Kgs 18:34; 19:13; Is 10:9; 36:19; 37:13). Arpad and Hamath are also mentioned in a later prophecy against the Syrian city of Damascus (Jer 49:23). Arpad has been identified as modern Tell Erfad, north of Aleppo.","summary_en":"ARPAD City in northern Syria. Arpad was overrun twice by the Assyrians: in 740 BC by Tiglath-pileser III and in 720 BC by Sargon II. The Assyrians used Arpad and Hamath as examples of the inability of any gods, including Israel’s, to protect cities against Assyria’s attacks (2 Kgs 18:34; 19:13; Is 10:9; 36:19; 37:13). Arpad and Hamath are also mentioned in a later prophecy against the Syrian city of Damascus (Jer 49:23). Arpad has been identified as modern Tell Erfad, north of Aleppo.","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":6013,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Calneh","title_en":"Calneh","content_ro":"<h3>CALNEH<\/h3>\n<li>1. City in Babylon (Gn 10:10).<\/li>\n<li>2. City identified as Kullani (Kullan Koy), about 20 miles (32.2 kilometers) north of Aleppo in northern Syria. This northern identification is hinted at in Isaiah 10:9, where Calno is associated with Carchemish, some 50 miles (80.5 kilometers) to the northeast, as well as in the context of Amos 6:2 (note the north-to-south progression—Calneh, Hamath, Gath). Canneh in Ezekiel 27:23 seems to refer to the same general location and is perhaps to be linked with Calneh. Kullani was captured by Tiglath-pileser II, king of Assyria, about 741 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>CALNEH<\/h3>\n<li>1. City in Babylon (Gn 10:10).<\/li>\n<li>2. City identified as Kullani (Kullan Koy), about 20 miles (32.2 kilometers) north of Aleppo in northern Syria. This northern identification is hinted at in Isaiah 10:9, where Calno is associated with Carchemish, some 50 miles (80.5 kilometers) to the northeast, as well as in the context of Amos 6:2 (note the north-to-south progression—Calneh, Hamath, Gath). Canneh in Ezekiel 27:23 seems to refer to the same general location and is perhaps to be linked with Calneh. Kullani was captured by Tiglath-pileser II, king of Assyria, about 741 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/li>","summary_ro":"CALNEH 1. City in Babylon (Gn 10:10). 2. City identified as Kullani (Kullan Koy), about 20 miles (32.2 kilometers) north of Aleppo in northern Syria. This northern identification is hinted at in Isaiah 10:9, where Calno is associated with Carchemish, some 50 miles (80.5 kilometers) to the northeast, as well as in the context of Amos 6:2 (note the north-to-south progression—Calneh, Hamath, Gath). Canneh in Ezekiel 27:23 seems to refer to the same general location and is perhaps to be linked wi...","summary_en":"CALNEH 1. City in Babylon (Gn 10:10). 2. City identified as Kullani (Kullan Koy), about 20 miles (32.2 kilometers) north of Aleppo in northern Syria. This northern identification is hinted at in Isaiah 10:9, where Calno is associated with Carchemish, some 50 miles (80.5 kilometers) to the northeast, as well as in the context of Amos 6:2 (note the north-to-south progression—Calneh, Hamath, Gath). Canneh in Ezekiel 27:23 seems to refer to the same general location and is perhaps to be linked wi...","source":"Articles\/C.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":6016,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Calno","title_en":"Calno","content_ro":"<h3>CALNO<\/h3>\n<p>Alternate name for Calneh, a city in northern Syria, in Isaiah 10:9. <em>See<\/em> Calneh #2.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>CALNO<\/h3>\n<p>Alternate name for Calneh, a city in northern Syria, in Isaiah 10:9. <em>See<\/em> Calneh #2.<\/p>","summary_ro":"CALNO Alternate name for Calneh, a city in northern Syria, in Isaiah 10:9. See Calneh #2.","summary_en":"CALNO Alternate name for Calneh, a city in northern Syria, in Isaiah 10:9. See Calneh #2.","source":"Articles\/C.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":6081,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Carchemish","title_en":"Carchemish","content_ro":"<h3>CARCHEMISH<\/h3>\n<p>Ancient city commanding an important ford on the west bank of the upper Euphrates River, about 65 miles (104.6 kilometers) northeast of Aleppo. Today part of the ruin is located in Turkey and part in Syria. The word is also written “Charchemish” (2 Chr 35:20, <span>kjv<\/span>). The meaning of the name is uncertain, although recent discoveries at Ebla suggest “city of Chemosh” (Moabite god).<\/p>\n<p>A north-south trade route (roughly following the river) and an east-west route (connecting Nineveh with the Mediterranean Sea) both passed through Carchemish. Pottery finds indicate that the site was occupied in prehistoric times. The earliest reference to it is in the Ebla tablets (c. 2400 <span>BC<\/span>). Since Carchemish is about 75 miles (120.7 kilometers) west of Haran, Abraham probably passed through Carchemish on his way to Canaan.<\/p>\n<p>Early in its history Carchemish was allied first to Mari and then to Aleppo. In 1355 <span>BC<\/span> it fell to the Hittites, became a regional capital of eastern Hatti, and adopted Hittite culture and language. After several centuries of unsuccessful attempts to incorporate Carchemish into their empire, the Assyrians under Sargon II finally conquered the city in 717 <span>BC<\/span> (Is 10:9) and made it their northwestern stronghold. When Nebuchadnezzar’s Neo-Babylonian kingdom succeeded the Assyrian Empire, Carchemish was the last city to fall (605 <span>BC<\/span>). The Assyrians were aided in their defense by Pharaoh Neco II of Egypt (2 Chr 35:20; Jer 46:2). Thereafter, the city decreased in importance.<\/p>\n<p>Archaeological excavations show that the city had features of both Hittite and Assyrian architecture. It had a casemate wall atop sloping embankments to hinder attackers. Within the city on the highest point stood a citadel surrounded by its own wall, as well as a palace with its own temple and monumental staircase.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>CARCHEMISH<\/h3>\n<p>Ancient city commanding an important ford on the west bank of the upper Euphrates River, about 65 miles (104.6 kilometers) northeast of Aleppo. Today part of the ruin is located in Turkey and part in Syria. The word is also written “Charchemish” (2 Chr 35:20, <span>kjv<\/span>). The meaning of the name is uncertain, although recent discoveries at Ebla suggest “city of Chemosh” (Moabite god).<\/p>\n<p>A north-south trade route (roughly following the river) and an east-west route (connecting Nineveh with the Mediterranean Sea) both passed through Carchemish. Pottery finds indicate that the site was occupied in prehistoric times. The earliest reference to it is in the Ebla tablets (c. 2400 <span>BC<\/span>). Since Carchemish is about 75 miles (120.7 kilometers) west of Haran, Abraham probably passed through Carchemish on his way to Canaan.<\/p>\n<p>Early in its history Carchemish was allied first to Mari and then to Aleppo. In 1355 <span>BC<\/span> it fell to the Hittites, became a regional capital of eastern Hatti, and adopted Hittite culture and language. After several centuries of unsuccessful attempts to incorporate Carchemish into their empire, the Assyrians under Sargon II finally conquered the city in 717 <span>BC<\/span> (Is 10:9) and made it their northwestern stronghold. When Nebuchadnezzar’s Neo-Babylonian kingdom succeeded the Assyrian Empire, Carchemish was the last city to fall (605 <span>BC<\/span>). The Assyrians were aided in their defense by Pharaoh Neco II of Egypt (2 Chr 35:20; Jer 46:2). Thereafter, the city decreased in importance.<\/p>\n<p>Archaeological excavations show that the city had features of both Hittite and Assyrian architecture. It had a casemate wall atop sloping embankments to hinder attackers. Within the city on the highest point stood a citadel surrounded by its own wall, as well as a palace with its own temple and monumental staircase.<\/p>","summary_ro":"CARCHEMISH Ancient city commanding an important ford on the west bank of the upper Euphrates River, about 65 miles (104.6 kilometers) northeast of Aleppo. Today part of the ruin is located in Turkey and part in Syria. The word is also written “Charchemish” (2 Chr 35:20, kjv). The meaning of the name is uncertain, although recent discoveries at Ebla suggest “city of Chemosh” (Moabite god). A north-south trade route (roughly following the river) and an east-west route (connecting Nineveh with t...","summary_en":"CARCHEMISH Ancient city commanding an important ford on the west bank of the upper Euphrates River, about 65 miles (104.6 kilometers) northeast of Aleppo. Today part of the ruin is located in Turkey and part in Syria. The word is also written “Charchemish” (2 Chr 35:20, kjv). The meaning of the name is uncertain, although recent discoveries at Ebla suggest “city of Chemosh” (Moabite god). A north-south trade route (roughly following the river) and an east-west route (connecting Nineveh with t...","source":"Articles\/C.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":15131,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Hamath","title_en":"Hamath","content_ro":"<h3>HAMATH<\/h3>\n<li>1. City and district located about 125 miles (201 kilometers) north of Damascus (Syria), on the Orontes River. The early residents apparently were of the Hamitic race from the descendants of Canaan (Gn 10:18), but later inhabitants were Semitic. It was to be the northern boundary of the nation of Israel, described as the “entrance of Hamath” (Nm 34:7-8; Jos 13:5; Hebrew, <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Lebo Hamath<\/span>), but actually it was such only in the early monarchy and under Jeroboam II (793–753 <span>BC<\/span>). The location is uncertain but was between the Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon Mountains. Some scholars have thought of it as an actual place-name, Lebo-hamath, and have identified it with modern Lebweh on the Orontes. Others have located it elsewhere in Syria.<\/li>\n<p>Hamath was established during the Neolithic period and destroyed about 1750 <span>BC<\/span>, perhaps by the Hyksos. It was later rebuilt and conquered by Thutmose III (1502–1448 <span>BC<\/span>), and while Egypt controlled Syria, Hamath prospered. Several Hittite inscriptions have been discovered that disclose that Hamath had become the capital of a small Hittite kingdom prior to 900 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>When David fought Hadadezer, king of Zobah, and defeated him, then Toi, king of Hamath, sent his son to congratulate David (2 Sm 8:9-10). Since Solomon built store-cities in the region of Hamath (2 Chr 8:4), it has been suggested that Hamath had become a tributary kingdom to Israel. During the reign of Ahab of Israel, the Assyrian royal inscriptions state that Irhulini, king of Hamath, allied with Damascus, Israel, and the 12 kings of the coast to resist the advances of Shalmaneser III (860–825 <span>BC<\/span>). The league halted Shalmaneser, although he continued to harass Syria, and about 846 <span>BC<\/span> he conquered the Syrian league, when Hamath became subject to Assyria. In 730 <span>BC<\/span> Eni-Ilus, then king of Hamath, paid tribute to Tiglath-pileser III. About 720 <span>BC<\/span> Sargon II colonized Hamath with 4,300 Assyrians and moved many people from different areas of his kingdom, including Hamath, to Samaria (2 Kgs 17:24). Israelites also were apparently colonized in Hamath (Is 11:11). Other OT references to the Assyrian conquest of Hamath include 2 Kings 18:34, 19:13, Isaiah 10:9, 36:19, 37:13, and Amos 6:2. Later the city seems to have been subject to Damascus (Jer 49:23). Some of the prophets predicted that Israel would eventually extend its boundaries once again to Hamath (Ez 47:16-17; 48:1; Zec 9:2).<\/p>\n<p>During the Maccabean period, Jonathan Maccabeus and his army met the army of Demetrius at Hamath (1 Macc 12:25). According to Josephus, Antiochus Epiphanes changed its name to Epiphania (<em>Antiquities<\/em> 1.4.2), the name by which it was known to the Greeks and Romans.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Hamath, Entrance of.<\/p>\n<li>2. Hamath-zobah is mentioned in 2 Chronicles 8:3 as a town conquered by Solomon. Some have suggested that it was the same city as the Hamath above, while others suggest that it was a different town in the district of Zobah.<\/li>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Hamath-zobah.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>HAMATH<\/h3>\n<li>1. City and district located about 125 miles (201 kilometers) north of Damascus (Syria), on the Orontes River. The early residents apparently were of the Hamitic race from the descendants of Canaan (Gn 10:18), but later inhabitants were Semitic. It was to be the northern boundary of the nation of Israel, described as the “entrance of Hamath” (Nm 34:7-8; Jos 13:5; Hebrew, <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Lebo Hamath<\/span>), but actually it was such only in the early monarchy and under Jeroboam II (793–753 <span>BC<\/span>). The location is uncertain but was between the Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon Mountains. Some scholars have thought of it as an actual place-name, Lebo-hamath, and have identified it with modern Lebweh on the Orontes. Others have located it elsewhere in Syria.<\/li>\n<p>Hamath was established during the Neolithic period and destroyed about 1750 <span>BC<\/span>, perhaps by the Hyksos. It was later rebuilt and conquered by Thutmose III (1502–1448 <span>BC<\/span>), and while Egypt controlled Syria, Hamath prospered. Several Hittite inscriptions have been discovered that disclose that Hamath had become the capital of a small Hittite kingdom prior to 900 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>When David fought Hadadezer, king of Zobah, and defeated him, then Toi, king of Hamath, sent his son to congratulate David (2 Sm 8:9-10). Since Solomon built store-cities in the region of Hamath (2 Chr 8:4), it has been suggested that Hamath had become a tributary kingdom to Israel. During the reign of Ahab of Israel, the Assyrian royal inscriptions state that Irhulini, king of Hamath, allied with Damascus, Israel, and the 12 kings of the coast to resist the advances of Shalmaneser III (860–825 <span>BC<\/span>). The league halted Shalmaneser, although he continued to harass Syria, and about 846 <span>BC<\/span> he conquered the Syrian league, when Hamath became subject to Assyria. In 730 <span>BC<\/span> Eni-Ilus, then king of Hamath, paid tribute to Tiglath-pileser III. About 720 <span>BC<\/span> Sargon II colonized Hamath with 4,300 Assyrians and moved many people from different areas of his kingdom, including Hamath, to Samaria (2 Kgs 17:24). Israelites also were apparently colonized in Hamath (Is 11:11). Other OT references to the Assyrian conquest of Hamath include 2 Kings 18:34, 19:13, Isaiah 10:9, 36:19, 37:13, and Amos 6:2. Later the city seems to have been subject to Damascus (Jer 49:23). Some of the prophets predicted that Israel would eventually extend its boundaries once again to Hamath (Ez 47:16-17; 48:1; Zec 9:2).<\/p>\n<p>During the Maccabean period, Jonathan Maccabeus and his army met the army of Demetrius at Hamath (1 Macc 12:25). According to Josephus, Antiochus Epiphanes changed its name to Epiphania (<em>Antiquities<\/em> 1.4.2), the name by which it was known to the Greeks and Romans.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Hamath, Entrance of.<\/p>\n<li>2. Hamath-zobah is mentioned in 2 Chronicles 8:3 as a town conquered by Solomon. Some have suggested that it was the same city as the Hamath above, while others suggest that it was a different town in the district of Zobah.<\/li>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Hamath-zobah.<\/p>","summary_ro":"HAMATH 1. City and district located about 125 miles (201 kilometers) north of Damascus (Syria), on the Orontes River. The early residents apparently were of the Hamitic race from the descendants of Canaan (Gn 10:18), but later inhabitants were Semitic. It was to be the northern boundary of the nation of Israel, described as the “entrance of Hamath” (Nm 34:7-8; Jos 13:5; Hebrew, Lebo Hamath), but actually it was such only in the early monarchy and under Jeroboam II (793–753 BC). The location i...","summary_en":"HAMATH 1. City and district located about 125 miles (201 kilometers) north of Damascus (Syria), on the Orontes River. The early residents apparently were of the Hamitic race from the descendants of Canaan (Gn 10:18), but later inhabitants were Semitic. It was to be the northern boundary of the nation of Israel, described as the “entrance of Hamath” (Nm 34:7-8; Jos 13:5; Hebrew, Lebo Hamath), but actually it was such only in the early monarchy and under Jeroboam II (793–753 BC). The location i...","source":"Articles\/H.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":33956,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Sargon","title_en":"Sargon","content_ro":"<h3>SARGON<\/h3>\n<p>Assyrian monarch from 722–705 <span>BC<\/span>, whose military campaigns are historically well documented. Excavations have revealed his palace at what was probably Nineveh as well as an incomplete palace at Khorsabad. Sargon II bore the name of an illustrious conqueror who lived and fought some 1,500 years earlier (Sargon I of Agade). His true identity has not been easily discerned. Previous generations, thinking that his name was an “alias,” incorrectly identified him as Shalmaneser V (727–722 <span>BC<\/span>), Sennacherib (705–681 <span>BC<\/span>), or Esar-haddon (699–681 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>The only place in the Bible where Sargon is specifically mentioned is Isaiah 20:1. Despite warnings of the prophet Isaiah against placing any trust in Egypt (Is 10:9), Judah was moving contrary to her best interests by considering just such an alliance. But in 713 <span>BC<\/span> the Philistine city of Ashdod rebelled against Assyria, thereby instigating a campaign by the forces of Sargon against this strategically important metropolis. A man named Yamani sought to secure support from Egypt, Ethiopia, and even Judah in mounting an effective coalition against the might of Sargon. However, in 711 <span>BC<\/span> Ashdod was subjugated by Sargon’s army under his delegated official, “the Tartan” (Is 20:1, <span>kjv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Sargon finished the task of conquering Samaria, begun by his predecessor, Shalmaneser V. Apparently, Shalmaneser V had besieged the northern kingdom of Israel for three years (2 Kgs 17:5-6) and had virtually completed that campaign when he died. While other military victories earmark the public life of Sargon, many of his battles were indecisive. A large part of his reign was spent suppressing rebellions and handling major domestic problems. He was finally killed on the battlefield in a remote area known as Tabal. Sargon’s son, Sennacherib, succeeded him in 705 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Assyria, Assyrians.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>SARGON<\/h3>\n<p>Assyrian monarch from 722–705 <span>BC<\/span>, whose military campaigns are historically well documented. Excavations have revealed his palace at what was probably Nineveh as well as an incomplete palace at Khorsabad. Sargon II bore the name of an illustrious conqueror who lived and fought some 1,500 years earlier (Sargon I of Agade). His true identity has not been easily discerned. Previous generations, thinking that his name was an “alias,” incorrectly identified him as Shalmaneser V (727–722 <span>BC<\/span>), Sennacherib (705–681 <span>BC<\/span>), or Esar-haddon (699–681 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>The only place in the Bible where Sargon is specifically mentioned is Isaiah 20:1. Despite warnings of the prophet Isaiah against placing any trust in Egypt (Is 10:9), Judah was moving contrary to her best interests by considering just such an alliance. But in 713 <span>BC<\/span> the Philistine city of Ashdod rebelled against Assyria, thereby instigating a campaign by the forces of Sargon against this strategically important metropolis. A man named Yamani sought to secure support from Egypt, Ethiopia, and even Judah in mounting an effective coalition against the might of Sargon. However, in 711 <span>BC<\/span> Ashdod was subjugated by Sargon’s army under his delegated official, “the Tartan” (Is 20:1, <span>kjv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Sargon finished the task of conquering Samaria, begun by his predecessor, Shalmaneser V. Apparently, Shalmaneser V had besieged the northern kingdom of Israel for three years (2 Kgs 17:5-6) and had virtually completed that campaign when he died. While other military victories earmark the public life of Sargon, many of his battles were indecisive. A large part of his reign was spent suppressing rebellions and handling major domestic problems. He was finally killed on the battlefield in a remote area known as Tabal. Sargon’s son, Sennacherib, succeeded him in 705 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Assyria, Assyrians.<\/p>","summary_ro":"SARGON Assyrian monarch from 722–705 BC, whose military campaigns are historically well documented. Excavations have revealed his palace at what was probably Nineveh as well as an incomplete palace at Khorsabad. Sargon II bore the name of an illustrious conqueror who lived and fought some 1,500 years earlier (Sargon I of Agade). His true identity has not been easily discerned. Previous generations, thinking that his name was an “alias,” incorrectly identified him as Shalmaneser V (727–722 BC)...","summary_en":"SARGON Assyrian monarch from 722–705 BC, whose military campaigns are historically well documented. Excavations have revealed his palace at what was probably Nineveh as well as an incomplete palace at Khorsabad. Sargon II bore the name of an illustrious conqueror who lived and fought some 1,500 years earlier (Sargon I of Agade). His true identity has not been easily discerned. Previous generations, thinking that his name was an “alias,” incorrectly identified him as Shalmaneser V (727–722 BC)...","source":"Articles\/S.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":51179,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 10:9","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 10:9","content_ro":"<p><strong>10:9<\/strong> <em>We destroyed:<\/em>By 717 <span>BC<\/span>, the regions to the north of Judah were firmly in Assyrian hands. <em>Calno<\/em><em>,<\/em> in northern Syria (referred to as <em>Calneh<\/em> in Amos 6:2), fell to the Assyrian king Tiglath-pileser III in 738 <span>BC<\/span>. <em>Carchemish,<\/em> on the Euphrates River, was taken by King Sargon II in 717 <span>BC<\/span>. <em>Hamath,<\/em> on the Orontes River, was subjugated in 738 and 720 <span>BC<\/span>. <em>Arpad<\/em> was located south of Calno. <em>Damascus<\/em> and <em>Samaria<\/em><em>,<\/em> the capitals of Syria and Israel, were taken in 732 and 722 <span>BC<\/span>, respectively (Isa 7:8; 8:4).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>10:9<\/strong> <em>We destroyed:<\/em>By 717 <span>BC<\/span>, the regions to the north of Judah were firmly in Assyrian hands. <em>Calno<\/em><em>,<\/em> in northern Syria (referred to as <em>Calneh<\/em> in Amos 6:2), fell to the Assyrian king Tiglath-pileser III in 738 <span>BC<\/span>. <em>Carchemish,<\/em> on the Euphrates River, was taken by King Sargon II in 717 <span>BC<\/span>. <em>Hamath,<\/em> on the Orontes River, was subjugated in 738 and 720 <span>BC<\/span>. <em>Arpad<\/em> was located south of Calno. <em>Damascus<\/em> and <em>Samaria<\/em><em>,<\/em> the capitals of Syria and Israel, were taken in 732 and 722 <span>BC<\/span>, respectively (Isa 7:8; 8:4).<\/p>","summary_ro":"10:9 We destroyed:By 717 BC, the regions to the north of Judah were firmly in Assyrian hands. Calno, in northern Syria (referred to as Calneh in Amos 6:2), fell to the Assyrian king Tiglath-pileser III in 738 BC. Carchemish, on the Euphrates River, was taken by King Sargon II in 717 BC. Hamath, on the Orontes River, was subjugated in 738 and 720 BC. Arpad was located south of Calno. Damascus and Samaria, the capitals of Syria and Israel, were taken in 732 and 722 BC, respectively (Isa 7:8; 8:4).","summary_en":"10:9 We destroyed:By 717 BC, the regions to the north of Judah were firmly in Assyrian hands. Calno, in northern Syria (referred to as Calneh in Amos 6:2), fell to the Assyrian king Tiglath-pileser III in 738 BC. Carchemish, on the Euphrates River, was taken by King Sargon II in 717 BC. Hamath, on the Orontes River, was subjugated in 738 and 720 BC. Arpad was located south of Calno. Damascus and Samaria, the capitals of Syria and Israel, were taken in 732 and 722 BC, respectively (Isa 7:8; 8:4).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":78805,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 10:9","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 10:9","content_ro":"<p><strong>10:9<\/strong> <em>We destroyed:<\/em>By 717 <span>BC<\/span>, the regions to the north of Judah were firmly in Assyrian hands. <em>Calno<\/em><em>,<\/em> in northern Syria (referred to as <em>Calneh<\/em> in Amos 6:2), fell to the Assyrian king Tiglath-pileser III in 738 <span>BC<\/span>. <em>Carchemish,<\/em> on the Euphrates River, was taken by King Sargon II in 717 <span>BC<\/span>. <em>Hamath,<\/em> on the Orontes River, was subjugated in 738 and 720 <span>BC<\/span>. <em>Arpad<\/em> was located south of Calno. <em>Damascus<\/em> and <em>Samaria<\/em><em>,<\/em> the capitals of Syria and Israel, were taken in 732 and 722 <span>BC<\/span>, respectively (Isa 7:8; 8:4).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>10:9<\/strong> <em>We destroyed:<\/em>By 717 <span>BC<\/span>, the regions to the north of Judah were firmly in Assyrian hands. <em>Calno<\/em><em>,<\/em> in northern Syria (referred to as <em>Calneh<\/em> in Amos 6:2), fell to the Assyrian king Tiglath-pileser III in 738 <span>BC<\/span>. <em>Carchemish,<\/em> on the Euphrates River, was taken by King Sargon II in 717 <span>BC<\/span>. <em>Hamath,<\/em> on the Orontes River, was subjugated in 738 and 720 <span>BC<\/span>. <em>Arpad<\/em> was located south of Calno. <em>Damascus<\/em> and <em>Samaria<\/em><em>,<\/em> the capitals of Syria and Israel, were taken in 732 and 722 <span>BC<\/span>, respectively (Isa 7:8; 8:4).<\/p>","summary_ro":"10:9 We destroyed:By 717 BC, the regions to the north of Judah were firmly in Assyrian hands. Calno, in northern Syria (referred to as Calneh in Amos 6:2), fell to the Assyrian king Tiglath-pileser III in 738 BC. Carchemish, on the Euphrates River, was taken by King Sargon II in 717 BC. Hamath, on the Orontes River, was subjugated in 738 and 720 BC. Arpad was located south of Calno. Damascus and Samaria, the capitals of Syria and Israel, were taken in 732 and 722 BC, respectively (Isa 7:8; 8:4).","summary_en":"10:9 We destroyed:By 717 BC, the regions to the north of Judah were firmly in Assyrian hands. Calno, in northern Syria (referred to as Calneh in Amos 6:2), fell to the Assyrian king Tiglath-pileser III in 738 BC. Carchemish, on the Euphrates River, was taken by King Sargon II in 717 BC. Hamath, on the Orontes River, was subjugated in 738 and 720 BC. Arpad was located south of Calno. Damascus and Samaria, the capitals of Syria and Israel, were taken in 732 and 722 BC, respectively (Isa 7:8; 8:4).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":106431,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 10:9","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 10:9","content_ro":"<p><strong>10:9<\/strong> <em>We destroyed:<\/em>By 717 <span>BC<\/span>, the regions to the north of Judah were firmly in Assyrian hands. <em>Calno<\/em><em>,<\/em> in northern Syria (referred to as <em>Calneh<\/em> in Amos 6:2), fell to the Assyrian king Tiglath-pileser III in 738 <span>BC<\/span>. <em>Carchemish,<\/em> on the Euphrates River, was taken by King Sargon II in 717 <span>BC<\/span>. <em>Hamath,<\/em> on the Orontes River, was subjugated in 738 and 720 <span>BC<\/span>. <em>Arpad<\/em> was located south of Calno. <em>Damascus<\/em> and <em>Samaria<\/em><em>,<\/em> the capitals of Syria and Israel, were taken in 732 and 722 <span>BC<\/span>, respectively (Isa 7:8; 8:4).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>10:9<\/strong> <em>We destroyed:<\/em>By 717 <span>BC<\/span>, the regions to the north of Judah were firmly in Assyrian hands. <em>Calno<\/em><em>,<\/em> in northern Syria (referred to as <em>Calneh<\/em> in Amos 6:2), fell to the Assyrian king Tiglath-pileser III in 738 <span>BC<\/span>. <em>Carchemish,<\/em> on the Euphrates River, was taken by King Sargon II in 717 <span>BC<\/span>. <em>Hamath,<\/em> on the Orontes River, was subjugated in 738 and 720 <span>BC<\/span>. <em>Arpad<\/em> was located south of Calno. <em>Damascus<\/em> and <em>Samaria<\/em><em>,<\/em> the capitals of Syria and Israel, were taken in 732 and 722 <span>BC<\/span>, respectively (Isa 7:8; 8:4).<\/p>","summary_ro":"10:9 We destroyed:By 717 BC, the regions to the north of Judah were firmly in Assyrian hands. Calno, in northern Syria (referred to as Calneh in Amos 6:2), fell to the Assyrian king Tiglath-pileser III in 738 BC. Carchemish, on the Euphrates River, was taken by King Sargon II in 717 BC. Hamath, on the Orontes River, was subjugated in 738 and 720 BC. Arpad was located south of Calno. Damascus and Samaria, the capitals of Syria and Israel, were taken in 732 and 722 BC, respectively (Isa 7:8; 8:4).","summary_en":"10:9 We destroyed:By 717 BC, the regions to the north of Judah were firmly in Assyrian hands. Calno, in northern Syria (referred to as Calneh in Amos 6:2), fell to the Assyrian king Tiglath-pileser III in 738 BC. Carchemish, on the Euphrates River, was taken by King Sargon II in 717 BC. Hamath, on the Orontes River, was subjugated in 738 and 720 BC. Arpad was located south of Calno. Damascus and Samaria, the capitals of Syria and Israel, were taken in 732 and 722 BC, respectively (Isa 7:8; 8:4).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":134057,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 10:9","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 10:9","content_ro":"<p><strong>10:9<\/strong> <em>We destroyed:<\/em>By 717 <span>BC<\/span>, the regions to the north of Judah were firmly in Assyrian hands. <em>Calno<\/em><em>,<\/em> in northern Syria (referred to as <em>Calneh<\/em> in Amos 6:2), fell to the Assyrian king Tiglath-pileser III in 738 <span>BC<\/span>. <em>Carchemish,<\/em> on the Euphrates River, was taken by King Sargon II in 717 <span>BC<\/span>. <em>Hamath,<\/em> on the Orontes River, was subjugated in 738 and 720 <span>BC<\/span>. <em>Arpad<\/em> was located south of Calno. <em>Damascus<\/em> and <em>Samaria<\/em><em>,<\/em> the capitals of Syria and Israel, were taken in 732 and 722 <span>BC<\/span>, respectively (Isa 7:8; 8:4).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>10:9<\/strong> <em>We destroyed:<\/em>By 717 <span>BC<\/span>, the regions to the north of Judah were firmly in Assyrian hands. <em>Calno<\/em><em>,<\/em> in northern Syria (referred to as <em>Calneh<\/em> in Amos 6:2), fell to the Assyrian king Tiglath-pileser III in 738 <span>BC<\/span>. <em>Carchemish,<\/em> on the Euphrates River, was taken by King Sargon II in 717 <span>BC<\/span>. <em>Hamath,<\/em> on the Orontes River, was subjugated in 738 and 720 <span>BC<\/span>. <em>Arpad<\/em> was located south of Calno. <em>Damascus<\/em> and <em>Samaria<\/em><em>,<\/em> the capitals of Syria and Israel, were taken in 732 and 722 <span>BC<\/span>, respectively (Isa 7:8; 8:4).<\/p>","summary_ro":"10:9 We destroyed:By 717 BC, the regions to the north of Judah were firmly in Assyrian hands. Calno, in northern Syria (referred to as Calneh in Amos 6:2), fell to the Assyrian king Tiglath-pileser III in 738 BC. Carchemish, on the Euphrates River, was taken by King Sargon II in 717 BC. Hamath, on the Orontes River, was subjugated in 738 and 720 BC. Arpad was located south of Calno. Damascus and Samaria, the capitals of Syria and Israel, were taken in 732 and 722 BC, respectively (Isa 7:8; 8:4).","summary_en":"10:9 We destroyed:By 717 BC, the regions to the north of Judah were firmly in Assyrian hands. Calno, in northern Syria (referred to as Calneh in Amos 6:2), fell to the Assyrian king Tiglath-pileser III in 738 BC. Carchemish, on the Euphrates River, was taken by King Sargon II in 717 BC. Hamath, on the Orontes River, was subjugated in 738 and 720 BC. Arpad was located south of Calno. Damascus and Samaria, the capitals of Syria and Israel, were taken in 732 and 722 BC, respectively (Isa 7:8; 8:4).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"10":[{"id":51180,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 10:10","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 10:10","content_ro":"<p><strong>10:10<\/strong> <em>whose gods were greater than those in Jerusalem and Samaria:<\/em> Assyria would make this argument while threatening Jerusalem (36:19-20; 37:12).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>10:10<\/strong> <em>whose gods were greater than those in Jerusalem and Samaria:<\/em> Assyria would make this argument while threatening Jerusalem (36:19-20; 37:12).<\/p>","summary_ro":"10:10 whose gods were greater than those in Jerusalem and Samaria: Assyria would make this argument while threatening Jerusalem (36:19-20; 37:12).","summary_en":"10:10 whose gods were greater than those in Jerusalem and Samaria: Assyria would make this argument while threatening Jerusalem (36:19-20; 37:12).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":78806,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 10:10","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 10:10","content_ro":"<p><strong>10:10<\/strong> <em>whose gods were greater than those in Jerusalem and Samaria:<\/em> Assyria would make this argument while threatening Jerusalem (36:19-20; 37:12).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>10:10<\/strong> <em>whose gods were greater than those in Jerusalem and Samaria:<\/em> Assyria would make this argument while threatening Jerusalem (36:19-20; 37:12).<\/p>","summary_ro":"10:10 whose gods were greater than those in Jerusalem and Samaria: Assyria would make this argument while threatening Jerusalem (36:19-20; 37:12).","summary_en":"10:10 whose gods were greater than those in Jerusalem and Samaria: Assyria would make this argument while threatening Jerusalem (36:19-20; 37:12).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":106432,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 10:10","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 10:10","content_ro":"<p><strong>10:10<\/strong> <em>whose gods were greater than those in Jerusalem and Samaria:<\/em> Assyria would make this argument while threatening Jerusalem (36:19-20; 37:12).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>10:10<\/strong> <em>whose gods were greater than those in Jerusalem and Samaria:<\/em> Assyria would make this argument while threatening Jerusalem (36:19-20; 37:12).<\/p>","summary_ro":"10:10 whose gods were greater than those in Jerusalem and Samaria: Assyria would make this argument while threatening Jerusalem (36:19-20; 37:12).","summary_en":"10:10 whose gods were greater than those in Jerusalem and Samaria: Assyria would make this argument while threatening Jerusalem (36:19-20; 37:12).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":134058,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 10:10","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 10:10","content_ro":"<p><strong>10:10<\/strong> <em>whose gods were greater than those in Jerusalem and Samaria:<\/em> Assyria would make this argument while threatening Jerusalem (36:19-20; 37:12).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>10:10<\/strong> <em>whose gods were greater than those in Jerusalem and Samaria:<\/em> Assyria would make this argument while threatening Jerusalem (36:19-20; 37:12).<\/p>","summary_ro":"10:10 whose gods were greater than those in Jerusalem and Samaria: Assyria would make this argument while threatening Jerusalem (36:19-20; 37:12).","summary_en":"10:10 whose gods were greater than those in Jerusalem and Samaria: Assyria would make this argument while threatening Jerusalem (36:19-20; 37:12).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"11":[{"id":51181,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 10:11","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 10:11","content_ro":"<p><strong>10:11<\/strong> Assyria <em>destroyed Samaria<\/em> under Shalmaneser V and Sargon II in 722 <span>BC<\/span> (2 Kgs 17:3-6). If Samaria and Judah worshiped the same God, and Assyria had already defeated Samaria, the king of Assyria could expect to defeat Judah also.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>10:11<\/strong> Assyria <em>destroyed Samaria<\/em> under Shalmaneser V and Sargon II in 722 <span>BC<\/span> (2 Kgs 17:3-6). If Samaria and Judah worshiped the same God, and Assyria had already defeated Samaria, the king of Assyria could expect to defeat Judah also.<\/p>","summary_ro":"10:11 Assyria destroyed Samaria under Shalmaneser V and Sargon II in 722 BC (2 Kgs 17:3-6). If Samaria and Judah worshiped the same God, and Assyria had already defeated Samaria, the king of Assyria could expect to defeat Judah also.","summary_en":"10:11 Assyria destroyed Samaria under Shalmaneser V and Sargon II in 722 BC (2 Kgs 17:3-6). If Samaria and Judah worshiped the same God, and Assyria had already defeated Samaria, the king of Assyria could expect to defeat Judah also.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":78807,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 10:11","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 10:11","content_ro":"<p><strong>10:11<\/strong> Assyria <em>destroyed Samaria<\/em> under Shalmaneser V and Sargon II in 722 <span>BC<\/span> (2 Kgs 17:3-6). If Samaria and Judah worshiped the same God, and Assyria had already defeated Samaria, the king of Assyria could expect to defeat Judah also.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>10:11<\/strong> Assyria <em>destroyed Samaria<\/em> under Shalmaneser V and Sargon II in 722 <span>BC<\/span> (2 Kgs 17:3-6). If Samaria and Judah worshiped the same God, and Assyria had already defeated Samaria, the king of Assyria could expect to defeat Judah also.<\/p>","summary_ro":"10:11 Assyria destroyed Samaria under Shalmaneser V and Sargon II in 722 BC (2 Kgs 17:3-6). If Samaria and Judah worshiped the same God, and Assyria had already defeated Samaria, the king of Assyria could expect to defeat Judah also.","summary_en":"10:11 Assyria destroyed Samaria under Shalmaneser V and Sargon II in 722 BC (2 Kgs 17:3-6). If Samaria and Judah worshiped the same God, and Assyria had already defeated Samaria, the king of Assyria could expect to defeat Judah also.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":106433,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 10:11","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 10:11","content_ro":"<p><strong>10:11<\/strong> Assyria <em>destroyed Samaria<\/em> under Shalmaneser V and Sargon II in 722 <span>BC<\/span> (2 Kgs 17:3-6). If Samaria and Judah worshiped the same God, and Assyria had already defeated Samaria, the king of Assyria could expect to defeat Judah also.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>10:11<\/strong> Assyria <em>destroyed Samaria<\/em> under Shalmaneser V and Sargon II in 722 <span>BC<\/span> (2 Kgs 17:3-6). If Samaria and Judah worshiped the same God, and Assyria had already defeated Samaria, the king of Assyria could expect to defeat Judah also.<\/p>","summary_ro":"10:11 Assyria destroyed Samaria under Shalmaneser V and Sargon II in 722 BC (2 Kgs 17:3-6). If Samaria and Judah worshiped the same God, and Assyria had already defeated Samaria, the king of Assyria could expect to defeat Judah also.","summary_en":"10:11 Assyria destroyed Samaria under Shalmaneser V and Sargon II in 722 BC (2 Kgs 17:3-6). If Samaria and Judah worshiped the same God, and Assyria had already defeated Samaria, the king of Assyria could expect to defeat Judah also.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":134059,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 10:11","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 10:11","content_ro":"<p><strong>10:11<\/strong> Assyria <em>destroyed Samaria<\/em> under Shalmaneser V and Sargon II in 722 <span>BC<\/span> (2 Kgs 17:3-6). If Samaria and Judah worshiped the same God, and Assyria had already defeated Samaria, the king of Assyria could expect to defeat Judah also.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>10:11<\/strong> Assyria <em>destroyed Samaria<\/em> under Shalmaneser V and Sargon II in 722 <span>BC<\/span> (2 Kgs 17:3-6). If Samaria and Judah worshiped the same God, and Assyria had already defeated Samaria, the king of Assyria could expect to defeat Judah also.<\/p>","summary_ro":"10:11 Assyria destroyed Samaria under Shalmaneser V and Sargon II in 722 BC (2 Kgs 17:3-6). If Samaria and Judah worshiped the same God, and Assyria had already defeated Samaria, the king of Assyria could expect to defeat Judah also.","summary_en":"10:11 Assyria destroyed Samaria under Shalmaneser V and Sargon II in 722 BC (2 Kgs 17:3-6). If Samaria and Judah worshiped the same God, and Assyria had already defeated Samaria, the king of Assyria could expect to defeat Judah also.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"12":[{"id":31273,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Pride","title_en":"Pride","content_ro":"<h3>PRIDE<\/h3>\n<p>A reasonable or justifiable self-respect; or improper and excessive self-esteem known as conceit or arrogance. The apostle Paul expressed a positive kind of pride when speaking of confidence in Christians (2 Cor 7:4) or of strength in the Lord (12:5, 9). However, it is the latter, sinful meaning of “pride” that most frequently appears in the Bible, both in the OT and the NT.<\/p>\n<p>The ten Hebrew and two Greek words generally used for pride refer to being high or exalted in attitude, the opposite of the virtue of humility, which is so often praised and rewarded by God. One other Greek word refers to a person’s being puffed up or inflated with pride or egotism. The idea is that one gives the impression of substance but is really filled only with air (see, e.g., 1 Cor 5:2; 8:1; 13:4; Col 2:18).<\/p>\n<p>Pride is basically a sin of attitude and of the heart and spirit. Hence one reads, “Haughty eyes and a proud heart, the lamp of the wicked, are sin” (Prv 21:4, <span>rsv<\/span>). Ecclesiastes 7:8 speaks of being proud in spirit and the psalmist declares, “O <span>Lord<\/span>, my heart is not proud, nor my eyes haughty” (Ps 131:1, <span>nasb<\/span>). Pride is cited in the two lists of the most glaring sins in the Bible. Along with the sins for which God is going to judge the Gentiles, one finds insolence, arrogance, and boasting (Rom 1:30). Included with the sins that will be prevalent in the last days, Paul includes boasting, arrogance, and conceit (2 Tm 3:2-4).<\/p>\n<p>As so many of the sins of attitude, pride cannot remain internalized. It can infect one’s speech; boasting is one way by which this sin can appear in one’s speaking (see the passages referred to above and also Mal 3:13). Pride can also appear in the way one looks at another person. Hence, the Scriptures speak of “haughty eyes” in Proverbs 6:17, or, as it could also be rendered, “a proud look.” The psalmist speaks of a person with haughty looks and arrogant heart (Ps 101:5; see also Prv 30:13). Pride may also take the ugly form of contemptible treatment of others (Prv 21:24). One of the illustrations of this in the Bible is the way in which the Pharisees and other Jewish leaders treated and spoke of those beneath their social level (e.g., Mt 23:5-12; Jn 9:34). They especially despised tax collectors and sinners.<\/p>\n<p>Outstanding examples of proud people can be found in both Testaments. Pride was the downfall of King Uzziah, who, because of this sin, dared to offer incense on the altar of incense and was smitten with leprosy as his punishment from God (2 Chr 26:16). Hezekiah, after his healing by the Lord, became proud of heart and brought God’s anger upon himself, Judah, and Jerusalem (32:25-26). The Pharisee praying in the temple, comparing himself with the humble tax collector, is another example (Lk 18:9-14). Herod’s refusal to give God the glory for his greatness brought judgment from God; Herod was eaten by worms and died for his sin of pride (Acts 12:21-23). In fact, Ezekiel 28, which describes the pride of the leader of Tyre, is taken by many biblical scholars to refer, in a deeper sense, to the fall of Satan back in the beginning.<\/p>\n<p>Pride can bring about the downfall not only of individuals but also of nations. This was the sin that is specifically mentioned as leading to other sins and that ultimately brought about the removal of both Israel and Judah from the land of Canaan (Is 3:16; 5:15; Ez 16:50; Hos 13:6; Zep 3:11). It is also the specific sin that brought about the downfall of the king of Assyria (Is 10:12, 33) and of the king of Moab (Jer 48:29). Because of its deadliness, Israel is specifically warned against pride and the tendency to forget God that so often stems from it (Dt 8:14).<\/p>\n<p>In the light of the preceding discussion, it is no surprise to read in the Bible that pride is one of the seven things that the Lord hates (Prv 6:17). It is also said by two different writers that God opposes the proud but gives grace to the humble (see Jas 4:6 and 1 Pt 5:5; see also Prv 3:34 and 18:12, to which James and Peter may be referring). The words of Mary, the mother of Jesus, in her hymn of praise to God may summarize the attitude of God and the Bible toward pride: “His mighty arm does tremendous things! How he scatters the proud and haughty ones! He has taken princes from their thrones and exalted the lowly” (Lk 1:51-52, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>PRIDE<\/h3>\n<p>A reasonable or justifiable self-respect; or improper and excessive self-esteem known as conceit or arrogance. The apostle Paul expressed a positive kind of pride when speaking of confidence in Christians (2 Cor 7:4) or of strength in the Lord (12:5, 9). However, it is the latter, sinful meaning of “pride” that most frequently appears in the Bible, both in the OT and the NT.<\/p>\n<p>The ten Hebrew and two Greek words generally used for pride refer to being high or exalted in attitude, the opposite of the virtue of humility, which is so often praised and rewarded by God. One other Greek word refers to a person’s being puffed up or inflated with pride or egotism. The idea is that one gives the impression of substance but is really filled only with air (see, e.g., 1 Cor 5:2; 8:1; 13:4; Col 2:18).<\/p>\n<p>Pride is basically a sin of attitude and of the heart and spirit. Hence one reads, “Haughty eyes and a proud heart, the lamp of the wicked, are sin” (Prv 21:4, <span>rsv<\/span>). Ecclesiastes 7:8 speaks of being proud in spirit and the psalmist declares, “O <span>Lord<\/span>, my heart is not proud, nor my eyes haughty” (Ps 131:1, <span>nasb<\/span>). Pride is cited in the two lists of the most glaring sins in the Bible. Along with the sins for which God is going to judge the Gentiles, one finds insolence, arrogance, and boasting (Rom 1:30). Included with the sins that will be prevalent in the last days, Paul includes boasting, arrogance, and conceit (2 Tm 3:2-4).<\/p>\n<p>As so many of the sins of attitude, pride cannot remain internalized. It can infect one’s speech; boasting is one way by which this sin can appear in one’s speaking (see the passages referred to above and also Mal 3:13). Pride can also appear in the way one looks at another person. Hence, the Scriptures speak of “haughty eyes” in Proverbs 6:17, or, as it could also be rendered, “a proud look.” The psalmist speaks of a person with haughty looks and arrogant heart (Ps 101:5; see also Prv 30:13). Pride may also take the ugly form of contemptible treatment of others (Prv 21:24). One of the illustrations of this in the Bible is the way in which the Pharisees and other Jewish leaders treated and spoke of those beneath their social level (e.g., Mt 23:5-12; Jn 9:34). They especially despised tax collectors and sinners.<\/p>\n<p>Outstanding examples of proud people can be found in both Testaments. Pride was the downfall of King Uzziah, who, because of this sin, dared to offer incense on the altar of incense and was smitten with leprosy as his punishment from God (2 Chr 26:16). Hezekiah, after his healing by the Lord, became proud of heart and brought God’s anger upon himself, Judah, and Jerusalem (32:25-26). The Pharisee praying in the temple, comparing himself with the humble tax collector, is another example (Lk 18:9-14). Herod’s refusal to give God the glory for his greatness brought judgment from God; Herod was eaten by worms and died for his sin of pride (Acts 12:21-23). In fact, Ezekiel 28, which describes the pride of the leader of Tyre, is taken by many biblical scholars to refer, in a deeper sense, to the fall of Satan back in the beginning.<\/p>\n<p>Pride can bring about the downfall not only of individuals but also of nations. This was the sin that is specifically mentioned as leading to other sins and that ultimately brought about the removal of both Israel and Judah from the land of Canaan (Is 3:16; 5:15; Ez 16:50; Hos 13:6; Zep 3:11). It is also the specific sin that brought about the downfall of the king of Assyria (Is 10:12, 33) and of the king of Moab (Jer 48:29). Because of its deadliness, Israel is specifically warned against pride and the tendency to forget God that so often stems from it (Dt 8:14).<\/p>\n<p>In the light of the preceding discussion, it is no surprise to read in the Bible that pride is one of the seven things that the Lord hates (Prv 6:17). It is also said by two different writers that God opposes the proud but gives grace to the humble (see Jas 4:6 and 1 Pt 5:5; see also Prv 3:34 and 18:12, to which James and Peter may be referring). The words of Mary, the mother of Jesus, in her hymn of praise to God may summarize the attitude of God and the Bible toward pride: “His mighty arm does tremendous things! How he scatters the proud and haughty ones! He has taken princes from their thrones and exalted the lowly” (Lk 1:51-52, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>","summary_ro":"PRIDE A reasonable or justifiable self-respect; or improper and excessive self-esteem known as conceit or arrogance. The apostle Paul expressed a positive kind of pride when speaking of confidence in Christians (2 Cor 7:4) or of strength in the Lord (12:5, 9). However, it is the latter, sinful meaning of “pride” that most frequently appears in the Bible, both in the OT and the NT. The ten Hebrew and two Greek words generally used for pride refer to being high or exalted in attitude, the oppos...","summary_en":"PRIDE A reasonable or justifiable self-respect; or improper and excessive self-esteem known as conceit or arrogance. The apostle Paul expressed a positive kind of pride when speaking of confidence in Christians (2 Cor 7:4) or of strength in the Lord (12:5, 9). However, it is the latter, sinful meaning of “pride” that most frequently appears in the Bible, both in the OT and the NT. The ten Hebrew and two Greek words generally used for pride refer to being high or exalted in attitude, the oppos...","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":51182,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 10:12","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 10:12","content_ro":"<p><strong>10:12<\/strong> Any royal power that exalts itself against the Lord, the Great King, is <em>proud and arrogant<\/em> (see 2:11-12) and will be crushed.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>10:12<\/strong> Any royal power that exalts itself against the Lord, the Great King, is <em>proud and arrogant<\/em> (see 2:11-12) and will be crushed.<\/p>","summary_ro":"10:12 Any royal power that exalts itself against the Lord, the Great King, is proud and arrogant (see 2:11-12) and will be crushed.","summary_en":"10:12 Any royal power that exalts itself against the Lord, the Great King, is proud and arrogant (see 2:11-12) and will be crushed.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":78808,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 10:12","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 10:12","content_ro":"<p><strong>10:12<\/strong> Any royal power that exalts itself against the Lord, the Great King, is <em>proud and arrogant<\/em> (see 2:11-12) and will be crushed.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>10:12<\/strong> Any royal power that exalts itself against the Lord, the Great King, is <em>proud and arrogant<\/em> (see 2:11-12) and will be crushed.<\/p>","summary_ro":"10:12 Any royal power that exalts itself against the Lord, the Great King, is proud and arrogant (see 2:11-12) and will be crushed.","summary_en":"10:12 Any royal power that exalts itself against the Lord, the Great King, is proud and arrogant (see 2:11-12) and will be crushed.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":106434,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 10:12","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 10:12","content_ro":"<p><strong>10:12<\/strong> Any royal power that exalts itself against the Lord, the Great King, is <em>proud and arrogant<\/em> (see 2:11-12) and will be crushed.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>10:12<\/strong> Any royal power that exalts itself against the Lord, the Great King, is <em>proud and arrogant<\/em> (see 2:11-12) and will be crushed.<\/p>","summary_ro":"10:12 Any royal power that exalts itself against the Lord, the Great King, is proud and arrogant (see 2:11-12) and will be crushed.","summary_en":"10:12 Any royal power that exalts itself against the Lord, the Great King, is proud and arrogant (see 2:11-12) and will be crushed.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":134060,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 10:12","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 10:12","content_ro":"<p><strong>10:12<\/strong> Any royal power that exalts itself against the Lord, the Great King, is <em>proud and arrogant<\/em> (see 2:11-12) and will be crushed.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>10:12<\/strong> Any royal power that exalts itself against the Lord, the Great King, is <em>proud and arrogant<\/em> (see 2:11-12) and will be crushed.<\/p>","summary_ro":"10:12 Any royal power that exalts itself against the Lord, the Great King, is proud and arrogant (see 2:11-12) and will be crushed.","summary_en":"10:12 Any royal power that exalts itself against the Lord, the Great King, is proud and arrogant (see 2:11-12) and will be crushed.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":62944,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Zion","title_en":"Zion","content_ro":"<h3>Zion<\/h3>\n<p>Zion is the Hebrew name for the mountain in Jerusalem where the Temple was located (2 Sam 5:7; see also 2 Chr 3:1). Zion is used as a synonym for Jerusalem, and the NLT often translates <em>Zion<\/em> as “Jerusalem” (e.g., Pss 69:35; 87:2; 97:8; 132:13). Thus Zion can refer to the actual, physical city of Jerusalem that was destroyed in 586 <span>BC<\/span> (see 102:13; 126:1; 137:1) and again in <span>AD<\/span> 70.<\/p>\n<p>Zion also signifies the city of God that transcends geographical location. Zion is God’s universal kingdom, the city in which he dwells (74:2; 76:2; 84:7; 135:21; see Isa 26). This city embodies trust, justice, righteousness, and commitment, for the Lord does not tolerate impurity, uncleanness, idolatry, injustice, or unrighteousness (Isa 1:21-28). The prophets and poets of Israel speak of the city of God as being more extensive than the physical city. The citizens of this city come from Judah, Israel, and the nations (see Ps 87:5-6; Heb 12:22-24). Zion is on a high mountain (Ps 48:2) at the center of God’s kingdom on earth (99:2; 132:13), and God’s throne is there (9:11). Therefore, godly prayers and praise focus on Zion (53:6; 65:1; 147:12; 149:2), and redemption is sought there (14:7; 20:2; 50:2; 53:6). David’s descendants are the legitimate heirs who rule over Zion to establish God’s universal kingdom (2:6; 110:2).<\/p>\n<p>Zion is symbolic of God’s protection and blessings (Pss 46:4-11; 48:1-14; 51:18; 128:5; 134:3). Anyone who trusts in the Lord is as secure as Mount Zion (125:1), but those who reject the Lord also reject the security of Zion and have no future (129:5-8).<\/p>\n<p>The New Testament speaks of Mount Zion as a heavenly Jerusalem, the spiritual home of those from all nations who have been reborn through faith in Jesus Christ (Heb 12:22-24; see also Gal 4:24-26; Rev 3:12; 21:2-4). Abraham looked forward in faith to “a city with eternal foundations” (Heb 11:10), a city in which all men and women of faith are citizens (Heb 12:22-24). Because the Lord knows no geographical limitations (1 Kgs 8:27), the true Zion he inhabits is the hearts of all who worship him.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>2 Sam 5:7; 1 Kgs 8:1; Pss 14:7; 48:1-14; 50:2; 51:18; 68:16; 78:68; 87:2, 5; 125:1; 128:5; 132:13; 133:3; 135:21; 147:12; Isa 1:27; 2:3; 3:16-17, 26; 4:3-5; 8:18; 10:12, 24, 32; 16:1; 24:23; 29:8; 30:19; 31:4, 9; 33:20; 37:22, 32; 40:9; 41:27; 52:1-2; 60:14; 62:1; 64:10; Jer 26:18; 51:35; Lam 2:13; Joel 2:32; 3:16-17; Amos 1:2; Obad 1:21; Mic 3:12; 4:2; Zeph 3:14, 16; Zech 1:14, 17; 2:7; 8:2-3; 9:9; Heb 12:22; Rev 14:1<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Zion<\/h3>\n<p>Zion is the Hebrew name for the mountain in Jerusalem where the Temple was located (2 Sam 5:7; see also 2 Chr 3:1). Zion is used as a synonym for Jerusalem, and the NLT often translates <em>Zion<\/em> as “Jerusalem” (e.g., Pss 69:35; 87:2; 97:8; 132:13). Thus Zion can refer to the actual, physical city of Jerusalem that was destroyed in 586 <span>BC<\/span> (see 102:13; 126:1; 137:1) and again in <span>AD<\/span> 70.<\/p>\n<p>Zion also signifies the city of God that transcends geographical location. Zion is God’s universal kingdom, the city in which he dwells (74:2; 76:2; 84:7; 135:21; see Isa 26). This city embodies trust, justice, righteousness, and commitment, for the Lord does not tolerate impurity, uncleanness, idolatry, injustice, or unrighteousness (Isa 1:21-28). The prophets and poets of Israel speak of the city of God as being more extensive than the physical city. The citizens of this city come from Judah, Israel, and the nations (see Ps 87:5-6; Heb 12:22-24). Zion is on a high mountain (Ps 48:2) at the center of God’s kingdom on earth (99:2; 132:13), and God’s throne is there (9:11). Therefore, godly prayers and praise focus on Zion (53:6; 65:1; 147:12; 149:2), and redemption is sought there (14:7; 20:2; 50:2; 53:6). David’s descendants are the legitimate heirs who rule over Zion to establish God’s universal kingdom (2:6; 110:2).<\/p>\n<p>Zion is symbolic of God’s protection and blessings (Pss 46:4-11; 48:1-14; 51:18; 128:5; 134:3). Anyone who trusts in the Lord is as secure as Mount Zion (125:1), but those who reject the Lord also reject the security of Zion and have no future (129:5-8).<\/p>\n<p>The New Testament speaks of Mount Zion as a heavenly Jerusalem, the spiritual home of those from all nations who have been reborn through faith in Jesus Christ (Heb 12:22-24; see also Gal 4:24-26; Rev 3:12; 21:2-4). Abraham looked forward in faith to “a city with eternal foundations” (Heb 11:10), a city in which all men and women of faith are citizens (Heb 12:22-24). Because the Lord knows no geographical limitations (1 Kgs 8:27), the true Zion he inhabits is the hearts of all who worship him.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>2 Sam 5:7; 1 Kgs 8:1; Pss 14:7; 48:1-14; 50:2; 51:18; 68:16; 78:68; 87:2, 5; 125:1; 128:5; 132:13; 133:3; 135:21; 147:12; Isa 1:27; 2:3; 3:16-17, 26; 4:3-5; 8:18; 10:12, 24, 32; 16:1; 24:23; 29:8; 30:19; 31:4, 9; 33:20; 37:22, 32; 40:9; 41:27; 52:1-2; 60:14; 62:1; 64:10; Jer 26:18; 51:35; Lam 2:13; Joel 2:32; 3:16-17; Amos 1:2; Obad 1:21; Mic 3:12; 4:2; Zeph 3:14, 16; Zech 1:14, 17; 2:7; 8:2-3; 9:9; Heb 12:22; Rev 14:1<\/p>","summary_ro":"Zion Zion is the Hebrew name for the mountain in Jerusalem where the Temple was located (2 Sam 5:7; see also 2 Chr 3:1). Zion is used as a synonym for Jerusalem, and the NLT often translates Zion as “Jerusalem” (e.g., Pss 69:35; 87:2; 97:8; 132:13). Thus Zion can refer to the actual, physical city of Jerusalem that was destroyed in 586 BC (see 102:13; 126:1; 137:1) and again in AD 70. Zion also signifies the city of God that transcends geographical location. Zion is God’s universal kingdom, t...","summary_en":"Zion Zion is the Hebrew name for the mountain in Jerusalem where the Temple was located (2 Sam 5:7; see also 2 Chr 3:1). Zion is used as a synonym for Jerusalem, and the NLT often translates Zion as “Jerusalem” (e.g., Pss 69:35; 87:2; 97:8; 132:13). Thus Zion can refer to the actual, physical city of Jerusalem that was destroyed in 586 BC (see 102:13; 126:1; 137:1) and again in AD 70. Zion also signifies the city of God that transcends geographical location. Zion is God’s universal kingdom, t...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":90570,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Zion","title_en":"Zion","content_ro":"<h3>Zion<\/h3>\n<p>Zion is the Hebrew name for the mountain in Jerusalem where the Temple was located (2 Sam 5:7; see also 2 Chr 3:1). Zion is used as a synonym for Jerusalem, and the NLT often translates <em>Zion<\/em> as “Jerusalem” (e.g., Pss 69:35; 87:2; 97:8; 132:13). Thus Zion can refer to the actual, physical city of Jerusalem that was destroyed in 586 <span>BC<\/span> (see 102:13; 126:1; 137:1) and again in <span>AD<\/span> 70.<\/p>\n<p>Zion also signifies the city of God that transcends geographical location. Zion is God’s universal kingdom, the city in which he dwells (74:2; 76:2; 84:7; 135:21; see Isa 26). This city embodies trust, justice, righteousness, and commitment, for the Lord does not tolerate impurity, uncleanness, idolatry, injustice, or unrighteousness (Isa 1:21-28). The prophets and poets of Israel speak of the city of God as being more extensive than the physical city. The citizens of this city come from Judah, Israel, and the nations (see Ps 87:5-6; Heb 12:22-24). Zion is on a high mountain (Ps 48:2) at the center of God’s kingdom on earth (99:2; 132:13), and God’s throne is there (9:11). Therefore, godly prayers and praise focus on Zion (53:6; 65:1; 147:12; 149:2), and redemption is sought there (14:7; 20:2; 50:2; 53:6). David’s descendants are the legitimate heirs who rule over Zion to establish God’s universal kingdom (2:6; 110:2).<\/p>\n<p>Zion is symbolic of God’s protection and blessings (Pss 46:4-11; 48:1-14; 51:18; 128:5; 134:3). Anyone who trusts in the Lord is as secure as Mount Zion (125:1), but those who reject the Lord also reject the security of Zion and have no future (129:5-8).<\/p>\n<p>The New Testament speaks of Mount Zion as a heavenly Jerusalem, the spiritual home of those from all nations who have been reborn through faith in Jesus Christ (Heb 12:22-24; see also Gal 4:24-26; Rev 3:12; 21:2-4). Abraham looked forward in faith to “a city with eternal foundations” (Heb 11:10), a city in which all men and women of faith are citizens (Heb 12:22-24). Because the Lord knows no geographical limitations (1 Kgs 8:27), the true Zion he inhabits is the hearts of all who worship him.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>2 Sam 5:7; 1 Kgs 8:1; Pss 14:7; 48:1-14; 50:2; 51:18; 68:16; 78:68; 87:2, 5; 125:1; 128:5; 132:13; 133:3; 135:21; 147:12; Isa 1:27; 2:3; 3:16-17, 26; 4:3-5; 8:18; 10:12, 24, 32; 16:1; 24:23; 29:8; 30:19; 31:4, 9; 33:20; 37:22, 32; 40:9; 41:27; 52:1-2; 60:14; 62:1; 64:10; Jer 26:18; 51:35; Lam 2:13; Joel 2:32; 3:16-17; Amos 1:2; Obad 1:21; Mic 3:12; 4:2; Zeph 3:14, 16; Zech 1:14, 17; 2:7; 8:2-3; 9:9; Heb 12:22; Rev 14:1<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Zion<\/h3>\n<p>Zion is the Hebrew name for the mountain in Jerusalem where the Temple was located (2 Sam 5:7; see also 2 Chr 3:1). Zion is used as a synonym for Jerusalem, and the NLT often translates <em>Zion<\/em> as “Jerusalem” (e.g., Pss 69:35; 87:2; 97:8; 132:13). Thus Zion can refer to the actual, physical city of Jerusalem that was destroyed in 586 <span>BC<\/span> (see 102:13; 126:1; 137:1) and again in <span>AD<\/span> 70.<\/p>\n<p>Zion also signifies the city of God that transcends geographical location. Zion is God’s universal kingdom, the city in which he dwells (74:2; 76:2; 84:7; 135:21; see Isa 26). This city embodies trust, justice, righteousness, and commitment, for the Lord does not tolerate impurity, uncleanness, idolatry, injustice, or unrighteousness (Isa 1:21-28). The prophets and poets of Israel speak of the city of God as being more extensive than the physical city. The citizens of this city come from Judah, Israel, and the nations (see Ps 87:5-6; Heb 12:22-24). Zion is on a high mountain (Ps 48:2) at the center of God’s kingdom on earth (99:2; 132:13), and God’s throne is there (9:11). Therefore, godly prayers and praise focus on Zion (53:6; 65:1; 147:12; 149:2), and redemption is sought there (14:7; 20:2; 50:2; 53:6). David’s descendants are the legitimate heirs who rule over Zion to establish God’s universal kingdom (2:6; 110:2).<\/p>\n<p>Zion is symbolic of God’s protection and blessings (Pss 46:4-11; 48:1-14; 51:18; 128:5; 134:3). Anyone who trusts in the Lord is as secure as Mount Zion (125:1), but those who reject the Lord also reject the security of Zion and have no future (129:5-8).<\/p>\n<p>The New Testament speaks of Mount Zion as a heavenly Jerusalem, the spiritual home of those from all nations who have been reborn through faith in Jesus Christ (Heb 12:22-24; see also Gal 4:24-26; Rev 3:12; 21:2-4). Abraham looked forward in faith to “a city with eternal foundations” (Heb 11:10), a city in which all men and women of faith are citizens (Heb 12:22-24). Because the Lord knows no geographical limitations (1 Kgs 8:27), the true Zion he inhabits is the hearts of all who worship him.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>2 Sam 5:7; 1 Kgs 8:1; Pss 14:7; 48:1-14; 50:2; 51:18; 68:16; 78:68; 87:2, 5; 125:1; 128:5; 132:13; 133:3; 135:21; 147:12; Isa 1:27; 2:3; 3:16-17, 26; 4:3-5; 8:18; 10:12, 24, 32; 16:1; 24:23; 29:8; 30:19; 31:4, 9; 33:20; 37:22, 32; 40:9; 41:27; 52:1-2; 60:14; 62:1; 64:10; Jer 26:18; 51:35; Lam 2:13; Joel 2:32; 3:16-17; Amos 1:2; Obad 1:21; Mic 3:12; 4:2; Zeph 3:14, 16; Zech 1:14, 17; 2:7; 8:2-3; 9:9; Heb 12:22; Rev 14:1<\/p>","summary_ro":"Zion Zion is the Hebrew name for the mountain in Jerusalem where the Temple was located (2 Sam 5:7; see also 2 Chr 3:1). Zion is used as a synonym for Jerusalem, and the NLT often translates Zion as “Jerusalem” (e.g., Pss 69:35; 87:2; 97:8; 132:13). Thus Zion can refer to the actual, physical city of Jerusalem that was destroyed in 586 BC (see 102:13; 126:1; 137:1) and again in AD 70. Zion also signifies the city of God that transcends geographical location. Zion is God’s universal kingdom, t...","summary_en":"Zion Zion is the Hebrew name for the mountain in Jerusalem where the Temple was located (2 Sam 5:7; see also 2 Chr 3:1). Zion is used as a synonym for Jerusalem, and the NLT often translates Zion as “Jerusalem” (e.g., Pss 69:35; 87:2; 97:8; 132:13). Thus Zion can refer to the actual, physical city of Jerusalem that was destroyed in 586 BC (see 102:13; 126:1; 137:1) and again in AD 70. Zion also signifies the city of God that transcends geographical location. Zion is God’s universal kingdom, t...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":118196,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Zion","title_en":"Zion","content_ro":"<h3>Zion<\/h3>\n<p>Zion is the Hebrew name for the mountain in Jerusalem where the Temple was located (2 Sam 5:7; see also 2 Chr 3:1). Zion is used as a synonym for Jerusalem, and the NLT often translates <em>Zion<\/em> as “Jerusalem” (e.g., Pss 69:35; 87:2; 97:8; 132:13). Thus Zion can refer to the actual, physical city of Jerusalem that was destroyed in 586 <span>BC<\/span> (see 102:13; 126:1; 137:1) and again in <span>AD<\/span> 70.<\/p>\n<p>Zion also signifies the city of God that transcends geographical location. Zion is God’s universal kingdom, the city in which he dwells (74:2; 76:2; 84:7; 135:21; see Isa 26). This city embodies trust, justice, righteousness, and commitment, for the Lord does not tolerate impurity, uncleanness, idolatry, injustice, or unrighteousness (Isa 1:21-28). The prophets and poets of Israel speak of the city of God as being more extensive than the physical city. The citizens of this city come from Judah, Israel, and the nations (see Ps 87:5-6; Heb 12:22-24). Zion is on a high mountain (Ps 48:2) at the center of God’s kingdom on earth (99:2; 132:13), and God’s throne is there (9:11). Therefore, godly prayers and praise focus on Zion (53:6; 65:1; 147:12; 149:2), and redemption is sought there (14:7; 20:2; 50:2; 53:6). David’s descendants are the legitimate heirs who rule over Zion to establish God’s universal kingdom (2:6; 110:2).<\/p>\n<p>Zion is symbolic of God’s protection and blessings (Pss 46:4-11; 48:1-14; 51:18; 128:5; 134:3). Anyone who trusts in the Lord is as secure as Mount Zion (125:1), but those who reject the Lord also reject the security of Zion and have no future (129:5-8).<\/p>\n<p>The New Testament speaks of Mount Zion as a heavenly Jerusalem, the spiritual home of those from all nations who have been reborn through faith in Jesus Christ (Heb 12:22-24; see also Gal 4:24-26; Rev 3:12; 21:2-4). Abraham looked forward in faith to “a city with eternal foundations” (Heb 11:10), a city in which all men and women of faith are citizens (Heb 12:22-24). Because the Lord knows no geographical limitations (1 Kgs 8:27), the true Zion he inhabits is the hearts of all who worship him.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>2 Sam 5:7; 1 Kgs 8:1; Pss 14:7; 48:1-14; 50:2; 51:18; 68:16; 78:68; 87:2, 5; 125:1; 128:5; 132:13; 133:3; 135:21; 147:12; Isa 1:27; 2:3; 3:16-17, 26; 4:3-5; 8:18; 10:12, 24, 32; 16:1; 24:23; 29:8; 30:19; 31:4, 9; 33:20; 37:22, 32; 40:9; 41:27; 52:1-2; 60:14; 62:1; 64:10; Jer 26:18; 51:35; Lam 2:13; Joel 2:32; 3:16-17; Amos 1:2; Obad 1:21; Mic 3:12; 4:2; Zeph 3:14, 16; Zech 1:14, 17; 2:7; 8:2-3; 9:9; Heb 12:22; Rev 14:1<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Zion<\/h3>\n<p>Zion is the Hebrew name for the mountain in Jerusalem where the Temple was located (2 Sam 5:7; see also 2 Chr 3:1). Zion is used as a synonym for Jerusalem, and the NLT often translates <em>Zion<\/em> as “Jerusalem” (e.g., Pss 69:35; 87:2; 97:8; 132:13). Thus Zion can refer to the actual, physical city of Jerusalem that was destroyed in 586 <span>BC<\/span> (see 102:13; 126:1; 137:1) and again in <span>AD<\/span> 70.<\/p>\n<p>Zion also signifies the city of God that transcends geographical location. Zion is God’s universal kingdom, the city in which he dwells (74:2; 76:2; 84:7; 135:21; see Isa 26). This city embodies trust, justice, righteousness, and commitment, for the Lord does not tolerate impurity, uncleanness, idolatry, injustice, or unrighteousness (Isa 1:21-28). The prophets and poets of Israel speak of the city of God as being more extensive than the physical city. The citizens of this city come from Judah, Israel, and the nations (see Ps 87:5-6; Heb 12:22-24). Zion is on a high mountain (Ps 48:2) at the center of God’s kingdom on earth (99:2; 132:13), and God’s throne is there (9:11). Therefore, godly prayers and praise focus on Zion (53:6; 65:1; 147:12; 149:2), and redemption is sought there (14:7; 20:2; 50:2; 53:6). David’s descendants are the legitimate heirs who rule over Zion to establish God’s universal kingdom (2:6; 110:2).<\/p>\n<p>Zion is symbolic of God’s protection and blessings (Pss 46:4-11; 48:1-14; 51:18; 128:5; 134:3). Anyone who trusts in the Lord is as secure as Mount Zion (125:1), but those who reject the Lord also reject the security of Zion and have no future (129:5-8).<\/p>\n<p>The New Testament speaks of Mount Zion as a heavenly Jerusalem, the spiritual home of those from all nations who have been reborn through faith in Jesus Christ (Heb 12:22-24; see also Gal 4:24-26; Rev 3:12; 21:2-4). Abraham looked forward in faith to “a city with eternal foundations” (Heb 11:10), a city in which all men and women of faith are citizens (Heb 12:22-24). Because the Lord knows no geographical limitations (1 Kgs 8:27), the true Zion he inhabits is the hearts of all who worship him.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>2 Sam 5:7; 1 Kgs 8:1; Pss 14:7; 48:1-14; 50:2; 51:18; 68:16; 78:68; 87:2, 5; 125:1; 128:5; 132:13; 133:3; 135:21; 147:12; Isa 1:27; 2:3; 3:16-17, 26; 4:3-5; 8:18; 10:12, 24, 32; 16:1; 24:23; 29:8; 30:19; 31:4, 9; 33:20; 37:22, 32; 40:9; 41:27; 52:1-2; 60:14; 62:1; 64:10; Jer 26:18; 51:35; Lam 2:13; Joel 2:32; 3:16-17; Amos 1:2; Obad 1:21; Mic 3:12; 4:2; Zeph 3:14, 16; Zech 1:14, 17; 2:7; 8:2-3; 9:9; Heb 12:22; Rev 14:1<\/p>","summary_ro":"Zion Zion is the Hebrew name for the mountain in Jerusalem where the Temple was located (2 Sam 5:7; see also 2 Chr 3:1). Zion is used as a synonym for Jerusalem, and the NLT often translates Zion as “Jerusalem” (e.g., Pss 69:35; 87:2; 97:8; 132:13). Thus Zion can refer to the actual, physical city of Jerusalem that was destroyed in 586 BC (see 102:13; 126:1; 137:1) and again in AD 70. Zion also signifies the city of God that transcends geographical location. Zion is God’s universal kingdom, t...","summary_en":"Zion Zion is the Hebrew name for the mountain in Jerusalem where the Temple was located (2 Sam 5:7; see also 2 Chr 3:1). Zion is used as a synonym for Jerusalem, and the NLT often translates Zion as “Jerusalem” (e.g., Pss 69:35; 87:2; 97:8; 132:13). Thus Zion can refer to the actual, physical city of Jerusalem that was destroyed in 586 BC (see 102:13; 126:1; 137:1) and again in AD 70. Zion also signifies the city of God that transcends geographical location. Zion is God’s universal kingdom, t...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":145822,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Zion","title_en":"Zion","content_ro":"<h3>Zion<\/h3>\n<p>Zion is the Hebrew name for the mountain in Jerusalem where the Temple was located (2 Sam 5:7; see also 2 Chr 3:1). Zion is used as a synonym for Jerusalem, and the NLT often translates <em>Zion<\/em> as “Jerusalem” (e.g., Pss 69:35; 87:2; 97:8; 132:13). Thus Zion can refer to the actual, physical city of Jerusalem that was destroyed in 586 <span>BC<\/span> (see 102:13; 126:1; 137:1) and again in <span>AD<\/span> 70.<\/p>\n<p>Zion also signifies the city of God that transcends geographical location. Zion is God’s universal kingdom, the city in which he dwells (74:2; 76:2; 84:7; 135:21; see Isa 26). This city embodies trust, justice, righteousness, and commitment, for the Lord does not tolerate impurity, uncleanness, idolatry, injustice, or unrighteousness (Isa 1:21-28). The prophets and poets of Israel speak of the city of God as being more extensive than the physical city. The citizens of this city come from Judah, Israel, and the nations (see Ps 87:5-6; Heb 12:22-24). Zion is on a high mountain (Ps 48:2) at the center of God’s kingdom on earth (99:2; 132:13), and God’s throne is there (9:11). Therefore, godly prayers and praise focus on Zion (53:6; 65:1; 147:12; 149:2), and redemption is sought there (14:7; 20:2; 50:2; 53:6). David’s descendants are the legitimate heirs who rule over Zion to establish God’s universal kingdom (2:6; 110:2).<\/p>\n<p>Zion is symbolic of God’s protection and blessings (Pss 46:4-11; 48:1-14; 51:18; 128:5; 134:3). Anyone who trusts in the Lord is as secure as Mount Zion (125:1), but those who reject the Lord also reject the security of Zion and have no future (129:5-8).<\/p>\n<p>The New Testament speaks of Mount Zion as a heavenly Jerusalem, the spiritual home of those from all nations who have been reborn through faith in Jesus Christ (Heb 12:22-24; see also Gal 4:24-26; Rev 3:12; 21:2-4). Abraham looked forward in faith to “a city with eternal foundations” (Heb 11:10), a city in which all men and women of faith are citizens (Heb 12:22-24). Because the Lord knows no geographical limitations (1 Kgs 8:27), the true Zion he inhabits is the hearts of all who worship him.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>2 Sam 5:7; 1 Kgs 8:1; Pss 14:7; 48:1-14; 50:2; 51:18; 68:16; 78:68; 87:2, 5; 125:1; 128:5; 132:13; 133:3; 135:21; 147:12; Isa 1:27; 2:3; 3:16-17, 26; 4:3-5; 8:18; 10:12, 24, 32; 16:1; 24:23; 29:8; 30:19; 31:4, 9; 33:20; 37:22, 32; 40:9; 41:27; 52:1-2; 60:14; 62:1; 64:10; Jer 26:18; 51:35; Lam 2:13; Joel 2:32; 3:16-17; Amos 1:2; Obad 1:21; Mic 3:12; 4:2; Zeph 3:14, 16; Zech 1:14, 17; 2:7; 8:2-3; 9:9; Heb 12:22; Rev 14:1<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Zion<\/h3>\n<p>Zion is the Hebrew name for the mountain in Jerusalem where the Temple was located (2 Sam 5:7; see also 2 Chr 3:1). Zion is used as a synonym for Jerusalem, and the NLT often translates <em>Zion<\/em> as “Jerusalem” (e.g., Pss 69:35; 87:2; 97:8; 132:13). Thus Zion can refer to the actual, physical city of Jerusalem that was destroyed in 586 <span>BC<\/span> (see 102:13; 126:1; 137:1) and again in <span>AD<\/span> 70.<\/p>\n<p>Zion also signifies the city of God that transcends geographical location. Zion is God’s universal kingdom, the city in which he dwells (74:2; 76:2; 84:7; 135:21; see Isa 26). This city embodies trust, justice, righteousness, and commitment, for the Lord does not tolerate impurity, uncleanness, idolatry, injustice, or unrighteousness (Isa 1:21-28). The prophets and poets of Israel speak of the city of God as being more extensive than the physical city. The citizens of this city come from Judah, Israel, and the nations (see Ps 87:5-6; Heb 12:22-24). Zion is on a high mountain (Ps 48:2) at the center of God’s kingdom on earth (99:2; 132:13), and God’s throne is there (9:11). Therefore, godly prayers and praise focus on Zion (53:6; 65:1; 147:12; 149:2), and redemption is sought there (14:7; 20:2; 50:2; 53:6). David’s descendants are the legitimate heirs who rule over Zion to establish God’s universal kingdom (2:6; 110:2).<\/p>\n<p>Zion is symbolic of God’s protection and blessings (Pss 46:4-11; 48:1-14; 51:18; 128:5; 134:3). Anyone who trusts in the Lord is as secure as Mount Zion (125:1), but those who reject the Lord also reject the security of Zion and have no future (129:5-8).<\/p>\n<p>The New Testament speaks of Mount Zion as a heavenly Jerusalem, the spiritual home of those from all nations who have been reborn through faith in Jesus Christ (Heb 12:22-24; see also Gal 4:24-26; Rev 3:12; 21:2-4). Abraham looked forward in faith to “a city with eternal foundations” (Heb 11:10), a city in which all men and women of faith are citizens (Heb 12:22-24). Because the Lord knows no geographical limitations (1 Kgs 8:27), the true Zion he inhabits is the hearts of all who worship him.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>2 Sam 5:7; 1 Kgs 8:1; Pss 14:7; 48:1-14; 50:2; 51:18; 68:16; 78:68; 87:2, 5; 125:1; 128:5; 132:13; 133:3; 135:21; 147:12; Isa 1:27; 2:3; 3:16-17, 26; 4:3-5; 8:18; 10:12, 24, 32; 16:1; 24:23; 29:8; 30:19; 31:4, 9; 33:20; 37:22, 32; 40:9; 41:27; 52:1-2; 60:14; 62:1; 64:10; Jer 26:18; 51:35; Lam 2:13; Joel 2:32; 3:16-17; Amos 1:2; Obad 1:21; Mic 3:12; 4:2; Zeph 3:14, 16; Zech 1:14, 17; 2:7; 8:2-3; 9:9; Heb 12:22; Rev 14:1<\/p>","summary_ro":"Zion Zion is the Hebrew name for the mountain in Jerusalem where the Temple was located (2 Sam 5:7; see also 2 Chr 3:1). Zion is used as a synonym for Jerusalem, and the NLT often translates Zion as “Jerusalem” (e.g., Pss 69:35; 87:2; 97:8; 132:13). Thus Zion can refer to the actual, physical city of Jerusalem that was destroyed in 586 BC (see 102:13; 126:1; 137:1) and again in AD 70. Zion also signifies the city of God that transcends geographical location. Zion is God’s universal kingdom, t...","summary_en":"Zion Zion is the Hebrew name for the mountain in Jerusalem where the Temple was located (2 Sam 5:7; see also 2 Chr 3:1). Zion is used as a synonym for Jerusalem, and the NLT often translates Zion as “Jerusalem” (e.g., Pss 69:35; 87:2; 97:8; 132:13). Thus Zion can refer to the actual, physical city of Jerusalem that was destroyed in 586 BC (see 102:13; 126:1; 137:1) and again in AD 70. Zion also signifies the city of God that transcends geographical location. Zion is God’s universal kingdom, t...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"13":[{"id":1755,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Animals","title_en":"Animals","content_ro":"<h3>ANIMALS<\/h3>\n<p>In biblical usage, all members of the animal kingdom. Animals are mentioned throughout the Bible from Genesis to Revelation. Animals figured in many important biblical events, including the Creation, the fall of man, the Flood, the ten plagues in Egypt, the Hebrew worship system, and the life of Jesus Christ. The people of both OT and NT times lived close to the land and were well acquainted with various animals so that the scriptural writers and Jesus himself frequently used animals as object lessons.<\/p>\n<p>The biblical approach to classification of animals is somewhat different from the system of classification used by biologists today. The present system of classification, which traces back to Carolus Linnaeus (an 18th-century Swedish botanist), is based on structure, both internal and external. The biblical basis of classification is habitat. Thus Genesis 1 speaks of aquatic organisms (v 20); aerial organisms (v 21); animals that crawl on the ground (v 24); cattle or domesticated animals (animals that live in association with humans) (v 24); and wild animals (v 24). The same system of classification is followed in Leviticus 11 and throughout Scripture.<\/p>\n<p>Because of the divergence between systems of classification, the various animals of the Bible will be listed here in alphabetical order—including reptiles, fish, and even invertebrates such as insects, spiders, worms, and sponges. Birds are discussed in a separate article.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Adder<\/p>\n<p>• Ant<\/p>\n<p>• Antelope<\/p>\n<p>• Ape<\/p>\n<p>• Asp<\/p>\n<p>• Ass<\/p>\n<p>• Badger<\/p>\n<p>• Bat<\/p>\n<p>• Bear<\/p>\n<p>• Bee<\/p>\n<p>• Behemoth<\/p>\n<p>• Camel<\/p>\n<p>• Caterpillar<\/p>\n<p>• Cattle<\/p>\n<p>• Chameleon<\/p>\n<p>• Coral<\/p>\n<p>• Cricket<\/p>\n<p>• Crocodile<\/p>\n<p>• Deer<\/p>\n<p>• Dog<\/p>\n<p>• Donkey<\/p>\n<p>• Dragon<\/p>\n<p>• Fish<\/p>\n<p>• Flea<\/p>\n<p>• Fly<\/p>\n<p>• Fox<\/p>\n<p>• Frog<\/p>\n<p>• Gazelle<\/p>\n<p>• Gecko<\/p>\n<p>• Gnat<\/p>\n<p>• Goat<\/p>\n<p>• Grasshopper<\/p>\n<p>• Hare<\/p>\n<p>• Hippopotamus<\/p>\n<p>• Horse<\/p>\n<p>• Hyena<\/p>\n<p>• Jackal<\/p>\n<p>• Leech<\/p>\n<p>• Leopard<\/p>\n<p>• Leviathan<\/p>\n<p>• Lion<\/p>\n<p>• Lizard<\/p>\n<p>• Locust<\/p>\n<p>• Mole<\/p>\n<p>• Moth<\/p>\n<p>• Mouse<\/p>\n<p>• Mule<\/p>\n<p>• Pig<\/p>\n<p>• Porcupine<\/p>\n<p>• Scorpion<\/p>\n<p>• Sheep<\/p>\n<p>• Snail<\/p>\n<p>• Snake<\/p>\n<p>• Spider<\/p>\n<p>• Sponge<\/p>\n<p>• Unicorn<\/p>\n<p>• Wasp<\/p>\n<p>• Whale<\/p>\n<p>• Wild Ox<\/p>\n<p>• Wolf<\/p>\n<p>• Worm<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Adder\">Adder<\/p>\n<p>One of the 20 poisonous snakes found in Israel and surrounding countries, also referred to as cockatrice and viper. True vipers (genus <em>Cerastes, Echis colorata,<\/em> and <em>Vipera palestina<\/em>) also exist there, poisonous snakes with curved fangs that spring into position when the snake strikes. The horned viper <em>(Cerastes hasselquistii)<\/em> may attack horses. It is 12 to 18 inches (30 to 46 centimeters) long and often lies in ambush in the sand with only its eyes and the hornlike protrusions on its head visible.<\/p>\n<p>Both Jesus and John the Baptist referred to the viper several times (Mt 3:7; 12:34; 23:33). The reference in Acts 28:3 is probably to a small viper <em>(Vipera aspis)<\/em> that strikes rapidly and is very pugnacious. It is found in southern Europe and hisses each time it inhales and exhales. The poison of vipers attacks the respiratory system and disintegrates red blood cells.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Snake (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Ant\">Ant<\/p>\n<p>Mentioned only twice in the Bible, both times in the book of Proverbs. For many years Solomon was charged with a biological error when he referred to the ant as providing her meat in the summer and gathering her food in the harvest (Prv 6:8). Critics of the Bible were quick to point out that, so far as was then known, ants do not store up food. They assumed that Solomon had probably kicked open an ant hill and mistaken the pupal cases (pods in which immature ants grow to maturity) for grain or had observed ants carrying bits of grain, leaves, and other matter to their nests.<\/p>\n<p>At least three species of grain-storing ants are now known—two occur in Israel and the other in Mediterranean countries. The particular species referred to by Solomon (Prv 6:6-8; 30:24-25) is probably the harvester ant <em>(Messor semirufus).<\/em> Its granaries are flat chambers connected by galleries irregularly scattered over an area about six feet (1.8 meters) in diameter and about a foot (.3 meter) deep in the ground. Seeds are collected from the ground or picked from plants. The head, or radicle, which is the softest part of the kernel, is bitten off to prevent germination, and the chaff and empty capsules are discarded on kitchen middens (refuse piles) outside the nest. Individual granaries may be 5 inches (12.7 centimeters) in diameter and a half inch (1.2 centimeters) high. Some nests are known to be 40 feet (12 meters) in diameter and 6 to 7 feet (approx. 2 meters) deep with several entrances.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Antelope\">Antelope<\/p>\n<p>Several antelope-like creatures are referred to in the Scriptures. One seems to be the white oryx <em>(Oryx leucoryx),<\/em> referred to in Deuteronomy 14:5 (<span>kjv<\/span> “wild ox”; <span>rsv<\/span> “antelope”) and Isaiah 51:20 (<span>kjv<\/span> “wild bull”; <span>RSV <\/span>“antelope”). The oryx was probably the antelope, commonly used for food because its long horns made it relatively easy to catch.<\/p>\n<p>Another antelope mentioned in the Bible is the addax <em>(Addax nasomaculatus),<\/em> probably the “pygarg” of Deuteronomy 14:5 (<span>kjv<\/span>). It is a native of North Africa with grayish white hinder parts, a white patch on the forehead, and twisted and ringed horns. The word “pygarg” comes from a Greek word meaning “white rump.” The addax is about the size of a donkey. Its body is closely covered with short hair. It has a short mane on the underside of its neck that makes the head look somewhat like that of a goat. The hooves are broad and flat, and the tail resembles that of a donkey. It is common in Africa and in Arabia, where Arabs hunt it with falcons and dogs.<\/p>\n<p>Antelopes are very graceful and run with their heads held high. Both sexes have long, permanent, hollow horns. With the oryx the horns go straight back; addax horns are twisted and ringed. Antelope are alert, wary, and keen sighted. They are usually found in herds of from two to a dozen. If injured or brought to bay, an antelope attacks with its head lowered so that the sharp horns point forward. Antelopes feed on grasses and shrubs, drinking from streams and water holes. When water is scarce, they eat melons and succulent bulbs. Both addax and oryx were ceremonially clean in Jewish law.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Ape\">Ape<\/p>\n<p>Primate not native to Palestine. The two references to apes in the OT (1 Kgs 10:22; 2 Chr 9:21) refer to their importation by King Solomon with other treasures on board the ships of his mercantile fleet. There is some question concerning the origin of those primates. Some believe that the mention of “ivory” in the same verses suggests they came from East Africa and that they were indeed apes, that is, tailless primates. Others, believing they came from India or Ceylon, suggest that they were actually monkeys. There the baboon (genus Papeio), a large monkey, was considered sacred to the god Thoth. Males of that genus were kept in temples, and the more docile females were often kept as house pets. Such baboons frequently had some of their teeth removed or ground down to lessen the danger of their biting. A number of mummified baboons have been found in Egypt, indicating the high regard in which they were held.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Asp\">Asp<\/p>\n<p>Poisonous snake. Most biblical references to the asp (Dt 32:33) seem to be to the Egyptian cobra <em>(Naja haje),<\/em> which conceals itself in holes, walls, and rocks and has the ability to expand its neck by raising its anterior ribs so as to enlarge the front of its breast into the shape of a flat disc. Its potent poison can cause death in 30 minutes. It attains a length of about 80 inches (2 meters). The fangs are permanently erect, not movable as in the vipers (the common poisonous snakes of North America; only the coral snake in America has permanently erect fangs). Cobra poison attacks the nervous system, causing muscular paralysis. The Egyptians looked upon it as a sacred creature; they regarded it as a protector since it fed on the rodents that ate their crops. The “fiery serpents” (Nm 21:6; Dt 8:15, both <span>rsv<\/span>) may have been cobras; “fiery” probably refers to the burning fever caused by their venom. Isaiah 14:29 and 30:6 (“flying serpent”) may refer to the hood of the cobra.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Snake (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Ass\">Ass<\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Donkey (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Badger\">Badger<\/p>\n<p>Small hoofed mammal. What the <span>kjv<\/span> calls a “coney,” modern translations name “rock badger” (Lv 11:5; Dt 14:7; Ps 104:18; Prv 30:26). The rock badger spoken of in the Bible is probably the Syrian rock hyrax <em>(Hyrax syriaca),<\/em> the only species of hyrax found outside Africa. This small ungulate (having hooflike toenails) lives among rocks from the Dead Sea valley to Mt Hermon. It is strictly a herbivorous (plant-eating) animal about the size of a rabbit. It resembles a guinea pig more than a rabbit, having quite inconspicuous ears and a very small tail. It has broad nails with four toes on its forelegs and three on its hind legs, the toes being connected with skin almost like a web. Pads acting as sucking discs under its feet enable it to keep its footing on slippery rocks. With its yellow and brown fur, it is sometimes called the bear rat because of its resemblance to a tailless rat. It is also equipped with black whiskers that may be seven inches (17.8 centimeters) long.<\/p>\n<p>These rock badgers, or hyraxes, live together in colonies of from 6 to 50 animals, often sunning themselves on rocks. They are difficult to catch. Guards are posted, and if approaching danger is sighted, the whole group will scurry for cover, warned by the sharp whistles of the guards. Thus they are commended for taking refuge in the rocks (Ps 104:18) and are called wise for making “their houses in the rocks” (Prv 30:24, 26, <span>kjv<\/span>). The badger is not a ruminant (does not chew its cud), but the motion of its jaws may suggest that it chews its cud. That is probably why it was included with other cud-chewing animals in the Jewish food laws (Lv 11:5; Dt 14:7). It was forbidden to the Jews as food because it did not have cloven hooves. Some Arabs eat and even prize its meat.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Bat\">Bat<\/p>\n<p>Flying mammals according to modern classification. They have hair and provide milk for their young. The Bible classifies them with other aerial creatures. Bats take shelter in caves, crevices, tree cavities, buildings, and also in exposed places on trees. In colder areas they hibernate or migrate. The normal resting position for a bat is hanging head downward. Bats “swim” through the air rather than fly because they move with their legs as well as with their wings.<\/p>\n<p>The bat’s thumb is free and terminates in a single hook claw used for climbing and hanging. The hind feet have five toes, all pointing the same way. The large chest accommodates the powerful muscles needed for flying. Because they orient themselves by echo location, the sense of hearing is very well developed.<\/p>\n<p>Most bats are insect eaters, seizing insects in flight. Many insectivorous bats also eat some fruit. Other bats feed exclusively, usually in groups, on fruit and green vegetation. Fruit-eating bats generally live in the tropics where fruit is constantly ripening, although some have been found in the Holy Land. These bats tend to be larger than the insectivores, having a wingspread of up to five feet (1.5 meters).<\/p>\n<p>A third group includes flower-eating bats that feed on pollen and nectar. These small bats with long pointed heads and long tongues are found only in tropical and semitropical regions. Three species of vampire bats, which do not occur in the Holy Land, eat blood by making a small incision and lapping it up. Carnivorous (meat-eating) bats prey on birds, lizards, and frogs. Fish-eating bats catch fish at or near the water surface.<\/p>\n<p>Eight varieties of bats are known in the Holy Land. One of them, the little brown bat (genus <em>Myotis<\/em>), is worldwide in its distribution. It is insectivorous and probably has the widest distribution of any nonhuman terrestrial mammal. Brown bats are mostly cave dwellers. The females form maternity colonies that may number in the tens of thousands.<\/p>\n<p>Two species of mouse-tailed bats (genus <em>Rhinopoma<\/em>) are found in the Holy Land. Their tails are nearly as long as the head and body combined. They are colonial, roosting in caves, rock clefts, wells, pyramids, palaces, and houses. Like the brown bat, they are insectivorous. The slit-faced or hollow-faced bats (genus <em>Nycteris<\/em>) are also found in the Holy Land. They are insectivorous and roost in groups from 6 to 20.<\/p>\n<p>The bats found in the Holy Land vary in size from that of a mouse to the size of a rat; the largest species measures more than 20 inches (51 centimeters) across the wings. The bat was unclean to the Jews (Lv 11:19; Dt 14:18).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Bear\">Bear<\/p>\n<p>Large, heavy, big-headed mammal with short, powerful limbs, a short tail, and small eyes and ears. Bears have a “plantigrade” walk: they walk on both the sole and heel as humans do. The Palestinian bear is a Syrian version of the brown bear <em>(Ursus arctos syriacus).<\/em> It can grow to a height of 6 feet (1.8 meters) and may weigh as much as 500 pounds (227 kilograms).<\/p>\n<p>Bears have an excellent sense of smell but less developed senses of sight and hearing. They are omnivorous (eating any kind of food); they subsist largely on vegetation, fruits, insects, and fish.<\/p>\n<p>Bears are usually peaceful and inoffensive, but if they think they must defend themselves (Lam 3:10) or their young (2 Sm 17:8; Prv 17:12; Hos 13:8), they may be formidable and dangerous adversaries. David boasted of his role as a bear killer (1 Sm 17:34-37). Since a blow from a bear’s paw can be fatal, David’s courage and strength as a young shepherd in running after a bear and wrenching one of his father’s sheep from its jaws were noteworthy.<\/p>\n<p>Some biblical passages seem to imply that bears attacked for no apparent reason (e.g., Prv 28:15; Am 5:19). At other times they were God’s instruments of punishment, as in the story of Elisha and the two she-bears (2 Kgs 2:24). The bear and the lion, often mentioned together in the Bible (1 Sm 17:37), were the two largest and strongest beasts of prey in the Holy Land. Thus they symbolized both strength and terror (Am 5:19).<\/p>\n<p>In biblical times bears seem to have roamed all over Palestine. Today they are found only in the Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon Mountains, and even there they are rare.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Bee\">Bee<\/p>\n<p>One of two domesticated insects <em>(Apis mellifica),<\/em> the other being the silkworm. Bees gather nectar from flowers, transferring pollen from one flower to another in the process. It is believed that they convey the location of sources of nectar to other bees through a bee “dance,” which may indicate both distance and direction. Bees are sensitive to four colors: blue-green, yellow-green, blue-violet, and ultra-violet (invisible to humans).<\/p>\n<p>The wild bees of the Holy Land are especially noted for their ferocity in attack. Only the female “worker” bees sting people and animals, the virulence of their venom increasing in warm weather. A number of biblical passages allude to the irritable, vindictive nature of bees and to the painful stings they inflict (Dt 1:44; Ps 118:12; Is 7:18).<\/p>\n<p>One reference calls attention to the fact that in semidesert regions a dead animal’s carcass, stripped to the bone by jackals or vultures and dried in the sun, can provide wild bees an excellent place to start a new colony (Jgs 14:5-9).<\/p>\n<p>The Egyptians considered the bee sacred. In ancient Greece candles were made from beeswax. In the Holy Land, beekeeping was probably not practiced until the Hellenistic period (second century <span>BC<\/span>), although Ezekiel 27:17 suggests that it may have been practiced earlier. If domestic honey was not available to the Hebrews, wild honey certainly was, and travelers would be on the lookout for caches of honey in rocky clefts and other likely places. The Philistines and the Hittites practiced beekeeping in their cities.<\/p>\n<p>The Bible contains many references to bees and bee products. A bee swarm was a valuable asset, though the price of honey itself was low. Honey was sometimes eaten with the honeycomb (Sg 5:1). Honey also had uses other than food, e.g., in embalming.<\/p>\n<p>The land of Israel was described as a land flowing with milk and honey. Honey was a major source of sweetening in the ancient Near East—hence, its importance (cf. Jgs 14:8-9). Actually the Hebrew word for “honey” may include not only bee honey but also the sweet syrup extracted from such fruits as figs, dates, and grapes. Thus “a land flowing with milk and honey” (Ex 3:8, <span>rsv<\/span>) does not necessarily stand for a land of bees but for a land rich in sweetness.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Food and Food Preparation; Honey.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Behemoth\">Behemoth<\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Hippopotamus (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Camel\">Camel<\/p>\n<p>Large beast of burden. Unintelligent, ill-natured, and quarrelsome, the camel <em>(Camelus dromedarius)<\/em> is nevertheless a blessing to people living in the desert and on its borders because it is especially adapted to that habitat. It has been called the ship of the desert. Having thick elastic pads of fibrous tissue on its feet, it can walk on hot desert sands. It can go without water for long periods and can subsist on vegetation growing on the saline soils. The camel’s nostrils are pinched together and can be closed at will to prevent penetration of sand during violent sandstorms.<\/p>\n<p>Camels are used for transporting both goods and people. A person riding a camel can cover from 60 to 75 miles (96.5 to 121 kilometers) in a day. A camel can carry a load weighing 600 pounds (272 kilograms) or more. Camels were used heavily in the spice trade (Gn 37:25) and traveled regularly in camel trains between Arabia, Egypt, and Assyria. They were also ridden in time of war (Jgs 6:5). A camel can even be hitched to a plow in areas where the land is cultivated.<\/p>\n<p>The hair shed by camels during the early spring is preserved and used in weaving cloth and making tents. As much as 10 pounds (4.5 kilograms) of hair can be obtained from one camel. A rough cloak of camel’s hair, as worn by John the Baptist (Mt 3:4), is still worn by Bedouins today. A camel’s hair garment was also the sign of the prophetic office (Zec 13:4).<\/p>\n<p>Two varieties of camel occur within the one-humped species, the slow burden-bearing camel referred to in Genesis 37:25 and the fast dromedary of 1 Samuel 30:17. The dromedary can stand seven feet (2.1 meters) tall and measure as much as nine feet (2.7 meters) from the muzzle to the tip of the tail. With its three-chambered stomach, which can hold from 15 to 30 quarts (14.2 to 28.4 liters) of liquid, it can go for as long as 5 days during the summer or 25 days in winter without drinking. The camel’s hump is a reserve store of fat, making it possible for the animal to subsist on very little food during a desert journey.<\/p>\n<p>Another species of camel, the Bactrian camel <em>(Camelus bactrianus),<\/em> is also resident in the Holy Land. It has two humps. It is heavier, bigger, and has longer hair than the one-humped camel and is slower than the swift dromedary. Isaiah 21:7 may refer to the Bactrian camel; both kinds of camel are referred to in Esther 8:10 (<span>kjv<\/span>). Camels ranked in importance with sheep, cattle, and asses in OT times. A third of the 66 biblical references to the camel lists it with other animals.<\/p>\n<p>Camels are ruminants (cud-chewing mammals) but do not have cloven hooves. Thus, they were included in the list of unclean beasts, forbidden by the Israelites as food (Lv 11:4; Dt 14:7). They are eaten by Arabs, however, who also drink their milk (cf. Gn 32:15).<\/p>\n<p>Abraham had camels in Egypt (Gn 12:16). At first Job had 3,000 camels (Jb 1:3) and after his recovery, 6,000 (Jb 42:12). Although wide use of camels does not seem to have begun until shortly before 1000 <span>BC<\/span> (Jgs 6:5), Sumerian texts from the Old Babylonian period list camels and indicate that they had been domesticated. Camel bones and figurines have been found at various eastern archaeological sites dating from well before 1200 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Travel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Caterpillar\">Caterpillar<\/p>\n<p>Larval stage of insects characterized by complete metamorphosis. Such insects pass through four stages: egg, larva or caterpillar, pupa, and adult. Bees, flies, moths, and butterflies all pass through a larval or caterpillar stage.<\/p>\n<p>The word “caterpillar” occurs three times in the <span>nlt<\/span> (1 Kgs 8:37; 2 Chr 6:28; Ps 78:46). In the book of Joel that same Hebrew word is translated “locust” (1:4; 2:25, <span>nlt<\/span>). The locust and grasshopper to which the Hebrew word refers have an incomplete type of metamorphosis with only three stages: egg, nymph, and adult. The nymph is a miniature adult in which the wings are not fully developed, though their outline may be present. There are several nymph stages known as instars. The reference is to one of the last instars, in which the wing structures are still folded together and enclosed in a sac but are nevertheless clearly recognizable. That form of the insect is about an inch (2.5 centimeters) long.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Locust (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cattle\">Cattle<\/p>\n<p>Domestic animals of the bovine species <em>(Bos primigenius).<\/em> The OT often emphasized the beauty of cattle. Egypt was rich in cattle, especially in the Nile River delta area (Goshen), where the Hebrews settled under Joseph.<\/p>\n<p>Some scholars believe that milk rather than meat was the foremost consideration in the domestication of cattle and that in early civilizations meat supplies came chiefly from wild game. Cattle also supplied strong hides that supplanted wood in the manufacture of shields. Their dung was a source of fuel when wood was scarce (Ez 4:15). They were used as beasts of burden and for plowing. Development of wheeled transportation was associated more closely with cattle than with any other animal.<\/p>\n<p>The biblical term “cattle” often refers to all domesticated animals or livestock (Gn 1:24; 2:20; 7:23; 47:6, 16-17; Ex 9:3-7; Nm 3:41, 45). Occasionally, the term was used to refer to all large domestic animals (Nm 31:9; 32:26), although sometimes the word as used in the <span>kjv<\/span> refers only to sheep and goats (Gn 30:32, 39, 43; 31:8, 10; Is 7:25; 43:23).<\/p>\n<p>Probably several kinds of cattle were domesticated in the Holy Land. Small, short-legged, black or brown shorthorn cattle were found in the southern part of Judah; that type submitted easily to the yoke and was prominent in agricultural operations. Along the coast a larger variety was found, and the wild districts east of the Jordan River were populated with a breed of huge black cattle.<\/p>\n<p>Cattle breeding was widely practiced by the patriarchs (cf. Gn 32:15; Jb 21:10). Strict laws in Mesopotamia, as well as in Israel, penalized the owner of a bull that gored a man or other cattle (Ex 21:28-36). Bulls were sometimes employed figuratively as pictures of strength or violence (Dt 33:17; Pss 22:12; 68:30; Is 10:13). For breeding purposes one bull is normally adequate for about 30 cows, but many more were kept since bulls were widely used in Israel for sacrifices. They might be used as a general sacrifice (Lv 22:23; Nm 23:1) or for special sacrifices (Jgs 6:25; 1 Sm 1:24). Particular sacrifices were offered at the consecration of priests (Ex 29:1), consecration of an altar (Nm 7), purification of the Levites (Nm 8), sin offerings (Lv 16), day of the new moon (Nm 28:11-14), Passover (Nm 28:19), Feast of Weeks (Nm 28:27), Feast of Trumpets (Nm 29:1-2), Day of Atonement (Nm 29:7-9), and the Feast of Tabernacles (Nm 29:12-38). The Feast of Tabernacles required the largest number of bulls for burnt offerings of all the annual feasts, with a total of 71 being slaughtered during the course of eight days.<\/p>\n<p>Calves were sometimes referred to as “sons of the herd” in the original Hebrew (Gn 18:8; 1 Sm 6:7; 14:32). The calf, a symbol of peacefulness (Is 11:6), was also used figuratively to refer to the weak (Ps 68:30). A calf’s head decorated the back of Solomon’s throne (1 Kgs 10:19). Calves were sometimes fattened in stalls to keep them from running off weight in the field (Am 6:4; Mal 4:2; Lk 15:23) or were kept around the house; the witch of Endor kept a calf in her house that she killed and served to Saul and his men (1 Sm 28:24-25). Calves supplied veal (Gn 18:7), considered a delicacy by the wealthy; Amos referred to stall-fattened calves in a denunciation of luxurious and careless living (Am 6:4). Calves also supplied meat for all Saul’s armies at the great slaughter of the Philistines (1 Sm 14:32). The “fatted calf” served roasted or boiled was gourmet fare, suitable for the finest banquet (Gn 18:7; Mt 22:4; Lk 15:23).<\/p>\n<p>Cattle were subject to the law of firstlings (Ex 13:12). They were a mark of wealth (Gn 13:2) and were considered proper booty of war (Jos 8:2). Aaron, the first high priest, made a golden calf as a rival to the ark of the covenant (Ex 32; Dt 9:16, 21). Even though he represented the calf as an image of the invisible God, it was especially offensive because the calf was a fertility symbol related to Egyptian and Canaanite practices. Two calves were later made by Jeroboam I of Israel (930–909 <span>BC<\/span>) for his shrines at Bethel and Dan (1 Kgs 12:28-33). Hosea’s prophetic denunciations of calf worship were directed at those shrines (Hos 8:5-6; 13:2).<\/p>\n<p>An ox is an adult castrated bull. A steer is a young ox. Oxen were used to do work (Nm 7:3; Dt 22:10; 25:4), though for moving heavy objects, cows were typically favored over bulls because of their more docile nature. Oxen were also used as pack animals (1 Chr 12:40, although they did not have the endurance of the ass, camel, or mule. They usually fed on grass (Nm 22:4; Ps 106:20), but they also ate straw (Is 11:7) and salted fodder (Is 30:24) and could be kept in a stable (Lk 13:15). Oxen could not be offered as sacrifices because they had been castrated (Lv 22:24). They could be used for food but were rarely eaten. Possession of an ox and an ass was regarded as the bare minimum for existence in the ancient Palestinian agriculture economy (Jb 24:3; cf. Ex 20:17).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Agriculture; Food and Food Preparation; Offerings and Sacrifices.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Chameleon\">Chameleon<\/p>\n<p>Lizard characterized by its ability to change color according to its surroundings <em>(Chameleon vulgaris).<\/em> To the Israelites the chameleon was ritually unclean (Lv 11:30). The Hebrew word for chameleon is derived from a word meaning “to pant.” A lizard’s lungs are very large, and in ancient times lizards were believed to live on air. A chameleon’s eyes move independently of each other; so at times one eye may be turned upward and the other downward. Chameleons live in trees and bushes, clinging to branches with their long tails.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Lizard (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Coral\">Coral<\/p>\n<p>Calcareous (lime-containing) skeletons of relatively simple marine organisms <em>(Corallium rubrum).<\/em> Red coral from the Mediterranean and Red Seas is widely used for jewelry and for medicinal purposes. While the animal is alive, the coral is green in color and shrublike in appearance, looking rather like an underwater plant since the coral animals are immobil. When the coral is removed from the water, it becomes hard and red in color.<\/p>\n<p>In ancient times coral was sometimes used as money, along with precious stones, pearls, and gold. Some believe the biblical reference in Lamentations 4:7 (<span>rsv<\/span>) is to pearls rather than to coral, but it is probable that the references in Job 28:18 and Ezekiel 27:16 are to the red coral (see <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cricket\">Cricket<\/p>\n<p>Insect of the order Orthptera related to grasshoppers and locusts. According to Leviticus 11:22, the cricket was edible. The reference may be to one of the growth stages of the locust.<\/p>\n<p>The <span>kjv<\/span> translates the Hebrew word as “beetle.” Beetles are insects with chewing mouth parts and two pairs of wings, the fore pair being hard and sheathlike and the hind pair being membranous and folded under the fore pair. Some beetles are carnivorous, others are chiefly herbivorous. Some are aquatic, some produce a secretion that blisters the skin, some damage fabrics, some damage crops, and some feed on other insects that are harmful to humans. In ancient Egypt the beetle, or sacred scarab, was a symbol of the sun god Ra. Scarab seals and amulets were extremely popular in Egypt.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Crocodile\">Crocodile<\/p>\n<p>Largest of all existing reptiles <em>(Crocodilus vulgaris),<\/em> attaining a length of well over 20 feet (6 meters). Crocodiles are characterized by large lizardlike bodies supported by short legs. The head terminates in a flattened snout armed with strong conical teeth, each of which is implanted in a distinct socket. New teeth growing from beneath continually replace those in use. The toes are webbed. The back and tail are protected by quadrangular horny shields of varying sizes arranged in regular rows and in contact with one another at the edges. The eyes are covered with movable lids that can be closed when the animal enters the water.<\/p>\n<p>The crocodile spends most of its time in the water where it feeds mainly on fish but also on aquatic birds and even small animals that come down to the water’s edge to drink. It is surprisingly fast and agile on dry land, even though its legs are so short that its belly and tail drag across the earth leaving a distinct path.<\/p>\n<p>Until the beginning of the 20th century, the crocodile was found in the marshes and small coastal rivers of western Palestine. A first-century Roman writer, Pliny, referred to a place in the Holy Land called Crocodeilopolis (“crocodile city”) to the south of Mt Carmel, and visitors to the Holy Land as late as the 19th century reported seeing crocodiles in that general region.<\/p>\n<p>The description of “Leviathan” in Job 41 seems to be based on the crocodile (thus the translation of the <span>nlt<\/span>). The “dragon” of Ezekiel 29:3, used figuratively of the Egyptian pharaoh, may be a reference to the crocodile.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Deer\">Deer<\/p>\n<p>Large ruminant (cud-chewing) animals. Only the males have antlers (branching horns). Deer antlers grow annually and are solid, in contrast to those of the antelope and the gazelle. Fully developed antlers are devoid of any covering of skin or horn and, for all practical purposes, may be regarded as a mass of dead bone carried for a certain time by the living animal.<\/p>\n<p>The end of the deer’s muzzle is naked in all species. The stomach is divided into a series of compartments, some of which are used to store partly chewed food. The food is later regurgitated, rechewed, and finally swallowed into a section of the stomach where true digestion takes place.<\/p>\n<p>Three species of deer were known in Palestine: the red deer <em>(Cervus elaphus),<\/em> the Persian fallow deer <em>(Dama mesopotamica),<\/em> and the roe deer <em>(Capreolus capreolus).<\/em> All are now extinct there. The last deer were hunted in the Holy Land in 1914. The red deer referred to in the Bible as “hart” (male), “stag” (male), or “hind” (female) stood about four feet (1.2 meters) high at the shoulder. It was gregarious (living in herds or flocks), each group remaining in a definite territory. Red deer grazed and browsed during the morning and late afternoon (Lam 1:6). The sexes remained in separate herds. The red deer was known for its leaping (Is 35:6) and sure-footedness in the mountains (Ps 18:33; Sg 2:8-9, 17; 8:14; Hb 3:19).<\/p>\n<p>The antlers of the Persian fallow deer (1 Kgs 4:23) were large, flattened, and palmated (shaped like an open palm with fingers extended), and its coat was a yellowbrown. It traveled in small groups, feeding mainly on grass in the morning and evening.<\/p>\n<p>The roe deer (Dt 14:5; 1 Kgs 4:23) was a small, graceful animal, dark reddish brown in summer and yellowish gray in winter. Its antlers were about a foot (30.5 centimeters) long and had three points. The roe deer preferred sparsely wooded valleys and the lower slopes of mountains, grazing in open grasslands. It usually associated in family groups made up of the doe and her offspring. They were shy, yet very curious. The roe deer barked like a dog when disturbed, and they were excellent swimmers.<\/p>\n<p>There is some question as to whether the roe deer is actually referred to in such passages as 1 Kings 4:23; references may be to the fallow deer, although that animal does not seem to have lived in the southern part of Palestine around the Sinai Desert because of its need for ample amounts of food and water. Fallow deer were found in northern Palestine.<\/p>\n<p>The hart (the male red deer) was listed among the clean beasts that Jewish law permitted as food (Dt 12:15, 22; 14:5), but deer were not listed among the animals appropriate for sacrifice. The hind (female red deer) normally gave birth to one calf at a time, though twins were born with some degree of regularity (Jb 39:1; Ps 29:9, <span>kjv<\/span>; Jer 14:5). The gestation period was about 40 weeks. When it was about to give birth, the hind looked for a secure hiding place, preferably in the dense undergrowth of the forest where it could find natural protection for the tiny calf. During the first few days after birth, the mother never went far from her young. The fawn was able to stand on its own legs a few hours after birth. The solicitous care by the hind for her calf during the first days of its life is hinted at in a touching way in Jeremiah 14:4-5, where only a severe drought is said to drive the hind from her calf. Job 39:1-4 describes the calving of the hinds. The hind illustrated grace and charm (Gn 49:21; Prv 5:19), and its dark, gentle eyes and graceful limbs were used to describe the beauty of a woman (Prv 5:18-19).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Dog\">Dog<\/p>\n<p>Probably the earliest domesticated animal <em>(Canis familiaris),<\/em> used very early in hunting. The modern dog is believed to have come from the Indian wolf <em>(Canis lupus pallipes).<\/em> The dogs of biblical times probably looked like a modern German shepherd, with short pointed ears, a pointed nose, and a long tail.<\/p>\n<p>The dog was generally looked down upon in biblical times (Prv 26:11; 2 Pt 2:22). The biblical writers did not share modern sentiments about dogs being man’s best friends. The dog was pictured as a scavenger, haunting streets and dumps (Ex 22:31; 1 Kgs 22:38; Mt 15:26; Lk 16:21). Human corpses could become the spoil of dogs (2 Kgs 9:35-36). In general, dogs served the same function as vultures and other birds of prey. Most of the 41 references in the Scriptures to dogs show strong disfavor. Dogs were considered cowardly, filthy creatures.<\/p>\n<p>Dogs used in hunting occur in paintings in Egyptian tombs, and there is a reference to dogs herding sheep in Job 30:1. One good quality of dogs highly esteemed by the Israelites was watchfulness (Is 56:10). In general, however, in biblical times “dog” was a term of contempt (1 Sm 17:43; 2 Sm 16:9) and was used of overly submissive persons (2 Sm 9:8; 2 Kgs 8:13) and of evil persons (Is 56:10-11; Mt 7:6; Phil 3:2; Rv 22:15).<\/p>\n<p>Dogs, like pigs, were voracious and omnivorous (eating any kind of food). In response to a Gentile woman’s request that he heal her daughter, Jesus used the metaphor of throwing household food scraps to dogs (Mt 15:22-28; Mk 7:25-30). At the time of Jesus, the word “dog” was a standard Jewish term of contempt for Gentiles who, like dogs, were considered unclean, although the diminutive form of the word, used by Jesus, softened this considerably. Seeing her faith, Jesus granted the woman’s request, giving a non-Jew some of “the children’s bread.”<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Donkey\">Donkey<\/p>\n<p>Beast of burden. The donkey of the Holy Land <em>(Equus asinus)<\/em> was quite different from the European donkey of today, which is usually a small, stubborn animal. In biblical times the donkey was a beautiful, stately, friendly animal. Its color was usually reddish brown. Three wild races have been described, all from Africa. The race from northwest Africa is extinct; the one from northeast Africa, if not extinct, is close to extinction; the Somalian race, which survives, did not play an important part in domestication. The northeast African race, the Nubian donkey, was evidently domesticated in the Nile River region in early historic times. The donkey was used as a mount from the time of domestication on. It is first mentioned in the Bible among the animals that Abraham acquired in Egypt (Gn 12:16). The donkey was primarily a beast of burden, driven but not bridled. From the time of the Middle Kingdom on (c. 2040 <span>BC<\/span>), it was used for riding in Egypt, but only the Jews and Nubians rode donkeys regularly. The donkey was also used for threshing grain and for pulling the plow. In Arab countries today peasants plow with a donkey and a cow or camel hitched together. In Israel the law forbade plowing with a donkey and an ox hitched together (Dt 22:10). Until the time of Solomon (960 <span>BC<\/span>), horses were not used in Palestine. From that time on, the horse was ridden by warriors; the donkey was used by those who were traveling peaceably.<\/p>\n<p>The donkey was held in high regard by the Jews and was considered an economic asset. An individual had to have a donkey for minimum existence (Jb 24:3), and wealth was frequently counted by the number of donkeys one possessed (Gn 12:16; 24:35). The donkey was considered an acceptable gift (Gn 32:13-15). It was allowed to rest on the Sabbath (Dt 5:14). Women in biblical times often used the donkey as a riding animal (Jos 15:18; 1 Sm 25:23; 2 Kgs 4:24); often a special driver would help a woman guide the animal, running along at its side. If a married couple possessed only one donkey, the husband usually walked alongside while the wife rode (Ex 4:20).<\/p>\n<p>The people of Israel returning from Babylon had ten times as many donkeys as horses and camels (Ezr 2:66-67; Neh 7:68-69). Job’s wealth was indicated by the fact that he had 500 she-donkeys before catastrophe hit him (Jb 1:3); after his recovery he had 1,000 donkeys (Jb 42:12). Joseph’s brothers used donkeys to transport the grain they purchased in Egypt (Gn 42:26; 43:24). Abigail transported food on donkeys to David and his troops during their conflict with Saul (1 Sm 25:18). David assigned one of the 12 managers of his royal estates to look after his donkeys exclusively (1 Chr 27:30).<\/p>\n<p>The onager, or Syrian wild donkey <em>(Equus hemionus hemihippus)<\/em>, is an intermediate between the true horse and the true donkey. Its ears are longer than those of a horse but shorter than those of a donkey. The front hooves are narrow; there are chestnuts (callouslike spots on the inside of the knees) on the front legs only, and the tail is short haired for a long distance from its root so that it appears to be tufted.<\/p>\n<p>The Sumerians (ancient Mesopotamians) were able to domesticate the onager, which was eventually replaced by the horse. It was used to draw chariots in Ur; a number of onagers were buried with their vehicles in a royal grave that dates from about 2500 <span>BC<\/span>. Later the wild onager was a favorite hunter’s prize for Babylonian and Assyrian kings.<\/p>\n<p>The onager was very common in the steppe lands near Israel, where it was described as a freedom-loving desert animal (Jb 24:5; 39:5-8; Ps 104:11; Is 32:14; Jer 2:24; Hos 8:9). Ishmael was described as “free and untamed as a wild donkey” (Gn 16:12, <span>nlt<\/span>)—that is, one who could not adjust to domestic life. Drought seems to have been responsible for the population decline of the onager in biblical times (Jer 14:6). The modern onager <em>(Equus hemionus onager)<\/em> is slightly larger than the Syrian wild donkey that is extinct.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Travel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Dragon\">Dragon<\/p>\n<p>Any one of a number of monstrous land and sea creatures. In biblical usage, “dragon” does not refer to the huge, fire-breathing, winged reptile of European folklore. The translators of the <span>kjv<\/span> used the term to translate two Hebrew words that are usually rendered more precisely in modern translations. One word referred to desert animals; most scholars agree with the <span>niv<\/span> that “jackals” is its proper meaning (Ps 44:19; Is 13:22; Jer 9:11; Mal 1:3). <em>See<\/em> Jackal (below).<\/p>\n<p>The other Hebrew word translated “dragon” is harder to define. It was frequently used in reference to serpents (so translated in the <span>rsv<\/span>: Ex 7:9-12; Dt 32:33; Ps 91:13). In other <span>rsv<\/span> passages it is translated “sea monster” (Gn 1:21; Jb 7:12; Ps 148:7). The exact identity of such sea monsters is not known. Several <span>rsv<\/span> passages retain the English “dragon.” In two of them (Ps 74:13; Is 27:1), the context indicates that sea monsters are meant. In three others (Is 51:9; Ez 29:3; 32:2) “dragon” seems to refer to the crocodile, a figurative reference to the Egyptian pharaoh at the time of the exodus. Jeremiah 51:34 (translated “monster” in the <span>rsv<\/span>) may also refer to a voracious creature such as a crocodile. <em>See<\/em> Crocodile (above).<\/p>\n<p>Babylonian myths described monsters and dragons in primordial conflict with the god Marduk; they represented the principle of evil. In its figurative usages in Scripture, “dragon” has a similar significance, especially in the prophetic books. In the book of Revelation it is a symbol of Satan, the archenemy of God and his people (Rv 12:3-17; 13:2, 4, 11; 16:13; 20:2).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Fish\">Fish<\/p>\n<p>Aquatic animals frequently mentioned in the Bible without names or descriptions that enable us to identify the particular species. Since time immemorial, fish have constituted one of the staple foods of humanity, and they still serve as the chief source of protein in many parts of the world. The trade in fish was highly developed in biblical times. For example, one of the gates in Jerusalem was called the Fish Gate (Neh 3:3; Zep 1:10). The law in Leviticus 11:9-12 permitted the Jews to eat fish, but only those having both fins and scales. Scaleless fish such as catfish were forbidden, even though they had fins.<\/p>\n<p>Egyptian paintings depict various methods of fishing, and the Philistines fished in the Mediterranean Sea. Since the people of Israel were not a seafaring nation, it is safe to assume that most of their fish came from freshwater lakes and rivers, especially the Sea of Galilee. Some 36 species of fish have been identified in that lake, including varieties of perch, carp, barbel, “sardine,” and catfish.<\/p>\n<p>The method of fishing characteristic of NT times was the dragnet. After a boat had put out into the deep (Lk 5:4), a large net would be thrown out from it and then dragged toward shore by the rowers in the boat, possibly with the help of a crew in another boat. The catch was sorted out on shore (Mt 13:47-48). Fishing was usually carried out at night when the coolness of the water brought fish closer to the surface and when they could not see the approaching nets.<\/p>\n<p>The Jews also fished by hook and line (Mt 17:27), a few by spear (Jb 41:7), and some by the throw net (Ez 47:10). Habakkuk refers to hook-and-line fishing, netting, and seining (1:15).<\/p>\n<p>Very early in the history of the Christian church the fish became a symbol for Christ and the faith. It was scratched on the walls of Roman catacombs and may be seen today decorating walls, altars, pews, and vestments. The symbol came into use because the Greek word for “fish” <em>(<\/em><span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">ichthus<\/span><em>)<\/em> is composed of the first letter of each word in the Greek phrase “Jesus Christ, Son of God, Savior.” <em>See<\/em> Whale (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Flea\">Flea<\/p>\n<p>Tiny, irritating insect (1 Sm 24:14; 26:20, <span>nlt<\/span>). Many species of fleas occur in Palestine, the most common being <em>Pulex irritans.<\/em> About a thousand species are known around the world. Fleas are wingless parasites that have sharp jaws and suck out blood from the bodies of humans and animals. The body is wedge shaped, enabling the flea to burrow into folds of skin and hide there. The eggs, laid by the female in dust heaps in the corners of rooms, hatch into small, white larvae that pupate (a nonfeeding stage) in a cocoon. Soon adult fleas appear that immediately attach themselves to the body of a host. The female requires blood for the development of her eggs.<\/p>\n<p>A flea bite is painful and causes some swelling and itching. Fleas are attracted by warmth. With favorable moisture and temperature, adult fleas can live a year or longer without food, but they are voracious feeders. The most dangerous fleas are those of the rat that transmit the organism responsible for bubonic plague. There were 41 recorded epidemics of bubonic plague before the Christian era.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Fly\">Fly<\/p>\n<p>Insects of the order Diptera, which have one pair of wings. Many winged insects of other orders, however, are also called flies, such as the dragonfly or butterfly.<\/p>\n<p>As in almost all parts of the world, flies are abundant in Palestine. One of the most numerous is the common housefly <em>(Musca domestica),<\/em> found chiefly around dung heaps and garbage. The female lays her eggs, out of which emerge white maggots that feed on refuse. After a few days the maggot develops into a cocoon out of which emerges the adult housefly. In the summer the whole cycle lasts about 12 days, so that a fly can breed about 20 generations a year.<\/p>\n<p>Another fly common to Palestine is the botfly (family Oestridae). It causes much discomfort among livestock by irritating them and spreading diseases. Tabanid flies (family Tabanidae), including the horsefly (genus <em>Tabanus<\/em>) and related species, are also found in Palestine. Both the botfly and horsefly are known as gadflies because of the persistent distress they inflict. Babylonian King Nebuchadnezzar is spoken of as a gadfly in view of his invasion of Egypt (Jer 46:20).<\/p>\n<p>The fourth plague in Egypt just before the exodus featured “swarms of flies” (Ex 8:21-31, <span>nlt<\/span>; cf. Pss 78:45; 105:31). Those swarms may have been made up of any or all the flies mentioned above. The maggots mentioned in Job 25:6 and Isaiah 14:11 and the worms in Exodus 16:24 and Job 7:5 and 17:14 were probably fly larvae.<\/p>\n<p>A proverb quoted in Ecclesiastes 10:1 probably refers to the housefly, which would be attracted to an open, perfumed ointment bottle. Once inside it would drown and eventually decay, causing the ointment to spoil and stink. The fly is also referred to in Isaiah 7:18 where it symbolizes Egypt. Isaiah may have had in mind a horsefly <em>(Tabanus arenivagus)<\/em> that attacks both humans and animals.<\/p>\n<p>Philistine inhabitants of the city of Ekron worshiped a god named Baal-zebul, meaning “Lord of the high places.” The Hebrews mockingly spoke of Baal-zebub, meaning “Lord of the flies” (2 Kgs 1:2). The NT form is Beelzebub (e.g., Mt 10:25; 12:24, 27).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Fox\">Fox<\/p>\n<p>Small, doglike carnivore with a bushy tail that is about half its body length. The red fox of the Holy Land <em>(Vulpes palaetinae)<\/em> is similar to the North American red fox; it is smaller than a wolf and is normally a nocturnal solitary animal. The omnivorous fox eats almost any kind of food—fruits, plants, mice, beetles, and birds—but seldom touches carrion. It loves the sweet juice of grapes, but it also burrows underground tunnels that can destroy the vines (Sg 2:15). The fox is intelligent and known for its slyness (Lk 13:32). It has considerable endurance and can run at speeds up to 30 miles (48 kilometers) per hour. The Jews rebuilding Jerusalem’s wall were taunted by the wisecrack that even a fox jumping on their wall would knock it over (Neh 4:3).<\/p>\n<p>The Egyptian fox <em>(Vulpes niloticus)<\/em> is found in the central and southern parts of the Holy Land. It is somewhat smaller than the common red fox. Its back is rust colored and its belly light. The Syrian fox <em>(Vulpes flavescens)<\/em> that lives in the northern part of the Holy Land is shiny gold in color.<\/p>\n<p>Some OT references such as Psalm 63:10 and Lamentations 5:18 are translated “fox” in the <span>kjv<\/span> but probably refer to jackals. Jackals, not foxes, hunt in packs and tend to act as scavengers.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Frog\">Frog<\/p>\n<p>Amphibian (genus <em>Rana<\/em>), living part of its life in the water and part on land.<\/p>\n<p>Frogs and toads are covered with soft, hairless skin and lack a tail in the adult stage. The hind legs are much longer and more powerfully developed than the forelegs so that the animals are able to jump large distances. It has been suggested that the frog referred to in Scripture is an edible one, <em>Rana ridibunda,<\/em> one of the aquatic frogs found in Egypt and in the stagnant waters of the Holy Land.<\/p>\n<p>The female frog lays her eggs in the water; after about a week the eggs hatch into tadpoles. Gradually through metamorphosis the tail is lost and limbs are acquired. Frogs must maintain a moist skin since they take oxygen through the skin as well as through their lungs; thus they must always remain close to water. They feed on insects and worms.<\/p>\n<p>Frogs are found throughout the Palestinian lowlands, where their croaking is heard in the spring and on summer evenings. The Israelites seem to have associated frogs primarily with sliminess and foulness. They fell into the category of creeping or swarming creatures, which in general were ritually unclean (Lv 11:29-31). Since the frog was not specifically listed, however, rabbis did not consider it one of the animals that defiled human beings through contact.<\/p>\n<p>In Revelation 16:13 certain foul spirits are said to look like frogs. The ancient Egyptians made the frog a symbol of life and birth and an image of Heqet, the patron goddess of birth. She is depicted with a frog’s head giving life to the newborn. Thus that deity was discredited when the power of God afflicted Egypt in the second of the ten plagues on the Egyptians with the very animal that was her symbol (Ex 8:1-14; Pss 78:45; 105:30). The frog in question may have been the spotted frog of Egypt <em>(Rana punctata,<\/em> or <em>Rana ridibunda).<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Plagues upon Egypt.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Gazelle\">Gazelle<\/p>\n<p>Small, dainty, graceful antelope with hollow recurved horns on both sexes. Two varieties exist in the Holy Land, the dorcas gazelle <em>(Gazella dorcas),<\/em> which is pale fawn in color and up to 22 inches (56 centimeters) tall, and the Arabian gazelle <em>(Gazella arabica),<\/em> which is a dark smoky color and up to 25 inches (63.5 centimeters) tall.<\/p>\n<p>Gazelles are still quite common throughout the desert and steppe areas of the Holy Land, especially in the Negev Desert. Herds usually consist of from 5 to 10 animals, but some varieties assemble in large migratory herds in the fall to relocate to lower elevations and new feeding grounds. Gazelles are herbivorous (plant eating). They are very shy and post guards to warn the herd of approaching danger.<\/p>\n<p>In biblical times the gazelle was probably the game animal most hunted by the Jews (Prv 6:5; Is 13:14). Pharaoh Tutankhamen hunted gazelles and ostriches. The gazelle is said to have graced Solomon’s table (1 Kgs 4:23). Gazelles were not easy to catch because of their great speed (2 Sm 2:18; 1 Chr 12:8; Prv 6:5); they surpass the deer in swiftness. They were trapped in various ways—encircled with nets, driven into enclosures with pitfalls, or forced into narrow valleys and shot with arrows. The Bedouin hunt gazelle with falcons and dogs; the falcon annoys the gazelle, striking it on the head and injuring it so that the dogs can overtake it.<\/p>\n<p>The gazelle is referred to in Song of Songs 2:9, 17; 4:5; 7:3; 8:14, where it is an image of feminine beauty.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Gecko\">Gecko<\/p>\n<p>Reptile of the family Gekkonidae, referred to in Leviticus 11:30. In Jewish food law it was a ritually unclean lizard. There are seven species of geckos in the Holy Land (including <em>Hemidactylus turcicus<\/em> and <em>Ptyodactylus hasselquistii,<\/em> all insectivorous—insect eating). The gecko makes a low mourning sound by vibrating its tongue rapidly against the roof of its mouth. In legend the gecko was said to cause leprosy by crawling across a person’s body.<\/p>\n<p>Another name for the gecko is the wall lizard, so named because it can walk upside down on ceilings with the aid of the suction discs on its toes—but it often plops down into the middle of the home. Since it was considered unclean, such an intrusion would have been a disgusting nuisance to Jewish households (Lv 11:31-38).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Lizard (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Gnat\">Gnat<\/p>\n<p>Any very small fly, in common and biblical usage. According to the <span>nlt<\/span>, the third plague in Egypt before the exodus consisted of gnats (Ex 8:16-18; Ps 105:31). The <span>kjv<\/span> translates the Hebrew word there as “lice,” but the breeding pattern described in Exodus 8—insects rising from the dust—seems to fit gnats better than lice. Since “gnat” is a general term, the small flies of that plague may have included several small species such as mosquitos, harvester gnats, midges, or sand flies.<\/p>\n<p>The sand fly inflicts a far more painful bite than the mosquito. Further, it does not betray itself by a buzzing noise in flight and is so small that it penetrates most mosquito netting.<\/p>\n<p>Gnats were drawn to wine while it was fermenting. The Pharisees in particular would strain their wine to avoid consuming unclean insects (Mt 23:24).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Goat\">Goat<\/p>\n<p>Cloven-hooved mammals (genus <em>Capra<\/em>) with large eyes and big, floppy ears that constantly twitch. Both males and females have backward arching horns. The Palestinian goat is a ruminant (cud-chewing animal) of lighter build than the sheep.<\/p>\n<p>The goat was probably the earliest ruminant to be domesticated. Its wild ancestor seems to have been the Gezoar goat <em>(Capra aegagrus).<\/em> Wild goats are believed to have been domesticated very early in Palestine. The goat of Bible times was probably the Syrian or Mamber variety <em>(Capra hircus mambrica).<\/em> Domesticated goats may have as many as four kids in a litter, whereas wild goats bear only one or two.<\/p>\n<p>The Palestinian goat was commonly black. Speckled and spotted goats were a rarity, and for that reason Jacob’s request for those goats in Genesis 30:32 appeared very modest. There may also have been red goats (cf. 1 Sm 16:12; 19:13, where goat’s hair was used to imitate David’s hair, which was “ruddy” or auburn).<\/p>\n<p>Almost every part of the goat was used by the Israelites. The whole goat was used for sacrifice. Its flesh served as meat (Lv 7:23; Dt 14:4), and it was the principal source of milk (Prv 27:27). Goats were sheared in the late spring, and the goat hair was used for weaving tent cloth and for various domestic purposes (Ex 36:14; 1 Sm 19:13, 16). The tabernacle at Mt Sinai was made of goat’s hair blankets (Ex 26:7).<\/p>\n<p>Adult male goats were generally not eaten because of their strong flavor and toughness and also because they were necessary to insure the flock’s increase. Young kids, however, were usually the chief meat for a feast and were offered to visitors as a symbol of hospitality. Goat milk is richer than the milk of cows and sheep and evidently had broader uses. A good goat gives three quarts of milk a day, from which a rich butter and buttermilk can be made. The average Hebrew family could have lived almost entirely on a single goat’s production.<\/p>\n<p>Goatskin was tanned as leather, and the whole hide was turned into a skin bottle by sewing shut leg and neck apertures (Gn 21:14; Jos 9:4). Goatskin had many uses, including the construction of Hebrew musical instruments. The nebal, a large harp, was made with goatskin for its base sound. Drums had goatskin coverings.<\/p>\n<p>Goats were herded with sheep in biblical times, but each group remained separate following its own bell-laden leader. Jesus was evidently referring to their common herding in his description of the Last Judgment (Mt 25:31-46).<\/p>\n<p>Because of their wool, sheep are valued more than goats. However, where pasture and water are scarce and thorny shrubs dominate over grass, sheep are difficult to keep and goats become important. They can live under conditions that suit neither cows nor sheep, producing large quantities of milk. The goat does not supply fat as the sheep does, and since its hair is coarse its wool is rather scarce. Goat-hair cloth called cilicium was used to make tents.<\/p>\n<p>Goats have voracious appetites. They also were responsible for much damage done to the land of Palestine, breaking down terraces, destroying forests, and bringing about soil erosion by eating off all cover.<\/p>\n<p>The goat was recognized as a form of wealth, subject to the law of firstlings (Nm 18:17). It had to be eight days old before it could be offered as a sacrifice. A year-old male goat was one of the animals offered at the Passover (28:22), and two goats were offered on the Day of Atonement (Lv 16:7-10). The goat was also used for other specific sacrifices.<\/p>\n<p>The ibex, a type of wild goat <em>(Capra ibex nubiana),<\/em> still lives in small numbers on the cliffs close to the Dead Sea. That it was known in ancient times is evident from rock carvings. It is distinguished from the true wild goat by having a more compact rump and horns that are slender and curved back. Its slender legs and sharp cloven hooves enable it to cling to narrow rock ledges, to jump between them, and to climb steep cliffs.<\/p>\n<p>Usually the ibex is found in rugged mountain country among rocky crags and meadows just below the snow line (Ps 104:18). In Job 39:1 they are referred to as “mountain goats.” They frequently gather in herds of 5 to 20. They graze and browse, being active in the afternoon and sometimes feeding through the night. The large horn of the ibex was at one period made into the shofar that was blown in the second Jerusalem temple to announce the new year and the jubilee year.<\/p>\n<p>The goat was often used in a figurative and symbolic sense by the writers of the Bible: in Song of Songs 4:1 and 6:5 for the bride’s black hair; in Matthew 25:31-46 for the wicked; and in Ezekiel 34:17 and Daniel 8:5-8 for various human leaders.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Grasshopper\">Grasshopper<\/p>\n<p>Large insects of the Orthoptera order. They have chewing or biting mouth parts and two pairs of wings, the front pair of which is narrow and somewhat thickened and the hind pair membranous and used for flying. When not in use the flight wings are folded beneath the protective front wings like a fan against the body. By rubbing their wings together, male grasshoppers produce sounds that both males and females can detect. Grasshoppers pass through a partial metamorphosis; the egg hatches into a juvenile nymph that looks like an adult except for its smaller size and undeveloped wings. After several months the nymph becomes a winged adult.<\/p>\n<p>The terms “grasshopper” and “locust” are often used interchangeably. Actually the locust is a kind of grasshopper. Also confusing is the fact that other insects such as cicadas are sometimes called locusts. The difference between grasshoppers and locusts depends more on behavior than appearance. Grasshoppers are individual insects that lead solitary lives and do not migrate. The same insects when migrating in a swarm are called migratory grasshoppers or locusts. Elimination of their food supply by drought, flood, or fire may lead to migration. Climatic factors such as a warm dry winter also stimulate migrations.<\/p>\n<p>Grasshoppers and locusts have been a staple food in the Middle East and also among the Indians of the American Southwest. To the Israelites the grasshopper was considered ritually clean and could be eaten (Lv 11:22).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Locust (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Hare\">Hare<\/p>\n<p>Animal of the genus and species <em>Lepus europaeus judaeus, Lepus capensis,<\/em> and <em>Lepus arabicus.<\/em> It is found in open country, often near or on cultivated lands, and in woods, usually deciduous rather than evergreen. It is an herbivorous rodent and is different from the rabbit, which is not found in Palestine. Although it is not a true ruminant according to modern classification (because it does not have a four-chambered stomach), the hare does rechew its food. It has a process of partial regurgitation of material too hard for the cells in the stomach to absorb initially; thus, the hare actually chews food previously swallowed.<\/p>\n<p>Near Eastern hares have very long ears and large hind feet; their feet are well furred. They are similar to American jackrabbits, which are true hares. Hares do not dig or occupy burrows the way rabbits do. Hares are mainly nocturnal and spend their inactive hours hiding in vegetation. They eat grasses and herbaceous matter as well as twigs and young bark of woody plants. Hares breed with great rapidity—the young attaining sexual maturity at six months after birth.<\/p>\n<p>The hare was ceremonially unclean (Lv 11:6; Dt 14:7), evidently because although it appeared to chew its cud, it did not have cloven hooves. Consumption of hares has also been forbidden among the Arabs, Chinese, and Lapps, but the hare was widely hunted by other people in ancient and modern times. Its great speed, prolific breeding, timidity, and caution have saved it from extermination by its many enemies.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Hippopotamus\">Hippopotamus<\/p>\n<p>Large beast of problematic interpretation. Some early interpreters thought it referred to the elephant, others to the wild ox, the mammoth, or any large animal. It was called “behemoth” by the <span>kjv<\/span> translators. Today it is generally agreed that the reference is to the hippopotamus <em>(Hippopotamus amphibius),<\/em> a large, thick-skinned, amphibious mammal, an ungulate (having hooflike toenails) with a large head, a bulky, hairless body, and short legs.<\/p>\n<p>The description in Job 40:15-24 fits closely the modern hippopotamus (see <span>nlt<\/span>), except for the depiction of the tail. At present the hippopotamus is found only in the rivers of Africa, but there is fossil evidence that it has existed in the Holy Land, perhaps in the swamps of northern Galilee and the Jordan Valley.<\/p>\n<p>The hippopotamus has highly developed sense organs, placed in such a way that it can see, hear, and smell almost without being seen; its eyes, ears, and nostrils can reach above water while the rest of the animal lies submerged. It has a large mouth, large tusks, and a short, heavy throat. The strong legs are so short that the belly almost reaches the ground when the animal is on the land. The hippopotamus lives on plants and herbs growing in rivers, but if food is scarce there, it forages on land, usually at night. In spite of its heavy body it is surprisingly agile on land.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Horse\">Horse<\/p>\n<p>Przewalski’s horse (<em>Equus przewalskii,<\/em> an eastern race that roamed about Mongolia until modern firearms destroyed most of them after World War I) and the tarpan (a western race of southern Russia that became extinct in the Ukraine in 1851). The domesticated horse <em>(Equus caballus)<\/em> seems to have been derived from the tarpan. The original site of domestication is believed to have been Turkestan, a region north of Afghanistan and India, now in Russia. The horse differs from the donkey in that it has shorter ears, a longer mane with a forelock, a long hairy tail, and a soft, sensitive muzzle.<\/p>\n<p>Horses were used in war not only for riding but also for pulling the heavy, springless war chariots. Two kinds of horses were needed for these different purposes, and the Hebrews distinguished between chariot horses and cavalry horses.<\/p>\n\n<p>The Lord warned the early Israelites against unnecessarily amassing military strength in the form of horses and thereby following the oppressive tactics of the powerful Egyptians (Dt 17:14-16), but the demands of war caused both David and Solomon to import horses from Egypt into their kingdoms and to breed them. Solomon greatly increased the number of horses in the Jewish kingdom and maintained large stables at various cities (1 Kgs 10:26) such as the regional defense centers of Megiddo, Hazor, and Gezer (1 Kgs 9:15-19). Ahab’s horses are mentioned in 1 Kings 18:5, and records of Shalmaneser III state that Ahab furnished 2,000 chariots to a coalition against Assyria.<\/p>\n<p>In early Israel, the horse was opposed as a symbol of pagan luxury and of dependence on physical power for defense (Dt 17:16; 1 Sm 8:11; Ps 20:7; Is 31:1). Horse trading, mentioned as early as Genesis 47:17, was carried on by Solomon between Egypt and the Syro-Hittite principalities (1 Kgs 10:28-29). Most biblical references to horses refer to their use in war, but horses were also used for transportation. Riding seems to have been less popular than the use of chariots. Cavalry units were not introduced until the 12th century <span>BC<\/span> by the Medes. Joseph rode in Pharaoh’s second horse-drawn chariot (Gn 41:43), and Absalom made a display by riding a horse-drawn chariot (2 Sm 15:1). Naaman traveled by horse and chariot (2 Kgs 5:9). Later, horses were so common in Jerusalem that the royal palace had a special horse gate (2 Chr 23:15), and a gate of the city itself was known as the Horse Gate (Neh 3:28; Jer 31:40). Mordecai rode a royal horse of King Xerxes as a sign of honor (Est 6:8-11). Horses are often spoken of figuratively (Ps 32:9; “mare,” Sg 1:9; “stallions,” Jer 5:8; 12:5), especially in the context of judgment (Hb 3:8; Zec 1:8; 6:1-8; Rv 6:2-8; 9:17; 19:11-16).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Warfare; Travel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Hyena\">Hyena<\/p>\n<p>Stocky carnivore <em>(Hyaena hyaena)<\/em> with coarse hair, an erect mane, and long hairs along the neck and back. Hyenas live in holes among rocks and banks. They are mainly nocturnal but are ordinarily neither noisy nor aggressive. Their cry, however, is a disagreeable, unearthly sound. Hyenas usually feed on carrion, crushing bones with their powerful jaws. If the carrion supply is inadequate, they will kill sheep, goats, or other small animals. When threatened, hyenas growl and erect their mane, but they rarely fight. They are massively built with forelegs longer than the hind legs.<\/p>\n<p>Known as scavengers in Africa, hyenas eat domestic refuse in the villages. In Palestine the striped hyena is a common predator, preferring rocky territory and even rock tombs. Since hyenas were notorious for raiding the graves of the dead, all Israelites who could afford it arranged for burial in tombs protected by massive stone doors. Absalom, King David’s son who was killed by Joab in the wild, was buried under a huge pile of stones to protect his corpse from molestation by hyenas (2 Sm 18:17).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Jackal\">Jackal<\/p>\n<p>Carnivore <em>(Canis aureus)<\/em> smaller than the true wolf and with a shorter tail. It is similar to the fox but has a broader head, shorter ears, and longer legs. The fox is solitary; the jackal tends to be gregarious. Its tail can be drooping or erect, compared with the long horizontal tail of the fox. Jackals usually prowl at night, either singly, in pairs, or in packs through open savannah country. They eat small mammals, poultry, fruit, vegetables, and carrion. They spend their days in thickets and clumps of vegetation. Often they obtain scraps from kills by larger carnivores. Jackals can run at speeds of about 33 miles (53 kilometers) per hour.<\/p>\n<p>The jackal can reach a height of about 20 inches (51 centimeters), roughly the size of a German shepherd dog. Its back is pale yellow with dark, almost black, flanks. Its lips are black and its ears white on the inside. The howl of the jackal sounds like the crying of a child or the heartrending wail of the bereaved (Mi 1:8; cf. Jb 30:29). To other jackals the howl is merely an invitation calling the pack together for its nocturnal hunting.<\/p>\n<p>OT references are chiefly to jackals prowling around ruined cities and wilderness areas (Neh 2:13; Ps 44:19; Is 13:22; 34:13; 35:7; Jer 9:11; 14:6; 49:33; 51:37; Lam 4:3; 5:18; Mal 1:3). Many such references are translated “dragon” in the <span>kjv<\/span>, but “jackal” is more appropriate.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Leech\">Leech<\/p>\n<p>Segmented worm (class Hirundinea) up to five inches (12.7 centimeters) long with a flat body equipped with suction pads at each end. The mouth, located at the bottom of the front suction pad, has three teeth that the leech uses to pierce the skin of its host. The leech feeds on blood, and its glands secrete an anticoagulant to prevent the blood from clotting. The ordinary medicinal leech (Hirudo medicinalis) is abundant in springs and ponds from the Negev Desert to Galilee. It adheres to the bodies of human beings and animals that submerge themselves in water, injects its anticoagulant, and sucks their blood.<\/p>\n<p>The reference in Proverbs 30:15 is uncertain (see <span>nlt<\/span>) but may be to the parasitic and greedy nature of the horse leech (genus <em>Haemopis<\/em>). The small horse leech enters its host’s mouth and nostrils from water while the animal is drinking. A leech weighing one-half ounce (14.2 grams) has been known to gorge itself with two and a half ounces (71 grams) of concentrated blood and then to exist for 15 months with no more to eat.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Leopard\">Leopard<\/p>\n<p>Called <em>Panthera pardus tulliana,<\/em> it is the most widespread of all the large wildcats. In rocky areas it lives in caves, but in forested regions it lives in thick vegetation. In OT times many lived in the vicinity of Mt Hermon (Sg 4:8).<\/p>\n<p>The leopard is somewhat smaller than the tiger, measuring up to 5 feet (1.5 meters) in length with a tail of about 30 inches (.8 meter). Its body is better proportioned than that of the tiger. The leopard takes its victim by surprise from a silent ambush, often concealing itself near villages or watering places and waiting for its prey, remaining in one spot for long spans of time. The leopard is swift on the ground (Hb 1:8), agile in trees, and very graceful in its movements. Its color is yellowish speckled with black spots (Jer 13:23). Daniel and John saw visions in which leopards were symbols of world powers (Dn 7:6; Rv 13:2).<\/p>\n<p>The leopard is a wary and cunning animal, formidable and ferocious (Jer 5:6; Hos 13:7; cf. Is 11:6). The leopard is dangerous not only to domestic animals but also to humans. With its natural camouflage it can hide on the forest floor, blending into the changing light and shadows. The Israelites were terrified of the leopard because it constantly ravaged their sheep and goats. Several biblical place names suggest that they were known for the leopards in their vicinity: Nimrah, Beth-nimrah, and Nimrim, a district northeast of the Dead Sea. It has survived in the Holy Land into the present century; a few leopards still exist in remote areas near Mt Tabor and Mt Carmel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Leviathan\">Leviathan<\/p>\n<p>Sea monster mentioned several times in the Bible (Pss 74:14; 104:26; Is 27:1, <span>nlt<\/span>). It may refer to any of the larger marine animals such as large jellyfish, whales, or sharks, or to a large reptile like the crocodile. Some scholars think “Leviathan” may refer to animals now extinct, such as ichthyosaurs and plesiosaurs (marine reptiles similar to dinosaurs). The scriptural term might also refer to certain dinosaurs that spent part of their lives half-submerged in shallow lakes and oceans. Other scholars believe that most of the references are to the crocodile.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Crocodile (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Lion\">Lion<\/p>\n<p>Large, tawny-colored carnivore <em>(Panthera leo)<\/em> that preys chiefly on hoofed mammals and charges by a series of leaps and bounds. Within historic times the lion ranged in Africa, Europe, and the Holy Land. In ancient times the territories of the African and Persian lions met in the Middle East. The lion of the Holy Land was the Asiatic or Persian lion <em>(Panthera leo persica).<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The males have heavy manes that stop at the shoulders but cover much of the chest. The Persian lion cannot climb and is mainly nocturnal, returning to its lair or a thicket by day (Jer 4:7; 25:38; Na 2:11-12). This lion is about 5 feet (1.5 meters) long with a tasseled tail 30 inches (.8 meter) or so long; its shoulders may reach a height of 35 inches (.9 meter). It is one of the smallest of the lion breeds.<\/p>\n<p>Lions are usually found in pairs, though sometimes in larger numbers. A small group is known as a pride. They generally prefer open country but in Palestine evidently prowled the subtropical vegetation of the Jordan River valley. Lions, which usually hunt at dusk, kill smaller animals by a blow of the paw, larger ones by a bite in the throat. A lion does not remain in the same place for more than a few days. The animal is in its prime at about seven years of age, when it weighs from 400 to 600 pounds (181.6 to 272.4 kilograms).<\/p>\n<p>The lion does not characteristically attack humans, though like other great cats it may become a man-eater (1 Kgs 13:24-28; 20:36; 2 Kgs 17:25-26; Ps 57:4; Dn 6:7-27). Ordinarily, it attacks only out of great hunger or in self-defense. A very young lion that attacks humans can become dangerous if it develops a taste for human flesh. A very old lion, expelled from the pride because it can no longer keep up in the pursuit of antelope or gazelles, may choose humans as a relatively slow-moving prey.<\/p>\n<p>A lion generally roars only on a full stomach—that is, after it has consumed its prey (Ps 22:13; Ez 22:25; Am 3:4). Nevertheless, its roaring arouses fear (Am 3:8; 1 Pt 5:8). The lion is a bold (2 Sm 17:10; Prv 28:1), destructive animal (Ps 7:2; Jer 2:30; Hos 5:14; Mi 5:8), and the enemy of flocks (Am 3:12).<\/p>\n<p>Lions were common in biblical times in all parts of the Holy Land. Hebrew has at least seven words for lion and young lion. The lion is referred to about 130 times in the OT—more than any other wild animal. Lions were evidently much less common in NT times. After gradually declining, they became extinct in Palestine shortly after <span>AD<\/span> 1300. The lion was present in Mesopotamia, however, until the end of the 19th century.<\/p>\n<p>Lions played an important part in the political and religious symbolism of the Near East (1 Kgs 10:19-20). In Assyria and Babylonia the lion was regarded as a royal beast (Dn 7:4). Oriental monarchs maintained artificial lion pits as places of execution (Ez 19:1-9; Dn 6:7-16). Animals for these were captured in camouflaged nets or pits. To the Jews, the lion was the mightiest of beasts (Prv 30:29-31). Thus, it symbolized leadership (Gn 49:9-10; Nm 24:9) and hence eventually became a title for Christ (Rv 5:5). It was also the ensign of Judah’s tribe and was used by King Solomon in the decoration of his house and the temple.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Lizard\">Lizard<\/p>\n<p>Reptiles of the suborder Lacertilia. Their skin is covered with scales. The lizard is a useful creature because it captures harmful insects and worms. Like other reptiles, it lays eggs with shells softer than those of a bird and with no clear division between the yolk and the white. Lizards are “cold-blooded” organisms without a temperature-maintenance mechanism; hence, they become inactive in cold weather.<\/p>\n<p>Lizards can survive in barren parched countryside. In the Near East they are encountered in great numbers in the Arabian Desert, the Sinai Peninsula, and the Judean wilderness. There may be as many as 44 different species of lizards in the Holy Land.<\/p>\n<p>The Dabb lizard (genus <em>Uromastyx<\/em>), which attains a length of about 24 inches (61 centimeters), is found in the Negev Desert. It is omnivorous, an unusual trait since most lizards are insectivorous. It has a hard, rough skin, green with brown spots; a short, rounded head; and a powerful tail encircled with a row of strong spines that it uses as a weapon of defense.<\/p>\n<p>Lizards are listed as ceremonially unclean in Jewish law (Lv 11:29-31). The fact that lizards crawl on their bellies made them unclean. Contact with a lizard’s carcass defiled a law-abiding Jew (Lv 11:32-36). The <span>nlt<\/span> translates the “lizards” of Leviticus 11 as “great lizard,” “gecko,” “monitor lizard,” “sand lizard,” and “chameleon.” The monitor lizard is a large lizard that lives in the deserts of southern Palestine, Sinai, and Egypt. It is up to 55 inches (1.4 meters) long with a long snout and sharp teeth. Other translators and commentators render the original Hebrew in a wide variety of ways, including “tortoise,” “ferret,” “lizard,” “snail,” “mole,” and even “water hen.” The fact that most of the original Hebrew words occur only once in Scripture makes it very difficult to be certain about their appropriate translation.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Gecko (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Locust\">Locust<\/p>\n<p>An insect of the family <em>Acridiidae.<\/em> It is referred to by at least 12 different names in Scripture. The various Hebrew words may refer to different stages of its development from larva to adult or to the type of damage that it causes. Locusts are characterized by swarming and mass migration. In modern times they have caused extensive and disastrous destruction to vegetation. Grasshoppers do not swarm or migrate en masse, differentiating them from the true locusts.<\/p>\n<p>The OT mentions several different species of locusts. Leviticus 11:22 seems to refer to the slant-faced (bald) locust and also to the katydid, or long-horned grasshopper. The reference in Deuteronomy 28:42 may be to the mole cricket. In Joel 1:4 and 2:25 and in Nahum 3:16-17, successive stages of the insect’s development are described. The cutting locust (<span>kjv<\/span> “palmerworm”) of Joel is probably the first instar (stage of development), the swarming locusts (<span>kjv<\/span> “locust”) are middle stages, and the hopping locusts (<span>kjv<\/span> “cankerworm”) later instars but not yet fully matured insects. In the adult stage, called destroying locusts (<span>kjv<\/span> “caterpillar”), the color of the locust is reddish brown, which turns to yellow with a brownish network on the wings.<\/p>\n<p>Only three of the hundreds of varieties of locusts found in Bible lands are capable of multiplying into great swarms, and only the desert locust <em>(Schistocerca gergaria)<\/em> can be considered widespread in all the Bible lands. The desert locust is native to the Sudan (Africa). It is a little over two inches (5 centimeters) long and has a wingspread of some five inches (12.7 centimeters). It shows two phases, a solitary phase and a gregarious phase, with a possible third phase known as transiens. There are differences in the immature and adult forms of the phases in color and physiology.<\/p>\n<p>The quantity and distribution of rains are important factors in the extent of swarming. Moist soil is needed for depositing the eggs and permitting them to develop. Each female deposits from one to six egg pods, containing 28 to 146 eggs each. The larvae emerge in 15 to 43 days.<\/p>\n<p>In the gregarious phase (from the second stage of metamorphosis onward), the locust is driven by a strong wandering instinct. Masses of them form a random procession of overflowing locust bodies that ignore any obstruction. They swarm over everything (Jl 2:4-9). The only regulator of their activities is temperature; they are immobilized by high or low temperatures. Taking to wing they may move 1,200 miles (1,930.8 kilometers) from their native home. They fly in compact formations large enough to blot out the light of the sun. Their movement seems to be controlled by hormones, but the direction is influenced by the wind. The swarms consume almost every plant in their path, sparing only the carob, sycamore, castor tree, and oleander bush.<\/p>\n<p>A locust plague was one of the most severe evils to come upon the ancient world (Dt 28:38). Joel 2:1-11 describes a locust plague in graphic terms, using it as a symbol of God’s destroying judgment. Special days of prayer, fasting, and trumpet blowing were prescribed to remove locust plagues (1 Kgs 8:37-38; 2 Chr 6:28-29; Jl 2:12-17). Locusts symbolized powerful and merciless enemies that completely destroyed the earnings of human toil (Jgs 6:5; Is 33:4; Jer 46:23; 51:27; Na 3:15).<\/p>\n<p>Bedouins eat locusts raw, roasted, or boiled, preserving them by drying and threading. They are also crushed and ground, and the grist used in cooking or eaten with bread, sometimes mixed with honey and dates. Such was the diet of John the Baptist (Mk 1:6). The Greeks ground locusts in stone mortars to make flour of them.<\/p>\n<p>The ancients considered the two large hind legs, or jumping legs, as separate limbs and had a special name for them. Hence locusts were described as having four legs, a reference to the four smaller walking legs. “Going on all fours” thus referred to creeping or walking as opposed to jumping and did not mean that the unclean insects had only four legs in all. Because of its two hind jumping legs, the locust was exempted from the prohibition against unclean insects (Lv 11:20-23).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Plagues upon Egypt.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mole\">Mole<\/p>\n<p>Rodent <em>(Spalax ehrenbergi)<\/em> from six to nine inches (15 to 23 centimeters) long, which burrows in any area where the soil is suitable for digging; it should be called a mole rat. Common in the Holy Land, large numbers are found in the vicinity of Jerusalem. Isaiah 2:20 refers to the mole, as does Leviticus 11:29-30 (<span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>The mole rat has no tail and is molelike in appearance, but neither true moles nor shrews have ever been found in the Holy Land. The mole rat’s teeth are strong and protruding like those of a squirrel. The neck is short and thick with a plump body shaped like a sausage. The short legs have broad paws with claws adapted for burrowing. The fur is soft, thick, and ashen gray. Its ears and almost sightless eyes, which are no larger than poppyseeds, are hidden in the fur. Folklore taught that touching a mole rat would result in blindness.<\/p>\n<p>In the wet winter season the mole rat builds breeding mounds resembling those of pocket gophers. It builds less complex resting mounds in the summer, although both have rather elaborate tunnel systems. The mole rat feeds on roots, bulbs, tubers, and various other subterranean plant parts, often doing extensive damage to agriculture.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Moth\">Moth<\/p>\n<p>Insect of the genus <em>Tineola<\/em> that lays its eggs on wool or furs, its larvae feeding on those materials. The destructive qualities of moths are referred to in several biblical passages (Jb 13:28; Ps 39:11; Is 50:9; Hos 5:12; Mt 6:19-20; Lk 12:33; Jas 5:2). In Isaiah 51:8 “worm” (<span>nlt<\/span>) refers specifically to the larva of the clothes moth. The moth symbolizes disintegration, decay, and weakening. It is only the larvae that do the damage. The adult is quite harmless and feeds mainly on the nectar of flowers. It is easily crushed (Jb 4:19). The clothes moth reproduces in May or June. It enters human dwellings in the evening. A week after the eggs are laid the larvae appear and immediately begin their work of destruction, eating anything within reach made of animal fibers.<\/p>\n<p>The moth’s destructive activity is done in secret without any sound and without any dramatic appearance, such as a swarm that blots out the sun. In an age when wealth was counted more in possessions than in money, and when among those possessions wool clothing was highly valued, moths could literally cause economic disaster; hence the words of Jesus in the Sermon on the Mount (Mt 6:19-20).<\/p>\n<p>There are hundreds of species of moths other than the clothes moth in the Holy Land; they are harmless to leaves, flowers, fruit, trees, and seeds. As with the clothes moth, the larvae inflict the damage.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mouse\">Mouse<\/p>\n<p>Rodent of the family Muridae, especially genus <em>Mus.<\/em> The mouse was regarded as unclean because, being short legged, it was considered one of the creeping creatures (Lv 11:29). Mice known as commensals live in dwellings and tend to have longer tails and to be darker in color than wild mice, which are active chiefly at night. Mice are good climbers and even good swimmers. Wild mice eat many kinds of vegetation, including seeds, fleshy roots, leaves, and stems. At times they store food.<\/p>\n<p>The Hebrew word for “mouse” (Lv 11:29; 1 Sm 6:4-5; Is 66:17) is probably a general term for various rats and mice. The root meaning of the Hebrew word “mouse” is “destruction of corn,” a reference to the damage mice do to field crops. At least 23 varieties of mouselike rodents are known in the Holy Land. They cause food spoilage, damage household articles, and transport the host fleas that spread typhus, spotted fever, and bubonic plague. Plague bacteria may have caused the tumors or swellings among the Philistines (1 Sm 6:5). Isaiah 66:17 refers to a pre-exilic Canaanite cultic practice in which mice were eaten; the reference may actually be to the hamster. A number of rodents are eaten by Arabs of the Near East; the gerbil is considered a special delicacy. <em>See<\/em> Mole (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mule\">Mule<\/p>\n<p>Hybrid offspring of a male ass and a female horse <em>(Equus asinus mulus),<\/em> ordinarily sterile. The offspring of a female donkey and a stallion (male horse) is known as a hinny and is of little value because of its inferior size.<\/p>\n<p>Because crossbreeding was forbidden in the law (Lv 19:19), the Israelites procured mules from the Gentiles, perhaps from the Phoenicians, since Tyre (a Phoenician seaport in what is now southern Lebanon) imported horses and mules (Ez 27:14). Mules did not appear in Israel until David’s reign (2 Sm 13:29), possibly because of the rarity of horses among the Hebrews. Mules were used chiefly by members of the royal court and by other nobles. King David rode on a mule, and Solomon rode to his inaugaration on King David’s mule (1 Kgs 1:33). Absalom met his death riding on a mule (2 Sm 18:9). Mules were less common than horses, camels, and asses in the postexilic community (Ezr 2:66). In antiquity Asia Minor was especially noted for breeding fine mules.<\/p>\n<p>Mules have long enjoyed a reputation for obstinacy, but that trait is not mentioned in the Bible. The mule is prized for riding and for carrying heavy burdens, especially in warm mountainous regions. They are sure-footed and thrive best in hot, dry climates. The mule has the frugality, endurance, and steady gait of an ass along with the size, strength, swiftness, and courage of a horse. Mules are almost never sick. They live longer than horses. They can carry a load of up to 300 pounds (136 kilograms) as far as 30 miles (48.3 kilometers) a day.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Travel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Pig\">Pig<\/p>\n<p>Most properly, newborn swine. “Swine” is technically the better name for the species, but it is rarely used in common speech today. The domestic pigs of the Middle East derived from the wild pig <em>(Sus scrofa).<\/em> The pig is the most prolific and abundant supplier of meat and fat for food. A thick layer of fat just under the skin is especially pronounced in domestic breeds. Pigs cannot be driven, so they are of value only to the settled farmer. The Hebrews were originally a nomadic people; therefore, they had little use for an animal closely associated with settled life. An Egyptian prince of about 1500 <span>BC<\/span>, however, is recorded as owning a herd of 1,500 swine.<\/p>\n<p>The pig is clumsily built, yet lively and able to move with agility and speed. The most conspicuous characteristic of the pig is a truncated, mobile snout terminating in a disc-shaped surface on which the nostrils are located. Most pigs have large tusks in both jaws which grow continuously in life. The tusks of the upper jaw are unique in that they curve upward instead of pointing downward as in most animals. The excrement of a pig has an almost unbearable odor, which clings not only to the pig itself but also to swineherds, who can be identified a long way off.<\/p>\n<p>Pigs were never raised in the Holy Land by Jews. The great herd into which Jesus drove the unclean spirits was encountered in the land of the Gadarenes, a non-Jewish area east of the Jordan. The Gadarene demons took refuge in a herd of pigs feeding on a bluff overlooking the Sea of Galilee (Mt 8:28-32).<\/p>\n<p>Wild pigs were found in the Holy Land as in many countries today. Psalm 80:13 refers to the destructiveness of a wild boar (the male, or hog) attacking growing crops. A party of wild boars can destroy an entire vineyard or a field of crops in a single night. They devour, trample, and ravage everything within reach.<\/p>\n<p>Boar hunts were common in ancient Mesopotamia. Wild boars do not attack unless molested, but they are dangerous when aroused. They travel in bands of from 6 to 50 and are most active in the evening and early morning hours. The body is covered with stiff bristles and usually some finer hair, but the body covering is often quite scanty. Wild pigs are mainly vegetarian, feeding on roots, nuts, grains, and plant stems. Wild boars were particularly abundant in the mountainous regions of Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon, in the Jordan River valley, and in wooded sections such as Mt Tabor.<\/p>\n<p>Strict Jews would not even mention swine by name but would always substitute the term “the abomination.” Israelites considered themselves polluted if they were even touched by a swine’s bristle. To the Jews, the pig symbolized filth and ugliness. Pigs will eat fecal material, vermin, rodents, carrion, and the like (2 Pt 2:22). Proverbs 11:22 refers to the incongruity of a golden ring in the nose of an animal showing such characteristics. A similar metaphor occurs in Jesus’ statement about casting pearls before swine (Mt 7:6). The prodigal son’s degeneration was shown by his being forced in his poverty to feed pigs and eat their food (Lk 15:15-16).<\/p>\n<p>Eating the flesh of pigs was forbidden to the Jews (Lv 11:7; Dt 14:8). The Canaanites in the Holy Land killed and ate pigs freely. In intertestamental times Antiochus IV (Epiphanes), a Syrian king whose territories included Israel, used the pig to “Hellenize” the Jews. He first tested their loyalty to the Jewish faith by requiring the consumption of pork, considered a delicacy by the Greeks (2 Macc 6:18). The act of desecration that drove the Jews to rebellion, however, was the sprinkling of pig blood on the temple altar in a sacrifice to Zeus (1 Macc 1:47).<\/p>\n<p>Pigs were frequently used in pagan worship (Is 65:4; 66:3, 17), which may account for their being forbidden to the Jews as food. Evidence in the Holy Land shows that pigs were sacrificed long before Hellenistic times. Pig bones were found in a grotto below the rock-cut place of sacrifice at Gezer. A similar underground chamber with vessels containing piglet bones at Tirzah dates to the middle Bronze Age (about 2000 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Alabaster fragments of a statuette of a pig ready to be sacrificed have been unearthed. Swine were sacrificed to Aphrodite (Venus) in Greece and Asia Minor. In addition, pigs were sacrificed in connection with oaths and treaties; in the <em>Iliad,<\/em> Agamemnon sacrificed a boar to Zeus and Helios. So it is not surprising that among the Jews the pig became a symbol of filthiness and paganism.<\/p>\n<p>It is possible that eating pork was forbidden primarily because the pig may carry many worm parasites such as trichina, though that is also true of some “clean” animals. Another reason for forbidding their consumption may have been that pigs eat carrion. Some people are allergic to pork in hot weather—another suggested reason behind the Jewish taboo. The same taboo exists among the Muslims and existed in certain social strata in Egypt.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Porcupine\">Porcupine<\/p>\n<p>Rodent, <em>Hystrix cristata,<\/em> which lives in forested areas, rocky hills, ravines, and valleys. The porcupine is still found in the Holy Land today. It has long quills that can be raised to give the appearance of a crest. It is almost entirely nocturnal. It burrows by day into a natural cavity or crevice. The Old World porcupine rarely climbed trees, although the New World porcupine frequently does. A porcupine may weigh as much as 60 pounds (27.2 kilograms). It eats fruit, bark, roots, and other vegetation, and carrion as well. Although its flesh is edible, the porcupine was not classed among the clean animals for the Israelites. The reference in Isaiah 34:11 (<span>rsv<\/span>) is probably to the porcupine, as is Isaiah 14:23 in the <span>nlt<\/span>. <em>See<\/em> Hedgehog.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Scorpion\">Scorpion<\/p>\n<p>Arthropod of the same group as spiders (arachnids). A dozen species of scorpions (order Scorpionida) are found in the Holy Land, but 90 percent of the scorpions are yellow scorpions, usually three to five inches (7.6 to 12.7 centimeters) long. The rock scorpion, also common to the Holy Land, is as thick as a man’s finger and from five to seven inches (12.7 to 17.8 centimeters) in length. Scorpions are slow, nocturnal invertebrates that rest beneath stones by day and prey on insects and other arachnids by night. At the end of its long tail the scorpion carries a poisonous sting that is fatal to most prey and extremely painful to humans (Rv 9:3, 5, 10; cf. 1 Kgs 12:11, 14). Scorpions symbolize Ezekiel’s evil countrymen (Ez 2:6) and the demonic forces of Satan (Lk 10:19). The scorpion is referred to as frequenting the Sinai Desert (Dt 8:15).<\/p>\n<p>A scorpion has from six to eight eyes. It has eight legs like a spider and two lobsterlike claws with which it catches and holds its prey. It feeds particularly on locusts and beetles. In many species the female scorpion eats the male after mating. Scorpions lay eggs that hatch very shortly after laying. Scorpions prefer warmer climates, and because of their desire for warmth, enter houses, especially at night, hiding in beds, blankets, footwear, and clothing.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Sheep\">Sheep<\/p>\n<p>Domestic animal, <em>Ovis orientalis,<\/em> referred to directly or by some term such as ewe, lamb, ram, or by some fact concerning them over 700 times in Scripture.<\/p>\n<p>Sheep represented the chief wealth and total livelihood of pastoral peoples, providing food to eat, milk to drink, wool for the making of cloth, and hides and bones for other uses. In addition, the sheep was a medium of exchange and a sacrificial animal. The number of sheep raised in ancient times was prodigious. Mesha, king of Moab, paid a tribute annually of 100,000 lambs and the wool of 100,000 rams (2 Kgs 3:4). The Israelites took 250,000 sheep from the Hagrites (1 Chr 5:21).<\/p>\n<p>Sheep shearing was often done for festivals (2 Sm 13:23). The sheep was held down on its side and its legs were tied together; then it lay docilely while its wool was clipped (Is 53:7). Sheep reserved for burnt offerings were not shorn; nothing could be held back from a sacrifice to the Lord.<\/p>\n<p>Wool had to be processed before it could be used for clothing. First it was washed, sometimes while still on the sheep, then carded and perhaps weighed for the market. The spinning of wool was regarded as a woman’s work (Prv 31:19), but weaving the spun thread into cloth on a loom was primarily a man’s occupation.<\/p>\n<p>The Bible reports that Abel kept sheep (Gn 4:2). The first sheep to be domesticated was probably the argali <em>(Ovis ammon),<\/em> a variety of the urial <em>(Ovis vignei),<\/em> a mountainous species still existing in Turkestan and Mongolia. Five breeds had reached Mesopotamia by 2000 <span>BC<\/span>; all were of the urial stock.<\/p>\n<p>The sheep known in Israel was the broad-tailed sheep <em>(Ovis orientalis vignei<\/em> or <em>laticaudata),<\/em> of which the tail weighs from 10 to 15 pounds (4.5 to 6.8 kilograms) and has always been considered a delicacy. Thus the Lord asked for this choice part as a sacrifice (Ex 29:22-25).<\/p>\n<p>Only the ram of the broad-tailed sheep has horns, but in other varieties of sheep in the Holy Land the ewe also has horns. The horns, two to three inches (5 to 8 centimeters) in diameter, can be potent weapons. Rams’ horns could be used as trumpets (Jos 6:4) or as oil containers (1 Sm 16:1).<\/p>\n<p>Although the sheep is very similar to the goat, it is differentiated by a lower forehead, its angulated spiral horns marked with transverse wrinkles and curved slightly outward, its covering of wool, and its lack of a “goatee.” Most sheep are white (Ps 147:16; Is 1:18; Dn 7:9; Rv 1:14).<\/p>\n<p>The flesh of sheep was a luxury in the biblical culture. King Solomon required a daily provision of 100 sheep for his table (1 Kgs 4:23), but the common people ate lamb or mutton only on festive occasions. A young ram was usually chosen because the ewes were more important to the future prospects of the herd. The meat was boiled in large caldrons. The milk of the sheep is extremely rich; in biblical times it was usually allowed to curdle before drinking. Possibly some Israelites kept lambs in their houses as pets (2 Sm 12:3-4).<\/p>\n<p>To protect the flock at night against predatory attacks, the shepherd tried to provide a fold. In meadows near villages, folds were built and watchmen were hired to relieve the shepherds. The shepherds of the nativity story were out in the field (Lk 2:8); they had no fold but probably had set up a tent for shelter, consisting simply of goat-hair blankets spread across sapling supports. The scarcity of springs in the Holy Land made the watering of the flock a crucial problem for the shepherd (Gn 13:8-11).<\/p>\n<p>Wild mountain sheep, varieties of <em>Ovis orientalis,<\/em> are known in the Mediterranean area (Dt 14:5). The Deuteronomy passage (<span>kjv<\/span> “chamois”) might also refer to <em>Ovis traelaphus,<\/em> a sheep about five feet high (1.5 meters) with long, curved horns. Another possibility is the Barbary sheep that lives in small flocks in rugged mountain areas in Barbary, Egypt, and Mt Sinai. The true chamois is unknown in Palestine.<\/p>\n<p>The sheep is also used figuratively in Scripture. The ram represented great strength and fittingly symbolized Medo-Persia in Daniel’s vision (Dn 8:3). It is the nature of sheep to be gentle and submissive (Is 53:7; Jer 11:19), defenseless (Mi 5:8; Mt 10:16), and in constant need of guidance and care (Nm 27:17; Mt 9:36). Such qualities are regarded as desirable in the lives of believers in Christ; hence the many figurative references to sheep in the NT and to Jesus as shepherd (Mk 6:34; Jn 10:1-30; Rom 8:35-37; Heb 13:20-21; 1 Pt 2:25). The resurrected Christ told the apostle Peter to “feed my lambs” and “tend my sheep” (Jn 21:15-17).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Offerings and Sacrifices.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Snail\">Snail<\/p>\n<p>Invertebrate gastropods (mollusks). Land snails are very numerous in the Near East. Some freshwater forms serve as hosts for the schistosome worm, the fluke parasite causing the dread disease bilharzia (schistosomiasis).<\/p>\n<p>Purple dyes of all shades were highly valued in the ancient world. A royal purple dye was obtained from secretions of a sea snail <em>(Murex trunculus<\/em> and <em>Murex brandaris).<\/em> Evidently, that process was developed by Phoenicians, Egyptians, and Assyrians as early as 1500 <span>BC<\/span>. The “purple” fishermen had their own guild during the time of the Roman Empire. The snails were harvested during the fall and winter seasons; in the spring, when egg laying took place, little dye was available. The snails tended to remain concealed in the summer. They inhabited the waters off Crete and Phoenicia. Tyrian purple, produced in the Phoenician city of Tyre, the center of the purple-dye industry, was obtained by a double dyeing. Large deposits of murex shells from dyeing operations have been found along the Mediterranean shoreline. The Israelites had to import purple goods (Ez 27:16). Lydia was a “seller of purple” or of cloth so dyed (Acts 16:14). Purple was a sign of distinction, royalty, and wealth (cf. Ex 25:4; 28:5-6, 15; Nm 15:38; 2 Chr 2:7; Est 8:15; Prv 31:22; Sg 3:10; Ez 27:7; Dn 5:7).<\/p>\n<p>Exodus 30:34-35 refers to “onycha,” which was an important ingredient of incense. Onycha is the horny, clawlike operculum (the plate that closes off the opening of its shell when a snail is retracted) of a Near Eastern member of the molluskan family Strombidae. The operculum is sometimes used for offense or locomotion as well as for defense. When burned, the operculum gives off a sharp, strong scent, and when mixed with more fragrant but less powerful substances is even more potent. The name “onycha” is derived from a Greek word <em>(onyx)<\/em> for a fingernail or a claw.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Dye, Dyeing, Dyer.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Snake\">Snake<\/p>\n<p>Various species of snake, suborder Ophidia (Serpentes). In the Bible nine Hebrew words and four Greek ones refer to snakes. The most common Hebrew word is onomatopoeic—that is, it is an imitation of a snake hissing or of the sound it produces as it scrapes its scales along the ground (cf. Jer 46:22). Many types of snakes lay eggs (Is 59:5), although some retain the eggs in the body until ready to hatch.<\/p>\n<p>Snakes are among the most widespread reptiles and are found on all continents except Antarctica; they decrease in numbers and species toward the poles but increase as one approaches the equator. Thirty-three species of snakes are known in Palestine and neighboring countries, 20 of which are poisonous. Two dangerous characteristics of the snake noted by biblical writers are its inconspicuous way of moving and the ease with which it hides itself.<\/p>\n<p>Many snakes are able to swallow animals several times their own diameter because of their unusually flexible jaw mechanism. They lack not only legs but also movable eyelids. Snakes periodically shed their skins. The tongue is actually a hearing apparatus sensitive to airborne vibrations and probably to heat waves.<\/p>\n<p>The venom of poisonous species is a clear, thin secretion, transmitted to the victim’s bloodstream by means of fangs. Two types of venom are known: that of the vipers, which affects respiration and disintegrates red blood cells, and that of the cobras, which paralyzes the nervous system.<\/p>\n<p>The “asp” referred to in the Bible is probably the cobra; the “adder” is the viper. The “cockatrice” (<span>kjv<\/span>) is probably the adder. Serpents were associated with worship in Canaanite religion and symbolized evil deities among many other peoples. Steles (upright stones bearing inscriptions) have been unearthed at several sites in the Holy Land and Syria depicting a god or worshiper with a snake winding about the legs or body. Because the Israelites were burning incense in pagan worship of Moses’ bronze serpent (Nm 21:8-9), King Hezekiah destroyed it in his religious reform (2 Kgs 18:4).<\/p>\n<p>Although snakes have been an object of veneration in some religions, in the Judeo-Christian tradition snakes represent evil and, more specifically, the devil. That association began in the Garden of Eden (Gn 3:1-15) and is also found in the book of Revelation (12:9; 20:2-3).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Adder (above); Asp (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Spider\">Spider<\/p>\n<p>Animal of the order Araneida. Between 600 and 700 different species inhabit the Holy Land. Spiders are different from insects in that, like scorpions, they have four pairs of legs instead of three. Spiders are equipped with poison glands—the effectiveness varying from species to species. A few can kill only insects, but others can also kill birds and mice.<\/p>\n<p>Most spiders have a pair of spinnerets attached to silk glands on the underside of the abdomen; from them a web is extruded. In the Bible the spider’s web is referred to as a symbol of frailty and insecurity (Jb 8:14; Is 59:5-6).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Sponge\">Sponge<\/p>\n<p>Simple marine animals, phylum Porifera. The term “sponge” also refers to those animals’ skeletal remains. The sponge has a porous body composed of tubules and cells.<\/p>\n<p>Sponge fishing was well known in the Mediterranean area in ancient times. It was practiced particularly along the Anatolian and Syrian coasts. Sponges were harvested by divers. The use of sponges in absorbing liquids is referred to in the Bible (Mt 27:48; Mk 15:36).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Unicorn\">Unicorn<\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Wild Ox (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Wasp\">Wasp<\/p>\n<p>Insects of the family Vespidae. Hornets are social wasps that build large aerial apartment houses in which 1,000 or more individuals may live. In the Bible the hornet is used as a metaphor for God’s use of military forces (Ex 23:28; Dt 7:20; Jos 24:12).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Whale\">Whale<\/p>\n<p>Largest of all living creatures, including those that have become extinct. Whales are air-breathing mammals of the order Cetacea.<\/p>\n<p>Two varieties of whales visit the shores of the Holy Land at times. The finback whale <em>(Balaenoptera physalus)<\/em> weighs about 200 tons (181 metric tons) and lives mainly in the Arctic region but sometimes passes through the Straits of Gibraltar to reach the eastern Mediterranean Sea. It feeds on small marine organisms that it strains through its whale bone; it does not have teeth. The finback whale’s esophagus is narrow.<\/p>\n<p>The sperm whale <em>(Physeter catodon),<\/em> about 60 feet (18.3 meters) long, has a curiously shaped head that looks like a battering ram. The teeth in the lower jaw of the male sperm whale are about seven inches (17.8 centimeters) long. It feeds on big fish, even on sharks. It has a large throat opening.<\/p>\n<p>Whales are referred to in Genesis 1:21 and Job 7:12 (<span>kjv<\/span> only). The “great fish” of Jonah 2:1 need not have been a whale but could have been a large shark, such as the whale shark <em>(Rhineodon),<\/em> which grows 70 feet (21.3 meters) long and lacks the terrible teeth of other sharks. Whatever the actual marine organism, Jonah’s deliverance was miraculous. The Greek word for “whale” is sometimes used as a general term for “sea monster” or huge fish and may be used in that sense in Matthew 12:40.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"WildOx\">Wild Ox<\/p>\n<p>Large, fierce, fleet, intractable animal <em>(Bos primigenius).<\/em> It had a long, lean rump with a straight back and a long, narrow head. The animal described in Job 39:9-12 is clearly the wild ox. The two horns (Dt 33:17), its outstanding characteristic, were straight and as long as the head (Nm 23:22; 24:8; Ps 22:21). Kings often symbolized their dominion by wearing a helmet with two wild ox horns (cf. Pss 92:10; 132:17-18). The horns were often used as drinking vessels by the Israelites; some were large enough to hold four gallons (15 liters).<\/p>\n<p>Hunting the wild ox was a favorite sport of Assyrian kings. Tiglath-pileser I hunted it in the Lebanon Mountains about 1100 <span>BC<\/span> (cf. Ps 29:6). At one time the animal referred to in Job 39:9-12 was thought to be the oryx or antelope because of the similarity between the Hebrew word in Job and the Arabian name for oryx. The translators of the <span>kjv<\/span> called the wild ox a “unicorn” because of representations found on Babylonian mosaics and Egyptian drawings. Those representations showed it in strict profile, showing only one horn—hence, “unicorn.” Jerome’s Vulgate, a Latin Bible translation (fourth century <span>AD<\/span>) and Martin Luther’s German version translated it similarly.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Wolf\">Wolf<\/p>\n<p>Large doglike mammal <em>(Canis lupus)<\/em> that travels in bands of up to 30 animals. From the nose to the rump, the wolf measures about 3 feet (.9 meter); its drooping tail is about 18 inches (.5 meter) long. It looks much like a skinny German shepherd dog. The grayish yellow pelt is coarse and short haired.<\/p>\n<p>Wolves hunt singly or in relays, usually at night (Jer 5:6). Wolves have acute hearing and sight but rely chiefly on scent and usually catch their prey in a swift, open chase. The wolf has a reputation for boldness, fierceness, and voracity (Gn 49:27; Hb 1:8). It commonly kills more than it can eat or drag away and thus is known for its greediness.<\/p>\n<p>The wolf is a restless animal, always on the move; hunger drives it from one place to another in constant search of new hunting grounds. During spring and fall, wolves usually roam singly or in pairs, whereas in summer they may travel in family groups. In winter, several such groups may join to form a large pack. Wolves are intelligent, social creatures, faithful to their own kind. They mate for life. Individually, the wolf is a rather timid animal; it would much rather avoid human beings. But collectively wolves can be among the most dangerous animals alive.<\/p>\n<p>In Egypt, Rome, and Greece the wolf was considered sacred. Wolves were well known in the Holy Land and are still found there and also in many places in Asia Minor. Shepherds continually battled with wolves that plundered their flocks (Jn 10:12).<\/p>\n<p>The Bible refers to wolves in a literal sense in only three places (Is 11:6; 65:25; Jn 10:12), all other references being figurative. Usually the wolf is a symbol of enemies or the wicked (e.g., Ez 22:27; Zep 3:3; Acts 20:29). Both the wolf’s courage and its cruelty were probably in the mind of the patriarch Jacob when he predicted the fate of Benjamin’s tribe (Gn 49:27).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Worm\">Worm<\/p>\n<p>Actually insect larvae in most biblical references, usually maggots, the larvae of flies (see Fly, above). For example, maggots are evidently referred to in accounts of worms feeding on spoiled manna (Ex 16:19-20), corpses (Jb 21:26; Is 14:11), or open wounds (Jb 7:5). Mark 9:48 refers to a maggot that eats dead flesh. In Acts 12:23 a fatal, worm-induced abdominal disease of King Herod is mentioned. In other cases, the reference is to the larvae of other insects (Is 51:8). In Deuteronomy 28:39 and Jonah 4:7 the vine weevil <em>(Cochylis ambiguella)<\/em> is probably referred to; it destroys vines by boring into their stems. Comparing a man to a worm is a metaphor for abasement (Jb 25:6; Ps 22:6).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ANIMALS<\/h3>\n<p>In biblical usage, all members of the animal kingdom. Animals are mentioned throughout the Bible from Genesis to Revelation. Animals figured in many important biblical events, including the Creation, the fall of man, the Flood, the ten plagues in Egypt, the Hebrew worship system, and the life of Jesus Christ. The people of both OT and NT times lived close to the land and were well acquainted with various animals so that the scriptural writers and Jesus himself frequently used animals as object lessons.<\/p>\n<p>The biblical approach to classification of animals is somewhat different from the system of classification used by biologists today. The present system of classification, which traces back to Carolus Linnaeus (an 18th-century Swedish botanist), is based on structure, both internal and external. The biblical basis of classification is habitat. Thus Genesis 1 speaks of aquatic organisms (v 20); aerial organisms (v 21); animals that crawl on the ground (v 24); cattle or domesticated animals (animals that live in association with humans) (v 24); and wild animals (v 24). The same system of classification is followed in Leviticus 11 and throughout Scripture.<\/p>\n<p>Because of the divergence between systems of classification, the various animals of the Bible will be listed here in alphabetical order—including reptiles, fish, and even invertebrates such as insects, spiders, worms, and sponges. Birds are discussed in a separate article.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Adder<\/p>\n<p>• Ant<\/p>\n<p>• Antelope<\/p>\n<p>• Ape<\/p>\n<p>• Asp<\/p>\n<p>• Ass<\/p>\n<p>• Badger<\/p>\n<p>• Bat<\/p>\n<p>• Bear<\/p>\n<p>• Bee<\/p>\n<p>• Behemoth<\/p>\n<p>• Camel<\/p>\n<p>• Caterpillar<\/p>\n<p>• Cattle<\/p>\n<p>• Chameleon<\/p>\n<p>• Coral<\/p>\n<p>• Cricket<\/p>\n<p>• Crocodile<\/p>\n<p>• Deer<\/p>\n<p>• Dog<\/p>\n<p>• Donkey<\/p>\n<p>• Dragon<\/p>\n<p>• Fish<\/p>\n<p>• Flea<\/p>\n<p>• Fly<\/p>\n<p>• Fox<\/p>\n<p>• Frog<\/p>\n<p>• Gazelle<\/p>\n<p>• Gecko<\/p>\n<p>• Gnat<\/p>\n<p>• Goat<\/p>\n<p>• Grasshopper<\/p>\n<p>• Hare<\/p>\n<p>• Hippopotamus<\/p>\n<p>• Horse<\/p>\n<p>• Hyena<\/p>\n<p>• Jackal<\/p>\n<p>• Leech<\/p>\n<p>• Leopard<\/p>\n<p>• Leviathan<\/p>\n<p>• Lion<\/p>\n<p>• Lizard<\/p>\n<p>• Locust<\/p>\n<p>• Mole<\/p>\n<p>• Moth<\/p>\n<p>• Mouse<\/p>\n<p>• Mule<\/p>\n<p>• Pig<\/p>\n<p>• Porcupine<\/p>\n<p>• Scorpion<\/p>\n<p>• Sheep<\/p>\n<p>• Snail<\/p>\n<p>• Snake<\/p>\n<p>• Spider<\/p>\n<p>• Sponge<\/p>\n<p>• Unicorn<\/p>\n<p>• Wasp<\/p>\n<p>• Whale<\/p>\n<p>• Wild Ox<\/p>\n<p>• Wolf<\/p>\n<p>• Worm<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Adder\">Adder<\/p>\n<p>One of the 20 poisonous snakes found in Israel and surrounding countries, also referred to as cockatrice and viper. True vipers (genus <em>Cerastes, Echis colorata,<\/em> and <em>Vipera palestina<\/em>) also exist there, poisonous snakes with curved fangs that spring into position when the snake strikes. The horned viper <em>(Cerastes hasselquistii)<\/em> may attack horses. It is 12 to 18 inches (30 to 46 centimeters) long and often lies in ambush in the sand with only its eyes and the hornlike protrusions on its head visible.<\/p>\n<p>Both Jesus and John the Baptist referred to the viper several times (Mt 3:7; 12:34; 23:33). The reference in Acts 28:3 is probably to a small viper <em>(Vipera aspis)<\/em> that strikes rapidly and is very pugnacious. It is found in southern Europe and hisses each time it inhales and exhales. The poison of vipers attacks the respiratory system and disintegrates red blood cells.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Snake (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Ant\">Ant<\/p>\n<p>Mentioned only twice in the Bible, both times in the book of Proverbs. For many years Solomon was charged with a biological error when he referred to the ant as providing her meat in the summer and gathering her food in the harvest (Prv 6:8). Critics of the Bible were quick to point out that, so far as was then known, ants do not store up food. They assumed that Solomon had probably kicked open an ant hill and mistaken the pupal cases (pods in which immature ants grow to maturity) for grain or had observed ants carrying bits of grain, leaves, and other matter to their nests.<\/p>\n<p>At least three species of grain-storing ants are now known—two occur in Israel and the other in Mediterranean countries. The particular species referred to by Solomon (Prv 6:6-8; 30:24-25) is probably the harvester ant <em>(Messor semirufus).<\/em> Its granaries are flat chambers connected by galleries irregularly scattered over an area about six feet (1.8 meters) in diameter and about a foot (.3 meter) deep in the ground. Seeds are collected from the ground or picked from plants. The head, or radicle, which is the softest part of the kernel, is bitten off to prevent germination, and the chaff and empty capsules are discarded on kitchen middens (refuse piles) outside the nest. Individual granaries may be 5 inches (12.7 centimeters) in diameter and a half inch (1.2 centimeters) high. Some nests are known to be 40 feet (12 meters) in diameter and 6 to 7 feet (approx. 2 meters) deep with several entrances.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Antelope\">Antelope<\/p>\n<p>Several antelope-like creatures are referred to in the Scriptures. One seems to be the white oryx <em>(Oryx leucoryx),<\/em> referred to in Deuteronomy 14:5 (<span>kjv<\/span> “wild ox”; <span>rsv<\/span> “antelope”) and Isaiah 51:20 (<span>kjv<\/span> “wild bull”; <span>RSV <\/span>“antelope”). The oryx was probably the antelope, commonly used for food because its long horns made it relatively easy to catch.<\/p>\n<p>Another antelope mentioned in the Bible is the addax <em>(Addax nasomaculatus),<\/em> probably the “pygarg” of Deuteronomy 14:5 (<span>kjv<\/span>). It is a native of North Africa with grayish white hinder parts, a white patch on the forehead, and twisted and ringed horns. The word “pygarg” comes from a Greek word meaning “white rump.” The addax is about the size of a donkey. Its body is closely covered with short hair. It has a short mane on the underside of its neck that makes the head look somewhat like that of a goat. The hooves are broad and flat, and the tail resembles that of a donkey. It is common in Africa and in Arabia, where Arabs hunt it with falcons and dogs.<\/p>\n<p>Antelopes are very graceful and run with their heads held high. Both sexes have long, permanent, hollow horns. With the oryx the horns go straight back; addax horns are twisted and ringed. Antelope are alert, wary, and keen sighted. They are usually found in herds of from two to a dozen. If injured or brought to bay, an antelope attacks with its head lowered so that the sharp horns point forward. Antelopes feed on grasses and shrubs, drinking from streams and water holes. When water is scarce, they eat melons and succulent bulbs. Both addax and oryx were ceremonially clean in Jewish law.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Ape\">Ape<\/p>\n<p>Primate not native to Palestine. The two references to apes in the OT (1 Kgs 10:22; 2 Chr 9:21) refer to their importation by King Solomon with other treasures on board the ships of his mercantile fleet. There is some question concerning the origin of those primates. Some believe that the mention of “ivory” in the same verses suggests they came from East Africa and that they were indeed apes, that is, tailless primates. Others, believing they came from India or Ceylon, suggest that they were actually monkeys. There the baboon (genus Papeio), a large monkey, was considered sacred to the god Thoth. Males of that genus were kept in temples, and the more docile females were often kept as house pets. Such baboons frequently had some of their teeth removed or ground down to lessen the danger of their biting. A number of mummified baboons have been found in Egypt, indicating the high regard in which they were held.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Asp\">Asp<\/p>\n<p>Poisonous snake. Most biblical references to the asp (Dt 32:33) seem to be to the Egyptian cobra <em>(Naja haje),<\/em> which conceals itself in holes, walls, and rocks and has the ability to expand its neck by raising its anterior ribs so as to enlarge the front of its breast into the shape of a flat disc. Its potent poison can cause death in 30 minutes. It attains a length of about 80 inches (2 meters). The fangs are permanently erect, not movable as in the vipers (the common poisonous snakes of North America; only the coral snake in America has permanently erect fangs). Cobra poison attacks the nervous system, causing muscular paralysis. The Egyptians looked upon it as a sacred creature; they regarded it as a protector since it fed on the rodents that ate their crops. The “fiery serpents” (Nm 21:6; Dt 8:15, both <span>rsv<\/span>) may have been cobras; “fiery” probably refers to the burning fever caused by their venom. Isaiah 14:29 and 30:6 (“flying serpent”) may refer to the hood of the cobra.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Snake (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Ass\">Ass<\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Donkey (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Badger\">Badger<\/p>\n<p>Small hoofed mammal. What the <span>kjv<\/span> calls a “coney,” modern translations name “rock badger” (Lv 11:5; Dt 14:7; Ps 104:18; Prv 30:26). The rock badger spoken of in the Bible is probably the Syrian rock hyrax <em>(Hyrax syriaca),<\/em> the only species of hyrax found outside Africa. This small ungulate (having hooflike toenails) lives among rocks from the Dead Sea valley to Mt Hermon. It is strictly a herbivorous (plant-eating) animal about the size of a rabbit. It resembles a guinea pig more than a rabbit, having quite inconspicuous ears and a very small tail. It has broad nails with four toes on its forelegs and three on its hind legs, the toes being connected with skin almost like a web. Pads acting as sucking discs under its feet enable it to keep its footing on slippery rocks. With its yellow and brown fur, it is sometimes called the bear rat because of its resemblance to a tailless rat. It is also equipped with black whiskers that may be seven inches (17.8 centimeters) long.<\/p>\n<p>These rock badgers, or hyraxes, live together in colonies of from 6 to 50 animals, often sunning themselves on rocks. They are difficult to catch. Guards are posted, and if approaching danger is sighted, the whole group will scurry for cover, warned by the sharp whistles of the guards. Thus they are commended for taking refuge in the rocks (Ps 104:18) and are called wise for making “their houses in the rocks” (Prv 30:24, 26, <span>kjv<\/span>). The badger is not a ruminant (does not chew its cud), but the motion of its jaws may suggest that it chews its cud. That is probably why it was included with other cud-chewing animals in the Jewish food laws (Lv 11:5; Dt 14:7). It was forbidden to the Jews as food because it did not have cloven hooves. Some Arabs eat and even prize its meat.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Bat\">Bat<\/p>\n<p>Flying mammals according to modern classification. They have hair and provide milk for their young. The Bible classifies them with other aerial creatures. Bats take shelter in caves, crevices, tree cavities, buildings, and also in exposed places on trees. In colder areas they hibernate or migrate. The normal resting position for a bat is hanging head downward. Bats “swim” through the air rather than fly because they move with their legs as well as with their wings.<\/p>\n<p>The bat’s thumb is free and terminates in a single hook claw used for climbing and hanging. The hind feet have five toes, all pointing the same way. The large chest accommodates the powerful muscles needed for flying. Because they orient themselves by echo location, the sense of hearing is very well developed.<\/p>\n<p>Most bats are insect eaters, seizing insects in flight. Many insectivorous bats also eat some fruit. Other bats feed exclusively, usually in groups, on fruit and green vegetation. Fruit-eating bats generally live in the tropics where fruit is constantly ripening, although some have been found in the Holy Land. These bats tend to be larger than the insectivores, having a wingspread of up to five feet (1.5 meters).<\/p>\n<p>A third group includes flower-eating bats that feed on pollen and nectar. These small bats with long pointed heads and long tongues are found only in tropical and semitropical regions. Three species of vampire bats, which do not occur in the Holy Land, eat blood by making a small incision and lapping it up. Carnivorous (meat-eating) bats prey on birds, lizards, and frogs. Fish-eating bats catch fish at or near the water surface.<\/p>\n<p>Eight varieties of bats are known in the Holy Land. One of them, the little brown bat (genus <em>Myotis<\/em>), is worldwide in its distribution. It is insectivorous and probably has the widest distribution of any nonhuman terrestrial mammal. Brown bats are mostly cave dwellers. The females form maternity colonies that may number in the tens of thousands.<\/p>\n<p>Two species of mouse-tailed bats (genus <em>Rhinopoma<\/em>) are found in the Holy Land. Their tails are nearly as long as the head and body combined. They are colonial, roosting in caves, rock clefts, wells, pyramids, palaces, and houses. Like the brown bat, they are insectivorous. The slit-faced or hollow-faced bats (genus <em>Nycteris<\/em>) are also found in the Holy Land. They are insectivorous and roost in groups from 6 to 20.<\/p>\n<p>The bats found in the Holy Land vary in size from that of a mouse to the size of a rat; the largest species measures more than 20 inches (51 centimeters) across the wings. The bat was unclean to the Jews (Lv 11:19; Dt 14:18).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Bear\">Bear<\/p>\n<p>Large, heavy, big-headed mammal with short, powerful limbs, a short tail, and small eyes and ears. Bears have a “plantigrade” walk: they walk on both the sole and heel as humans do. The Palestinian bear is a Syrian version of the brown bear <em>(Ursus arctos syriacus).<\/em> It can grow to a height of 6 feet (1.8 meters) and may weigh as much as 500 pounds (227 kilograms).<\/p>\n<p>Bears have an excellent sense of smell but less developed senses of sight and hearing. They are omnivorous (eating any kind of food); they subsist largely on vegetation, fruits, insects, and fish.<\/p>\n<p>Bears are usually peaceful and inoffensive, but if they think they must defend themselves (Lam 3:10) or their young (2 Sm 17:8; Prv 17:12; Hos 13:8), they may be formidable and dangerous adversaries. David boasted of his role as a bear killer (1 Sm 17:34-37). Since a blow from a bear’s paw can be fatal, David’s courage and strength as a young shepherd in running after a bear and wrenching one of his father’s sheep from its jaws were noteworthy.<\/p>\n<p>Some biblical passages seem to imply that bears attacked for no apparent reason (e.g., Prv 28:15; Am 5:19). At other times they were God’s instruments of punishment, as in the story of Elisha and the two she-bears (2 Kgs 2:24). The bear and the lion, often mentioned together in the Bible (1 Sm 17:37), were the two largest and strongest beasts of prey in the Holy Land. Thus they symbolized both strength and terror (Am 5:19).<\/p>\n<p>In biblical times bears seem to have roamed all over Palestine. Today they are found only in the Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon Mountains, and even there they are rare.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Bee\">Bee<\/p>\n<p>One of two domesticated insects <em>(Apis mellifica),<\/em> the other being the silkworm. Bees gather nectar from flowers, transferring pollen from one flower to another in the process. It is believed that they convey the location of sources of nectar to other bees through a bee “dance,” which may indicate both distance and direction. Bees are sensitive to four colors: blue-green, yellow-green, blue-violet, and ultra-violet (invisible to humans).<\/p>\n<p>The wild bees of the Holy Land are especially noted for their ferocity in attack. Only the female “worker” bees sting people and animals, the virulence of their venom increasing in warm weather. A number of biblical passages allude to the irritable, vindictive nature of bees and to the painful stings they inflict (Dt 1:44; Ps 118:12; Is 7:18).<\/p>\n<p>One reference calls attention to the fact that in semidesert regions a dead animal’s carcass, stripped to the bone by jackals or vultures and dried in the sun, can provide wild bees an excellent place to start a new colony (Jgs 14:5-9).<\/p>\n<p>The Egyptians considered the bee sacred. In ancient Greece candles were made from beeswax. In the Holy Land, beekeeping was probably not practiced until the Hellenistic period (second century <span>BC<\/span>), although Ezekiel 27:17 suggests that it may have been practiced earlier. If domestic honey was not available to the Hebrews, wild honey certainly was, and travelers would be on the lookout for caches of honey in rocky clefts and other likely places. The Philistines and the Hittites practiced beekeeping in their cities.<\/p>\n<p>The Bible contains many references to bees and bee products. A bee swarm was a valuable asset, though the price of honey itself was low. Honey was sometimes eaten with the honeycomb (Sg 5:1). Honey also had uses other than food, e.g., in embalming.<\/p>\n<p>The land of Israel was described as a land flowing with milk and honey. Honey was a major source of sweetening in the ancient Near East—hence, its importance (cf. Jgs 14:8-9). Actually the Hebrew word for “honey” may include not only bee honey but also the sweet syrup extracted from such fruits as figs, dates, and grapes. Thus “a land flowing with milk and honey” (Ex 3:8, <span>rsv<\/span>) does not necessarily stand for a land of bees but for a land rich in sweetness.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Food and Food Preparation; Honey.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Behemoth\">Behemoth<\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Hippopotamus (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Camel\">Camel<\/p>\n<p>Large beast of burden. Unintelligent, ill-natured, and quarrelsome, the camel <em>(Camelus dromedarius)<\/em> is nevertheless a blessing to people living in the desert and on its borders because it is especially adapted to that habitat. It has been called the ship of the desert. Having thick elastic pads of fibrous tissue on its feet, it can walk on hot desert sands. It can go without water for long periods and can subsist on vegetation growing on the saline soils. The camel’s nostrils are pinched together and can be closed at will to prevent penetration of sand during violent sandstorms.<\/p>\n<p>Camels are used for transporting both goods and people. A person riding a camel can cover from 60 to 75 miles (96.5 to 121 kilometers) in a day. A camel can carry a load weighing 600 pounds (272 kilograms) or more. Camels were used heavily in the spice trade (Gn 37:25) and traveled regularly in camel trains between Arabia, Egypt, and Assyria. They were also ridden in time of war (Jgs 6:5). A camel can even be hitched to a plow in areas where the land is cultivated.<\/p>\n<p>The hair shed by camels during the early spring is preserved and used in weaving cloth and making tents. As much as 10 pounds (4.5 kilograms) of hair can be obtained from one camel. A rough cloak of camel’s hair, as worn by John the Baptist (Mt 3:4), is still worn by Bedouins today. A camel’s hair garment was also the sign of the prophetic office (Zec 13:4).<\/p>\n<p>Two varieties of camel occur within the one-humped species, the slow burden-bearing camel referred to in Genesis 37:25 and the fast dromedary of 1 Samuel 30:17. The dromedary can stand seven feet (2.1 meters) tall and measure as much as nine feet (2.7 meters) from the muzzle to the tip of the tail. With its three-chambered stomach, which can hold from 15 to 30 quarts (14.2 to 28.4 liters) of liquid, it can go for as long as 5 days during the summer or 25 days in winter without drinking. The camel’s hump is a reserve store of fat, making it possible for the animal to subsist on very little food during a desert journey.<\/p>\n<p>Another species of camel, the Bactrian camel <em>(Camelus bactrianus),<\/em> is also resident in the Holy Land. It has two humps. It is heavier, bigger, and has longer hair than the one-humped camel and is slower than the swift dromedary. Isaiah 21:7 may refer to the Bactrian camel; both kinds of camel are referred to in Esther 8:10 (<span>kjv<\/span>). Camels ranked in importance with sheep, cattle, and asses in OT times. A third of the 66 biblical references to the camel lists it with other animals.<\/p>\n<p>Camels are ruminants (cud-chewing mammals) but do not have cloven hooves. Thus, they were included in the list of unclean beasts, forbidden by the Israelites as food (Lv 11:4; Dt 14:7). They are eaten by Arabs, however, who also drink their milk (cf. Gn 32:15).<\/p>\n<p>Abraham had camels in Egypt (Gn 12:16). At first Job had 3,000 camels (Jb 1:3) and after his recovery, 6,000 (Jb 42:12). Although wide use of camels does not seem to have begun until shortly before 1000 <span>BC<\/span> (Jgs 6:5), Sumerian texts from the Old Babylonian period list camels and indicate that they had been domesticated. Camel bones and figurines have been found at various eastern archaeological sites dating from well before 1200 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Travel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Caterpillar\">Caterpillar<\/p>\n<p>Larval stage of insects characterized by complete metamorphosis. Such insects pass through four stages: egg, larva or caterpillar, pupa, and adult. Bees, flies, moths, and butterflies all pass through a larval or caterpillar stage.<\/p>\n<p>The word “caterpillar” occurs three times in the <span>nlt<\/span> (1 Kgs 8:37; 2 Chr 6:28; Ps 78:46). In the book of Joel that same Hebrew word is translated “locust” (1:4; 2:25, <span>nlt<\/span>). The locust and grasshopper to which the Hebrew word refers have an incomplete type of metamorphosis with only three stages: egg, nymph, and adult. The nymph is a miniature adult in which the wings are not fully developed, though their outline may be present. There are several nymph stages known as instars. The reference is to one of the last instars, in which the wing structures are still folded together and enclosed in a sac but are nevertheless clearly recognizable. That form of the insect is about an inch (2.5 centimeters) long.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Locust (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cattle\">Cattle<\/p>\n<p>Domestic animals of the bovine species <em>(Bos primigenius).<\/em> The OT often emphasized the beauty of cattle. Egypt was rich in cattle, especially in the Nile River delta area (Goshen), where the Hebrews settled under Joseph.<\/p>\n<p>Some scholars believe that milk rather than meat was the foremost consideration in the domestication of cattle and that in early civilizations meat supplies came chiefly from wild game. Cattle also supplied strong hides that supplanted wood in the manufacture of shields. Their dung was a source of fuel when wood was scarce (Ez 4:15). They were used as beasts of burden and for plowing. Development of wheeled transportation was associated more closely with cattle than with any other animal.<\/p>\n<p>The biblical term “cattle” often refers to all domesticated animals or livestock (Gn 1:24; 2:20; 7:23; 47:6, 16-17; Ex 9:3-7; Nm 3:41, 45). Occasionally, the term was used to refer to all large domestic animals (Nm 31:9; 32:26), although sometimes the word as used in the <span>kjv<\/span> refers only to sheep and goats (Gn 30:32, 39, 43; 31:8, 10; Is 7:25; 43:23).<\/p>\n<p>Probably several kinds of cattle were domesticated in the Holy Land. Small, short-legged, black or brown shorthorn cattle were found in the southern part of Judah; that type submitted easily to the yoke and was prominent in agricultural operations. Along the coast a larger variety was found, and the wild districts east of the Jordan River were populated with a breed of huge black cattle.<\/p>\n<p>Cattle breeding was widely practiced by the patriarchs (cf. Gn 32:15; Jb 21:10). Strict laws in Mesopotamia, as well as in Israel, penalized the owner of a bull that gored a man or other cattle (Ex 21:28-36). Bulls were sometimes employed figuratively as pictures of strength or violence (Dt 33:17; Pss 22:12; 68:30; Is 10:13). For breeding purposes one bull is normally adequate for about 30 cows, but many more were kept since bulls were widely used in Israel for sacrifices. They might be used as a general sacrifice (Lv 22:23; Nm 23:1) or for special sacrifices (Jgs 6:25; 1 Sm 1:24). Particular sacrifices were offered at the consecration of priests (Ex 29:1), consecration of an altar (Nm 7), purification of the Levites (Nm 8), sin offerings (Lv 16), day of the new moon (Nm 28:11-14), Passover (Nm 28:19), Feast of Weeks (Nm 28:27), Feast of Trumpets (Nm 29:1-2), Day of Atonement (Nm 29:7-9), and the Feast of Tabernacles (Nm 29:12-38). The Feast of Tabernacles required the largest number of bulls for burnt offerings of all the annual feasts, with a total of 71 being slaughtered during the course of eight days.<\/p>\n<p>Calves were sometimes referred to as “sons of the herd” in the original Hebrew (Gn 18:8; 1 Sm 6:7; 14:32). The calf, a symbol of peacefulness (Is 11:6), was also used figuratively to refer to the weak (Ps 68:30). A calf’s head decorated the back of Solomon’s throne (1 Kgs 10:19). Calves were sometimes fattened in stalls to keep them from running off weight in the field (Am 6:4; Mal 4:2; Lk 15:23) or were kept around the house; the witch of Endor kept a calf in her house that she killed and served to Saul and his men (1 Sm 28:24-25). Calves supplied veal (Gn 18:7), considered a delicacy by the wealthy; Amos referred to stall-fattened calves in a denunciation of luxurious and careless living (Am 6:4). Calves also supplied meat for all Saul’s armies at the great slaughter of the Philistines (1 Sm 14:32). The “fatted calf” served roasted or boiled was gourmet fare, suitable for the finest banquet (Gn 18:7; Mt 22:4; Lk 15:23).<\/p>\n<p>Cattle were subject to the law of firstlings (Ex 13:12). They were a mark of wealth (Gn 13:2) and were considered proper booty of war (Jos 8:2). Aaron, the first high priest, made a golden calf as a rival to the ark of the covenant (Ex 32; Dt 9:16, 21). Even though he represented the calf as an image of the invisible God, it was especially offensive because the calf was a fertility symbol related to Egyptian and Canaanite practices. Two calves were later made by Jeroboam I of Israel (930–909 <span>BC<\/span>) for his shrines at Bethel and Dan (1 Kgs 12:28-33). Hosea’s prophetic denunciations of calf worship were directed at those shrines (Hos 8:5-6; 13:2).<\/p>\n<p>An ox is an adult castrated bull. A steer is a young ox. Oxen were used to do work (Nm 7:3; Dt 22:10; 25:4), though for moving heavy objects, cows were typically favored over bulls because of their more docile nature. Oxen were also used as pack animals (1 Chr 12:40, although they did not have the endurance of the ass, camel, or mule. They usually fed on grass (Nm 22:4; Ps 106:20), but they also ate straw (Is 11:7) and salted fodder (Is 30:24) and could be kept in a stable (Lk 13:15). Oxen could not be offered as sacrifices because they had been castrated (Lv 22:24). They could be used for food but were rarely eaten. Possession of an ox and an ass was regarded as the bare minimum for existence in the ancient Palestinian agriculture economy (Jb 24:3; cf. Ex 20:17).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Agriculture; Food and Food Preparation; Offerings and Sacrifices.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Chameleon\">Chameleon<\/p>\n<p>Lizard characterized by its ability to change color according to its surroundings <em>(Chameleon vulgaris).<\/em> To the Israelites the chameleon was ritually unclean (Lv 11:30). The Hebrew word for chameleon is derived from a word meaning “to pant.” A lizard’s lungs are very large, and in ancient times lizards were believed to live on air. A chameleon’s eyes move independently of each other; so at times one eye may be turned upward and the other downward. Chameleons live in trees and bushes, clinging to branches with their long tails.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Lizard (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Coral\">Coral<\/p>\n<p>Calcareous (lime-containing) skeletons of relatively simple marine organisms <em>(Corallium rubrum).<\/em> Red coral from the Mediterranean and Red Seas is widely used for jewelry and for medicinal purposes. While the animal is alive, the coral is green in color and shrublike in appearance, looking rather like an underwater plant since the coral animals are immobil. When the coral is removed from the water, it becomes hard and red in color.<\/p>\n<p>In ancient times coral was sometimes used as money, along with precious stones, pearls, and gold. Some believe the biblical reference in Lamentations 4:7 (<span>rsv<\/span>) is to pearls rather than to coral, but it is probable that the references in Job 28:18 and Ezekiel 27:16 are to the red coral (see <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cricket\">Cricket<\/p>\n<p>Insect of the order Orthptera related to grasshoppers and locusts. According to Leviticus 11:22, the cricket was edible. The reference may be to one of the growth stages of the locust.<\/p>\n<p>The <span>kjv<\/span> translates the Hebrew word as “beetle.” Beetles are insects with chewing mouth parts and two pairs of wings, the fore pair being hard and sheathlike and the hind pair being membranous and folded under the fore pair. Some beetles are carnivorous, others are chiefly herbivorous. Some are aquatic, some produce a secretion that blisters the skin, some damage fabrics, some damage crops, and some feed on other insects that are harmful to humans. In ancient Egypt the beetle, or sacred scarab, was a symbol of the sun god Ra. Scarab seals and amulets were extremely popular in Egypt.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Crocodile\">Crocodile<\/p>\n<p>Largest of all existing reptiles <em>(Crocodilus vulgaris),<\/em> attaining a length of well over 20 feet (6 meters). Crocodiles are characterized by large lizardlike bodies supported by short legs. The head terminates in a flattened snout armed with strong conical teeth, each of which is implanted in a distinct socket. New teeth growing from beneath continually replace those in use. The toes are webbed. The back and tail are protected by quadrangular horny shields of varying sizes arranged in regular rows and in contact with one another at the edges. The eyes are covered with movable lids that can be closed when the animal enters the water.<\/p>\n<p>The crocodile spends most of its time in the water where it feeds mainly on fish but also on aquatic birds and even small animals that come down to the water’s edge to drink. It is surprisingly fast and agile on dry land, even though its legs are so short that its belly and tail drag across the earth leaving a distinct path.<\/p>\n<p>Until the beginning of the 20th century, the crocodile was found in the marshes and small coastal rivers of western Palestine. A first-century Roman writer, Pliny, referred to a place in the Holy Land called Crocodeilopolis (“crocodile city”) to the south of Mt Carmel, and visitors to the Holy Land as late as the 19th century reported seeing crocodiles in that general region.<\/p>\n<p>The description of “Leviathan” in Job 41 seems to be based on the crocodile (thus the translation of the <span>nlt<\/span>). The “dragon” of Ezekiel 29:3, used figuratively of the Egyptian pharaoh, may be a reference to the crocodile.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Deer\">Deer<\/p>\n<p>Large ruminant (cud-chewing) animals. Only the males have antlers (branching horns). Deer antlers grow annually and are solid, in contrast to those of the antelope and the gazelle. Fully developed antlers are devoid of any covering of skin or horn and, for all practical purposes, may be regarded as a mass of dead bone carried for a certain time by the living animal.<\/p>\n<p>The end of the deer’s muzzle is naked in all species. The stomach is divided into a series of compartments, some of which are used to store partly chewed food. The food is later regurgitated, rechewed, and finally swallowed into a section of the stomach where true digestion takes place.<\/p>\n<p>Three species of deer were known in Palestine: the red deer <em>(Cervus elaphus),<\/em> the Persian fallow deer <em>(Dama mesopotamica),<\/em> and the roe deer <em>(Capreolus capreolus).<\/em> All are now extinct there. The last deer were hunted in the Holy Land in 1914. The red deer referred to in the Bible as “hart” (male), “stag” (male), or “hind” (female) stood about four feet (1.2 meters) high at the shoulder. It was gregarious (living in herds or flocks), each group remaining in a definite territory. Red deer grazed and browsed during the morning and late afternoon (Lam 1:6). The sexes remained in separate herds. The red deer was known for its leaping (Is 35:6) and sure-footedness in the mountains (Ps 18:33; Sg 2:8-9, 17; 8:14; Hb 3:19).<\/p>\n<p>The antlers of the Persian fallow deer (1 Kgs 4:23) were large, flattened, and palmated (shaped like an open palm with fingers extended), and its coat was a yellowbrown. It traveled in small groups, feeding mainly on grass in the morning and evening.<\/p>\n<p>The roe deer (Dt 14:5; 1 Kgs 4:23) was a small, graceful animal, dark reddish brown in summer and yellowish gray in winter. Its antlers were about a foot (30.5 centimeters) long and had three points. The roe deer preferred sparsely wooded valleys and the lower slopes of mountains, grazing in open grasslands. It usually associated in family groups made up of the doe and her offspring. They were shy, yet very curious. The roe deer barked like a dog when disturbed, and they were excellent swimmers.<\/p>\n<p>There is some question as to whether the roe deer is actually referred to in such passages as 1 Kings 4:23; references may be to the fallow deer, although that animal does not seem to have lived in the southern part of Palestine around the Sinai Desert because of its need for ample amounts of food and water. Fallow deer were found in northern Palestine.<\/p>\n<p>The hart (the male red deer) was listed among the clean beasts that Jewish law permitted as food (Dt 12:15, 22; 14:5), but deer were not listed among the animals appropriate for sacrifice. The hind (female red deer) normally gave birth to one calf at a time, though twins were born with some degree of regularity (Jb 39:1; Ps 29:9, <span>kjv<\/span>; Jer 14:5). The gestation period was about 40 weeks. When it was about to give birth, the hind looked for a secure hiding place, preferably in the dense undergrowth of the forest where it could find natural protection for the tiny calf. During the first few days after birth, the mother never went far from her young. The fawn was able to stand on its own legs a few hours after birth. The solicitous care by the hind for her calf during the first days of its life is hinted at in a touching way in Jeremiah 14:4-5, where only a severe drought is said to drive the hind from her calf. Job 39:1-4 describes the calving of the hinds. The hind illustrated grace and charm (Gn 49:21; Prv 5:19), and its dark, gentle eyes and graceful limbs were used to describe the beauty of a woman (Prv 5:18-19).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Dog\">Dog<\/p>\n<p>Probably the earliest domesticated animal <em>(Canis familiaris),<\/em> used very early in hunting. The modern dog is believed to have come from the Indian wolf <em>(Canis lupus pallipes).<\/em> The dogs of biblical times probably looked like a modern German shepherd, with short pointed ears, a pointed nose, and a long tail.<\/p>\n<p>The dog was generally looked down upon in biblical times (Prv 26:11; 2 Pt 2:22). The biblical writers did not share modern sentiments about dogs being man’s best friends. The dog was pictured as a scavenger, haunting streets and dumps (Ex 22:31; 1 Kgs 22:38; Mt 15:26; Lk 16:21). Human corpses could become the spoil of dogs (2 Kgs 9:35-36). In general, dogs served the same function as vultures and other birds of prey. Most of the 41 references in the Scriptures to dogs show strong disfavor. Dogs were considered cowardly, filthy creatures.<\/p>\n<p>Dogs used in hunting occur in paintings in Egyptian tombs, and there is a reference to dogs herding sheep in Job 30:1. One good quality of dogs highly esteemed by the Israelites was watchfulness (Is 56:10). In general, however, in biblical times “dog” was a term of contempt (1 Sm 17:43; 2 Sm 16:9) and was used of overly submissive persons (2 Sm 9:8; 2 Kgs 8:13) and of evil persons (Is 56:10-11; Mt 7:6; Phil 3:2; Rv 22:15).<\/p>\n<p>Dogs, like pigs, were voracious and omnivorous (eating any kind of food). In response to a Gentile woman’s request that he heal her daughter, Jesus used the metaphor of throwing household food scraps to dogs (Mt 15:22-28; Mk 7:25-30). At the time of Jesus, the word “dog” was a standard Jewish term of contempt for Gentiles who, like dogs, were considered unclean, although the diminutive form of the word, used by Jesus, softened this considerably. Seeing her faith, Jesus granted the woman’s request, giving a non-Jew some of “the children’s bread.”<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Donkey\">Donkey<\/p>\n<p>Beast of burden. The donkey of the Holy Land <em>(Equus asinus)<\/em> was quite different from the European donkey of today, which is usually a small, stubborn animal. In biblical times the donkey was a beautiful, stately, friendly animal. Its color was usually reddish brown. Three wild races have been described, all from Africa. The race from northwest Africa is extinct; the one from northeast Africa, if not extinct, is close to extinction; the Somalian race, which survives, did not play an important part in domestication. The northeast African race, the Nubian donkey, was evidently domesticated in the Nile River region in early historic times. The donkey was used as a mount from the time of domestication on. It is first mentioned in the Bible among the animals that Abraham acquired in Egypt (Gn 12:16). The donkey was primarily a beast of burden, driven but not bridled. From the time of the Middle Kingdom on (c. 2040 <span>BC<\/span>), it was used for riding in Egypt, but only the Jews and Nubians rode donkeys regularly. The donkey was also used for threshing grain and for pulling the plow. In Arab countries today peasants plow with a donkey and a cow or camel hitched together. In Israel the law forbade plowing with a donkey and an ox hitched together (Dt 22:10). Until the time of Solomon (960 <span>BC<\/span>), horses were not used in Palestine. From that time on, the horse was ridden by warriors; the donkey was used by those who were traveling peaceably.<\/p>\n<p>The donkey was held in high regard by the Jews and was considered an economic asset. An individual had to have a donkey for minimum existence (Jb 24:3), and wealth was frequently counted by the number of donkeys one possessed (Gn 12:16; 24:35). The donkey was considered an acceptable gift (Gn 32:13-15). It was allowed to rest on the Sabbath (Dt 5:14). Women in biblical times often used the donkey as a riding animal (Jos 15:18; 1 Sm 25:23; 2 Kgs 4:24); often a special driver would help a woman guide the animal, running along at its side. If a married couple possessed only one donkey, the husband usually walked alongside while the wife rode (Ex 4:20).<\/p>\n<p>The people of Israel returning from Babylon had ten times as many donkeys as horses and camels (Ezr 2:66-67; Neh 7:68-69). Job’s wealth was indicated by the fact that he had 500 she-donkeys before catastrophe hit him (Jb 1:3); after his recovery he had 1,000 donkeys (Jb 42:12). Joseph’s brothers used donkeys to transport the grain they purchased in Egypt (Gn 42:26; 43:24). Abigail transported food on donkeys to David and his troops during their conflict with Saul (1 Sm 25:18). David assigned one of the 12 managers of his royal estates to look after his donkeys exclusively (1 Chr 27:30).<\/p>\n<p>The onager, or Syrian wild donkey <em>(Equus hemionus hemihippus)<\/em>, is an intermediate between the true horse and the true donkey. Its ears are longer than those of a horse but shorter than those of a donkey. The front hooves are narrow; there are chestnuts (callouslike spots on the inside of the knees) on the front legs only, and the tail is short haired for a long distance from its root so that it appears to be tufted.<\/p>\n<p>The Sumerians (ancient Mesopotamians) were able to domesticate the onager, which was eventually replaced by the horse. It was used to draw chariots in Ur; a number of onagers were buried with their vehicles in a royal grave that dates from about 2500 <span>BC<\/span>. Later the wild onager was a favorite hunter’s prize for Babylonian and Assyrian kings.<\/p>\n<p>The onager was very common in the steppe lands near Israel, where it was described as a freedom-loving desert animal (Jb 24:5; 39:5-8; Ps 104:11; Is 32:14; Jer 2:24; Hos 8:9). Ishmael was described as “free and untamed as a wild donkey” (Gn 16:12, <span>nlt<\/span>)—that is, one who could not adjust to domestic life. Drought seems to have been responsible for the population decline of the onager in biblical times (Jer 14:6). The modern onager <em>(Equus hemionus onager)<\/em> is slightly larger than the Syrian wild donkey that is extinct.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Travel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Dragon\">Dragon<\/p>\n<p>Any one of a number of monstrous land and sea creatures. In biblical usage, “dragon” does not refer to the huge, fire-breathing, winged reptile of European folklore. The translators of the <span>kjv<\/span> used the term to translate two Hebrew words that are usually rendered more precisely in modern translations. One word referred to desert animals; most scholars agree with the <span>niv<\/span> that “jackals” is its proper meaning (Ps 44:19; Is 13:22; Jer 9:11; Mal 1:3). <em>See<\/em> Jackal (below).<\/p>\n<p>The other Hebrew word translated “dragon” is harder to define. It was frequently used in reference to serpents (so translated in the <span>rsv<\/span>: Ex 7:9-12; Dt 32:33; Ps 91:13). In other <span>rsv<\/span> passages it is translated “sea monster” (Gn 1:21; Jb 7:12; Ps 148:7). The exact identity of such sea monsters is not known. Several <span>rsv<\/span> passages retain the English “dragon.” In two of them (Ps 74:13; Is 27:1), the context indicates that sea monsters are meant. In three others (Is 51:9; Ez 29:3; 32:2) “dragon” seems to refer to the crocodile, a figurative reference to the Egyptian pharaoh at the time of the exodus. Jeremiah 51:34 (translated “monster” in the <span>rsv<\/span>) may also refer to a voracious creature such as a crocodile. <em>See<\/em> Crocodile (above).<\/p>\n<p>Babylonian myths described monsters and dragons in primordial conflict with the god Marduk; they represented the principle of evil. In its figurative usages in Scripture, “dragon” has a similar significance, especially in the prophetic books. In the book of Revelation it is a symbol of Satan, the archenemy of God and his people (Rv 12:3-17; 13:2, 4, 11; 16:13; 20:2).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Fish\">Fish<\/p>\n<p>Aquatic animals frequently mentioned in the Bible without names or descriptions that enable us to identify the particular species. Since time immemorial, fish have constituted one of the staple foods of humanity, and they still serve as the chief source of protein in many parts of the world. The trade in fish was highly developed in biblical times. For example, one of the gates in Jerusalem was called the Fish Gate (Neh 3:3; Zep 1:10). The law in Leviticus 11:9-12 permitted the Jews to eat fish, but only those having both fins and scales. Scaleless fish such as catfish were forbidden, even though they had fins.<\/p>\n<p>Egyptian paintings depict various methods of fishing, and the Philistines fished in the Mediterranean Sea. Since the people of Israel were not a seafaring nation, it is safe to assume that most of their fish came from freshwater lakes and rivers, especially the Sea of Galilee. Some 36 species of fish have been identified in that lake, including varieties of perch, carp, barbel, “sardine,” and catfish.<\/p>\n<p>The method of fishing characteristic of NT times was the dragnet. After a boat had put out into the deep (Lk 5:4), a large net would be thrown out from it and then dragged toward shore by the rowers in the boat, possibly with the help of a crew in another boat. The catch was sorted out on shore (Mt 13:47-48). Fishing was usually carried out at night when the coolness of the water brought fish closer to the surface and when they could not see the approaching nets.<\/p>\n<p>The Jews also fished by hook and line (Mt 17:27), a few by spear (Jb 41:7), and some by the throw net (Ez 47:10). Habakkuk refers to hook-and-line fishing, netting, and seining (1:15).<\/p>\n<p>Very early in the history of the Christian church the fish became a symbol for Christ and the faith. It was scratched on the walls of Roman catacombs and may be seen today decorating walls, altars, pews, and vestments. The symbol came into use because the Greek word for “fish” <em>(<\/em><span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">ichthus<\/span><em>)<\/em> is composed of the first letter of each word in the Greek phrase “Jesus Christ, Son of God, Savior.” <em>See<\/em> Whale (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Flea\">Flea<\/p>\n<p>Tiny, irritating insect (1 Sm 24:14; 26:20, <span>nlt<\/span>). Many species of fleas occur in Palestine, the most common being <em>Pulex irritans.<\/em> About a thousand species are known around the world. Fleas are wingless parasites that have sharp jaws and suck out blood from the bodies of humans and animals. The body is wedge shaped, enabling the flea to burrow into folds of skin and hide there. The eggs, laid by the female in dust heaps in the corners of rooms, hatch into small, white larvae that pupate (a nonfeeding stage) in a cocoon. Soon adult fleas appear that immediately attach themselves to the body of a host. The female requires blood for the development of her eggs.<\/p>\n<p>A flea bite is painful and causes some swelling and itching. Fleas are attracted by warmth. With favorable moisture and temperature, adult fleas can live a year or longer without food, but they are voracious feeders. The most dangerous fleas are those of the rat that transmit the organism responsible for bubonic plague. There were 41 recorded epidemics of bubonic plague before the Christian era.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Fly\">Fly<\/p>\n<p>Insects of the order Diptera, which have one pair of wings. Many winged insects of other orders, however, are also called flies, such as the dragonfly or butterfly.<\/p>\n<p>As in almost all parts of the world, flies are abundant in Palestine. One of the most numerous is the common housefly <em>(Musca domestica),<\/em> found chiefly around dung heaps and garbage. The female lays her eggs, out of which emerge white maggots that feed on refuse. After a few days the maggot develops into a cocoon out of which emerges the adult housefly. In the summer the whole cycle lasts about 12 days, so that a fly can breed about 20 generations a year.<\/p>\n<p>Another fly common to Palestine is the botfly (family Oestridae). It causes much discomfort among livestock by irritating them and spreading diseases. Tabanid flies (family Tabanidae), including the horsefly (genus <em>Tabanus<\/em>) and related species, are also found in Palestine. Both the botfly and horsefly are known as gadflies because of the persistent distress they inflict. Babylonian King Nebuchadnezzar is spoken of as a gadfly in view of his invasion of Egypt (Jer 46:20).<\/p>\n<p>The fourth plague in Egypt just before the exodus featured “swarms of flies” (Ex 8:21-31, <span>nlt<\/span>; cf. Pss 78:45; 105:31). Those swarms may have been made up of any or all the flies mentioned above. The maggots mentioned in Job 25:6 and Isaiah 14:11 and the worms in Exodus 16:24 and Job 7:5 and 17:14 were probably fly larvae.<\/p>\n<p>A proverb quoted in Ecclesiastes 10:1 probably refers to the housefly, which would be attracted to an open, perfumed ointment bottle. Once inside it would drown and eventually decay, causing the ointment to spoil and stink. The fly is also referred to in Isaiah 7:18 where it symbolizes Egypt. Isaiah may have had in mind a horsefly <em>(Tabanus arenivagus)<\/em> that attacks both humans and animals.<\/p>\n<p>Philistine inhabitants of the city of Ekron worshiped a god named Baal-zebul, meaning “Lord of the high places.” The Hebrews mockingly spoke of Baal-zebub, meaning “Lord of the flies” (2 Kgs 1:2). The NT form is Beelzebub (e.g., Mt 10:25; 12:24, 27).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Fox\">Fox<\/p>\n<p>Small, doglike carnivore with a bushy tail that is about half its body length. The red fox of the Holy Land <em>(Vulpes palaetinae)<\/em> is similar to the North American red fox; it is smaller than a wolf and is normally a nocturnal solitary animal. The omnivorous fox eats almost any kind of food—fruits, plants, mice, beetles, and birds—but seldom touches carrion. It loves the sweet juice of grapes, but it also burrows underground tunnels that can destroy the vines (Sg 2:15). The fox is intelligent and known for its slyness (Lk 13:32). It has considerable endurance and can run at speeds up to 30 miles (48 kilometers) per hour. The Jews rebuilding Jerusalem’s wall were taunted by the wisecrack that even a fox jumping on their wall would knock it over (Neh 4:3).<\/p>\n<p>The Egyptian fox <em>(Vulpes niloticus)<\/em> is found in the central and southern parts of the Holy Land. It is somewhat smaller than the common red fox. Its back is rust colored and its belly light. The Syrian fox <em>(Vulpes flavescens)<\/em> that lives in the northern part of the Holy Land is shiny gold in color.<\/p>\n<p>Some OT references such as Psalm 63:10 and Lamentations 5:18 are translated “fox” in the <span>kjv<\/span> but probably refer to jackals. Jackals, not foxes, hunt in packs and tend to act as scavengers.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Frog\">Frog<\/p>\n<p>Amphibian (genus <em>Rana<\/em>), living part of its life in the water and part on land.<\/p>\n<p>Frogs and toads are covered with soft, hairless skin and lack a tail in the adult stage. The hind legs are much longer and more powerfully developed than the forelegs so that the animals are able to jump large distances. It has been suggested that the frog referred to in Scripture is an edible one, <em>Rana ridibunda,<\/em> one of the aquatic frogs found in Egypt and in the stagnant waters of the Holy Land.<\/p>\n<p>The female frog lays her eggs in the water; after about a week the eggs hatch into tadpoles. Gradually through metamorphosis the tail is lost and limbs are acquired. Frogs must maintain a moist skin since they take oxygen through the skin as well as through their lungs; thus they must always remain close to water. They feed on insects and worms.<\/p>\n<p>Frogs are found throughout the Palestinian lowlands, where their croaking is heard in the spring and on summer evenings. The Israelites seem to have associated frogs primarily with sliminess and foulness. They fell into the category of creeping or swarming creatures, which in general were ritually unclean (Lv 11:29-31). Since the frog was not specifically listed, however, rabbis did not consider it one of the animals that defiled human beings through contact.<\/p>\n<p>In Revelation 16:13 certain foul spirits are said to look like frogs. The ancient Egyptians made the frog a symbol of life and birth and an image of Heqet, the patron goddess of birth. She is depicted with a frog’s head giving life to the newborn. Thus that deity was discredited when the power of God afflicted Egypt in the second of the ten plagues on the Egyptians with the very animal that was her symbol (Ex 8:1-14; Pss 78:45; 105:30). The frog in question may have been the spotted frog of Egypt <em>(Rana punctata,<\/em> or <em>Rana ridibunda).<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Plagues upon Egypt.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Gazelle\">Gazelle<\/p>\n<p>Small, dainty, graceful antelope with hollow recurved horns on both sexes. Two varieties exist in the Holy Land, the dorcas gazelle <em>(Gazella dorcas),<\/em> which is pale fawn in color and up to 22 inches (56 centimeters) tall, and the Arabian gazelle <em>(Gazella arabica),<\/em> which is a dark smoky color and up to 25 inches (63.5 centimeters) tall.<\/p>\n<p>Gazelles are still quite common throughout the desert and steppe areas of the Holy Land, especially in the Negev Desert. Herds usually consist of from 5 to 10 animals, but some varieties assemble in large migratory herds in the fall to relocate to lower elevations and new feeding grounds. Gazelles are herbivorous (plant eating). They are very shy and post guards to warn the herd of approaching danger.<\/p>\n<p>In biblical times the gazelle was probably the game animal most hunted by the Jews (Prv 6:5; Is 13:14). Pharaoh Tutankhamen hunted gazelles and ostriches. The gazelle is said to have graced Solomon’s table (1 Kgs 4:23). Gazelles were not easy to catch because of their great speed (2 Sm 2:18; 1 Chr 12:8; Prv 6:5); they surpass the deer in swiftness. They were trapped in various ways—encircled with nets, driven into enclosures with pitfalls, or forced into narrow valleys and shot with arrows. The Bedouin hunt gazelle with falcons and dogs; the falcon annoys the gazelle, striking it on the head and injuring it so that the dogs can overtake it.<\/p>\n<p>The gazelle is referred to in Song of Songs 2:9, 17; 4:5; 7:3; 8:14, where it is an image of feminine beauty.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Gecko\">Gecko<\/p>\n<p>Reptile of the family Gekkonidae, referred to in Leviticus 11:30. In Jewish food law it was a ritually unclean lizard. There are seven species of geckos in the Holy Land (including <em>Hemidactylus turcicus<\/em> and <em>Ptyodactylus hasselquistii,<\/em> all insectivorous—insect eating). The gecko makes a low mourning sound by vibrating its tongue rapidly against the roof of its mouth. In legend the gecko was said to cause leprosy by crawling across a person’s body.<\/p>\n<p>Another name for the gecko is the wall lizard, so named because it can walk upside down on ceilings with the aid of the suction discs on its toes—but it often plops down into the middle of the home. Since it was considered unclean, such an intrusion would have been a disgusting nuisance to Jewish households (Lv 11:31-38).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Lizard (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Gnat\">Gnat<\/p>\n<p>Any very small fly, in common and biblical usage. According to the <span>nlt<\/span>, the third plague in Egypt before the exodus consisted of gnats (Ex 8:16-18; Ps 105:31). The <span>kjv<\/span> translates the Hebrew word there as “lice,” but the breeding pattern described in Exodus 8—insects rising from the dust—seems to fit gnats better than lice. Since “gnat” is a general term, the small flies of that plague may have included several small species such as mosquitos, harvester gnats, midges, or sand flies.<\/p>\n<p>The sand fly inflicts a far more painful bite than the mosquito. Further, it does not betray itself by a buzzing noise in flight and is so small that it penetrates most mosquito netting.<\/p>\n<p>Gnats were drawn to wine while it was fermenting. The Pharisees in particular would strain their wine to avoid consuming unclean insects (Mt 23:24).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Goat\">Goat<\/p>\n<p>Cloven-hooved mammals (genus <em>Capra<\/em>) with large eyes and big, floppy ears that constantly twitch. Both males and females have backward arching horns. The Palestinian goat is a ruminant (cud-chewing animal) of lighter build than the sheep.<\/p>\n<p>The goat was probably the earliest ruminant to be domesticated. Its wild ancestor seems to have been the Gezoar goat <em>(Capra aegagrus).<\/em> Wild goats are believed to have been domesticated very early in Palestine. The goat of Bible times was probably the Syrian or Mamber variety <em>(Capra hircus mambrica).<\/em> Domesticated goats may have as many as four kids in a litter, whereas wild goats bear only one or two.<\/p>\n<p>The Palestinian goat was commonly black. Speckled and spotted goats were a rarity, and for that reason Jacob’s request for those goats in Genesis 30:32 appeared very modest. There may also have been red goats (cf. 1 Sm 16:12; 19:13, where goat’s hair was used to imitate David’s hair, which was “ruddy” or auburn).<\/p>\n<p>Almost every part of the goat was used by the Israelites. The whole goat was used for sacrifice. Its flesh served as meat (Lv 7:23; Dt 14:4), and it was the principal source of milk (Prv 27:27). Goats were sheared in the late spring, and the goat hair was used for weaving tent cloth and for various domestic purposes (Ex 36:14; 1 Sm 19:13, 16). The tabernacle at Mt Sinai was made of goat’s hair blankets (Ex 26:7).<\/p>\n<p>Adult male goats were generally not eaten because of their strong flavor and toughness and also because they were necessary to insure the flock’s increase. Young kids, however, were usually the chief meat for a feast and were offered to visitors as a symbol of hospitality. Goat milk is richer than the milk of cows and sheep and evidently had broader uses. A good goat gives three quarts of milk a day, from which a rich butter and buttermilk can be made. The average Hebrew family could have lived almost entirely on a single goat’s production.<\/p>\n<p>Goatskin was tanned as leather, and the whole hide was turned into a skin bottle by sewing shut leg and neck apertures (Gn 21:14; Jos 9:4). Goatskin had many uses, including the construction of Hebrew musical instruments. The nebal, a large harp, was made with goatskin for its base sound. Drums had goatskin coverings.<\/p>\n<p>Goats were herded with sheep in biblical times, but each group remained separate following its own bell-laden leader. Jesus was evidently referring to their common herding in his description of the Last Judgment (Mt 25:31-46).<\/p>\n<p>Because of their wool, sheep are valued more than goats. However, where pasture and water are scarce and thorny shrubs dominate over grass, sheep are difficult to keep and goats become important. They can live under conditions that suit neither cows nor sheep, producing large quantities of milk. The goat does not supply fat as the sheep does, and since its hair is coarse its wool is rather scarce. Goat-hair cloth called cilicium was used to make tents.<\/p>\n<p>Goats have voracious appetites. They also were responsible for much damage done to the land of Palestine, breaking down terraces, destroying forests, and bringing about soil erosion by eating off all cover.<\/p>\n<p>The goat was recognized as a form of wealth, subject to the law of firstlings (Nm 18:17). It had to be eight days old before it could be offered as a sacrifice. A year-old male goat was one of the animals offered at the Passover (28:22), and two goats were offered on the Day of Atonement (Lv 16:7-10). The goat was also used for other specific sacrifices.<\/p>\n<p>The ibex, a type of wild goat <em>(Capra ibex nubiana),<\/em> still lives in small numbers on the cliffs close to the Dead Sea. That it was known in ancient times is evident from rock carvings. It is distinguished from the true wild goat by having a more compact rump and horns that are slender and curved back. Its slender legs and sharp cloven hooves enable it to cling to narrow rock ledges, to jump between them, and to climb steep cliffs.<\/p>\n<p>Usually the ibex is found in rugged mountain country among rocky crags and meadows just below the snow line (Ps 104:18). In Job 39:1 they are referred to as “mountain goats.” They frequently gather in herds of 5 to 20. They graze and browse, being active in the afternoon and sometimes feeding through the night. The large horn of the ibex was at one period made into the shofar that was blown in the second Jerusalem temple to announce the new year and the jubilee year.<\/p>\n<p>The goat was often used in a figurative and symbolic sense by the writers of the Bible: in Song of Songs 4:1 and 6:5 for the bride’s black hair; in Matthew 25:31-46 for the wicked; and in Ezekiel 34:17 and Daniel 8:5-8 for various human leaders.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Grasshopper\">Grasshopper<\/p>\n<p>Large insects of the Orthoptera order. They have chewing or biting mouth parts and two pairs of wings, the front pair of which is narrow and somewhat thickened and the hind pair membranous and used for flying. When not in use the flight wings are folded beneath the protective front wings like a fan against the body. By rubbing their wings together, male grasshoppers produce sounds that both males and females can detect. Grasshoppers pass through a partial metamorphosis; the egg hatches into a juvenile nymph that looks like an adult except for its smaller size and undeveloped wings. After several months the nymph becomes a winged adult.<\/p>\n<p>The terms “grasshopper” and “locust” are often used interchangeably. Actually the locust is a kind of grasshopper. Also confusing is the fact that other insects such as cicadas are sometimes called locusts. The difference between grasshoppers and locusts depends more on behavior than appearance. Grasshoppers are individual insects that lead solitary lives and do not migrate. The same insects when migrating in a swarm are called migratory grasshoppers or locusts. Elimination of their food supply by drought, flood, or fire may lead to migration. Climatic factors such as a warm dry winter also stimulate migrations.<\/p>\n<p>Grasshoppers and locusts have been a staple food in the Middle East and also among the Indians of the American Southwest. To the Israelites the grasshopper was considered ritually clean and could be eaten (Lv 11:22).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Locust (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Hare\">Hare<\/p>\n<p>Animal of the genus and species <em>Lepus europaeus judaeus, Lepus capensis,<\/em> and <em>Lepus arabicus.<\/em> It is found in open country, often near or on cultivated lands, and in woods, usually deciduous rather than evergreen. It is an herbivorous rodent and is different from the rabbit, which is not found in Palestine. Although it is not a true ruminant according to modern classification (because it does not have a four-chambered stomach), the hare does rechew its food. It has a process of partial regurgitation of material too hard for the cells in the stomach to absorb initially; thus, the hare actually chews food previously swallowed.<\/p>\n<p>Near Eastern hares have very long ears and large hind feet; their feet are well furred. They are similar to American jackrabbits, which are true hares. Hares do not dig or occupy burrows the way rabbits do. Hares are mainly nocturnal and spend their inactive hours hiding in vegetation. They eat grasses and herbaceous matter as well as twigs and young bark of woody plants. Hares breed with great rapidity—the young attaining sexual maturity at six months after birth.<\/p>\n<p>The hare was ceremonially unclean (Lv 11:6; Dt 14:7), evidently because although it appeared to chew its cud, it did not have cloven hooves. Consumption of hares has also been forbidden among the Arabs, Chinese, and Lapps, but the hare was widely hunted by other people in ancient and modern times. Its great speed, prolific breeding, timidity, and caution have saved it from extermination by its many enemies.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Hippopotamus\">Hippopotamus<\/p>\n<p>Large beast of problematic interpretation. Some early interpreters thought it referred to the elephant, others to the wild ox, the mammoth, or any large animal. It was called “behemoth” by the <span>kjv<\/span> translators. Today it is generally agreed that the reference is to the hippopotamus <em>(Hippopotamus amphibius),<\/em> a large, thick-skinned, amphibious mammal, an ungulate (having hooflike toenails) with a large head, a bulky, hairless body, and short legs.<\/p>\n<p>The description in Job 40:15-24 fits closely the modern hippopotamus (see <span>nlt<\/span>), except for the depiction of the tail. At present the hippopotamus is found only in the rivers of Africa, but there is fossil evidence that it has existed in the Holy Land, perhaps in the swamps of northern Galilee and the Jordan Valley.<\/p>\n<p>The hippopotamus has highly developed sense organs, placed in such a way that it can see, hear, and smell almost without being seen; its eyes, ears, and nostrils can reach above water while the rest of the animal lies submerged. It has a large mouth, large tusks, and a short, heavy throat. The strong legs are so short that the belly almost reaches the ground when the animal is on the land. The hippopotamus lives on plants and herbs growing in rivers, but if food is scarce there, it forages on land, usually at night. In spite of its heavy body it is surprisingly agile on land.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Horse\">Horse<\/p>\n<p>Przewalski’s horse (<em>Equus przewalskii,<\/em> an eastern race that roamed about Mongolia until modern firearms destroyed most of them after World War I) and the tarpan (a western race of southern Russia that became extinct in the Ukraine in 1851). The domesticated horse <em>(Equus caballus)<\/em> seems to have been derived from the tarpan. The original site of domestication is believed to have been Turkestan, a region north of Afghanistan and India, now in Russia. The horse differs from the donkey in that it has shorter ears, a longer mane with a forelock, a long hairy tail, and a soft, sensitive muzzle.<\/p>\n<p>Horses were used in war not only for riding but also for pulling the heavy, springless war chariots. Two kinds of horses were needed for these different purposes, and the Hebrews distinguished between chariot horses and cavalry horses.<\/p>\n\n<p>The Lord warned the early Israelites against unnecessarily amassing military strength in the form of horses and thereby following the oppressive tactics of the powerful Egyptians (Dt 17:14-16), but the demands of war caused both David and Solomon to import horses from Egypt into their kingdoms and to breed them. Solomon greatly increased the number of horses in the Jewish kingdom and maintained large stables at various cities (1 Kgs 10:26) such as the regional defense centers of Megiddo, Hazor, and Gezer (1 Kgs 9:15-19). Ahab’s horses are mentioned in 1 Kings 18:5, and records of Shalmaneser III state that Ahab furnished 2,000 chariots to a coalition against Assyria.<\/p>\n<p>In early Israel, the horse was opposed as a symbol of pagan luxury and of dependence on physical power for defense (Dt 17:16; 1 Sm 8:11; Ps 20:7; Is 31:1). Horse trading, mentioned as early as Genesis 47:17, was carried on by Solomon between Egypt and the Syro-Hittite principalities (1 Kgs 10:28-29). Most biblical references to horses refer to their use in war, but horses were also used for transportation. Riding seems to have been less popular than the use of chariots. Cavalry units were not introduced until the 12th century <span>BC<\/span> by the Medes. Joseph rode in Pharaoh’s second horse-drawn chariot (Gn 41:43), and Absalom made a display by riding a horse-drawn chariot (2 Sm 15:1). Naaman traveled by horse and chariot (2 Kgs 5:9). Later, horses were so common in Jerusalem that the royal palace had a special horse gate (2 Chr 23:15), and a gate of the city itself was known as the Horse Gate (Neh 3:28; Jer 31:40). Mordecai rode a royal horse of King Xerxes as a sign of honor (Est 6:8-11). Horses are often spoken of figuratively (Ps 32:9; “mare,” Sg 1:9; “stallions,” Jer 5:8; 12:5), especially in the context of judgment (Hb 3:8; Zec 1:8; 6:1-8; Rv 6:2-8; 9:17; 19:11-16).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Warfare; Travel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Hyena\">Hyena<\/p>\n<p>Stocky carnivore <em>(Hyaena hyaena)<\/em> with coarse hair, an erect mane, and long hairs along the neck and back. Hyenas live in holes among rocks and banks. They are mainly nocturnal but are ordinarily neither noisy nor aggressive. Their cry, however, is a disagreeable, unearthly sound. Hyenas usually feed on carrion, crushing bones with their powerful jaws. If the carrion supply is inadequate, they will kill sheep, goats, or other small animals. When threatened, hyenas growl and erect their mane, but they rarely fight. They are massively built with forelegs longer than the hind legs.<\/p>\n<p>Known as scavengers in Africa, hyenas eat domestic refuse in the villages. In Palestine the striped hyena is a common predator, preferring rocky territory and even rock tombs. Since hyenas were notorious for raiding the graves of the dead, all Israelites who could afford it arranged for burial in tombs protected by massive stone doors. Absalom, King David’s son who was killed by Joab in the wild, was buried under a huge pile of stones to protect his corpse from molestation by hyenas (2 Sm 18:17).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Jackal\">Jackal<\/p>\n<p>Carnivore <em>(Canis aureus)<\/em> smaller than the true wolf and with a shorter tail. It is similar to the fox but has a broader head, shorter ears, and longer legs. The fox is solitary; the jackal tends to be gregarious. Its tail can be drooping or erect, compared with the long horizontal tail of the fox. Jackals usually prowl at night, either singly, in pairs, or in packs through open savannah country. They eat small mammals, poultry, fruit, vegetables, and carrion. They spend their days in thickets and clumps of vegetation. Often they obtain scraps from kills by larger carnivores. Jackals can run at speeds of about 33 miles (53 kilometers) per hour.<\/p>\n<p>The jackal can reach a height of about 20 inches (51 centimeters), roughly the size of a German shepherd dog. Its back is pale yellow with dark, almost black, flanks. Its lips are black and its ears white on the inside. The howl of the jackal sounds like the crying of a child or the heartrending wail of the bereaved (Mi 1:8; cf. Jb 30:29). To other jackals the howl is merely an invitation calling the pack together for its nocturnal hunting.<\/p>\n<p>OT references are chiefly to jackals prowling around ruined cities and wilderness areas (Neh 2:13; Ps 44:19; Is 13:22; 34:13; 35:7; Jer 9:11; 14:6; 49:33; 51:37; Lam 4:3; 5:18; Mal 1:3). Many such references are translated “dragon” in the <span>kjv<\/span>, but “jackal” is more appropriate.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Leech\">Leech<\/p>\n<p>Segmented worm (class Hirundinea) up to five inches (12.7 centimeters) long with a flat body equipped with suction pads at each end. The mouth, located at the bottom of the front suction pad, has three teeth that the leech uses to pierce the skin of its host. The leech feeds on blood, and its glands secrete an anticoagulant to prevent the blood from clotting. The ordinary medicinal leech (Hirudo medicinalis) is abundant in springs and ponds from the Negev Desert to Galilee. It adheres to the bodies of human beings and animals that submerge themselves in water, injects its anticoagulant, and sucks their blood.<\/p>\n<p>The reference in Proverbs 30:15 is uncertain (see <span>nlt<\/span>) but may be to the parasitic and greedy nature of the horse leech (genus <em>Haemopis<\/em>). The small horse leech enters its host’s mouth and nostrils from water while the animal is drinking. A leech weighing one-half ounce (14.2 grams) has been known to gorge itself with two and a half ounces (71 grams) of concentrated blood and then to exist for 15 months with no more to eat.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Leopard\">Leopard<\/p>\n<p>Called <em>Panthera pardus tulliana,<\/em> it is the most widespread of all the large wildcats. In rocky areas it lives in caves, but in forested regions it lives in thick vegetation. In OT times many lived in the vicinity of Mt Hermon (Sg 4:8).<\/p>\n<p>The leopard is somewhat smaller than the tiger, measuring up to 5 feet (1.5 meters) in length with a tail of about 30 inches (.8 meter). Its body is better proportioned than that of the tiger. The leopard takes its victim by surprise from a silent ambush, often concealing itself near villages or watering places and waiting for its prey, remaining in one spot for long spans of time. The leopard is swift on the ground (Hb 1:8), agile in trees, and very graceful in its movements. Its color is yellowish speckled with black spots (Jer 13:23). Daniel and John saw visions in which leopards were symbols of world powers (Dn 7:6; Rv 13:2).<\/p>\n<p>The leopard is a wary and cunning animal, formidable and ferocious (Jer 5:6; Hos 13:7; cf. Is 11:6). The leopard is dangerous not only to domestic animals but also to humans. With its natural camouflage it can hide on the forest floor, blending into the changing light and shadows. The Israelites were terrified of the leopard because it constantly ravaged their sheep and goats. Several biblical place names suggest that they were known for the leopards in their vicinity: Nimrah, Beth-nimrah, and Nimrim, a district northeast of the Dead Sea. It has survived in the Holy Land into the present century; a few leopards still exist in remote areas near Mt Tabor and Mt Carmel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Leviathan\">Leviathan<\/p>\n<p>Sea monster mentioned several times in the Bible (Pss 74:14; 104:26; Is 27:1, <span>nlt<\/span>). It may refer to any of the larger marine animals such as large jellyfish, whales, or sharks, or to a large reptile like the crocodile. Some scholars think “Leviathan” may refer to animals now extinct, such as ichthyosaurs and plesiosaurs (marine reptiles similar to dinosaurs). The scriptural term might also refer to certain dinosaurs that spent part of their lives half-submerged in shallow lakes and oceans. Other scholars believe that most of the references are to the crocodile.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Crocodile (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Lion\">Lion<\/p>\n<p>Large, tawny-colored carnivore <em>(Panthera leo)<\/em> that preys chiefly on hoofed mammals and charges by a series of leaps and bounds. Within historic times the lion ranged in Africa, Europe, and the Holy Land. In ancient times the territories of the African and Persian lions met in the Middle East. The lion of the Holy Land was the Asiatic or Persian lion <em>(Panthera leo persica).<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The males have heavy manes that stop at the shoulders but cover much of the chest. The Persian lion cannot climb and is mainly nocturnal, returning to its lair or a thicket by day (Jer 4:7; 25:38; Na 2:11-12). This lion is about 5 feet (1.5 meters) long with a tasseled tail 30 inches (.8 meter) or so long; its shoulders may reach a height of 35 inches (.9 meter). It is one of the smallest of the lion breeds.<\/p>\n<p>Lions are usually found in pairs, though sometimes in larger numbers. A small group is known as a pride. They generally prefer open country but in Palestine evidently prowled the subtropical vegetation of the Jordan River valley. Lions, which usually hunt at dusk, kill smaller animals by a blow of the paw, larger ones by a bite in the throat. A lion does not remain in the same place for more than a few days. The animal is in its prime at about seven years of age, when it weighs from 400 to 600 pounds (181.6 to 272.4 kilograms).<\/p>\n<p>The lion does not characteristically attack humans, though like other great cats it may become a man-eater (1 Kgs 13:24-28; 20:36; 2 Kgs 17:25-26; Ps 57:4; Dn 6:7-27). Ordinarily, it attacks only out of great hunger or in self-defense. A very young lion that attacks humans can become dangerous if it develops a taste for human flesh. A very old lion, expelled from the pride because it can no longer keep up in the pursuit of antelope or gazelles, may choose humans as a relatively slow-moving prey.<\/p>\n<p>A lion generally roars only on a full stomach—that is, after it has consumed its prey (Ps 22:13; Ez 22:25; Am 3:4). Nevertheless, its roaring arouses fear (Am 3:8; 1 Pt 5:8). The lion is a bold (2 Sm 17:10; Prv 28:1), destructive animal (Ps 7:2; Jer 2:30; Hos 5:14; Mi 5:8), and the enemy of flocks (Am 3:12).<\/p>\n<p>Lions were common in biblical times in all parts of the Holy Land. Hebrew has at least seven words for lion and young lion. The lion is referred to about 130 times in the OT—more than any other wild animal. Lions were evidently much less common in NT times. After gradually declining, they became extinct in Palestine shortly after <span>AD<\/span> 1300. The lion was present in Mesopotamia, however, until the end of the 19th century.<\/p>\n<p>Lions played an important part in the political and religious symbolism of the Near East (1 Kgs 10:19-20). In Assyria and Babylonia the lion was regarded as a royal beast (Dn 7:4). Oriental monarchs maintained artificial lion pits as places of execution (Ez 19:1-9; Dn 6:7-16). Animals for these were captured in camouflaged nets or pits. To the Jews, the lion was the mightiest of beasts (Prv 30:29-31). Thus, it symbolized leadership (Gn 49:9-10; Nm 24:9) and hence eventually became a title for Christ (Rv 5:5). It was also the ensign of Judah’s tribe and was used by King Solomon in the decoration of his house and the temple.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Lizard\">Lizard<\/p>\n<p>Reptiles of the suborder Lacertilia. Their skin is covered with scales. The lizard is a useful creature because it captures harmful insects and worms. Like other reptiles, it lays eggs with shells softer than those of a bird and with no clear division between the yolk and the white. Lizards are “cold-blooded” organisms without a temperature-maintenance mechanism; hence, they become inactive in cold weather.<\/p>\n<p>Lizards can survive in barren parched countryside. In the Near East they are encountered in great numbers in the Arabian Desert, the Sinai Peninsula, and the Judean wilderness. There may be as many as 44 different species of lizards in the Holy Land.<\/p>\n<p>The Dabb lizard (genus <em>Uromastyx<\/em>), which attains a length of about 24 inches (61 centimeters), is found in the Negev Desert. It is omnivorous, an unusual trait since most lizards are insectivorous. It has a hard, rough skin, green with brown spots; a short, rounded head; and a powerful tail encircled with a row of strong spines that it uses as a weapon of defense.<\/p>\n<p>Lizards are listed as ceremonially unclean in Jewish law (Lv 11:29-31). The fact that lizards crawl on their bellies made them unclean. Contact with a lizard’s carcass defiled a law-abiding Jew (Lv 11:32-36). The <span>nlt<\/span> translates the “lizards” of Leviticus 11 as “great lizard,” “gecko,” “monitor lizard,” “sand lizard,” and “chameleon.” The monitor lizard is a large lizard that lives in the deserts of southern Palestine, Sinai, and Egypt. It is up to 55 inches (1.4 meters) long with a long snout and sharp teeth. Other translators and commentators render the original Hebrew in a wide variety of ways, including “tortoise,” “ferret,” “lizard,” “snail,” “mole,” and even “water hen.” The fact that most of the original Hebrew words occur only once in Scripture makes it very difficult to be certain about their appropriate translation.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Gecko (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Locust\">Locust<\/p>\n<p>An insect of the family <em>Acridiidae.<\/em> It is referred to by at least 12 different names in Scripture. The various Hebrew words may refer to different stages of its development from larva to adult or to the type of damage that it causes. Locusts are characterized by swarming and mass migration. In modern times they have caused extensive and disastrous destruction to vegetation. Grasshoppers do not swarm or migrate en masse, differentiating them from the true locusts.<\/p>\n<p>The OT mentions several different species of locusts. Leviticus 11:22 seems to refer to the slant-faced (bald) locust and also to the katydid, or long-horned grasshopper. The reference in Deuteronomy 28:42 may be to the mole cricket. In Joel 1:4 and 2:25 and in Nahum 3:16-17, successive stages of the insect’s development are described. The cutting locust (<span>kjv<\/span> “palmerworm”) of Joel is probably the first instar (stage of development), the swarming locusts (<span>kjv<\/span> “locust”) are middle stages, and the hopping locusts (<span>kjv<\/span> “cankerworm”) later instars but not yet fully matured insects. In the adult stage, called destroying locusts (<span>kjv<\/span> “caterpillar”), the color of the locust is reddish brown, which turns to yellow with a brownish network on the wings.<\/p>\n<p>Only three of the hundreds of varieties of locusts found in Bible lands are capable of multiplying into great swarms, and only the desert locust <em>(Schistocerca gergaria)<\/em> can be considered widespread in all the Bible lands. The desert locust is native to the Sudan (Africa). It is a little over two inches (5 centimeters) long and has a wingspread of some five inches (12.7 centimeters). It shows two phases, a solitary phase and a gregarious phase, with a possible third phase known as transiens. There are differences in the immature and adult forms of the phases in color and physiology.<\/p>\n<p>The quantity and distribution of rains are important factors in the extent of swarming. Moist soil is needed for depositing the eggs and permitting them to develop. Each female deposits from one to six egg pods, containing 28 to 146 eggs each. The larvae emerge in 15 to 43 days.<\/p>\n<p>In the gregarious phase (from the second stage of metamorphosis onward), the locust is driven by a strong wandering instinct. Masses of them form a random procession of overflowing locust bodies that ignore any obstruction. They swarm over everything (Jl 2:4-9). The only regulator of their activities is temperature; they are immobilized by high or low temperatures. Taking to wing they may move 1,200 miles (1,930.8 kilometers) from their native home. They fly in compact formations large enough to blot out the light of the sun. Their movement seems to be controlled by hormones, but the direction is influenced by the wind. The swarms consume almost every plant in their path, sparing only the carob, sycamore, castor tree, and oleander bush.<\/p>\n<p>A locust plague was one of the most severe evils to come upon the ancient world (Dt 28:38). Joel 2:1-11 describes a locust plague in graphic terms, using it as a symbol of God’s destroying judgment. Special days of prayer, fasting, and trumpet blowing were prescribed to remove locust plagues (1 Kgs 8:37-38; 2 Chr 6:28-29; Jl 2:12-17). Locusts symbolized powerful and merciless enemies that completely destroyed the earnings of human toil (Jgs 6:5; Is 33:4; Jer 46:23; 51:27; Na 3:15).<\/p>\n<p>Bedouins eat locusts raw, roasted, or boiled, preserving them by drying and threading. They are also crushed and ground, and the grist used in cooking or eaten with bread, sometimes mixed with honey and dates. Such was the diet of John the Baptist (Mk 1:6). The Greeks ground locusts in stone mortars to make flour of them.<\/p>\n<p>The ancients considered the two large hind legs, or jumping legs, as separate limbs and had a special name for them. Hence locusts were described as having four legs, a reference to the four smaller walking legs. “Going on all fours” thus referred to creeping or walking as opposed to jumping and did not mean that the unclean insects had only four legs in all. Because of its two hind jumping legs, the locust was exempted from the prohibition against unclean insects (Lv 11:20-23).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Plagues upon Egypt.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mole\">Mole<\/p>\n<p>Rodent <em>(Spalax ehrenbergi)<\/em> from six to nine inches (15 to 23 centimeters) long, which burrows in any area where the soil is suitable for digging; it should be called a mole rat. Common in the Holy Land, large numbers are found in the vicinity of Jerusalem. Isaiah 2:20 refers to the mole, as does Leviticus 11:29-30 (<span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>The mole rat has no tail and is molelike in appearance, but neither true moles nor shrews have ever been found in the Holy Land. The mole rat’s teeth are strong and protruding like those of a squirrel. The neck is short and thick with a plump body shaped like a sausage. The short legs have broad paws with claws adapted for burrowing. The fur is soft, thick, and ashen gray. Its ears and almost sightless eyes, which are no larger than poppyseeds, are hidden in the fur. Folklore taught that touching a mole rat would result in blindness.<\/p>\n<p>In the wet winter season the mole rat builds breeding mounds resembling those of pocket gophers. It builds less complex resting mounds in the summer, although both have rather elaborate tunnel systems. The mole rat feeds on roots, bulbs, tubers, and various other subterranean plant parts, often doing extensive damage to agriculture.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Moth\">Moth<\/p>\n<p>Insect of the genus <em>Tineola<\/em> that lays its eggs on wool or furs, its larvae feeding on those materials. The destructive qualities of moths are referred to in several biblical passages (Jb 13:28; Ps 39:11; Is 50:9; Hos 5:12; Mt 6:19-20; Lk 12:33; Jas 5:2). In Isaiah 51:8 “worm” (<span>nlt<\/span>) refers specifically to the larva of the clothes moth. The moth symbolizes disintegration, decay, and weakening. It is only the larvae that do the damage. The adult is quite harmless and feeds mainly on the nectar of flowers. It is easily crushed (Jb 4:19). The clothes moth reproduces in May or June. It enters human dwellings in the evening. A week after the eggs are laid the larvae appear and immediately begin their work of destruction, eating anything within reach made of animal fibers.<\/p>\n<p>The moth’s destructive activity is done in secret without any sound and without any dramatic appearance, such as a swarm that blots out the sun. In an age when wealth was counted more in possessions than in money, and when among those possessions wool clothing was highly valued, moths could literally cause economic disaster; hence the words of Jesus in the Sermon on the Mount (Mt 6:19-20).<\/p>\n<p>There are hundreds of species of moths other than the clothes moth in the Holy Land; they are harmless to leaves, flowers, fruit, trees, and seeds. As with the clothes moth, the larvae inflict the damage.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mouse\">Mouse<\/p>\n<p>Rodent of the family Muridae, especially genus <em>Mus.<\/em> The mouse was regarded as unclean because, being short legged, it was considered one of the creeping creatures (Lv 11:29). Mice known as commensals live in dwellings and tend to have longer tails and to be darker in color than wild mice, which are active chiefly at night. Mice are good climbers and even good swimmers. Wild mice eat many kinds of vegetation, including seeds, fleshy roots, leaves, and stems. At times they store food.<\/p>\n<p>The Hebrew word for “mouse” (Lv 11:29; 1 Sm 6:4-5; Is 66:17) is probably a general term for various rats and mice. The root meaning of the Hebrew word “mouse” is “destruction of corn,” a reference to the damage mice do to field crops. At least 23 varieties of mouselike rodents are known in the Holy Land. They cause food spoilage, damage household articles, and transport the host fleas that spread typhus, spotted fever, and bubonic plague. Plague bacteria may have caused the tumors or swellings among the Philistines (1 Sm 6:5). Isaiah 66:17 refers to a pre-exilic Canaanite cultic practice in which mice were eaten; the reference may actually be to the hamster. A number of rodents are eaten by Arabs of the Near East; the gerbil is considered a special delicacy. <em>See<\/em> Mole (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mule\">Mule<\/p>\n<p>Hybrid offspring of a male ass and a female horse <em>(Equus asinus mulus),<\/em> ordinarily sterile. The offspring of a female donkey and a stallion (male horse) is known as a hinny and is of little value because of its inferior size.<\/p>\n<p>Because crossbreeding was forbidden in the law (Lv 19:19), the Israelites procured mules from the Gentiles, perhaps from the Phoenicians, since Tyre (a Phoenician seaport in what is now southern Lebanon) imported horses and mules (Ez 27:14). Mules did not appear in Israel until David’s reign (2 Sm 13:29), possibly because of the rarity of horses among the Hebrews. Mules were used chiefly by members of the royal court and by other nobles. King David rode on a mule, and Solomon rode to his inaugaration on King David’s mule (1 Kgs 1:33). Absalom met his death riding on a mule (2 Sm 18:9). Mules were less common than horses, camels, and asses in the postexilic community (Ezr 2:66). In antiquity Asia Minor was especially noted for breeding fine mules.<\/p>\n<p>Mules have long enjoyed a reputation for obstinacy, but that trait is not mentioned in the Bible. The mule is prized for riding and for carrying heavy burdens, especially in warm mountainous regions. They are sure-footed and thrive best in hot, dry climates. The mule has the frugality, endurance, and steady gait of an ass along with the size, strength, swiftness, and courage of a horse. Mules are almost never sick. They live longer than horses. They can carry a load of up to 300 pounds (136 kilograms) as far as 30 miles (48.3 kilometers) a day.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Travel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Pig\">Pig<\/p>\n<p>Most properly, newborn swine. “Swine” is technically the better name for the species, but it is rarely used in common speech today. The domestic pigs of the Middle East derived from the wild pig <em>(Sus scrofa).<\/em> The pig is the most prolific and abundant supplier of meat and fat for food. A thick layer of fat just under the skin is especially pronounced in domestic breeds. Pigs cannot be driven, so they are of value only to the settled farmer. The Hebrews were originally a nomadic people; therefore, they had little use for an animal closely associated with settled life. An Egyptian prince of about 1500 <span>BC<\/span>, however, is recorded as owning a herd of 1,500 swine.<\/p>\n<p>The pig is clumsily built, yet lively and able to move with agility and speed. The most conspicuous characteristic of the pig is a truncated, mobile snout terminating in a disc-shaped surface on which the nostrils are located. Most pigs have large tusks in both jaws which grow continuously in life. The tusks of the upper jaw are unique in that they curve upward instead of pointing downward as in most animals. The excrement of a pig has an almost unbearable odor, which clings not only to the pig itself but also to swineherds, who can be identified a long way off.<\/p>\n<p>Pigs were never raised in the Holy Land by Jews. The great herd into which Jesus drove the unclean spirits was encountered in the land of the Gadarenes, a non-Jewish area east of the Jordan. The Gadarene demons took refuge in a herd of pigs feeding on a bluff overlooking the Sea of Galilee (Mt 8:28-32).<\/p>\n<p>Wild pigs were found in the Holy Land as in many countries today. Psalm 80:13 refers to the destructiveness of a wild boar (the male, or hog) attacking growing crops. A party of wild boars can destroy an entire vineyard or a field of crops in a single night. They devour, trample, and ravage everything within reach.<\/p>\n<p>Boar hunts were common in ancient Mesopotamia. Wild boars do not attack unless molested, but they are dangerous when aroused. They travel in bands of from 6 to 50 and are most active in the evening and early morning hours. The body is covered with stiff bristles and usually some finer hair, but the body covering is often quite scanty. Wild pigs are mainly vegetarian, feeding on roots, nuts, grains, and plant stems. Wild boars were particularly abundant in the mountainous regions of Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon, in the Jordan River valley, and in wooded sections such as Mt Tabor.<\/p>\n<p>Strict Jews would not even mention swine by name but would always substitute the term “the abomination.” Israelites considered themselves polluted if they were even touched by a swine’s bristle. To the Jews, the pig symbolized filth and ugliness. Pigs will eat fecal material, vermin, rodents, carrion, and the like (2 Pt 2:22). Proverbs 11:22 refers to the incongruity of a golden ring in the nose of an animal showing such characteristics. A similar metaphor occurs in Jesus’ statement about casting pearls before swine (Mt 7:6). The prodigal son’s degeneration was shown by his being forced in his poverty to feed pigs and eat their food (Lk 15:15-16).<\/p>\n<p>Eating the flesh of pigs was forbidden to the Jews (Lv 11:7; Dt 14:8). The Canaanites in the Holy Land killed and ate pigs freely. In intertestamental times Antiochus IV (Epiphanes), a Syrian king whose territories included Israel, used the pig to “Hellenize” the Jews. He first tested their loyalty to the Jewish faith by requiring the consumption of pork, considered a delicacy by the Greeks (2 Macc 6:18). The act of desecration that drove the Jews to rebellion, however, was the sprinkling of pig blood on the temple altar in a sacrifice to Zeus (1 Macc 1:47).<\/p>\n<p>Pigs were frequently used in pagan worship (Is 65:4; 66:3, 17), which may account for their being forbidden to the Jews as food. Evidence in the Holy Land shows that pigs were sacrificed long before Hellenistic times. Pig bones were found in a grotto below the rock-cut place of sacrifice at Gezer. A similar underground chamber with vessels containing piglet bones at Tirzah dates to the middle Bronze Age (about 2000 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Alabaster fragments of a statuette of a pig ready to be sacrificed have been unearthed. Swine were sacrificed to Aphrodite (Venus) in Greece and Asia Minor. In addition, pigs were sacrificed in connection with oaths and treaties; in the <em>Iliad,<\/em> Agamemnon sacrificed a boar to Zeus and Helios. So it is not surprising that among the Jews the pig became a symbol of filthiness and paganism.<\/p>\n<p>It is possible that eating pork was forbidden primarily because the pig may carry many worm parasites such as trichina, though that is also true of some “clean” animals. Another reason for forbidding their consumption may have been that pigs eat carrion. Some people are allergic to pork in hot weather—another suggested reason behind the Jewish taboo. The same taboo exists among the Muslims and existed in certain social strata in Egypt.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Porcupine\">Porcupine<\/p>\n<p>Rodent, <em>Hystrix cristata,<\/em> which lives in forested areas, rocky hills, ravines, and valleys. The porcupine is still found in the Holy Land today. It has long quills that can be raised to give the appearance of a crest. It is almost entirely nocturnal. It burrows by day into a natural cavity or crevice. The Old World porcupine rarely climbed trees, although the New World porcupine frequently does. A porcupine may weigh as much as 60 pounds (27.2 kilograms). It eats fruit, bark, roots, and other vegetation, and carrion as well. Although its flesh is edible, the porcupine was not classed among the clean animals for the Israelites. The reference in Isaiah 34:11 (<span>rsv<\/span>) is probably to the porcupine, as is Isaiah 14:23 in the <span>nlt<\/span>. <em>See<\/em> Hedgehog.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Scorpion\">Scorpion<\/p>\n<p>Arthropod of the same group as spiders (arachnids). A dozen species of scorpions (order Scorpionida) are found in the Holy Land, but 90 percent of the scorpions are yellow scorpions, usually three to five inches (7.6 to 12.7 centimeters) long. The rock scorpion, also common to the Holy Land, is as thick as a man’s finger and from five to seven inches (12.7 to 17.8 centimeters) in length. Scorpions are slow, nocturnal invertebrates that rest beneath stones by day and prey on insects and other arachnids by night. At the end of its long tail the scorpion carries a poisonous sting that is fatal to most prey and extremely painful to humans (Rv 9:3, 5, 10; cf. 1 Kgs 12:11, 14). Scorpions symbolize Ezekiel’s evil countrymen (Ez 2:6) and the demonic forces of Satan (Lk 10:19). The scorpion is referred to as frequenting the Sinai Desert (Dt 8:15).<\/p>\n<p>A scorpion has from six to eight eyes. It has eight legs like a spider and two lobsterlike claws with which it catches and holds its prey. It feeds particularly on locusts and beetles. In many species the female scorpion eats the male after mating. Scorpions lay eggs that hatch very shortly after laying. Scorpions prefer warmer climates, and because of their desire for warmth, enter houses, especially at night, hiding in beds, blankets, footwear, and clothing.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Sheep\">Sheep<\/p>\n<p>Domestic animal, <em>Ovis orientalis,<\/em> referred to directly or by some term such as ewe, lamb, ram, or by some fact concerning them over 700 times in Scripture.<\/p>\n<p>Sheep represented the chief wealth and total livelihood of pastoral peoples, providing food to eat, milk to drink, wool for the making of cloth, and hides and bones for other uses. In addition, the sheep was a medium of exchange and a sacrificial animal. The number of sheep raised in ancient times was prodigious. Mesha, king of Moab, paid a tribute annually of 100,000 lambs and the wool of 100,000 rams (2 Kgs 3:4). The Israelites took 250,000 sheep from the Hagrites (1 Chr 5:21).<\/p>\n<p>Sheep shearing was often done for festivals (2 Sm 13:23). The sheep was held down on its side and its legs were tied together; then it lay docilely while its wool was clipped (Is 53:7). Sheep reserved for burnt offerings were not shorn; nothing could be held back from a sacrifice to the Lord.<\/p>\n<p>Wool had to be processed before it could be used for clothing. First it was washed, sometimes while still on the sheep, then carded and perhaps weighed for the market. The spinning of wool was regarded as a woman’s work (Prv 31:19), but weaving the spun thread into cloth on a loom was primarily a man’s occupation.<\/p>\n<p>The Bible reports that Abel kept sheep (Gn 4:2). The first sheep to be domesticated was probably the argali <em>(Ovis ammon),<\/em> a variety of the urial <em>(Ovis vignei),<\/em> a mountainous species still existing in Turkestan and Mongolia. Five breeds had reached Mesopotamia by 2000 <span>BC<\/span>; all were of the urial stock.<\/p>\n<p>The sheep known in Israel was the broad-tailed sheep <em>(Ovis orientalis vignei<\/em> or <em>laticaudata),<\/em> of which the tail weighs from 10 to 15 pounds (4.5 to 6.8 kilograms) and has always been considered a delicacy. Thus the Lord asked for this choice part as a sacrifice (Ex 29:22-25).<\/p>\n<p>Only the ram of the broad-tailed sheep has horns, but in other varieties of sheep in the Holy Land the ewe also has horns. The horns, two to three inches (5 to 8 centimeters) in diameter, can be potent weapons. Rams’ horns could be used as trumpets (Jos 6:4) or as oil containers (1 Sm 16:1).<\/p>\n<p>Although the sheep is very similar to the goat, it is differentiated by a lower forehead, its angulated spiral horns marked with transverse wrinkles and curved slightly outward, its covering of wool, and its lack of a “goatee.” Most sheep are white (Ps 147:16; Is 1:18; Dn 7:9; Rv 1:14).<\/p>\n<p>The flesh of sheep was a luxury in the biblical culture. King Solomon required a daily provision of 100 sheep for his table (1 Kgs 4:23), but the common people ate lamb or mutton only on festive occasions. A young ram was usually chosen because the ewes were more important to the future prospects of the herd. The meat was boiled in large caldrons. The milk of the sheep is extremely rich; in biblical times it was usually allowed to curdle before drinking. Possibly some Israelites kept lambs in their houses as pets (2 Sm 12:3-4).<\/p>\n<p>To protect the flock at night against predatory attacks, the shepherd tried to provide a fold. In meadows near villages, folds were built and watchmen were hired to relieve the shepherds. The shepherds of the nativity story were out in the field (Lk 2:8); they had no fold but probably had set up a tent for shelter, consisting simply of goat-hair blankets spread across sapling supports. The scarcity of springs in the Holy Land made the watering of the flock a crucial problem for the shepherd (Gn 13:8-11).<\/p>\n<p>Wild mountain sheep, varieties of <em>Ovis orientalis,<\/em> are known in the Mediterranean area (Dt 14:5). The Deuteronomy passage (<span>kjv<\/span> “chamois”) might also refer to <em>Ovis traelaphus,<\/em> a sheep about five feet high (1.5 meters) with long, curved horns. Another possibility is the Barbary sheep that lives in small flocks in rugged mountain areas in Barbary, Egypt, and Mt Sinai. The true chamois is unknown in Palestine.<\/p>\n<p>The sheep is also used figuratively in Scripture. The ram represented great strength and fittingly symbolized Medo-Persia in Daniel’s vision (Dn 8:3). It is the nature of sheep to be gentle and submissive (Is 53:7; Jer 11:19), defenseless (Mi 5:8; Mt 10:16), and in constant need of guidance and care (Nm 27:17; Mt 9:36). Such qualities are regarded as desirable in the lives of believers in Christ; hence the many figurative references to sheep in the NT and to Jesus as shepherd (Mk 6:34; Jn 10:1-30; Rom 8:35-37; Heb 13:20-21; 1 Pt 2:25). The resurrected Christ told the apostle Peter to “feed my lambs” and “tend my sheep” (Jn 21:15-17).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Offerings and Sacrifices.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Snail\">Snail<\/p>\n<p>Invertebrate gastropods (mollusks). Land snails are very numerous in the Near East. Some freshwater forms serve as hosts for the schistosome worm, the fluke parasite causing the dread disease bilharzia (schistosomiasis).<\/p>\n<p>Purple dyes of all shades were highly valued in the ancient world. A royal purple dye was obtained from secretions of a sea snail <em>(Murex trunculus<\/em> and <em>Murex brandaris).<\/em> Evidently, that process was developed by Phoenicians, Egyptians, and Assyrians as early as 1500 <span>BC<\/span>. The “purple” fishermen had their own guild during the time of the Roman Empire. The snails were harvested during the fall and winter seasons; in the spring, when egg laying took place, little dye was available. The snails tended to remain concealed in the summer. They inhabited the waters off Crete and Phoenicia. Tyrian purple, produced in the Phoenician city of Tyre, the center of the purple-dye industry, was obtained by a double dyeing. Large deposits of murex shells from dyeing operations have been found along the Mediterranean shoreline. The Israelites had to import purple goods (Ez 27:16). Lydia was a “seller of purple” or of cloth so dyed (Acts 16:14). Purple was a sign of distinction, royalty, and wealth (cf. Ex 25:4; 28:5-6, 15; Nm 15:38; 2 Chr 2:7; Est 8:15; Prv 31:22; Sg 3:10; Ez 27:7; Dn 5:7).<\/p>\n<p>Exodus 30:34-35 refers to “onycha,” which was an important ingredient of incense. Onycha is the horny, clawlike operculum (the plate that closes off the opening of its shell when a snail is retracted) of a Near Eastern member of the molluskan family Strombidae. The operculum is sometimes used for offense or locomotion as well as for defense. When burned, the operculum gives off a sharp, strong scent, and when mixed with more fragrant but less powerful substances is even more potent. The name “onycha” is derived from a Greek word <em>(onyx)<\/em> for a fingernail or a claw.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Dye, Dyeing, Dyer.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Snake\">Snake<\/p>\n<p>Various species of snake, suborder Ophidia (Serpentes). In the Bible nine Hebrew words and four Greek ones refer to snakes. The most common Hebrew word is onomatopoeic—that is, it is an imitation of a snake hissing or of the sound it produces as it scrapes its scales along the ground (cf. Jer 46:22). Many types of snakes lay eggs (Is 59:5), although some retain the eggs in the body until ready to hatch.<\/p>\n<p>Snakes are among the most widespread reptiles and are found on all continents except Antarctica; they decrease in numbers and species toward the poles but increase as one approaches the equator. Thirty-three species of snakes are known in Palestine and neighboring countries, 20 of which are poisonous. Two dangerous characteristics of the snake noted by biblical writers are its inconspicuous way of moving and the ease with which it hides itself.<\/p>\n<p>Many snakes are able to swallow animals several times their own diameter because of their unusually flexible jaw mechanism. They lack not only legs but also movable eyelids. Snakes periodically shed their skins. The tongue is actually a hearing apparatus sensitive to airborne vibrations and probably to heat waves.<\/p>\n<p>The venom of poisonous species is a clear, thin secretion, transmitted to the victim’s bloodstream by means of fangs. Two types of venom are known: that of the vipers, which affects respiration and disintegrates red blood cells, and that of the cobras, which paralyzes the nervous system.<\/p>\n<p>The “asp” referred to in the Bible is probably the cobra; the “adder” is the viper. The “cockatrice” (<span>kjv<\/span>) is probably the adder. Serpents were associated with worship in Canaanite religion and symbolized evil deities among many other peoples. Steles (upright stones bearing inscriptions) have been unearthed at several sites in the Holy Land and Syria depicting a god or worshiper with a snake winding about the legs or body. Because the Israelites were burning incense in pagan worship of Moses’ bronze serpent (Nm 21:8-9), King Hezekiah destroyed it in his religious reform (2 Kgs 18:4).<\/p>\n<p>Although snakes have been an object of veneration in some religions, in the Judeo-Christian tradition snakes represent evil and, more specifically, the devil. That association began in the Garden of Eden (Gn 3:1-15) and is also found in the book of Revelation (12:9; 20:2-3).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Adder (above); Asp (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Spider\">Spider<\/p>\n<p>Animal of the order Araneida. Between 600 and 700 different species inhabit the Holy Land. Spiders are different from insects in that, like scorpions, they have four pairs of legs instead of three. Spiders are equipped with poison glands—the effectiveness varying from species to species. A few can kill only insects, but others can also kill birds and mice.<\/p>\n<p>Most spiders have a pair of spinnerets attached to silk glands on the underside of the abdomen; from them a web is extruded. In the Bible the spider’s web is referred to as a symbol of frailty and insecurity (Jb 8:14; Is 59:5-6).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Sponge\">Sponge<\/p>\n<p>Simple marine animals, phylum Porifera. The term “sponge” also refers to those animals’ skeletal remains. The sponge has a porous body composed of tubules and cells.<\/p>\n<p>Sponge fishing was well known in the Mediterranean area in ancient times. It was practiced particularly along the Anatolian and Syrian coasts. Sponges were harvested by divers. The use of sponges in absorbing liquids is referred to in the Bible (Mt 27:48; Mk 15:36).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Unicorn\">Unicorn<\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Wild Ox (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Wasp\">Wasp<\/p>\n<p>Insects of the family Vespidae. Hornets are social wasps that build large aerial apartment houses in which 1,000 or more individuals may live. In the Bible the hornet is used as a metaphor for God’s use of military forces (Ex 23:28; Dt 7:20; Jos 24:12).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Whale\">Whale<\/p>\n<p>Largest of all living creatures, including those that have become extinct. Whales are air-breathing mammals of the order Cetacea.<\/p>\n<p>Two varieties of whales visit the shores of the Holy Land at times. The finback whale <em>(Balaenoptera physalus)<\/em> weighs about 200 tons (181 metric tons) and lives mainly in the Arctic region but sometimes passes through the Straits of Gibraltar to reach the eastern Mediterranean Sea. It feeds on small marine organisms that it strains through its whale bone; it does not have teeth. The finback whale’s esophagus is narrow.<\/p>\n<p>The sperm whale <em>(Physeter catodon),<\/em> about 60 feet (18.3 meters) long, has a curiously shaped head that looks like a battering ram. The teeth in the lower jaw of the male sperm whale are about seven inches (17.8 centimeters) long. It feeds on big fish, even on sharks. It has a large throat opening.<\/p>\n<p>Whales are referred to in Genesis 1:21 and Job 7:12 (<span>kjv<\/span> only). The “great fish” of Jonah 2:1 need not have been a whale but could have been a large shark, such as the whale shark <em>(Rhineodon),<\/em> which grows 70 feet (21.3 meters) long and lacks the terrible teeth of other sharks. Whatever the actual marine organism, Jonah’s deliverance was miraculous. The Greek word for “whale” is sometimes used as a general term for “sea monster” or huge fish and may be used in that sense in Matthew 12:40.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"WildOx\">Wild Ox<\/p>\n<p>Large, fierce, fleet, intractable animal <em>(Bos primigenius).<\/em> It had a long, lean rump with a straight back and a long, narrow head. The animal described in Job 39:9-12 is clearly the wild ox. The two horns (Dt 33:17), its outstanding characteristic, were straight and as long as the head (Nm 23:22; 24:8; Ps 22:21). Kings often symbolized their dominion by wearing a helmet with two wild ox horns (cf. Pss 92:10; 132:17-18). The horns were often used as drinking vessels by the Israelites; some were large enough to hold four gallons (15 liters).<\/p>\n<p>Hunting the wild ox was a favorite sport of Assyrian kings. Tiglath-pileser I hunted it in the Lebanon Mountains about 1100 <span>BC<\/span> (cf. Ps 29:6). At one time the animal referred to in Job 39:9-12 was thought to be the oryx or antelope because of the similarity between the Hebrew word in Job and the Arabian name for oryx. The translators of the <span>kjv<\/span> called the wild ox a “unicorn” because of representations found on Babylonian mosaics and Egyptian drawings. Those representations showed it in strict profile, showing only one horn—hence, “unicorn.” Jerome’s Vulgate, a Latin Bible translation (fourth century <span>AD<\/span>) and Martin Luther’s German version translated it similarly.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Wolf\">Wolf<\/p>\n<p>Large doglike mammal <em>(Canis lupus)<\/em> that travels in bands of up to 30 animals. From the nose to the rump, the wolf measures about 3 feet (.9 meter); its drooping tail is about 18 inches (.5 meter) long. It looks much like a skinny German shepherd dog. The grayish yellow pelt is coarse and short haired.<\/p>\n<p>Wolves hunt singly or in relays, usually at night (Jer 5:6). Wolves have acute hearing and sight but rely chiefly on scent and usually catch their prey in a swift, open chase. The wolf has a reputation for boldness, fierceness, and voracity (Gn 49:27; Hb 1:8). It commonly kills more than it can eat or drag away and thus is known for its greediness.<\/p>\n<p>The wolf is a restless animal, always on the move; hunger drives it from one place to another in constant search of new hunting grounds. During spring and fall, wolves usually roam singly or in pairs, whereas in summer they may travel in family groups. In winter, several such groups may join to form a large pack. Wolves are intelligent, social creatures, faithful to their own kind. They mate for life. Individually, the wolf is a rather timid animal; it would much rather avoid human beings. But collectively wolves can be among the most dangerous animals alive.<\/p>\n<p>In Egypt, Rome, and Greece the wolf was considered sacred. Wolves were well known in the Holy Land and are still found there and also in many places in Asia Minor. Shepherds continually battled with wolves that plundered their flocks (Jn 10:12).<\/p>\n<p>The Bible refers to wolves in a literal sense in only three places (Is 11:6; 65:25; Jn 10:12), all other references being figurative. Usually the wolf is a symbol of enemies or the wicked (e.g., Ez 22:27; Zep 3:3; Acts 20:29). Both the wolf’s courage and its cruelty were probably in the mind of the patriarch Jacob when he predicted the fate of Benjamin’s tribe (Gn 49:27).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Worm\">Worm<\/p>\n<p>Actually insect larvae in most biblical references, usually maggots, the larvae of flies (see Fly, above). For example, maggots are evidently referred to in accounts of worms feeding on spoiled manna (Ex 16:19-20), corpses (Jb 21:26; Is 14:11), or open wounds (Jb 7:5). Mark 9:48 refers to a maggot that eats dead flesh. In Acts 12:23 a fatal, worm-induced abdominal disease of King Herod is mentioned. In other cases, the reference is to the larvae of other insects (Is 51:8). In Deuteronomy 28:39 and Jonah 4:7 the vine weevil <em>(Cochylis ambiguella)<\/em> is probably referred to; it destroys vines by boring into their stems. Comparing a man to a worm is a metaphor for abasement (Jb 25:6; Ps 22:6).<\/p>","summary_ro":"ANIMALS In biblical usage, all members of the animal kingdom. Animals are mentioned throughout the Bible from Genesis to Revelation. Animals figured in many important biblical events, including the Creation, the fall of man, the Flood, the ten plagues in Egypt, the Hebrew worship system, and the life of Jesus Christ. The people of both OT and NT times lived close to the land and were well acquainted with various animals so that the scriptural writers and Jesus himself frequently used animals ...","summary_en":"ANIMALS In biblical usage, all members of the animal kingdom. Animals are mentioned throughout the Bible from Genesis to Revelation. Animals figured in many important biblical events, including the Creation, the fall of man, the Flood, the ten plagues in Egypt, the Hebrew worship system, and the life of Jesus Christ. The people of both OT and NT times lived close to the land and were well acquainted with various animals so that the scriptural writers and Jesus himself frequently used animals ...","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":51183,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 10:13","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 10:13","content_ro":"<p><strong>10:13<\/strong> <em>my own powerful arm . . . my own shrewd wisdom<\/em> (cp. 10:5): God alone is all-powerful and wise. He plans the future, and he determines which nations will rise to power and which will be defeated.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>10:13<\/strong> <em>my own powerful arm . . . my own shrewd wisdom<\/em> (cp. 10:5): God alone is all-powerful and wise. He plans the future, and he determines which nations will rise to power and which will be defeated.<\/p>","summary_ro":"10:13 my own powerful arm . . . my own shrewd wisdom (cp. 10:5): God alone is all-powerful and wise. He plans the future, and he determines which nations will rise to power and which will be defeated.","summary_en":"10:13 my own powerful arm . . . my own shrewd wisdom (cp. 10:5): God alone is all-powerful and wise. He plans the future, and he determines which nations will rise to power and which will be defeated.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":78809,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 10:13","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 10:13","content_ro":"<p><strong>10:13<\/strong> <em>my own powerful arm . . . my own shrewd wisdom<\/em> (cp. 10:5): God alone is all-powerful and wise. He plans the future, and he determines which nations will rise to power and which will be defeated.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>10:13<\/strong> <em>my own powerful arm . . . my own shrewd wisdom<\/em> (cp. 10:5): God alone is all-powerful and wise. He plans the future, and he determines which nations will rise to power and which will be defeated.<\/p>","summary_ro":"10:13 my own powerful arm . . . my own shrewd wisdom (cp. 10:5): God alone is all-powerful and wise. He plans the future, and he determines which nations will rise to power and which will be defeated.","summary_en":"10:13 my own powerful arm . . . my own shrewd wisdom (cp. 10:5): God alone is all-powerful and wise. He plans the future, and he determines which nations will rise to power and which will be defeated.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":106435,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 10:13","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 10:13","content_ro":"<p><strong>10:13<\/strong> <em>my own powerful arm . . . my own shrewd wisdom<\/em> (cp. 10:5): God alone is all-powerful and wise. He plans the future, and he determines which nations will rise to power and which will be defeated.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>10:13<\/strong> <em>my own powerful arm . . . my own shrewd wisdom<\/em> (cp. 10:5): God alone is all-powerful and wise. He plans the future, and he determines which nations will rise to power and which will be defeated.<\/p>","summary_ro":"10:13 my own powerful arm . . . my own shrewd wisdom (cp. 10:5): God alone is all-powerful and wise. He plans the future, and he determines which nations will rise to power and which will be defeated.","summary_en":"10:13 my own powerful arm . . . my own shrewd wisdom (cp. 10:5): God alone is all-powerful and wise. He plans the future, and he determines which nations will rise to power and which will be defeated.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":134061,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 10:13","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 10:13","content_ro":"<p><strong>10:13<\/strong> <em>my own powerful arm . . . my own shrewd wisdom<\/em> (cp. 10:5): God alone is all-powerful and wise. He plans the future, and he determines which nations will rise to power and which will be defeated.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>10:13<\/strong> <em>my own powerful arm . . . my own shrewd wisdom<\/em> (cp. 10:5): God alone is all-powerful and wise. He plans the future, and he determines which nations will rise to power and which will be defeated.<\/p>","summary_ro":"10:13 my own powerful arm . . . my own shrewd wisdom (cp. 10:5): God alone is all-powerful and wise. He plans the future, and he determines which nations will rise to power and which will be defeated.","summary_en":"10:13 my own powerful arm . . . my own shrewd wisdom (cp. 10:5): God alone is all-powerful and wise. He plans the future, and he determines which nations will rise to power and which will be defeated.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"14":[{"id":12514,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Food and Food Preparation","title_en":"Food and Food Preparation","content_ro":"<h3>FOOD AND FOOD PREPARATION<\/h3>\n<p>Substances required by the body to sustain life, and the methods of making them edible. Food consumed in Bible times included bread, milk products, fruit, meat, and fish. Food was also offered sacrificially or given as gifts. The availability of food was a perpetual concern because of the recurrent scarcity: droughts were frequent (2 Kgs 4:38; Jer 14:1, 4-6; Hg 1:11), hailstorms wrought devastation among crops (Hg 2:17), farming was frequently interrupted by warfare with neighboring nations (2 Kgs 6:25), and intermittent plagues of locusts ravaged large areas.<\/p>\n<p>Food was more plentiful in Palestine (described as a “land flowing with milk and honey”) than in many other parts of the Near East. Shallow cultivation of the soil, however, made crops highly reliant on regular rainfall. Egyptian crops were far less susceptible to weather variations, because the Nile provided a dependable source of water.<\/p>\n<p>Food shortages were considered warnings or punishment from God (Lam 4:9, 11; Am 4:6-9) to teach the Hebrews that life is more than food and that faith must continue despite scarcity, famine, or even death (Dt 8:3; Hb 3:17-18).<\/p>\n<p>The staples of nomadic Hebrews were milk, curds, and cheese. As the people became more stationary, they grew grains and vegetables and planted orchards and vineyards. Grain would sometimes be grown for a season, and then after the harvest, the tribes would move their flocks to other pastures and find other arable land. Religious sacrifices and festivals were times not only of solemnity but also of rejoicing and great feasting. Victories were also celebrated with banquets and feasting on the food obtained from the camp of the vanquished enemy.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Dairy Products<\/p>\n<p>• Grain Crops<\/p>\n<p>• Animal Products<\/p>\n<p>• Insects and Their Food Products<\/p>\n<p>• Vegetables and Seasoning<\/p>\n<p>• Fruits, Nuts, and Wine<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DairyProducts\">Dairy Products<\/p>\n<p>Milk and its by-products formed a vital part of the Hebrew diet (see Jgs 4:19). Goat’s milk was most frequently used, although milk from camels, cows, and sheep was also available (Gn 32:15; Dt 32:14; Prv 27:27).<\/p>\n<p>Since fresh milk could not be preserved in Palestine’s hot climate, it was processed into buttermilk, curds, and cheese. Milk was poured into goatskins, where it soured and thickened because of the nonsterile condition of the previously used skins and the movement as it was transported. That movement of the pouch (often made from a cow’s stomach, containing the enzyme rennin used in cheese making) produced curds. Curds are first mentioned in the Bible as part of the meal that Abraham provided for his extraordinary guests (Gn 18:8).<\/p>\n<p>The Hebrew word for curds <em>(<\/em><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">chena<\/span><em>)<\/em> is also translated “butter” (Jb 10:10). This butter would be similar in consistency to yogurt from which the water has been squeezed out. When pressed and rolled into small balls, it kept indefinitely, despite the climate. Thus, compressed curds were particularly valuable for journeys in arid regions where food was scarce.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"GrainCrops\">Grain Crops<\/p>\n<p>The most frequently mentioned food in the Bible is bread. The term refers in a general sense to all foods but more particularly to food prepared from grain. In biblical times bread was prepared from several grains. Wheat, barley, and spelt were grown in Egypt (Ex 9:31-32).<\/p>\n<p>An Egyptian physician named Sinuhe, living in the mid-20th century <span>BC<\/span>, recorded that bread was baked daily in Palestine and Syria, and it is probable that it was served with every meal. This bread was probably a wafer or flat cake made from barley or emmer (an inferior form of wheat), since these were the two grain crops that Sinuhe mentioned seeing. Wheat was the most expensive grain. Fine wheat flour was a luxury only the rich could afford (Gn 18:6; Ez 16:13, 19). In later periods wheat became a valuable export crop that was shipped from Tyre to other ports in the Mediterranean.<\/p>\n<p>Because barley could grow in less productive soil and was more tolerant of drought conditions, it became a popular grain crop in the ancient Near East. Barley could also be harvested several weeks earlier than wheat. Barley bread (Jgs 7:13; 2 Kgs 4:42) and barley cakes (Ez 4:12) were eaten by the average laborer. Jesus miraculously multiplied a young boy’s five barley loaves and two fishes and fed five thousand (Jn 6:9-13).<\/p>\n<p>Millet, a cereal with a small grain head growing on a stalk less than two feet (.6 meter) high, and spelt, a type of wheat, were also used in times of need as a border around the edges of fields.<\/p>\n<p>The most primitive way of processing grain was to rub the ears between the hands to separate the kernels, as Jesus and his disciples did (Lk 6:1). To perform this act on the Sabbath (the day of rest) was considered the equivalent of reaping and was therefore forbidden.<\/p>\n<p>Parching (roasting the grain lightly in a pan) was another simple method of preparation (Jos 5:11; 1 Sm 17:17). It formed a quick and easy meal for laborers or kings (Ru 2:14; 1 Sm 25:18; 2 Sm 17:28). Parched corn was ideal for taking on journeys.<\/p>\n<p>Bread making was a strenuous task. Mortars, pestles, and simple mills with upper and lower stones were used for grinding flour in ancient Egypt around 2900 <span>BC<\/span>. These primitive mills were normally placed on the ground, and one was compelled to kneel in order to do the backbreaking work. The resulting meal was coarse and filled with small pieces of husk.<\/p>\n<p>When the flour had been prepared, water was added and the mixture was kneaded in a special trough. The dough could then be made immediately into cakes, pancakes, or unleavened bread (Gn 19:3). These flat cakes or wafers were often baked on previously heated stones, on the inner walls of small conical ovens, or in larger communal ovens. Leaven was added to make a lighter dough. The leaven was normally a piece of dough left over from an earlier mixing and allowed to ferment before being used. The flour meal was also mixed with a porridge made of lentil beans in order to stretch the food supply.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"AnimalProducts\">Animal Products<\/p>\n<p>The introduction of meat as part of the diet seems to have coincided with the time when Noah and his family left the ark (Gn 9:3). After this time, however, the animals normally eaten for food were so valuable that only the wealthy could afford to slaughter them. So in biblical times the peasant had a simple, somewhat monotonous diet, while the rich feasted on meat, delicacies, and imported commodities. As a result, meat was a luxury item that the poor would rarely enjoy except on such occasions as the Passover celebration or sacrifices in which the worshiper ate part of the offering (Ex 12:8). Although it was clearly uneconomic to slaughter an animal that produced such staples as milk, curds, and cheese, the rules of hospitality in the Near East dictated that an animal should be killed to entertain an honored guest (2 Sm 12:2-4).<\/p>\n<p>Domestic sheep, goats, and oxen provided the main source of meat, although venison was popular with the upper classes. When the blind Isaac was deceived by his son Jacob, the father was offered the luxury of both kid’s meat and wild game (Gn 27:3, 9, 19). The ox kept in a stall or the fatted calf were reserved for occasions of great festivity (Mt 22:4).<\/p>\n<p>The use of meat for sacrifice was given definitive form in the provisions of Leviticus and Deuteronomy. The Law forbade anyone to slaughter an animal and its offspring on the same day (Lv 22:28). Another prohibition, perhaps directed at pagan Canaanite sacrificial rituals, would not allow a kid to be stewed or poached in its mother’s milk (Dt 14:21). Mosaic law was emphatic in prohibiting the consumption of blood in any form. Animal blood was considered the source of the animal’s life and was offered by priests as a sacrifice to God to atone for human sin (Lv 17:11). In the Mosaic law, pigs, camels, badgers, and rabbits were considered unclean and were therefore forbidden for food, principally on hygienic grounds (11:4-8).<\/p>\n<p>In the ancient world, meat was usually boiled or stewed. Roasting an ox or a kid would usually occur only as part of a special feast or sacrificial ritual. Animals might also be roasted for members of the royal palace or for a king’s special guests.<\/p>\n<p>Despite the fact that hunting was enjoyed by all who were able to participate, wild game provided only a minor part of the diet. Among the game found in Palestine and mentioned in the Bible are gazelle, roebuck, wild goat, and deer (Dt 14:5; 1 Kgs 4:23). It is probable that pheasants were available, and there were certainly turtledoves, pigeons, quails, and partridges, although the precise quantities of food that these birds provided is not certain (Gn 15:9; Ex 16:13). Goose was the most popular dish in Egypt, and marsh ducks were also highly esteemed as game. After the Persian period, chickens were eaten (2 Esd 1:30), and eggs and omelettes were popular in Rome in early Christian times. The eggs mentioned in Deuteronomy are probably wild birds’ eggs (Dt 22:6-7; cf. Is 10:14).<\/p>\n<p>Thirty varieties of fish were available in the Jordan, and an extensive fishing industry existed on the shores of the Sea of Galilee at the time of Christ. Supplies of fish were readily available from the Mediterranean coast during the Roman period, but at an earlier time the fish supply depended to a large extent upon whichever nation had control of the coastline. In the postexilic period the people of Tyre supplied the city of Jerusalem with fish, which were sold near the Fish Gate (Neh 3:3). In the regulations concerning the types of fish suitable for food, only those that had fins and scales were acceptable (Lv 11:9-12).<\/p>\n<p>In NT times many of the distinctions concerning food were eliminated. In the Gospel of Mark, Jesus, challenging the Pharisees’ hypocrisy, upset the Jewish food laws by saying that evil thoughts, not certain foods, make a person unclean (Mk 7:19). As Christianity spread into gentile areas, there was, however, a continuing concern about eating meat that had been offered to idols. The question came to a head in Corinth. The apostle Paul maintained that though the meat was acceptable, one should take care not to cause spiritual damage to another Christian with a more sensitive conscience.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"InsectsandTheirFoodProducts\">Insects and Their Food Products<\/p>\n<p>Wild honey was found in Palestine, but there is no evidence of bee-keeping. Egyptians, however, did practice beekeeping at that time.<\/p>\n<p>The honeycomb is mentioned specifically in 1 Samuel 14:27 and Song of Songs 5:1; liquid honey is referred to in 1 Kings 14:3. Honey was to be found in crevices of rocks and on trees (Dt 32:13). It was the primary sweetener in cooking. Although it could not be used in a sacrifice to the Lord (Lv 2:11), honey was prized as a delicacy. In the 15th century <span>BC<\/span>, when Thutmose III was campaigning in Syria and Palestine, he brought back vast quantities of honey as tribute from his newly conquered lands.<\/p>\n<p>Locusts were probably first eaten in desperation after they had devastated crops. They are one of the few insects mentioned as a permissible source of food (Lv 11:22). Locusts were fried in flour or honey, or were preserved by being dried. Locusts and wild honey formed John the Baptist’s basic diet in the wilderness (Mt 3:4; Mk 1:6). Although locusts contain little protein, they are rich in fat and have some mineral content.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"VegetablesandSeasoning\">Vegetables and Seasoning<\/p>\n<p>The Hebrew people wandering in the Sinai wilderness bemoaned the loss of the flavorful vegetables they had become accustomed to during their Egyptian captivity. In particular, they expressed a longing for cucumbers, melons (possibly watermelons), leeks, onions, and garlic (Nm 11:5). Many of these vegetables were later grown in Palestine (particularly in the Gaza). When cucumbers were first cultivated, they were regarded as luxury items and had to be protected by guards who lived in shacks overlooking the gardens (Is 1:8). Beans, lentils, and parched grain were among the items brought to David and his soldiers at Mahanaim (2 Sm 17:28). Lentils were known in Egypt from at least the 13th century <span>BC<\/span> and were used extensively both then and in later times by the Israelites. Lentil soup is mentioned in Genesis 25:34.<\/p>\n<p>In times of hunger the husks of the carob tree, normally fed to cattle, could be used for food. These would have been most acceptable to the prodigal son (Lk 15:16). There were many kinds of green herbs that could provide a meal for the poor in time of need (Prv 15:17). In cases of extreme hunger, some kinds of mallow and juniper roots could also be used as food. In Elisha’s time a group of prophets at Gilgal prepared a stew of wild vegetables, to which they mistakenly added poisonous wild gourds. Elisha rectified the situation by adding meal to the pot (2 Kgs 4:38-41). While there is no actual record of the kinds of bitter herbs used as part of the Passover offering (Ex 12:8; Nm 9:11), mint and cummin were most probably included. Dill, cummin, rue, and mint were common garden herbs (Mt 23:23; Lk 11:42).<\/p>\n<p>Seasonings were welcome additives to the rather bland character of typical Israelite fare. Salt came mainly from the Dead Sea area and was essential as a seasoning and preserving agent. Salt was so important in the diet that it became part of the vocabulary of moral obligation. The sharing of salt with a person at a meal sealed a covenant or pact (Nm 18:19). In the Levitical sacrificial ritual, salt was part of meat and cereal offerings, since it signified the sealing of God’s covenant with Israel (Lv 2:13; Ez 43:24).<\/p>\n<p>The mustard tree, which was probably grown for its oil content, grew from a minute seed to the height of 15 feet (4.5 meters) (Mt 13:31-32). Anise, coriander, and cinnamon were also available (Ex 16:31; Nm 11:7). Perhaps the most popular and widely used spice, apart from salt, was garlic. Vinegar was also probably used as a flavoring agent and a preservative. From the number of seeds and plants found in Egyptian tombs from the 18th dynasty, it is obvious that the use of seasoning was widespread in antiquity.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FruitsNutsandWine\">Fruits, Nuts, and Wine<\/p>\n<p>Olive trees grew abundantly in Palestine and were an excellent source of food and oil. Even in poor soil, one tree could sufficiently supply a family for a whole year. Some green olives were pickled in brine and eaten with bread, but the olive was most important as a source of oil. Olive oil was used in baking bread and cakes and in frying foods. The best quality olive oil was used in the temple sacrifices.<\/p>\n<p>Oil was extracted from olives by a simple process: for the finest quality oil, olives were picked before fully ripe and then crushed by hand with a stone mortar and pestle. Usually, however, pickers beat the olives from trees with long poles and collected them in baskets. The oil was then trodden out, probably in the same vat used for grapes (Mi 6:15), which were harvested approximately four weeks later.<\/p>\n<p>An oil mill was developed subsequently, and the heavy upper grinding stone was turned by two people. As the oil dripped through, it was collected in another stone vat and was allowed to settle and purify. When refined, the oil was stored in skins or jars.<\/p>\n<p>Fig trees grew in all areas of Palestine. They required little attention and provided two or three crops per year. The most abundant of these was the second, which ripened in late summer. The first figs of the season were considered a great delicacy (Is 28:4; Mi 7:1). The prophet Hosea suggested that the Israelites were like the firstfruits of the fig tree (Hos 9:10). Another prophet, Jeremiah, spoke of those who had gone into exile as being like the first figs, while those who were left behind were the bad figs, fit only for destruction (Jer 24:1-10).<\/p>\n<p>Figs were usually eaten fresh from the trees, but some were pressed into cakes to use when traveling (1 Sm 25:18; 30:12; 1 Chr 12:40). Figs were also valuable for medicinal purposes, since effective poultices could be made from them (2 Kgs 20:7; Is 38:21). Sycamore trees produced small, figlike fruit eaten primarily by the poor. A short time before harvest, the fruit was slightly incised, making it swell and ripen more quickly. The prophet Amos notched sycamore fruit before he was called by God (Am 7:14).<\/p>\n<p>Fruit from the date palm could also have been pressed into flat cakes for travelers, as figs were. The Bible, however, makes no specific reference to its fruit as food (see Jgs 4:5; Ps 92:12; Jl 1:12; Jn 12:13).<\/p>\n<p>Another popular Near Eastern fruit was the red pomegranate. It was eaten whole, or the seeds were pressed to provide a refreshing drink. The pomegranate is mentioned in temple ritual as one of the fruits brought back from Canaan to Moses by his spies (Ex 28:33) and as an exotic drink (Sg 8:2). The “apple” mentioned in Scripture (Prv 25:11; Sg 2:5) was most likely a type of apricot or quince, not an apple as we know it today. Nuts were used for additional flavor in cooking. Almonds and pistachio nuts were among the gifts sent by Jacob to ransom his sons (Gn 43:11).<\/p>\n<p>Grapes were popular and plentiful from the early Bronze Age. In addition to being eaten fresh from the vine, grapes were dried as raisins (Nm 6:3; 1 Sm 25:18) or pressed, their juice drunk either as new wine or fermented into an alcoholic drink. One of the duties of the cup-bearer in ancient royal courts was to provide grape juice or wine for the king, his family, and guests (Gn 40:9-13).<\/p>\n<p>The juice of grapes also provided vinegar when wine deteriorated. Vinegar was used as a flavoring agent in cooking and as a preservative. When diluted with water, it supplied a refreshing drink for workers in the fields. A type of jelly was made in the Near East by boiling grapes until they assumed the consistency of molasses. This syrup could also be used as a sweetening agent in cooking.<\/p>\n<p>Wine was the universal drink in antiquity. It could be diluted with water or mixed with spices or honey to make a mulled wine (Sg 8:2; Is 5:22). The Hebrew word for “banquet” or “feast” literally means “drinking,” which reveals much of the character of such occasions. A certain amount of merriment was considered proper at a festival or banquet (Gn 43:34; Jgs 9:13; Lk 5:34).<\/p>\n<p>Wine making was similar in many respects to the production of olive oil. Clusters of grapes were cut from the vine with a sickle, collected in baskets, and taken to the winepress, where they were trodden by men and women. The juice ran into a lower vat, where, under the hot sun, fermentation began almost immediately. The wine was left to settle so that any twigs or skins would form a sediment; after that the wine could be strained off. In about six weeks the wine was ready to drink or store in earthenware jars or wineskins.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Animals; Bread; Family Life and Relations; Leaven; Meals, Significance of; Plants; Unleavened Bread.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>FOOD AND FOOD PREPARATION<\/h3>\n<p>Substances required by the body to sustain life, and the methods of making them edible. Food consumed in Bible times included bread, milk products, fruit, meat, and fish. Food was also offered sacrificially or given as gifts. The availability of food was a perpetual concern because of the recurrent scarcity: droughts were frequent (2 Kgs 4:38; Jer 14:1, 4-6; Hg 1:11), hailstorms wrought devastation among crops (Hg 2:17), farming was frequently interrupted by warfare with neighboring nations (2 Kgs 6:25), and intermittent plagues of locusts ravaged large areas.<\/p>\n<p>Food was more plentiful in Palestine (described as a “land flowing with milk and honey”) than in many other parts of the Near East. Shallow cultivation of the soil, however, made crops highly reliant on regular rainfall. Egyptian crops were far less susceptible to weather variations, because the Nile provided a dependable source of water.<\/p>\n<p>Food shortages were considered warnings or punishment from God (Lam 4:9, 11; Am 4:6-9) to teach the Hebrews that life is more than food and that faith must continue despite scarcity, famine, or even death (Dt 8:3; Hb 3:17-18).<\/p>\n<p>The staples of nomadic Hebrews were milk, curds, and cheese. As the people became more stationary, they grew grains and vegetables and planted orchards and vineyards. Grain would sometimes be grown for a season, and then after the harvest, the tribes would move their flocks to other pastures and find other arable land. Religious sacrifices and festivals were times not only of solemnity but also of rejoicing and great feasting. Victories were also celebrated with banquets and feasting on the food obtained from the camp of the vanquished enemy.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Dairy Products<\/p>\n<p>• Grain Crops<\/p>\n<p>• Animal Products<\/p>\n<p>• Insects and Their Food Products<\/p>\n<p>• Vegetables and Seasoning<\/p>\n<p>• Fruits, Nuts, and Wine<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DairyProducts\">Dairy Products<\/p>\n<p>Milk and its by-products formed a vital part of the Hebrew diet (see Jgs 4:19). Goat’s milk was most frequently used, although milk from camels, cows, and sheep was also available (Gn 32:15; Dt 32:14; Prv 27:27).<\/p>\n<p>Since fresh milk could not be preserved in Palestine’s hot climate, it was processed into buttermilk, curds, and cheese. Milk was poured into goatskins, where it soured and thickened because of the nonsterile condition of the previously used skins and the movement as it was transported. That movement of the pouch (often made from a cow’s stomach, containing the enzyme rennin used in cheese making) produced curds. Curds are first mentioned in the Bible as part of the meal that Abraham provided for his extraordinary guests (Gn 18:8).<\/p>\n<p>The Hebrew word for curds <em>(<\/em><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">chena<\/span><em>)<\/em> is also translated “butter” (Jb 10:10). This butter would be similar in consistency to yogurt from which the water has been squeezed out. When pressed and rolled into small balls, it kept indefinitely, despite the climate. Thus, compressed curds were particularly valuable for journeys in arid regions where food was scarce.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"GrainCrops\">Grain Crops<\/p>\n<p>The most frequently mentioned food in the Bible is bread. The term refers in a general sense to all foods but more particularly to food prepared from grain. In biblical times bread was prepared from several grains. Wheat, barley, and spelt were grown in Egypt (Ex 9:31-32).<\/p>\n<p>An Egyptian physician named Sinuhe, living in the mid-20th century <span>BC<\/span>, recorded that bread was baked daily in Palestine and Syria, and it is probable that it was served with every meal. This bread was probably a wafer or flat cake made from barley or emmer (an inferior form of wheat), since these were the two grain crops that Sinuhe mentioned seeing. Wheat was the most expensive grain. Fine wheat flour was a luxury only the rich could afford (Gn 18:6; Ez 16:13, 19). In later periods wheat became a valuable export crop that was shipped from Tyre to other ports in the Mediterranean.<\/p>\n<p>Because barley could grow in less productive soil and was more tolerant of drought conditions, it became a popular grain crop in the ancient Near East. Barley could also be harvested several weeks earlier than wheat. Barley bread (Jgs 7:13; 2 Kgs 4:42) and barley cakes (Ez 4:12) were eaten by the average laborer. Jesus miraculously multiplied a young boy’s five barley loaves and two fishes and fed five thousand (Jn 6:9-13).<\/p>\n<p>Millet, a cereal with a small grain head growing on a stalk less than two feet (.6 meter) high, and spelt, a type of wheat, were also used in times of need as a border around the edges of fields.<\/p>\n<p>The most primitive way of processing grain was to rub the ears between the hands to separate the kernels, as Jesus and his disciples did (Lk 6:1). To perform this act on the Sabbath (the day of rest) was considered the equivalent of reaping and was therefore forbidden.<\/p>\n<p>Parching (roasting the grain lightly in a pan) was another simple method of preparation (Jos 5:11; 1 Sm 17:17). It formed a quick and easy meal for laborers or kings (Ru 2:14; 1 Sm 25:18; 2 Sm 17:28). Parched corn was ideal for taking on journeys.<\/p>\n<p>Bread making was a strenuous task. Mortars, pestles, and simple mills with upper and lower stones were used for grinding flour in ancient Egypt around 2900 <span>BC<\/span>. These primitive mills were normally placed on the ground, and one was compelled to kneel in order to do the backbreaking work. The resulting meal was coarse and filled with small pieces of husk.<\/p>\n<p>When the flour had been prepared, water was added and the mixture was kneaded in a special trough. The dough could then be made immediately into cakes, pancakes, or unleavened bread (Gn 19:3). These flat cakes or wafers were often baked on previously heated stones, on the inner walls of small conical ovens, or in larger communal ovens. Leaven was added to make a lighter dough. The leaven was normally a piece of dough left over from an earlier mixing and allowed to ferment before being used. The flour meal was also mixed with a porridge made of lentil beans in order to stretch the food supply.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"AnimalProducts\">Animal Products<\/p>\n<p>The introduction of meat as part of the diet seems to have coincided with the time when Noah and his family left the ark (Gn 9:3). After this time, however, the animals normally eaten for food were so valuable that only the wealthy could afford to slaughter them. So in biblical times the peasant had a simple, somewhat monotonous diet, while the rich feasted on meat, delicacies, and imported commodities. As a result, meat was a luxury item that the poor would rarely enjoy except on such occasions as the Passover celebration or sacrifices in which the worshiper ate part of the offering (Ex 12:8). Although it was clearly uneconomic to slaughter an animal that produced such staples as milk, curds, and cheese, the rules of hospitality in the Near East dictated that an animal should be killed to entertain an honored guest (2 Sm 12:2-4).<\/p>\n<p>Domestic sheep, goats, and oxen provided the main source of meat, although venison was popular with the upper classes. When the blind Isaac was deceived by his son Jacob, the father was offered the luxury of both kid’s meat and wild game (Gn 27:3, 9, 19). The ox kept in a stall or the fatted calf were reserved for occasions of great festivity (Mt 22:4).<\/p>\n<p>The use of meat for sacrifice was given definitive form in the provisions of Leviticus and Deuteronomy. The Law forbade anyone to slaughter an animal and its offspring on the same day (Lv 22:28). Another prohibition, perhaps directed at pagan Canaanite sacrificial rituals, would not allow a kid to be stewed or poached in its mother’s milk (Dt 14:21). Mosaic law was emphatic in prohibiting the consumption of blood in any form. Animal blood was considered the source of the animal’s life and was offered by priests as a sacrifice to God to atone for human sin (Lv 17:11). In the Mosaic law, pigs, camels, badgers, and rabbits were considered unclean and were therefore forbidden for food, principally on hygienic grounds (11:4-8).<\/p>\n<p>In the ancient world, meat was usually boiled or stewed. Roasting an ox or a kid would usually occur only as part of a special feast or sacrificial ritual. Animals might also be roasted for members of the royal palace or for a king’s special guests.<\/p>\n<p>Despite the fact that hunting was enjoyed by all who were able to participate, wild game provided only a minor part of the diet. Among the game found in Palestine and mentioned in the Bible are gazelle, roebuck, wild goat, and deer (Dt 14:5; 1 Kgs 4:23). It is probable that pheasants were available, and there were certainly turtledoves, pigeons, quails, and partridges, although the precise quantities of food that these birds provided is not certain (Gn 15:9; Ex 16:13). Goose was the most popular dish in Egypt, and marsh ducks were also highly esteemed as game. After the Persian period, chickens were eaten (2 Esd 1:30), and eggs and omelettes were popular in Rome in early Christian times. The eggs mentioned in Deuteronomy are probably wild birds’ eggs (Dt 22:6-7; cf. Is 10:14).<\/p>\n<p>Thirty varieties of fish were available in the Jordan, and an extensive fishing industry existed on the shores of the Sea of Galilee at the time of Christ. Supplies of fish were readily available from the Mediterranean coast during the Roman period, but at an earlier time the fish supply depended to a large extent upon whichever nation had control of the coastline. In the postexilic period the people of Tyre supplied the city of Jerusalem with fish, which were sold near the Fish Gate (Neh 3:3). In the regulations concerning the types of fish suitable for food, only those that had fins and scales were acceptable (Lv 11:9-12).<\/p>\n<p>In NT times many of the distinctions concerning food were eliminated. In the Gospel of Mark, Jesus, challenging the Pharisees’ hypocrisy, upset the Jewish food laws by saying that evil thoughts, not certain foods, make a person unclean (Mk 7:19). As Christianity spread into gentile areas, there was, however, a continuing concern about eating meat that had been offered to idols. The question came to a head in Corinth. The apostle Paul maintained that though the meat was acceptable, one should take care not to cause spiritual damage to another Christian with a more sensitive conscience.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"InsectsandTheirFoodProducts\">Insects and Their Food Products<\/p>\n<p>Wild honey was found in Palestine, but there is no evidence of bee-keeping. Egyptians, however, did practice beekeeping at that time.<\/p>\n<p>The honeycomb is mentioned specifically in 1 Samuel 14:27 and Song of Songs 5:1; liquid honey is referred to in 1 Kings 14:3. Honey was to be found in crevices of rocks and on trees (Dt 32:13). It was the primary sweetener in cooking. Although it could not be used in a sacrifice to the Lord (Lv 2:11), honey was prized as a delicacy. In the 15th century <span>BC<\/span>, when Thutmose III was campaigning in Syria and Palestine, he brought back vast quantities of honey as tribute from his newly conquered lands.<\/p>\n<p>Locusts were probably first eaten in desperation after they had devastated crops. They are one of the few insects mentioned as a permissible source of food (Lv 11:22). Locusts were fried in flour or honey, or were preserved by being dried. Locusts and wild honey formed John the Baptist’s basic diet in the wilderness (Mt 3:4; Mk 1:6). Although locusts contain little protein, they are rich in fat and have some mineral content.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"VegetablesandSeasoning\">Vegetables and Seasoning<\/p>\n<p>The Hebrew people wandering in the Sinai wilderness bemoaned the loss of the flavorful vegetables they had become accustomed to during their Egyptian captivity. In particular, they expressed a longing for cucumbers, melons (possibly watermelons), leeks, onions, and garlic (Nm 11:5). Many of these vegetables were later grown in Palestine (particularly in the Gaza). When cucumbers were first cultivated, they were regarded as luxury items and had to be protected by guards who lived in shacks overlooking the gardens (Is 1:8). Beans, lentils, and parched grain were among the items brought to David and his soldiers at Mahanaim (2 Sm 17:28). Lentils were known in Egypt from at least the 13th century <span>BC<\/span> and were used extensively both then and in later times by the Israelites. Lentil soup is mentioned in Genesis 25:34.<\/p>\n<p>In times of hunger the husks of the carob tree, normally fed to cattle, could be used for food. These would have been most acceptable to the prodigal son (Lk 15:16). There were many kinds of green herbs that could provide a meal for the poor in time of need (Prv 15:17). In cases of extreme hunger, some kinds of mallow and juniper roots could also be used as food. In Elisha’s time a group of prophets at Gilgal prepared a stew of wild vegetables, to which they mistakenly added poisonous wild gourds. Elisha rectified the situation by adding meal to the pot (2 Kgs 4:38-41). While there is no actual record of the kinds of bitter herbs used as part of the Passover offering (Ex 12:8; Nm 9:11), mint and cummin were most probably included. Dill, cummin, rue, and mint were common garden herbs (Mt 23:23; Lk 11:42).<\/p>\n<p>Seasonings were welcome additives to the rather bland character of typical Israelite fare. Salt came mainly from the Dead Sea area and was essential as a seasoning and preserving agent. Salt was so important in the diet that it became part of the vocabulary of moral obligation. The sharing of salt with a person at a meal sealed a covenant or pact (Nm 18:19). In the Levitical sacrificial ritual, salt was part of meat and cereal offerings, since it signified the sealing of God’s covenant with Israel (Lv 2:13; Ez 43:24).<\/p>\n<p>The mustard tree, which was probably grown for its oil content, grew from a minute seed to the height of 15 feet (4.5 meters) (Mt 13:31-32). Anise, coriander, and cinnamon were also available (Ex 16:31; Nm 11:7). Perhaps the most popular and widely used spice, apart from salt, was garlic. Vinegar was also probably used as a flavoring agent and a preservative. From the number of seeds and plants found in Egyptian tombs from the 18th dynasty, it is obvious that the use of seasoning was widespread in antiquity.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FruitsNutsandWine\">Fruits, Nuts, and Wine<\/p>\n<p>Olive trees grew abundantly in Palestine and were an excellent source of food and oil. Even in poor soil, one tree could sufficiently supply a family for a whole year. Some green olives were pickled in brine and eaten with bread, but the olive was most important as a source of oil. Olive oil was used in baking bread and cakes and in frying foods. The best quality olive oil was used in the temple sacrifices.<\/p>\n<p>Oil was extracted from olives by a simple process: for the finest quality oil, olives were picked before fully ripe and then crushed by hand with a stone mortar and pestle. Usually, however, pickers beat the olives from trees with long poles and collected them in baskets. The oil was then trodden out, probably in the same vat used for grapes (Mi 6:15), which were harvested approximately four weeks later.<\/p>\n<p>An oil mill was developed subsequently, and the heavy upper grinding stone was turned by two people. As the oil dripped through, it was collected in another stone vat and was allowed to settle and purify. When refined, the oil was stored in skins or jars.<\/p>\n<p>Fig trees grew in all areas of Palestine. They required little attention and provided two or three crops per year. The most abundant of these was the second, which ripened in late summer. The first figs of the season were considered a great delicacy (Is 28:4; Mi 7:1). The prophet Hosea suggested that the Israelites were like the firstfruits of the fig tree (Hos 9:10). Another prophet, Jeremiah, spoke of those who had gone into exile as being like the first figs, while those who were left behind were the bad figs, fit only for destruction (Jer 24:1-10).<\/p>\n<p>Figs were usually eaten fresh from the trees, but some were pressed into cakes to use when traveling (1 Sm 25:18; 30:12; 1 Chr 12:40). Figs were also valuable for medicinal purposes, since effective poultices could be made from them (2 Kgs 20:7; Is 38:21). Sycamore trees produced small, figlike fruit eaten primarily by the poor. A short time before harvest, the fruit was slightly incised, making it swell and ripen more quickly. The prophet Amos notched sycamore fruit before he was called by God (Am 7:14).<\/p>\n<p>Fruit from the date palm could also have been pressed into flat cakes for travelers, as figs were. The Bible, however, makes no specific reference to its fruit as food (see Jgs 4:5; Ps 92:12; Jl 1:12; Jn 12:13).<\/p>\n<p>Another popular Near Eastern fruit was the red pomegranate. It was eaten whole, or the seeds were pressed to provide a refreshing drink. The pomegranate is mentioned in temple ritual as one of the fruits brought back from Canaan to Moses by his spies (Ex 28:33) and as an exotic drink (Sg 8:2). The “apple” mentioned in Scripture (Prv 25:11; Sg 2:5) was most likely a type of apricot or quince, not an apple as we know it today. Nuts were used for additional flavor in cooking. Almonds and pistachio nuts were among the gifts sent by Jacob to ransom his sons (Gn 43:11).<\/p>\n<p>Grapes were popular and plentiful from the early Bronze Age. In addition to being eaten fresh from the vine, grapes were dried as raisins (Nm 6:3; 1 Sm 25:18) or pressed, their juice drunk either as new wine or fermented into an alcoholic drink. One of the duties of the cup-bearer in ancient royal courts was to provide grape juice or wine for the king, his family, and guests (Gn 40:9-13).<\/p>\n<p>The juice of grapes also provided vinegar when wine deteriorated. Vinegar was used as a flavoring agent in cooking and as a preservative. When diluted with water, it supplied a refreshing drink for workers in the fields. A type of jelly was made in the Near East by boiling grapes until they assumed the consistency of molasses. This syrup could also be used as a sweetening agent in cooking.<\/p>\n<p>Wine was the universal drink in antiquity. It could be diluted with water or mixed with spices or honey to make a mulled wine (Sg 8:2; Is 5:22). The Hebrew word for “banquet” or “feast” literally means “drinking,” which reveals much of the character of such occasions. A certain amount of merriment was considered proper at a festival or banquet (Gn 43:34; Jgs 9:13; Lk 5:34).<\/p>\n<p>Wine making was similar in many respects to the production of olive oil. Clusters of grapes were cut from the vine with a sickle, collected in baskets, and taken to the winepress, where they were trodden by men and women. The juice ran into a lower vat, where, under the hot sun, fermentation began almost immediately. The wine was left to settle so that any twigs or skins would form a sediment; after that the wine could be strained off. In about six weeks the wine was ready to drink or store in earthenware jars or wineskins.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Animals; Bread; Family Life and Relations; Leaven; Meals, Significance of; Plants; Unleavened Bread.<\/p>","summary_ro":"FOOD AND FOOD PREPARATION Substances required by the body to sustain life, and the methods of making them edible. Food consumed in Bible times included bread, milk products, fruit, meat, and fish. Food was also offered sacrificially or given as gifts. The availability of food was a perpetual concern because of the recurrent scarcity: droughts were frequent (2 Kgs 4:38; Jer 14:1, 4-6; Hg 1:11), hailstorms wrought devastation among crops (Hg 2:17), farming was frequently interrupted by warfare ...","summary_en":"FOOD AND FOOD PREPARATION Substances required by the body to sustain life, and the methods of making them edible. Food consumed in Bible times included bread, milk products, fruit, meat, and fish. Food was also offered sacrificially or given as gifts. The availability of food was a perpetual concern because of the recurrent scarcity: droughts were frequent (2 Kgs 4:38; Jer 14:1, 4-6; Hg 1:11), hailstorms wrought devastation among crops (Hg 2:17), farming was frequently interrupted by warfare ...","source":"Articles\/F.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"15":[{"id":28321,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Offerings and Sacrifices","title_en":"Offerings and Sacrifices","content_ro":"<h3>OFFERINGS AND SACRIFICES<\/h3>\n<p>Major ritual expressions of religious life with accompanying rites, such as libations, effusions, and sacred meals. The ideology expressed in Israel’s ritual complex made its religion unique in the ancient Near East. The concepts of OT ritual also underlie NT theology with regard to sin and reconciliation to God through the atoning death of Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PerformanceandOrderofSacrifices\">Performance and Order of Sacrifices<\/p>\n<p>The main source for a description of the correct performance of sacrificial ritual is the opening section of Leviticus (Lv 1–7). It consists of two separate parts. The first (1:1–6:7) is didactic, dealing with two categories of sacrifice: those of a “pleasing odor,” namely, the burnt (1:1-17), the grain (2:1-16), and the peace offerings (3:1-17); and the expiatory sacrifices, namely, the sin (4:1–5:13) and the guilt or trespass offerings (5:14–6:7). Attention is paid to the minute details of each ritual, and they are grouped according to their logical or conceptual associations.<\/p>\n<p>The grain (or cereal) offering follows the burnt offering because it always accompanied it in actual practice (Nm 15:1-21; chs 28–29); it also went with the peace offering (Lv 7:12-14; Nm 15:3-4). Special emphasis is placed on burning the inward parts of a sacrifice on the altar to make a “pleasing odor to the Lord” (Lv 1:9, 17; 2:2, 9, 12; 3:5, 11, 16). When the Lord smelled the pleasing odor (Gn 8:21), it was a sign of divine favor; refusal indicated God’s displeasure (Lv 26:31). The officiating priest evidently knew how to read the signs and would tell the offerer whether his sacrifice had been accepted (1 Sm 26:19; cf. Am 5:21-23).<\/p>\n<p>The sin and guilt offerings were expiatory (Lv 4:1–6:7, 20). The situations requiring such offerings are listed, and special emphasis is laid on the handling of the blood in the ritual.<\/p>\n<p>The second major section in this passage (Lv 6:8–7:38) stresses the administrative details for the various offerings. This section consists of a series of “instructions” for each type of offering pertaining to the distribution of the sacrificial materials. Some went to the priest(s), some went to the offerer, and others were burned on the altar or disposed of outside the camp. Those sacrifices designated as “most holy” were to be eaten only by qualified members of the priesthood (Lv 2:3, 10; 10:12-17; 14:13; Nm 18:9).<\/p>\n<p>The burnt offering is discussed first because it was entirely consumed on the altar (and thus not eaten by anyone). After it, there follow the sacrifices distributed to the officiants (Lv 6:17, 26, 29; 7:1, 6), and at the end come the peace offerings, a significant portion of which was returned to the offender.<\/p>\n<p>The order in which the sacrifices are treated in this passage also corresponds to their relative frequency in the rituals of the sacred calendar (Nm 28:19; 2 Chr 31:3; Ez 45:17). This would be particularly important for the priests and Levites on duty at the temple because they were responsible for the logistics of the daily sacrificial ritual, especially on the high holidays; management of the temple storehouse was a formidable task (1 Chr 23:28-32; 26:15, 20-22; 2 Chr 13:10-11; 30:3-19; 34:9-11).<\/p>\n<p>Each section concerning a particular offering concludes with the logistic or administrative details peculiar to it. There then follows a summary of the matters treated thus far (Lv 7:7-10), and the section concludes with a treatment of the peace offerings (vv 11-36). The latter did not play a role in the sacred calendar except during the Feast of Weeks (23:19-20); on all other occasions, with the two exceptions of the Nazirite vow and the installation of the priesthood, peace offerings were purely voluntary sacrifices and thus not subject to any fixed bookkeeping.<\/p>\n<p>In other biblical contexts, the sacrifices are listed according to the same “bookkeeping” or “administrative” order: burnt, grain, and drink; sin (or guilt); and sometimes peace offerings. An example is the roster of donations made by the tribal leaders for dedication of the altar (Nm 7). The information is organized like an everyday ledger from the temple storehouse; the summary classifies the animals as burnt, grain, sin, and peace offerings (vv 87-88) in accordance with the respective entries from each donor (vv 15-17). The Levitical scribe had two purposes for such a record: to credit the offerers and to record the treasures and food supplies coming in. Much of the foodstuffs being given as offerings was actually apportioned to the officiating priests (Nm 18:8-11; 2 Chr 31:4-19).<\/p>\n<p>When prescriptions were made as to the type and number of offerings to be brought (e.g., Nm 15:24), the “bookkeeping” order is generally followed. This was true of the calendarial sacrifices; burnt and grain offerings and libations were listed, followed by a sin offering for each of the following: New Moon (Nm 28:11-15), each day of Passover (vv 19-22), the Festival of Weeks (Lv 23:18-19; Nm 28:27-30), Trumpets (29:2-5), Day of Atonement (vv 8-11), and each day of the Feast of Tabernacles (vv 12-16).<\/p>\n<p>For sacrifices required in specific cases, the instructions as to what offerings to bring follow this sequence (e.g., the purification of a woman after giving birth, Lv 12:6-8). Note also the offerings given at the successful termination of a Nazirite vow; the Nazirite brought burnt, sin, and peace offerings (with some special grain offerings, Nm 6:14-15). However, the priest conducted the actual ritual according to a different order; the sin offering was made first, followed by the burnt offering and finally the peace offering (vv 16-17). In the case of an incomplete vow, the first step was to offer a sin offering and then a burnt offering to renew the vow (v 11). The reconsecration of the Nazirite required a separate guilt offering—a distinct ritual act (v 12).<\/p>\n<p>The description of the offerings made by the prince of Israel in the latter days presents the same contrast between the two orders of sacrifices. On festival holidays the prince brought burnt, grain, and drink offerings, but he offered them as sin, grain, burnt, and peace offerings (Ez 45:17). This second order of sacrifices in which the sin offering precedes the burnt offering was also followed in the rededication of the altar (43:18-27).<\/p>\n<p>The same “procedural” sequence of sacrifices appears in other instances: the purification of the leper—guilt and sin offerings (Lv 14:19), followed by a burnt offering (vv 12-20); the man with a discharge—sin and burnt offerings (15:15); likewise the woman with a discharge (v 30). The same order is followed for the sacrifices on the Day of Atonement (16:3-6, 11, 15, 24).<\/p>\n<p>The book of Leviticus furnishes two examples of the proper order in which sacrifices were offered. One is the ordination of Aaron and his sons. The sin offering came first and then the burnt offering (Ex 29:10-18; Lv 8:14-21). The focal point in this ritual was the sacrifice of ordination, or literally “installation,” a special form of peace offering (Ex 29:19-34; Lv 8:22-29). The second passage is the formal inauguration of the sacrificial system at the tabernacle (Lv 9). The sacrifices for Aaron were sin and burnt offerings, followed by those for the people: sin, burnt, grain, and peace offerings (9:7-22).<\/p>\n<p>The same sequence is followed at the cleansing and restoration of the temple in Jerusalem conducted by King Hezekiah (2 Chr 29:20-36). A great sin offering was first, followed by the burnt offerings accompanied by music and song. Then the king proclaimed that the people had committed themselves to the Lord; in this new state of purity they could now share in the sacrifices of devotion (burnt offerings) and thanksgiving (peace offerings).<\/p>\n<p>The procedural order of the sacrifices embodies the OT ideology of how God may be approached. First, atonement for sin had to be made and then total consecration of self; these are symbolized by the sin and\/or guilt offerings and the burnt and grain offerings, respectively. When these conditions were met, the offerer could express his continued devotion by more burnt offerings and also take part in the fellowship sacrifices (peace offerings) in which he himself got a large portion of the slaughtered animal (to share with his friends and the poor in his community; Dt 12:17-19).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DescriptionofSacrifices\">Description of Sacrifices<\/p>\n<p>The ensuing description of the different types of sacrifice will treat them in accordance with the “procedural” order, that is, as symbolic stages in one’s approach to God.<\/p>\n<h5>Expiation<\/h5>\n<p>These two offerings were required for making atonement for sins and trespasses:<\/p>\n<p>1. Sin offering (Lv 4:1–5:13; 6:24-30). Different animals were specified in accordance with the rank of the offerer. A high priest had to bring a young bull (4:3), as did the congregation as a whole (v 14), except when the matter was a ritual infraction (Nm 15:24). A ruler would bring a male goat (Lv 4:23), but a commoner could provide a female goat (v 28; Nm 15:27) or a lamb (Lv 4:32). If he was indigent, he could offer two turtledoves or two young pigeons (one of which would be a burnt offering; 5:7), or if he was extremely poor, he might even substitute a tenth of an ephah of fine flour (Lv 5:11-13; cf. Heb 9:22).<\/p>\n\n<p>The offerer brought the animal to the entrance of the temple court and laid his hand on it (Lv 4:4). He did not confess his sin in this act because the animal was not being sent away (cf. the goat for Azazel, 16:21); rather, he was identifying himself with the sacrifice. The offerer had to kill the animal on the north side of the altar (4:24, 29). The animals were never slaughtered on the altar proper. The officiating priest collected the blood; when it was a bull for himself or for the congregation, he sprinkled some of the blood before the veil inside the tent of meeting and put some on the horns of the incense altar (vv 5-7, 16-18). On the Day of Atonement he brought the sacrificial blood for himself and for the people into the Holy of Holies (16:14-15). From all other animals, the blood was applied to the horns of the altar of burnt offering (4:25, 30, 34); the blood of fowl was sprinkled on the side of the altar (5:9). Finally, the remaining blood from any offering was poured or drained out at the base of the altar (4:7).<\/p>\n<p>The choicest of the internal organs, namely, the fatty tissue over and on the entrails, the two kidneys and their fat, and the appendage to the liver, were all offered to the Lord on the altar (Lv 4:8-10). The carcass and the other entrails were burned outside the camp when it was a bull for the priest or for the people. This was also true of the bull for the ordination of the priests (Ex 29:10-14; Lv 8:14-17). Otherwise, the priest who conducted the rites received the edible flesh as his portion. He had to eat it within the temple area, and its preparation was governed by strict rules of ritual purity (Lv 6:25-30; cf. 10:16-20). A sin offering of one male goat was presented at each of the sacred holidays: the New Moon (Nm 28:15), each day of Passover (vv 22-24), the Festival of Weeks (v 30), the Festival of Trumpets (29:5), the Day of Atonement (v 11), and each day of the Feast of Tabernacles (vv 16, 19). The high priest also offered a bull for himself and then sacrificed one of the two goats on the Day of Atonement. Certain purification rites required lesser sin offerings, namely, lambs or birds: childbirth (Lv 12:6-8), cleansing from leprosy (14:12-14, 19-22), and abscesses and hemorrhages (15:14-15, 29-30) or after defilement while under a vow (Nm 6:10-11).<\/p>\n<li>2. Guilt offering (Lv 5:14–6:7; 7:1-7). The guilt or trespass offering was a special kind of sin offering (cf. 5:7) required whenever someone had been denied his rightful due. Reparation of the valued amount that had been defrauded had to be made, plus a fine of one-fifth (5:16; 6:5). The animal was usually a ram (5:15, 18; 6:6). The cleansed leper and the defiled Nazirite had to bring a male lamb (Lv 14:12, 21; Nm 6:12). The offerer apparently handled the sacrifice as he would a sin offering, but the priest had to sprinkle the blood around the altar (Lv 7:2). Viscera were burned on the altar as usual (vv 3-5). Some of the blood was then applied to the tip of the cleansed leper’s right ear and to his right thumb and big toe (14:14). Again the priest received most of the animal’s flesh for food (7:6-7; 14:13). A guilt offering was required whenever another party had suffered some loss. Ritual infractions, such as eating the “holy things” without proper authorization (5:14-19; 22:14), called for payment of the sum that should have gone to the Lord plus the fine of one-fifth that went to the priest (Lv 5:16; 2 Kgs 12:16). The leper belongs in this category, since during the time of his infection he was unable to render service to God (Lv 14:12-18). The same applies to the Nazirite who had suffered defilement while he was set apart to God by the vow; thus a guilt offering was required (Nm 6:12). Violation of another person’s property rights could be expiated only by the guilt offering and its additional one-fifth. Such matters included cheating on deposits or security, robbery or oppression, failing to report the find of some lost property, or false swearing or failing to testify (Lv 6:1-5). Intercourse with a betrothed slave girl was also a violation of property rights (19:20-22). If the offended party was no longer living and had no surviving kinsmen, the payment went to the priest (Nm 5:5-10).<\/li>\n<h5>Consecration Offerings<\/h5>\n<p>These rituals usually come to mind when one hears the word “offering.” They represent acts of personal commitment that must accompany the repentance expressed in the sin and guilt offerings. They were also a prerequisite for the fellowship or communal sacrifices that might follow.<\/p>\n<p>1. Burnt offering (Lv 1:3-17; 6:8-13). The burnt offering could be a bull, a sheep, or a bird. The offerer presented the animal, laid his hand on it, and killed it on the north side of the altar. The bird was simply given to the priest. The latter collected the blood, presented it before God, and then sprinkled it around the altar. When the offering was a bird, he wrung off its head and drained the blood at the side of the altar. Though the slaughtering and sprinkling of the blood relates the burnt offering to the expiatory sacrifices of the previous section, the main emphasis here is on killing the animal, washing its unclean parts, and then carefully arranging all of the pieces on the altar. All of this was then consumed on the altar as a pleasing odor to the Lord. Since burnt offerings were offered morning and evening, a good supply of wood by the altar was necessary. The officiating priest, dressed in proper garments, had to keep the fire burning continuously (6:8-13).<\/p>\n<p>Burnt offerings played a prominent role in the sacrifices of the ritual calendar. The continual burnt offering was made twice a day, a male lamb morning and evening (Ex 29:38-42; Nm 28:1-8). Two additional lambs were sacrificed each Sabbath (Nm 28:9-10).<\/p>\n<p>Except for these daily offerings, a sin offering of one goat was usually made along with the burnt offerings on the following holidays: For the New Moon at the beginning of each month, two young bulls, one ram, and seven male lambs were offered (Nm 28:11-14). The same were required for each day of the Passover festival (vv 19-24) and again on the Feast of Weeks (vv 6-29). On the Festival of Trumpets and the Day of Atonement, the requirement was one bull, one ram, and seven lambs (29:2-4).<\/p>\n<p>The great Feast of Tabernacles was characterized by a series of elaborate burnt offerings, plus one goat per day as a sin offering. On the first day, 13 young bulls, 2 rams, and 14 male lambs were offered (Nm 29:12-16). Each successive day, the number of bulls was decreased by one until on the seventh day there were only seven (the rams and lambs remained the same; 29:17-25). On the eighth day the animals required for Trumpets and Atonement were offered, namely, one bull, one ram, and seven lambs.<\/p>\n<p>Certain rituals of purification also required burnt offerings in addition to sin offerings: after childbirth (Lv 12:6-8), abscesses (15:14-15), and discharges (vv 29-30); or after defilement while under a Nazirite vow (Nm 6:10-11). Though it is not stated that grain offerings were required in these cases, they certainly were for the cleansing from leprosy (Lv 14:10, 19-22, 31) and the completion of the Nazirite vow (Nm 6:14-16).<\/p>\n<li>2. Grain (Cereal) offering (Lv 2; 6:14-23). The Hebrew term referring to this particular offering means “gift,” or “offering,” including animals (Gn 4:3-5; Jgs 6:18; 1 Sm 2:17). But in the specific sacrificial context it signifies a combination of fine flour, olive oil, and frankincense that could be made up in the form of baked loaves, wafers, or morsels. The offering of firstfruits was to be crushed heads of new grain (Lv 2:14). No leaven or honey was permitted on the cakes, although those same commodities could be accepted as a firstfruit offering. They would not go to the altar but were given to the priest. The offerer had to bring the prepared loaves or wafers to the temple. The priest would burn one handful on the altar as its “memorial portion” (v 2), keeping the remainder for his own food (6:16; 7:9). But when the priest was making a grain offering on his own behalf, he burnt it all on the altar (6:22-23).<\/li>\n<p>A grain offering was usually given with every burnt offering, especially those pertaining to the sacred calendar (Nm 28–29). The amounts of flour and oil were set according to the animal being sacrificed: three-tenths of an ephah of flour and one-half a hin of oil for a bull, two-tenths ephah and one-third hin for a ram, and one-tenth ephah plus one-fourth hin for a lamb (15:2-10). Other happy occasions for a grain offering included the cleansing of a leper (Lv 14:10, 20-21, 31; unspecified quantity of grain with a bird) and the successful consummation of a Nazirite vow (Nm 6:13-15).<\/p>\n<p>Peace offerings were invariably followed by grain offerings (Lv 7:12-14; Nm 15:4). The priest received one of each pair of cakes or wafers. The remainder was returned to the offerer to be eaten with the flesh of the sacrificial animal at a place of his choice.<\/p>\n<p>A special case where such offering was used was the one-tenth of an ephah of barley meal required in the jealousy ritual. It was to have no oil or frankincense (Nm 5:15, 18, 25-26). A very poor individual was permitted to bring one-tenth of an ephah of fine flour without oil or frankincense as a sin offering (Lv 5:11-13).<\/p>\n<li>3. Drink offering (Nm 15:1-10). The standard libation was one-fourth of a hin of wine for a lamb, one-third for a ram, and one-half for a bull. The wine (Ex 29:40), also called “strong drink” (Nm 28:7), is probably an intentional substitute for the blood used by other nations (Ps 16:4). The libation was classed as a “pleasing odor” offering (Nm 15:7). As with the burnt offering, the entire drink offering was expended; nothing was given to the priest (28:7).<\/li>\n<p>Drink offerings accompanied the daily offering (Ex 29:40-41; Nm 28:7) and the Sabbath offering (Nm 28:9), as well as the New Moon festival. Reference is also made to them in connection with the second and following days of the Feast of Tabernacles (29:18, 21); for the first day their absence is probably unintentional. The same might hold true for the Passover, Firstfruits, and Feast of Trumpets (Nm 28:16–29:11; cf. Ez 45:11). A libation was required for the rites concluding a Nazirite vow (Nm 6:17) but not for cleansing a leper (Lv 14:10-20).<\/p>\n<h5>Fellowship Offerings<\/h5>\n<p>These sacrifices were voluntary on the part of the offerer and generally not imposed by regulations except for the Nazirite (Nm 6:17) and the Feast of Weeks (Lv 23:19-20). An offerer who had already fulfilled the ritual requirements for atonement and personal consecration was permitted to make a fellowship offering. Burnt offerings often accompanied the fellowship sacrifices as a further expression of devotion.<\/p>\n<p>1. Peace offering (Lv 3; 7:11-36; Am 5:22). This is the basic class of all fellowship or communal offerings; the others are simply subclasses of the peace offering. In terms of holiness, or restrictedness, they were not so rigidly confined as the other offerings. Animals from the herd or flock, male or female (Lv 3:1, 6, 12), were permitted. The usual stipulation of freedom from blemish was in force, except in the case of the freewill offering, in which the animal could have one limb longer than the other (22:23). Unleavened cakes were also required, at least for the thank (7:12-13) and Nazirite (Nm 6:15-19) offerings. Each of these three types of peace offerings will be discussed below, with their special features.<\/p>\n<p>The first parts of the ritual—the presentation and laying on of the hand—were identical to those of the other sacrifices. However, the animal was slaughtered at the door of the sanctuary courtyard and not on the north side of the altar (Lv 3:1-2, 7-8, 12-13; 7:29-30). The priest collected the blood and tossed it against the altar as he did with the burnt offering (3:2, 8, 13). The choice viscera were offered up as a “pleasing odor” (3:3-5, 6-11, 14-16).<\/p>\n<p>The priest also received a certain portion of the offering. He was allowed to eat it in any ritually clean place and to share it with his family (Lv 7:14, 30-36; Nm 6:20), in contrast to his portion of other sacrifices, which he had to eat somewhere in the temple compound (Nm 18:10-11). He received one of the cakes and the breast as a wave offering and the right thigh as a contribution for the offerer. This latter is the so-called “heave offering”; the technical term developed from a root signifying “to be high” and meaning “that which is lifted up.” The heave offering did not really represent a special kind of ritual ceremony.<\/p>\n<p>The ritual act of the peace offering culminated with a fellowship meal. Except for those parts on the altar or given to the priest, the body of the animal was returned to the man who offered it. He had to prepare it as a communal meal for himself, for his family, and for the Levite in his community (Dt 12:12, 18-19). This would have to be at the official sanctuary (Dt 12:6-7, 11-12, 15-19; cf. 1 Sm 1:3-4) and the participants had to observe strict rules of purity (Lv 7:19-21; 19:5-8). It may be contrasted with the ritual slaughtering of animals for a banquet that was permitted at any local altar (Dt 12:16, 20-22). The flesh of the thank offering had to be eaten on the same day of the sacrifice (Lv 7:15), while that of the votive or freewill offerings could be finished off on the following day (vv 16-18). Whatever remained then had to be burned before the time limit expired.<\/p>\n<p>Only three times is there a specific demand for a peace offering: in the Feast of Weeks (Lv 23:19-20), upon completion of a Nazirite vow (Nm 6:17-20), and at the installation of the priesthood (Ex 29:19-22, 28). Other public ritual occasions included the inauguration of the temple (1 Kgs 8:63; 2 Chr 7:5). Events on a national level that evoked the peace offering were the successful conclusion of a military campaign (1 Sm 11:15), the end of a famine or pestilence (2 Sm 24:25), confirmation of a candidate to the throne (1 Kgs 1:9, 19), or a time of religious revival (2 Chr 29:31-36). On the local level, they were offered at the annual family reunion (1 Sm 20:6) or other festive occasions, such as the harvest of the firstfruits (Ex 22:29-31; 1 Sm 9:11-14, 22-24; 16:4-5).<\/p>\n<li>2. Wave offering. The first portion of the peace offering was “waved” before the Lord to signify that the priest was eating it as a representative of God (the actual motion evidently resembled the wielding of a saw or a staff, Is 10:15). The same technical term, “wave offering,” was also used for other kinds of offering: precious metals donated for making the cultic artifacts (Ex 35:22; 38:29) and the guilt offering of the cleansed leper (Lv 14:12).<\/li>\n<li>3. Freewill offering. These gifts, brought to the holy convocations that took place three times per year (Ex 23:16; 34:20; Dt 16:10, 16-17; 2 Chr 35:8; Ezr 3:5), were voluntary (Lv 7:16; 22:18, 21-23; 23:28; Nm 15:3; 29:39; Dt 12:6, 17). Like the voluntary offering, the freewill offering could be a burnt rather than a peace offering (Lv 22:17-24; Ez 46:12). If it was the latter, the flesh could be eaten on the second day but must be burned before the third (Lv 7:16-17). Unlike some other peace offerings, the animal being sacrificed could have one limb longer than the other (22:23).<\/li>\n<li>4. Installation offering. This Hebrew term refers to the settings of precious stones (Ex 25:7; 35:9, 27; 1 Chr 29:2), so “installation” seems an appropriate translation. It had to do with “filling the hand,” a ritual act that consecrated someone to divine service (Ex 28:41; cf. 32:29) and required ritual purity and spiritual devotion (2 Chr 29:31). The details of the original ceremony at the installation of the first priest is described in two passages (Ex 29:19-34; Lv 8:22-32).<\/li>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Atonement; Cleanness and Uncleanness, Regulations Concerning; Feasts and Festivals of Israel; Tabernacle; Temple.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>OFFERINGS AND SACRIFICES<\/h3>\n<p>Major ritual expressions of religious life with accompanying rites, such as libations, effusions, and sacred meals. The ideology expressed in Israel’s ritual complex made its religion unique in the ancient Near East. The concepts of OT ritual also underlie NT theology with regard to sin and reconciliation to God through the atoning death of Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PerformanceandOrderofSacrifices\">Performance and Order of Sacrifices<\/p>\n<p>The main source for a description of the correct performance of sacrificial ritual is the opening section of Leviticus (Lv 1–7). It consists of two separate parts. The first (1:1–6:7) is didactic, dealing with two categories of sacrifice: those of a “pleasing odor,” namely, the burnt (1:1-17), the grain (2:1-16), and the peace offerings (3:1-17); and the expiatory sacrifices, namely, the sin (4:1–5:13) and the guilt or trespass offerings (5:14–6:7). Attention is paid to the minute details of each ritual, and they are grouped according to their logical or conceptual associations.<\/p>\n<p>The grain (or cereal) offering follows the burnt offering because it always accompanied it in actual practice (Nm 15:1-21; chs 28–29); it also went with the peace offering (Lv 7:12-14; Nm 15:3-4). Special emphasis is placed on burning the inward parts of a sacrifice on the altar to make a “pleasing odor to the Lord” (Lv 1:9, 17; 2:2, 9, 12; 3:5, 11, 16). When the Lord smelled the pleasing odor (Gn 8:21), it was a sign of divine favor; refusal indicated God’s displeasure (Lv 26:31). The officiating priest evidently knew how to read the signs and would tell the offerer whether his sacrifice had been accepted (1 Sm 26:19; cf. Am 5:21-23).<\/p>\n<p>The sin and guilt offerings were expiatory (Lv 4:1–6:7, 20). The situations requiring such offerings are listed, and special emphasis is laid on the handling of the blood in the ritual.<\/p>\n<p>The second major section in this passage (Lv 6:8–7:38) stresses the administrative details for the various offerings. This section consists of a series of “instructions” for each type of offering pertaining to the distribution of the sacrificial materials. Some went to the priest(s), some went to the offerer, and others were burned on the altar or disposed of outside the camp. Those sacrifices designated as “most holy” were to be eaten only by qualified members of the priesthood (Lv 2:3, 10; 10:12-17; 14:13; Nm 18:9).<\/p>\n<p>The burnt offering is discussed first because it was entirely consumed on the altar (and thus not eaten by anyone). After it, there follow the sacrifices distributed to the officiants (Lv 6:17, 26, 29; 7:1, 6), and at the end come the peace offerings, a significant portion of which was returned to the offender.<\/p>\n<p>The order in which the sacrifices are treated in this passage also corresponds to their relative frequency in the rituals of the sacred calendar (Nm 28:19; 2 Chr 31:3; Ez 45:17). This would be particularly important for the priests and Levites on duty at the temple because they were responsible for the logistics of the daily sacrificial ritual, especially on the high holidays; management of the temple storehouse was a formidable task (1 Chr 23:28-32; 26:15, 20-22; 2 Chr 13:10-11; 30:3-19; 34:9-11).<\/p>\n<p>Each section concerning a particular offering concludes with the logistic or administrative details peculiar to it. There then follows a summary of the matters treated thus far (Lv 7:7-10), and the section concludes with a treatment of the peace offerings (vv 11-36). The latter did not play a role in the sacred calendar except during the Feast of Weeks (23:19-20); on all other occasions, with the two exceptions of the Nazirite vow and the installation of the priesthood, peace offerings were purely voluntary sacrifices and thus not subject to any fixed bookkeeping.<\/p>\n<p>In other biblical contexts, the sacrifices are listed according to the same “bookkeeping” or “administrative” order: burnt, grain, and drink; sin (or guilt); and sometimes peace offerings. An example is the roster of donations made by the tribal leaders for dedication of the altar (Nm 7). The information is organized like an everyday ledger from the temple storehouse; the summary classifies the animals as burnt, grain, sin, and peace offerings (vv 87-88) in accordance with the respective entries from each donor (vv 15-17). The Levitical scribe had two purposes for such a record: to credit the offerers and to record the treasures and food supplies coming in. Much of the foodstuffs being given as offerings was actually apportioned to the officiating priests (Nm 18:8-11; 2 Chr 31:4-19).<\/p>\n<p>When prescriptions were made as to the type and number of offerings to be brought (e.g., Nm 15:24), the “bookkeeping” order is generally followed. This was true of the calendarial sacrifices; burnt and grain offerings and libations were listed, followed by a sin offering for each of the following: New Moon (Nm 28:11-15), each day of Passover (vv 19-22), the Festival of Weeks (Lv 23:18-19; Nm 28:27-30), Trumpets (29:2-5), Day of Atonement (vv 8-11), and each day of the Feast of Tabernacles (vv 12-16).<\/p>\n<p>For sacrifices required in specific cases, the instructions as to what offerings to bring follow this sequence (e.g., the purification of a woman after giving birth, Lv 12:6-8). Note also the offerings given at the successful termination of a Nazirite vow; the Nazirite brought burnt, sin, and peace offerings (with some special grain offerings, Nm 6:14-15). However, the priest conducted the actual ritual according to a different order; the sin offering was made first, followed by the burnt offering and finally the peace offering (vv 16-17). In the case of an incomplete vow, the first step was to offer a sin offering and then a burnt offering to renew the vow (v 11). The reconsecration of the Nazirite required a separate guilt offering—a distinct ritual act (v 12).<\/p>\n<p>The description of the offerings made by the prince of Israel in the latter days presents the same contrast between the two orders of sacrifices. On festival holidays the prince brought burnt, grain, and drink offerings, but he offered them as sin, grain, burnt, and peace offerings (Ez 45:17). This second order of sacrifices in which the sin offering precedes the burnt offering was also followed in the rededication of the altar (43:18-27).<\/p>\n<p>The same “procedural” sequence of sacrifices appears in other instances: the purification of the leper—guilt and sin offerings (Lv 14:19), followed by a burnt offering (vv 12-20); the man with a discharge—sin and burnt offerings (15:15); likewise the woman with a discharge (v 30). The same order is followed for the sacrifices on the Day of Atonement (16:3-6, 11, 15, 24).<\/p>\n<p>The book of Leviticus furnishes two examples of the proper order in which sacrifices were offered. One is the ordination of Aaron and his sons. The sin offering came first and then the burnt offering (Ex 29:10-18; Lv 8:14-21). The focal point in this ritual was the sacrifice of ordination, or literally “installation,” a special form of peace offering (Ex 29:19-34; Lv 8:22-29). The second passage is the formal inauguration of the sacrificial system at the tabernacle (Lv 9). The sacrifices for Aaron were sin and burnt offerings, followed by those for the people: sin, burnt, grain, and peace offerings (9:7-22).<\/p>\n<p>The same sequence is followed at the cleansing and restoration of the temple in Jerusalem conducted by King Hezekiah (2 Chr 29:20-36). A great sin offering was first, followed by the burnt offerings accompanied by music and song. Then the king proclaimed that the people had committed themselves to the Lord; in this new state of purity they could now share in the sacrifices of devotion (burnt offerings) and thanksgiving (peace offerings).<\/p>\n<p>The procedural order of the sacrifices embodies the OT ideology of how God may be approached. First, atonement for sin had to be made and then total consecration of self; these are symbolized by the sin and\/or guilt offerings and the burnt and grain offerings, respectively. When these conditions were met, the offerer could express his continued devotion by more burnt offerings and also take part in the fellowship sacrifices (peace offerings) in which he himself got a large portion of the slaughtered animal (to share with his friends and the poor in his community; Dt 12:17-19).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DescriptionofSacrifices\">Description of Sacrifices<\/p>\n<p>The ensuing description of the different types of sacrifice will treat them in accordance with the “procedural” order, that is, as symbolic stages in one’s approach to God.<\/p>\n<h5>Expiation<\/h5>\n<p>These two offerings were required for making atonement for sins and trespasses:<\/p>\n<p>1. Sin offering (Lv 4:1–5:13; 6:24-30). Different animals were specified in accordance with the rank of the offerer. A high priest had to bring a young bull (4:3), as did the congregation as a whole (v 14), except when the matter was a ritual infraction (Nm 15:24). A ruler would bring a male goat (Lv 4:23), but a commoner could provide a female goat (v 28; Nm 15:27) or a lamb (Lv 4:32). If he was indigent, he could offer two turtledoves or two young pigeons (one of which would be a burnt offering; 5:7), or if he was extremely poor, he might even substitute a tenth of an ephah of fine flour (Lv 5:11-13; cf. Heb 9:22).<\/p>\n\n<p>The offerer brought the animal to the entrance of the temple court and laid his hand on it (Lv 4:4). He did not confess his sin in this act because the animal was not being sent away (cf. the goat for Azazel, 16:21); rather, he was identifying himself with the sacrifice. The offerer had to kill the animal on the north side of the altar (4:24, 29). The animals were never slaughtered on the altar proper. The officiating priest collected the blood; when it was a bull for himself or for the congregation, he sprinkled some of the blood before the veil inside the tent of meeting and put some on the horns of the incense altar (vv 5-7, 16-18). On the Day of Atonement he brought the sacrificial blood for himself and for the people into the Holy of Holies (16:14-15). From all other animals, the blood was applied to the horns of the altar of burnt offering (4:25, 30, 34); the blood of fowl was sprinkled on the side of the altar (5:9). Finally, the remaining blood from any offering was poured or drained out at the base of the altar (4:7).<\/p>\n<p>The choicest of the internal organs, namely, the fatty tissue over and on the entrails, the two kidneys and their fat, and the appendage to the liver, were all offered to the Lord on the altar (Lv 4:8-10). The carcass and the other entrails were burned outside the camp when it was a bull for the priest or for the people. This was also true of the bull for the ordination of the priests (Ex 29:10-14; Lv 8:14-17). Otherwise, the priest who conducted the rites received the edible flesh as his portion. He had to eat it within the temple area, and its preparation was governed by strict rules of ritual purity (Lv 6:25-30; cf. 10:16-20). A sin offering of one male goat was presented at each of the sacred holidays: the New Moon (Nm 28:15), each day of Passover (vv 22-24), the Festival of Weeks (v 30), the Festival of Trumpets (29:5), the Day of Atonement (v 11), and each day of the Feast of Tabernacles (vv 16, 19). The high priest also offered a bull for himself and then sacrificed one of the two goats on the Day of Atonement. Certain purification rites required lesser sin offerings, namely, lambs or birds: childbirth (Lv 12:6-8), cleansing from leprosy (14:12-14, 19-22), and abscesses and hemorrhages (15:14-15, 29-30) or after defilement while under a vow (Nm 6:10-11).<\/p>\n<li>2. Guilt offering (Lv 5:14–6:7; 7:1-7). The guilt or trespass offering was a special kind of sin offering (cf. 5:7) required whenever someone had been denied his rightful due. Reparation of the valued amount that had been defrauded had to be made, plus a fine of one-fifth (5:16; 6:5). The animal was usually a ram (5:15, 18; 6:6). The cleansed leper and the defiled Nazirite had to bring a male lamb (Lv 14:12, 21; Nm 6:12). The offerer apparently handled the sacrifice as he would a sin offering, but the priest had to sprinkle the blood around the altar (Lv 7:2). Viscera were burned on the altar as usual (vv 3-5). Some of the blood was then applied to the tip of the cleansed leper’s right ear and to his right thumb and big toe (14:14). Again the priest received most of the animal’s flesh for food (7:6-7; 14:13). A guilt offering was required whenever another party had suffered some loss. Ritual infractions, such as eating the “holy things” without proper authorization (5:14-19; 22:14), called for payment of the sum that should have gone to the Lord plus the fine of one-fifth that went to the priest (Lv 5:16; 2 Kgs 12:16). The leper belongs in this category, since during the time of his infection he was unable to render service to God (Lv 14:12-18). The same applies to the Nazirite who had suffered defilement while he was set apart to God by the vow; thus a guilt offering was required (Nm 6:12). Violation of another person’s property rights could be expiated only by the guilt offering and its additional one-fifth. Such matters included cheating on deposits or security, robbery or oppression, failing to report the find of some lost property, or false swearing or failing to testify (Lv 6:1-5). Intercourse with a betrothed slave girl was also a violation of property rights (19:20-22). If the offended party was no longer living and had no surviving kinsmen, the payment went to the priest (Nm 5:5-10).<\/li>\n<h5>Consecration Offerings<\/h5>\n<p>These rituals usually come to mind when one hears the word “offering.” They represent acts of personal commitment that must accompany the repentance expressed in the sin and guilt offerings. They were also a prerequisite for the fellowship or communal sacrifices that might follow.<\/p>\n<p>1. Burnt offering (Lv 1:3-17; 6:8-13). The burnt offering could be a bull, a sheep, or a bird. The offerer presented the animal, laid his hand on it, and killed it on the north side of the altar. The bird was simply given to the priest. The latter collected the blood, presented it before God, and then sprinkled it around the altar. When the offering was a bird, he wrung off its head and drained the blood at the side of the altar. Though the slaughtering and sprinkling of the blood relates the burnt offering to the expiatory sacrifices of the previous section, the main emphasis here is on killing the animal, washing its unclean parts, and then carefully arranging all of the pieces on the altar. All of this was then consumed on the altar as a pleasing odor to the Lord. Since burnt offerings were offered morning and evening, a good supply of wood by the altar was necessary. The officiating priest, dressed in proper garments, had to keep the fire burning continuously (6:8-13).<\/p>\n<p>Burnt offerings played a prominent role in the sacrifices of the ritual calendar. The continual burnt offering was made twice a day, a male lamb morning and evening (Ex 29:38-42; Nm 28:1-8). Two additional lambs were sacrificed each Sabbath (Nm 28:9-10).<\/p>\n<p>Except for these daily offerings, a sin offering of one goat was usually made along with the burnt offerings on the following holidays: For the New Moon at the beginning of each month, two young bulls, one ram, and seven male lambs were offered (Nm 28:11-14). The same were required for each day of the Passover festival (vv 19-24) and again on the Feast of Weeks (vv 6-29). On the Festival of Trumpets and the Day of Atonement, the requirement was one bull, one ram, and seven lambs (29:2-4).<\/p>\n<p>The great Feast of Tabernacles was characterized by a series of elaborate burnt offerings, plus one goat per day as a sin offering. On the first day, 13 young bulls, 2 rams, and 14 male lambs were offered (Nm 29:12-16). Each successive day, the number of bulls was decreased by one until on the seventh day there were only seven (the rams and lambs remained the same; 29:17-25). On the eighth day the animals required for Trumpets and Atonement were offered, namely, one bull, one ram, and seven lambs.<\/p>\n<p>Certain rituals of purification also required burnt offerings in addition to sin offerings: after childbirth (Lv 12:6-8), abscesses (15:14-15), and discharges (vv 29-30); or after defilement while under a Nazirite vow (Nm 6:10-11). Though it is not stated that grain offerings were required in these cases, they certainly were for the cleansing from leprosy (Lv 14:10, 19-22, 31) and the completion of the Nazirite vow (Nm 6:14-16).<\/p>\n<li>2. Grain (Cereal) offering (Lv 2; 6:14-23). The Hebrew term referring to this particular offering means “gift,” or “offering,” including animals (Gn 4:3-5; Jgs 6:18; 1 Sm 2:17). But in the specific sacrificial context it signifies a combination of fine flour, olive oil, and frankincense that could be made up in the form of baked loaves, wafers, or morsels. The offering of firstfruits was to be crushed heads of new grain (Lv 2:14). No leaven or honey was permitted on the cakes, although those same commodities could be accepted as a firstfruit offering. They would not go to the altar but were given to the priest. The offerer had to bring the prepared loaves or wafers to the temple. The priest would burn one handful on the altar as its “memorial portion” (v 2), keeping the remainder for his own food (6:16; 7:9). But when the priest was making a grain offering on his own behalf, he burnt it all on the altar (6:22-23).<\/li>\n<p>A grain offering was usually given with every burnt offering, especially those pertaining to the sacred calendar (Nm 28–29). The amounts of flour and oil were set according to the animal being sacrificed: three-tenths of an ephah of flour and one-half a hin of oil for a bull, two-tenths ephah and one-third hin for a ram, and one-tenth ephah plus one-fourth hin for a lamb (15:2-10). Other happy occasions for a grain offering included the cleansing of a leper (Lv 14:10, 20-21, 31; unspecified quantity of grain with a bird) and the successful consummation of a Nazirite vow (Nm 6:13-15).<\/p>\n<p>Peace offerings were invariably followed by grain offerings (Lv 7:12-14; Nm 15:4). The priest received one of each pair of cakes or wafers. The remainder was returned to the offerer to be eaten with the flesh of the sacrificial animal at a place of his choice.<\/p>\n<p>A special case where such offering was used was the one-tenth of an ephah of barley meal required in the jealousy ritual. It was to have no oil or frankincense (Nm 5:15, 18, 25-26). A very poor individual was permitted to bring one-tenth of an ephah of fine flour without oil or frankincense as a sin offering (Lv 5:11-13).<\/p>\n<li>3. Drink offering (Nm 15:1-10). The standard libation was one-fourth of a hin of wine for a lamb, one-third for a ram, and one-half for a bull. The wine (Ex 29:40), also called “strong drink” (Nm 28:7), is probably an intentional substitute for the blood used by other nations (Ps 16:4). The libation was classed as a “pleasing odor” offering (Nm 15:7). As with the burnt offering, the entire drink offering was expended; nothing was given to the priest (28:7).<\/li>\n<p>Drink offerings accompanied the daily offering (Ex 29:40-41; Nm 28:7) and the Sabbath offering (Nm 28:9), as well as the New Moon festival. Reference is also made to them in connection with the second and following days of the Feast of Tabernacles (29:18, 21); for the first day their absence is probably unintentional. The same might hold true for the Passover, Firstfruits, and Feast of Trumpets (Nm 28:16–29:11; cf. Ez 45:11). A libation was required for the rites concluding a Nazirite vow (Nm 6:17) but not for cleansing a leper (Lv 14:10-20).<\/p>\n<h5>Fellowship Offerings<\/h5>\n<p>These sacrifices were voluntary on the part of the offerer and generally not imposed by regulations except for the Nazirite (Nm 6:17) and the Feast of Weeks (Lv 23:19-20). An offerer who had already fulfilled the ritual requirements for atonement and personal consecration was permitted to make a fellowship offering. Burnt offerings often accompanied the fellowship sacrifices as a further expression of devotion.<\/p>\n<p>1. Peace offering (Lv 3; 7:11-36; Am 5:22). This is the basic class of all fellowship or communal offerings; the others are simply subclasses of the peace offering. In terms of holiness, or restrictedness, they were not so rigidly confined as the other offerings. Animals from the herd or flock, male or female (Lv 3:1, 6, 12), were permitted. The usual stipulation of freedom from blemish was in force, except in the case of the freewill offering, in which the animal could have one limb longer than the other (22:23). Unleavened cakes were also required, at least for the thank (7:12-13) and Nazirite (Nm 6:15-19) offerings. Each of these three types of peace offerings will be discussed below, with their special features.<\/p>\n<p>The first parts of the ritual—the presentation and laying on of the hand—were identical to those of the other sacrifices. However, the animal was slaughtered at the door of the sanctuary courtyard and not on the north side of the altar (Lv 3:1-2, 7-8, 12-13; 7:29-30). The priest collected the blood and tossed it against the altar as he did with the burnt offering (3:2, 8, 13). The choice viscera were offered up as a “pleasing odor” (3:3-5, 6-11, 14-16).<\/p>\n<p>The priest also received a certain portion of the offering. He was allowed to eat it in any ritually clean place and to share it with his family (Lv 7:14, 30-36; Nm 6:20), in contrast to his portion of other sacrifices, which he had to eat somewhere in the temple compound (Nm 18:10-11). He received one of the cakes and the breast as a wave offering and the right thigh as a contribution for the offerer. This latter is the so-called “heave offering”; the technical term developed from a root signifying “to be high” and meaning “that which is lifted up.” The heave offering did not really represent a special kind of ritual ceremony.<\/p>\n<p>The ritual act of the peace offering culminated with a fellowship meal. Except for those parts on the altar or given to the priest, the body of the animal was returned to the man who offered it. He had to prepare it as a communal meal for himself, for his family, and for the Levite in his community (Dt 12:12, 18-19). This would have to be at the official sanctuary (Dt 12:6-7, 11-12, 15-19; cf. 1 Sm 1:3-4) and the participants had to observe strict rules of purity (Lv 7:19-21; 19:5-8). It may be contrasted with the ritual slaughtering of animals for a banquet that was permitted at any local altar (Dt 12:16, 20-22). The flesh of the thank offering had to be eaten on the same day of the sacrifice (Lv 7:15), while that of the votive or freewill offerings could be finished off on the following day (vv 16-18). Whatever remained then had to be burned before the time limit expired.<\/p>\n<p>Only three times is there a specific demand for a peace offering: in the Feast of Weeks (Lv 23:19-20), upon completion of a Nazirite vow (Nm 6:17-20), and at the installation of the priesthood (Ex 29:19-22, 28). Other public ritual occasions included the inauguration of the temple (1 Kgs 8:63; 2 Chr 7:5). Events on a national level that evoked the peace offering were the successful conclusion of a military campaign (1 Sm 11:15), the end of a famine or pestilence (2 Sm 24:25), confirmation of a candidate to the throne (1 Kgs 1:9, 19), or a time of religious revival (2 Chr 29:31-36). On the local level, they were offered at the annual family reunion (1 Sm 20:6) or other festive occasions, such as the harvest of the firstfruits (Ex 22:29-31; 1 Sm 9:11-14, 22-24; 16:4-5).<\/p>\n<li>2. Wave offering. The first portion of the peace offering was “waved” before the Lord to signify that the priest was eating it as a representative of God (the actual motion evidently resembled the wielding of a saw or a staff, Is 10:15). The same technical term, “wave offering,” was also used for other kinds of offering: precious metals donated for making the cultic artifacts (Ex 35:22; 38:29) and the guilt offering of the cleansed leper (Lv 14:12).<\/li>\n<li>3. Freewill offering. These gifts, brought to the holy convocations that took place three times per year (Ex 23:16; 34:20; Dt 16:10, 16-17; 2 Chr 35:8; Ezr 3:5), were voluntary (Lv 7:16; 22:18, 21-23; 23:28; Nm 15:3; 29:39; Dt 12:6, 17). Like the voluntary offering, the freewill offering could be a burnt rather than a peace offering (Lv 22:17-24; Ez 46:12). If it was the latter, the flesh could be eaten on the second day but must be burned before the third (Lv 7:16-17). Unlike some other peace offerings, the animal being sacrificed could have one limb longer than the other (22:23).<\/li>\n<li>4. Installation offering. This Hebrew term refers to the settings of precious stones (Ex 25:7; 35:9, 27; 1 Chr 29:2), so “installation” seems an appropriate translation. It had to do with “filling the hand,” a ritual act that consecrated someone to divine service (Ex 28:41; cf. 32:29) and required ritual purity and spiritual devotion (2 Chr 29:31). The details of the original ceremony at the installation of the first priest is described in two passages (Ex 29:19-34; Lv 8:22-32).<\/li>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Atonement; Cleanness and Uncleanness, Regulations Concerning; Feasts and Festivals of Israel; Tabernacle; Temple.<\/p>","summary_ro":"OFFERINGS AND SACRIFICES Major ritual expressions of religious life with accompanying rites, such as libations, effusions, and sacred meals. The ideology expressed in Israel’s ritual complex made its religion unique in the ancient Near East. The concepts of OT ritual also underlie NT theology with regard to sin and reconciliation to God through the atoning death of Jesus Christ. Performance and Order of Sacrifices The main source for a description of the correct performance of sacrificial rit...","summary_en":"OFFERINGS AND SACRIFICES Major ritual expressions of religious life with accompanying rites, such as libations, effusions, and sacred meals. The ideology expressed in Israel’s ritual complex made its religion unique in the ancient Near East. The concepts of OT ritual also underlie NT theology with regard to sin and reconciliation to God through the atoning death of Jesus Christ. Performance and Order of Sacrifices The main source for a description of the correct performance of sacrificial rit...","source":"Articles\/O.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":40220,"type":"textbox","type_label":"Notă explicativă","type_icon":"💡","type_color":"#8b5cf6","title_ro":"The Branch: A Symbol for the Messiah","title_en":"The Branch: A Symbol for the Messiah","content_ro":"<h3>The Branch: A Symbol for the Messiah<\/h3>\n<blockquote><p>In the following key passages, the “branch” is used as a symbol for the Messiah:<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<li>1. Isaiah 4:2-6 is the first occurrence of “branch” as a title: “In that day the branch of the <span>Lord<\/span> shall be beautiful and glorious, and the fruit of the land shall be the pride and glory of the survivors of Israel” (<span>rsv<\/span>). Many scholars interpret “branch” here to mean the Messiah for several reasons: (a) The whole tenor of the chapter makes it likely that it refers to the Messiah, who provides the harvest, establishes holiness, executes judgment, and creates “glory” in the land. (b) Isaiah 28:5 describes the Lord in similar terms, making a messianic interpretation of Isaiah 4:2 more probable. (c) Jeremiah 23:5 and 33:15, which seem to be commentaries on Isaiah 4:2, interpret it to refer to the Messiah. Mention of a righteous remnant illustrates a concept developing along with the “branch” imagery and amplifying its meaning. The branch will become the “beauty and glory” of the remnant of Israel and will wreak destruction on apostate Israel (Is 4:4).<\/li>\n<li>2. Isaiah 11:1 adds a Davidic element to Isaiah 4:2, since Jesse was David’s father. The “shoot” grew out of the “stump of Jesse,” that is, the royal line of David. The Davidic line is pictured as a fallen dynasty, a tree cut down (the passage probably mentions Jesse rather than David to stress a lowly origin). The stump remains, however, and there is still life within it. That stump is insignificant in contrast to the mighty forest of Assyria, but the Lord will level that forest (Is 10:15-19, 33-34) and bring forth from Jesse’s stump a fruitful shoot who will recover the Israelite remnant (Is 11:4, 11-12), destroy their adversaries, and reign in wisdom through the Spirit of the Lord.<\/li>\n<li>3. Jeremiah 23:5 and 33:15 contrast the righteous reign of the Branch with the evil leadership of King Zedekiah. In both passages a remnant is pictured under the metaphor of a flock gathered back to their fold under caring shepherds (Jer 23:3-4; cf. 33:12-13). The shepherds are ruled by the Branch, who is given the title “The <span>Lord<\/span> is our righteousness” (33:16). That phrase in Hebrew is a deliberate wordplay on the name “Zedekiah” (meaning “the Lord is my vindication”). Zedekiah was righteous in name but not in reign. The Branch of the Lord, in contrast, will rule justly.<\/li>\n<li>4. Zechariah 3:8 and 6:12 apply the branch metaphor in a different context—that of the postexilic task of rebuilding the temple. Zechariah described Joshua the high priest as a symbol of the future “servant- Branch” to be sent from the Lord. The Branch is seen as performing a priestly function in restoring righteous worship to the land. The royal line would be reinstated and the glories of the priestly line would also be reconstituted in the Branch. The servant of the Branch is probably taken from Isaiah’s servant songs, where similar language is used (Is 53:2). Zechariah specifically related the priestly activity to rebuilding the temple. Zerubbabel had earlier been given the task of completing the literal building (Zec 4:7-9), so the allusion must go beyond that to the “spiritual temple” to come. (Since Zerubbabel’s name means “shoot of Babylon,” the connection seems deliberate). Finally, Zechariah combines the two messianic aspects of the Branch: “He will build the <span>Lord<\/span>’s Temple, and he will receive royal honor and will rule as king from his throne. He will also serve as priest from his throne, and there will be perfect harmony between the two” (6:13, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/li>\n<p>“Branch” is never used as a title in the NT. Yet there are hints of that concept’s influence, as in the familiar “vine and branches” metaphor (Jn 15:1-8), in the use of palm branches at Jesus’ triumphal entry into Jerusalem (12:13; cf. Mk 11:8 and parallels), and possibly in the origin of the titles “Righteous One” (Acts 3:14; 7:52; cf. Jas 5:6) and “Just One” (Acts 22:14). Some have also taken an enigmatic reference to Christ, “He shall be called a Nazarene” as an allusion to the “branch” because in Isaiah 11:1 and other references <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">netzer<\/span> is similar to “Nazarene.”<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Branch: A Symbol for the Messiah<\/h3>\n<blockquote><p>In the following key passages, the “branch” is used as a symbol for the Messiah:<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<li>1. Isaiah 4:2-6 is the first occurrence of “branch” as a title: “In that day the branch of the <span>Lord<\/span> shall be beautiful and glorious, and the fruit of the land shall be the pride and glory of the survivors of Israel” (<span>rsv<\/span>). Many scholars interpret “branch” here to mean the Messiah for several reasons: (a) The whole tenor of the chapter makes it likely that it refers to the Messiah, who provides the harvest, establishes holiness, executes judgment, and creates “glory” in the land. (b) Isaiah 28:5 describes the Lord in similar terms, making a messianic interpretation of Isaiah 4:2 more probable. (c) Jeremiah 23:5 and 33:15, which seem to be commentaries on Isaiah 4:2, interpret it to refer to the Messiah. Mention of a righteous remnant illustrates a concept developing along with the “branch” imagery and amplifying its meaning. The branch will become the “beauty and glory” of the remnant of Israel and will wreak destruction on apostate Israel (Is 4:4).<\/li>\n<li>2. Isaiah 11:1 adds a Davidic element to Isaiah 4:2, since Jesse was David’s father. The “shoot” grew out of the “stump of Jesse,” that is, the royal line of David. The Davidic line is pictured as a fallen dynasty, a tree cut down (the passage probably mentions Jesse rather than David to stress a lowly origin). The stump remains, however, and there is still life within it. That stump is insignificant in contrast to the mighty forest of Assyria, but the Lord will level that forest (Is 10:15-19, 33-34) and bring forth from Jesse’s stump a fruitful shoot who will recover the Israelite remnant (Is 11:4, 11-12), destroy their adversaries, and reign in wisdom through the Spirit of the Lord.<\/li>\n<li>3. Jeremiah 23:5 and 33:15 contrast the righteous reign of the Branch with the evil leadership of King Zedekiah. In both passages a remnant is pictured under the metaphor of a flock gathered back to their fold under caring shepherds (Jer 23:3-4; cf. 33:12-13). The shepherds are ruled by the Branch, who is given the title “The <span>Lord<\/span> is our righteousness” (33:16). That phrase in Hebrew is a deliberate wordplay on the name “Zedekiah” (meaning “the Lord is my vindication”). Zedekiah was righteous in name but not in reign. The Branch of the Lord, in contrast, will rule justly.<\/li>\n<li>4. Zechariah 3:8 and 6:12 apply the branch metaphor in a different context—that of the postexilic task of rebuilding the temple. Zechariah described Joshua the high priest as a symbol of the future “servant- Branch” to be sent from the Lord. The Branch is seen as performing a priestly function in restoring righteous worship to the land. The royal line would be reinstated and the glories of the priestly line would also be reconstituted in the Branch. The servant of the Branch is probably taken from Isaiah’s servant songs, where similar language is used (Is 53:2). Zechariah specifically related the priestly activity to rebuilding the temple. Zerubbabel had earlier been given the task of completing the literal building (Zec 4:7-9), so the allusion must go beyond that to the “spiritual temple” to come. (Since Zerubbabel’s name means “shoot of Babylon,” the connection seems deliberate). Finally, Zechariah combines the two messianic aspects of the Branch: “He will build the <span>Lord<\/span>’s Temple, and he will receive royal honor and will rule as king from his throne. He will also serve as priest from his throne, and there will be perfect harmony between the two” (6:13, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/li>\n<p>“Branch” is never used as a title in the NT. Yet there are hints of that concept’s influence, as in the familiar “vine and branches” metaphor (Jn 15:1-8), in the use of palm branches at Jesus’ triumphal entry into Jerusalem (12:13; cf. Mk 11:8 and parallels), and possibly in the origin of the titles “Righteous One” (Acts 3:14; 7:52; cf. Jas 5:6) and “Just One” (Acts 22:14). Some have also taken an enigmatic reference to Christ, “He shall be called a Nazarene” as an allusion to the “branch” because in Isaiah 11:1 and other references <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">netzer<\/span> is similar to “Nazarene.”<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Branch: A Symbol for the Messiah In the following key passages, the “branch” is used as a symbol for the Messiah: 1. Isaiah 4:2-6 is the first occurrence of “branch” as a title: “In that day the branch of the Lord shall be beautiful and glorious, and the fruit of the land shall be the pride and glory of the survivors of Israel” (rsv). Many scholars interpret “branch” here to mean the Messiah for several reasons: (a) The whole tenor of the chapter makes it likely that it refers to the Mess...","summary_en":"The Branch: A Symbol for the Messiah In the following key passages, the “branch” is used as a symbol for the Messiah: 1. Isaiah 4:2-6 is the first occurrence of “branch” as a title: “In that day the branch of the Lord shall be beautiful and glorious, and the fruit of the land shall be the pride and glory of the survivors of Israel” (rsv). Many scholars interpret “branch” here to mean the Messiah for several reasons: (a) The whole tenor of the chapter makes it likely that it refers to the Mess...","source":"Textboxes\/Textboxes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":51184,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 10:15","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 10:15","content_ro":"<p><strong>10:15<\/strong> <em>ax . . . saw . . . rod . . . wooden cane:<\/em> Such instruments are only as good as <em>the person who uses<\/em> them. Assyria considered itself independent of the <em>hand<\/em> of God, but their conquests were made possible only by his permission and to serve his purposes (10:5).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>10:15<\/strong> <em>ax . . . saw . . . rod . . . wooden cane:<\/em> Such instruments are only as good as <em>the person who uses<\/em> them. Assyria considered itself independent of the <em>hand<\/em> of God, but their conquests were made possible only by his permission and to serve his purposes (10:5).<\/p>","summary_ro":"10:15 ax . . . saw . . . rod . . . wooden cane: Such instruments are only as good as the person who uses them. Assyria considered itself independent of the hand of God, but their conquests were made possible only by his permission and to serve his purposes (10:5).","summary_en":"10:15 ax . . . saw . . . rod . . . wooden cane: Such instruments are only as good as the person who uses them. Assyria considered itself independent of the hand of God, but their conquests were made possible only by his permission and to serve his purposes (10:5).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":78810,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 10:15","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 10:15","content_ro":"<p><strong>10:15<\/strong> <em>ax . . . saw . . . rod . . . wooden cane:<\/em> Such instruments are only as good as <em>the person who uses<\/em> them. Assyria considered itself independent of the <em>hand<\/em> of God, but their conquests were made possible only by his permission and to serve his purposes (10:5).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>10:15<\/strong> <em>ax . . . saw . . . rod . . . wooden cane:<\/em> Such instruments are only as good as <em>the person who uses<\/em> them. Assyria considered itself independent of the <em>hand<\/em> of God, but their conquests were made possible only by his permission and to serve his purposes (10:5).<\/p>","summary_ro":"10:15 ax . . . saw . . . rod . . . wooden cane: Such instruments are only as good as the person who uses them. Assyria considered itself independent of the hand of God, but their conquests were made possible only by his permission and to serve his purposes (10:5).","summary_en":"10:15 ax . . . saw . . . rod . . . wooden cane: Such instruments are only as good as the person who uses them. Assyria considered itself independent of the hand of God, but their conquests were made possible only by his permission and to serve his purposes (10:5).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":106436,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 10:15","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 10:15","content_ro":"<p><strong>10:15<\/strong> <em>ax . . . saw . . . rod . . . wooden cane:<\/em> Such instruments are only as good as <em>the person who uses<\/em> them. Assyria considered itself independent of the <em>hand<\/em> of God, but their conquests were made possible only by his permission and to serve his purposes (10:5).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>10:15<\/strong> <em>ax . . . saw . . . rod . . . wooden cane:<\/em> Such instruments are only as good as <em>the person who uses<\/em> them. Assyria considered itself independent of the <em>hand<\/em> of God, but their conquests were made possible only by his permission and to serve his purposes (10:5).<\/p>","summary_ro":"10:15 ax . . . saw . . . rod . . . wooden cane: Such instruments are only as good as the person who uses them. Assyria considered itself independent of the hand of God, but their conquests were made possible only by his permission and to serve his purposes (10:5).","summary_en":"10:15 ax . . . saw . . . rod . . . wooden cane: Such instruments are only as good as the person who uses them. Assyria considered itself independent of the hand of God, but their conquests were made possible only by his permission and to serve his purposes (10:5).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":134062,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 10:15","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 10:15","content_ro":"<p><strong>10:15<\/strong> <em>ax . . . saw . . . rod . . . wooden cane:<\/em> Such instruments are only as good as <em>the person who uses<\/em> them. Assyria considered itself independent of the <em>hand<\/em> of God, but their conquests were made possible only by his permission and to serve his purposes (10:5).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>10:15<\/strong> <em>ax . . . saw . . . rod . . . wooden cane:<\/em> Such instruments are only as good as <em>the person who uses<\/em> them. Assyria considered itself independent of the <em>hand<\/em> of God, but their conquests were made possible only by his permission and to serve his purposes (10:5).<\/p>","summary_ro":"10:15 ax . . . saw . . . rod . . . wooden cane: Such instruments are only as good as the person who uses them. Assyria considered itself independent of the hand of God, but their conquests were made possible only by his permission and to serve his purposes (10:5).","summary_en":"10:15 ax . . . saw . . . rod . . . wooden cane: Such instruments are only as good as the person who uses them. Assyria considered itself independent of the hand of God, but their conquests were made possible only by his permission and to serve his purposes (10:5).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"16":[{"id":17742,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Book of Isaiah","title_en":"Book of Isaiah","content_ro":"<h3>ISAIAH, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Literary Unity<\/p>\n<p>• Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>The prophet Isaiah, whose name means “the Lord saves,” lived and ministered in Jerusalem. Because of his repeated contact with the kings of Judah, some scholars believed that Isaiah was related to the royal family, but this is not certain. According to chapters 7 and 8, Isaiah was married and had at least two sons, Shear-jashub and Maher-shalal-hash-baz, whose symbolic names illustrated God’s dealings with the nation as a whole. The “disciples” mentioned in 8:16 probably assisted Isaiah in his ministry and may have helped him record the book that bears his name.<\/p>\n<p>When Isaiah saw the Lord in the famous temple vision described in chapter 6, he was willing to go wherever God sent him, even though he would face strong opposition (6:9-10). King Ahaz proved to be particularly resistant to Isaiah’s advice (7:4-17), and the people in general ridiculed his preaching (5:10-12; 28:9-10). During the reign of the godly Hezekiah, however, Isaiah’s ministry was much appreciated, and the king consulted him eagerly during times of crisis (37:1-7, 21-35).<\/p>\n<p>Isaiah is usually regarded as the greatest of the writing prophets. Some of the chapters in his book display an unparalleled literary beauty and make use of poetic devices and a rich variety of symbols. Chapters 40–66 contain many powerful passages that underscore the grandeur of the book. It is ironic, then, that many scholars attribute these chapters to a “second” or “third” Isaiah, unknown authors who wrote much later than Isaiah in connection with the Babylonian exile. Yet elsewhere in the OT, the names of all who wrote the prophetic books are preserved, and it would be most unusual for the Jews not to know who wrote such magnificent prophecy as chapters 40–66.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Date\">Date<\/p>\n<p>Since many of the events recorded in chapters 1–39 took place during the ministry of Isaiah, most of these chapters were probably written by about 700 <span>BC<\/span> or shortly thereafter. The destruction of the Assyrian army in 701 <span>BC<\/span> represents the climax of the first half of the book, fulfilling the prophecy of 10:16, 24-34 and 30:31-33. In 37:38 Isaiah refers to the death of King Sennacherib, which did not occur until 681 <span>BC<\/span>. This means that some of the earlier chapters, along with 40–66, were probably written later, during Isaiah’s retirement years. A gap of several decades could help account for the change in subject matter that is found in the last half of the book. In these chapters Isaiah projects into the future as he addresses the Jews who would be in exile in Babylon about 550 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>Isaiah’s public ministry occurred primarily from 740–700 <span>BC<\/span>, a period marked by the rapid expansion of the nation of Assyria. Under King Tiglath-pileser III (745–727 <span>BC<\/span>), the Assyrians moved to the west and south, and by 738 <span>BC<\/span> the Assyrian monarch was demanding tribute from Damascus and Israel. About 734 <span>BC<\/span> Rezin of Damascus (Syria) and Pekah of Israel organized a coalition to rebel against Assyria, and they tried to enlist the support of King Ahaz of Judah. But Ahaz refused to join, and when the kings of Damascus and Israel invaded Judah (see 7:1), Ahaz appealed directly to Tiglath-pileser for help (cf. 2 Kgs 16:7-9). With little hesitation the Assyrians returned to capture Damascus and to turn the northern kingdom of Israel into an Assyrian province.<\/p>\n<p>The puppet king Hoshea ruled over Israel from 732–723 BC but was imprisoned when he joined a revolt against Shalmaneser V, the new Assyrian king. Shalmaneser besieged the capital city of Samaria, which finally fell in 722 <span>BC<\/span>, spelling the end of the northern kingdom. Sargon succeeded Shalmaneser in 722 and had to quell a number of revolts. In 711 <span>BC<\/span> Sargon captured the Philistine city of Ashdod in a campaign that became the occasion of Isaiah’s prophecy of chapter 20.<\/p>\n\n<p>Even more important was the widespread rebellion that broke out with the accession of Sennacherib in 705 <span>BC<\/span>. King Hezekiah of Judah withheld his normal tribute payment, and by 701 <span>BC<\/span> Sennacherib had invaded Palestine to punish the rebels. The details of this campaign are given in Isaiah 36–37 and tell how city after city was captured by the Assyrians before the invaders stood at the gates of Jerusalem and demanded total surrender. With almost no hope of survival, Hezekiah nevertheless was encouraged by Isaiah to trust God, and in one night the angel of the Lord struck down 185,000 Assyrian soldiers, virtually wiping out Sennacherib’s army (Is 37:36-37).<\/p>\n<p>In an effort to befriend the enemies of Assyria, Hezekiah showed his treasures to envoys of the king of Babylon (39:1-4). Isaiah warned that someday the Babylonian armies would conquer Jerusalem and carry off those very treasures, along with the residents of the city (vv 5-7). Not only did Isaiah predict the Babylonian captivity of 586–539 <span>BC<\/span> (cf. 6:11-12), but he also foretold that Israel would be released from Babylon (48:20). The Chaldean kingdom led by Nebuchadnezzar would be God’s instrument of judgment upon Judah, but they too would suffer defeat. One of Isaiah’s most remarkable prophecies was the naming of Cyrus, king of Persia, the ruler who would conquer the Babylonians in 539 <span>BC<\/span> and release Israel from exile (cf. 44:28). Along with the Medes (cf. 13:17), Cyrus won several important victories before sending his troops against Babylon. Isaiah hailed him as one anointed by the Lord to bring deliverance for Israel (45:1-5).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LiteraryUnity\">Literary Unity<\/p>\n<p>Largely because of the references to the later kingdoms of Babylon and Persia, the unity of Isaiah has been called into question. Chapters 40–66 move abruptly into the exilic period of 550 <span>BC<\/span>, almost 150 years after Isaiah lived. Moreover, the Servant of the Lord plays a prominent role in these chapters and the messianic king fades into the background. Brilliant poetic passages are found in chapters 40, 53, 55, and 60, demonstrating remarkable depth and power.<\/p>\n<p>Although these factors are sometimes cited as a sign of disunity, there are actually strong indications for unity in the book. For example, the historical interlude (chs 36–39) forms a hinge or bridge that links chapters 1–35 and 40–66. Chapters 36–37 complete the Assyrian section, and chapters 38–39 introduce the Babylonian material. Most of the linking chapters are written in prose, while the others (in some translations) are largely poetry. From the standpoint of verbal or stylistic unity, one can point to Isaiah’s favorite title for God, “the Holy One of Israel.” This title appears 12 times in chapters 1–39, and 14 times in chapters 40–66, but only seven times in the rest of the OT. A study of the famous Servant Songs of 52:13–53:12 reveals several ties with earlier passages, especially in chapters 1–6. The servant who is smitten and wounded (53:4-5) receives the same punishment as the beaten and injured nation of 1:5-6 (also cf. 52:13 with 2:12 and 6:1).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheologicalTeaching\">Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>Isaiah is to the OT as the book of Romans is to the NT—a book filled with rich theological truth. Like Romans, Isaiah unveils the sinfulness of God’s rebellious people and his gracious provision of salvation. Because God is the Holy One of Israel (1:4; 6:3), he cannot ignore sin but must punish those who are guilty. Both Israel (5:30; 42:25) and the other nations (2:11, 17, 20) experience a time of judgment known as the Day of the Lord. In anger God raises his hand against his people (cf. 5:25), but ultimately his wrath is poured out upon Babylon and the nations (cf. 13:3-5; 34:2).<\/p>\n<p>With the fall of Assyria and Babylon, the Day of the Lord becomes a day of joyous victory (10:27; 61:2). According to Isaiah 63:4, it is the year of the Lord’s redemption. Earlier, Israel had been redeemed from slavery in Egypt; now the return from the Babylonian captivity brings equal joy (52:9; 61:1). The ultimate redemption is to be accomplished through the death of Christ, and Isaiah 53 describes our Lord’s suffering and death in graphic terms. His ministry as the Suffering Servant is also introduced in 49:4 and 50:6-7; meanwhile, 49:6 states that the servant will be “a light for the Gentiles.” Looking ahead to the Second Coming, Isaiah predicts a messianic age of peace and righteousness. Nations will “beat their swords into plowshares” (2:4) and the “Prince of Peace” will rule forever (9:6-7).<\/p>\n<p>Throughout the book God is pictured as the all-powerful Creator (48:13)—the sovereign One seated on a throne, high and exalted; the King, the Lord Almighty (6:1, 5). He controls the armies of the earth (13:4) and removes rulers as he wills (40:23-24). Before him, nations “are but a drop in the bucket” (40:15, <span>nlt<\/span>), and compared with him all idols are worthless and without power (41:29; 44:6). This is the God who shows his fury to his foes and his love to his servants (66:14).<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Messages of Judgment and Hope (1–12)<\/h5>\n<p>In the opening chapter Isaiah characterizes Israel (including Judah) as “a sinful nation” that has rebelled against God. Although the people regularly bring offerings to him, their worship is hypocritical, an attempt to mask their oppression of the poor and helpless. The Lord encourages the nation to repent of their sin or face the fires of judgment. After this introduction, Isaiah turns to describe the peace of the messianic age in 2:1-4. The day will come when all nations will obey God’s word and live at peace. “The mountain of the <span>Lord<\/span>”—Jerusalem—will be raised up “and all the nations shall flow to it” (2:2-3, <span>rsv<\/span>). In the meantime, however, both Israel and the nations have exalted themselves against the Lord, and he will judge them in an awesome display of power. For Israel, God’s judgment will bring great upheaval, including the loss of its leaders. Defiant and ruthless, the rulers will face either death or deportation. Chapter 3 ends by denouncing the pride and vanity of the women of Zion; they, too, will suffer disgrace. After Jerusalem is cleansed of its sin, the remnant will enjoy the rule of “the branch of the <span>Lord<\/span>,” who will protect and shield his people (4:2-6).<\/p>\n<p>In 5:1-7 Isaiah presents a short song about Israel as God’s vineyard. The Lord did everything possible to ensure a yield of good grapes, but the vineyard produced nothing but bad fruit and had to be destroyed. Isaiah then pronounces six woes against Israel, and announces that the Assyrian army will invade the land. Against the backdrop of Israel’s sin, Isaiah (ch 6) gives an account of the vision through which he was called as a prophet. Overwhelmed by the holiness of God and by his own sinfulness, Isaiah thought he was ruined, but when he was assured that his sins were forgiven, he responded positively to God’s call in spite of the stubbornness of the nation to which he was sent.<\/p>\n<p>One of the most stubborn individuals in all the nation was King Ahaz of Judah, and chapter 7 describes Isaiah’s encounter with this godless ruler. When Ahaz was threatened by Damascus and the northern kingdom, he refused to believe Isaiah’s promise that God would protect him. This was the occasion on which Isaiah gave Ahaz the sign of Immanuel (7:14). The “virgin” refers ultimately to Mary and “Immanuel” to Christ (Mt 1:23), but in the near fulfillment the child could be Isaiah’s own son Maher-shalal-hash-baz (Is 8:3). (<em>See<\/em> four interpretations of this passage in Virgin Birth of Jesus.) This name (meaning “swift to plunder and quick to spoil,” v 1, <span>nlt<\/span> mg) would be a sign that soon Judah’s enemies would fall; “Immanuel” signified that God would be with Judah (v 10, <span>nlt<\/span> mg). However, if Ahaz appealed for help to the king of Assyria, Isaiah warned him, Assyria’s powerful armies would one day invade Judah also (cf. 7:17-25; 8:6-8). The destruction brought by Assyria would plunge Judah into a time of famine and distress (8:21-22).<\/p>\n<p>Nevertheless, the gloom and darkness associated with the Assyrian invasion would not last indefinitely, and 9:1-5 speaks of a time of peace and joy. Verses 6-7 introduce a child who would become a righteous King and would rule forever. This “Prince of Peace” is the Messiah, the “Mighty God” whose kingdom is described in 2:2-4.<\/p>\n<p>For the immediate future, however, both Israel and Judah will suffer the agony of war as punishment for their sins. God is angry with his people because they are proud and arrogant, and their leaders disregard the pleas of the poor and needy. Civil war and foreign invasion will crush the hapless nation (9:8–10:4). But once Israel has been judged, God will turn his hand against Assyria, the instrument he has used to judge other nations. Because of her string of victories, Assyria is filled with pride and is eager for more triumph. Yet even at the moment when Jerusalem is about to succumb, God will cut down the Assyrian army like a cedar in Lebanon and spare his people (10:26-34).<\/p>\n<p>After Assyria’s defeat, Isaiah describes the restoration of Israel and the powerful rule of the Messiah (ch 11). Both Jews and Gentiles will be attracted to Jerusalem to enjoy an era of peace and justice. Like David, the Messiah will have the Spirit of God resting upon him as he judges the wicked and protects the needy. To conclude these opening messages, Isaiah offers two short songs of praise that celebrate God’s past deliverance and his promise of future blessing (ch 12).<\/p>\n<h5>Oracles against the Nations (13–23)<\/h5>\n<p>Although Babylon is not the major power of the day, Isaiah begins his announcements of judgment with two chapters about the destruction of Assyria’s neighbor to the south. Babylon will eventually conquer Jerusalem (between 605 and 586 <span>BC<\/span>), but the Medes (13:17) along with the Elamites will capture Babylon (539 <span>BC<\/span>). In spite of the glory to be achieved by future kings of Babylon, God will bring their pomp down to the grave (14:9-10). The chapter ends with short prophecies against Assyria and the Philistines.<\/p>\n<p>One of Israel’s oldest enemies was the nation of Moab, situated east of the Dead Sea. Even though it was a small country, Isaiah devotes two chapters to these descendants of Lot. Chapter 15 describes the extensive mourning that will overwhelm their cities. After a brief interlude urging the Moabites to submit to Israel and to her God (16:1-5), Isaiah notes that pride will lead to Moab’s downfall. Sounds of weeping fill the land as the vines and fields wither and are trampled.<\/p>\n<p>In chapter 17 the fourth oracle is directed against Damascus and Ephraim (the northern kingdom of Israel), probably reflecting their alliance against Judah about 734 <span>BC<\/span>. Both nations will face ruin, and Ephraim is condemned for abandoning the Lord, her “Savior” and “Rock” (17:10).<\/p>\n<p>In chapters 18 and 19 Isaiah turns to the south and addresses Ethiopia and Egypt, countries that had strong links from 715–633 <span>BC<\/span>, when an Ethiopian named Shabako became pharaoh in Egypt. But Egypt is plagued with disunity and suffers greatly at the hands of Assyrian kings. In spite of the supposed wisdom of her leaders, Egypt faces economic and political ruin (19:5-15). Yet the time is coming when the Egyptians will be restored and will worship the God of Israel. Along with Assyria and Israel, Egypt will become a blessing (19:24). Some interpreters think this is a prophecy of the salvation of Gentiles during the church age, but others relate this day to the peace of the millennial age (cf. 2:2-4; 11:6-9). For the immediate future, however, Isaiah announces that Assyria will take many Egyptians and Ethiopians into captivity (ch 20).<\/p>\n<p>A second oracle about Babylon (cf. 13:1–14:23) is contained in chapter 21, and Isaiah is staggered as he considers the impact of Babylon’s fall (21:3-4). When Babylon collapses, the world will know that her gods were powerless (21:9; cf. Rv 14:8; 18:2).<\/p>\n<p>Although it seems out of place among these oracles against the nations, chapter 22 condemns the city of Jerusalem. Like the nations, Jerusalem is full of revelry (22:2) but will soon experience the terrors of a siege. Since the people no longer rely on the Lord (v 11), he will hand them over to the enemy. Jerusalem’s unfaithfulness is exemplified by Shebna, a high official guilty of pride and materialism whose position will be taken by the godly Eliakim (vv 15-23).<\/p>\n<p>The last oracle (ch 23) is directed against the city of Tyre, which resisted capture until Alexander the Great conquered the island fortress in 332 <span>BC<\/span>. When Tyre fell, the economy of the entire Mediterranean world was shaken, for her ships had carried the goods of the nations far and wide.<\/p>\n<h5>Final Judgment and Blessing (24–27)<\/h5>\n<p>This section functions as a grand finale to chapters 13–23 in that it anticipates God’s judgment upon the nations and the inauguration of the kingdom of God. A defiled earth must bear its punishment (24:5-6) and even the forces of Satan face judgment (vv 21-22).<\/p>\n<p>In chapter 25 Isaiah rejoices over God’s great triumph and looks ahead to a day when death will be swallowed up and tears will be wiped from all faces (25:8). Israel’s longtime enemies, symbolized by Moab, will be laid low (vv 10-12), but Jerusalem will be a stronghold for the righteous (26:1-3). In 26:7-19 the nation prays that these promises will become a reality. Verses 20-21 indicate that the Lord will indeed respond, pouring out his wrath upon a sin-cursed earth and upon Satan himself (27:1). When that takes place, Israel will be a fruitful vineyard, a blessing to the whole world (27:2-6; contrast 5:1-7). First, however, Israel will have to endure war and exile, and then the remnant will return to Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<h5>A Series of Woes (28–33)<\/h5>\n<p>Returning to his own historical period, Isaiah pronounces a series of woes upon both the northern and southern kingdoms, as well as one upon Assyria (ch 33). Chapter 28 begins with a description of the fading power of Samaria, the capital of the northern kingdom. Verses 7-10 portray the leaders of Judah in the same light; they have disregarded Isaiah’s message and are out of touch with God. Judgment is on the way, and their false preparation (vv 15, 18) will be of no avail. God will fight against Israel (vv 21-22), and even Jerusalem will be put under siege until God in his mercy intervenes (29:1-8). Because of their hypocritical worship, the people deserve to be punished, but in the future Israel will again acknowledge the Lord and be made physically and spiritually whole (29:17-24).<\/p>\n<p>Chapters 30 and 31 denounce Judah’s proposed alliance with Egypt in the effort to thwart Assyria. God wants his people to trust him, not their unreliable neighbors to the south. The Lord promises to protect Jerusalem (30:18; 31:5) and defeat the invading Assyrian army (30:31-33; 31:8-9). None can stand before his mighty sword.<\/p>\n<p>Continuing on this positive note, Isaiah goes on to emphasize the righteous rule of the messianic king in chapters 32 and 33. Zion will enjoy peace and security at last (32:2, 17-18; 33:6), a great change from Isaiah’s own time. In eighth-century <span>BC<\/span> Judah the women might feel secure (32:9), but the Assyrian troops will devastate the crops and precipitate widespread mourning. However, the lamenting will soon end, as the prophet pronounces woe upon Assyria in 33:1. After Isaiah prays for the destruction of Assyria (33:2-9), God promises to take action (vv 10-12). Gone will be the enemy soldiers and officials, for the Lord will save his people and bring them justice and security.<\/p>\n<h5>More Judgment and Blessing (34–35)<\/h5>\n<p>This section forms a climax to chapters 28–33. Once more, cataclysmic judgment precedes a time of blessing and restoration. In chapter 34 Isaiah depicts a judgment of cosmic dimensions as he moves to a consideration of the last days. Heaven and earth endure the wrath of God that is poured out upon the nations, and verse 4 provides the basis for John’s description of the great tribulation in Revelation 6:13-14. Edom (like Moab; see Is 25:10-12) represents a world judged by the sword of the Lord in his day of vengeance.<\/p>\n<p>Chapter 35, on the other hand, speaks of joy and restoration in a passage that pulsates with life. A blooming desert corresponds to the physical and spiritual age when God will come to redeem his people. Both the return of the Israelites from the Babylonian captivity and the second coming of Christ fit this glorious scene.<\/p>\n<h5>Historical Interlude (36–39)<\/h5>\n<p>These chapters form the hinge that connects the two halves of the book. Chapters 36 and 37 contain the fulfillment of Isaiah’s prophecies about Assyria’s collapse, and chapters 38 and 39 introduce the Babylonian captivity that forms the backdrop for chapters 40–66. In 701 <span>BC<\/span> King Sennacherib of Assyria demands the unconditional surrender of Jerusalem. He sends his field commander to address the people and try to gain their submission. With persuasive words, the commander tries to convince the city that surrender is the best policy. Amazingly the people do not panic, and King Hezekiah asks Isaiah to pray for the beleaguered city. The prophet does so and announces that the proud Assyrians will not triumph. Instead, they suffer a terrible disaster as the angel of the Lord strikes down 185,000 men.<\/p>\n<p>Chapters 38 and 39 relate another crisis in Hezekiah’s life when he becomes desperately ill. Miraculously, God heals him, and Hezekiah praises the Lord for his gracious intervention. When the king of Babylon sends envoys to congratulate Hezekiah on his recovery, Hezekiah foolishly shows these messengers his royal treasures. Isaiah solemnly announces that someday the armies of Babylon will capture Jerusalem, plunder the land, and take away these treasures.<\/p>\n<h5>The Return from Babylon (40–48)<\/h5>\n<p>The Babylonian captivity eventually comes, but Isaiah promises that it will end. God, the incomparably powerful Creator, is far greater than any king, nation, or god, and he will bring his people back to Jerusalem. To accomplish this return from exile, God raises up Cyrus, the king of Persia (41:2, 25). The Lord does not forget his people, and he encourages them to take heart and to rejoice.<\/p>\n<p>In chapter 42 we are introduced to a person even more significant than Cyrus the Persian. Verses 1-7 (the first of four Servant Songs) describe the servant of the Lord, who will bring justice to the nations and will be “a light for the Gentiles” (42:6). This is the Messiah, and the redemption he will accomplish on Calvary (cf. ch 53) is greater than the release from Babylon. In light of the good news associated with the servant, Isaiah praises the Lord for punishing the wicked and rescuing his wayward people. Chapter 43 declares that nothing will stand in the way of Israel’s return, and the Lord will remember their sins no more. In fact, he will pour out his Spirit on their descendants (44:3).<\/p>\n<p>A God so great is far more powerful than any idol. In 44:6-20 Isaiah makes use of satire to show the worthlessness of man-made images. God alone has the power to create and to restore, and he will bring Cyrus on the scene to effect the release of the exiles and to begin the rebuilding of Jerusalem. Chapters 46 and 47 contrast the God of Israel and the idols of Babylon. When God raises up Cyrus, Babylon’s idols will be unable to save their nation, and the queen of kingdoms (47:5) will collapse along with her sorcerers and astrologers. The final chapter in this section (ch 48) restates God’s purpose of gaining release of the Israelites from Babylon through his chosen ally, Cyrus of Persia.<\/p>\n<h5>Salvation through the Servant of the Lord (49–57)<\/h5>\n<p>Chapters 49–53 contain the final three Servant Songs (cf. also 42:1-7), culminating in the death of the servant for the sins of the world (52:13–53:12). In the second Servant Song (49:1-7), Isaiah describes the call and ministry of the servant, noting that he will face strong opposition as he accomplishes salvation for Israel and the nations. The rest of chapter 49 deals primarily with the way God will bring Israel back from exile. Soon the land will be filled with a mighty throng (vv 19-21), and the Gentiles will acknowledge Israel and her God (vv 22-23).<\/p>\n<p>Although Israel has fully deserved the exile because of her sins (50:1-3), the suffering endured by the servant (vv 4-11; the third Servant Song) is wholly undeserved. The beating and mocking of verse 6 are prophetic of Christ’s experience (cf. Mt 27:26, 30; Mk 15:19). In verses 10-11 of Isaiah 50 the whole nation is challenged to trust in the Lord, as the servant did. There is, in fact, a believing remnant who obey the Lord (51:1-8), and the Lord promises that he will restore them to their homeland. Israel has drunk the cup of God’s wrath (vv 17, 22), but the good news of release from exile causes even the ruins of Jerusalem to burst into songs of joy (52:7-10).<\/p>\n<p>Yet the best news of all is salvation from sin; the final Servant Song (52:13–53:12) tells how Christ wins freedom for those held in bondage to sin. In this brief passage we learn how Christ suffers rejection (53:3) and even disfigurement (52:14). Led like a lamb to the slaughter (53:7), he carries our sins in his body as he dies in ignominy. The people think he is suffering for his own sins (v 4), but he is “pierced” and “crushed for our iniquities” (v 5). The first and last paragraphs of this section (52:13-15; 53:10-12) state that through his suffering the servant is highly exalted. What seems like a terrible defeat is actually victory over death and Satan and brings salvation for many.<\/p>\n<p>As a direct result of the servant’s death, great joy comes to all people. In chapter 54 this joy is reflected in Jerusalem’s new status as the Lord’s wife. Her descendants will be numerous and eager to learn from the Lord. For the first time the plural “servants of the <span>Lord<\/span>” appears (54:17), apparently including all believers, whether Jew or Gentile (cf. 65:8-9, 13-15). Joy and prosperity also characterize chapter 55, an invitation to a great spiritual banquet. All people are urged to turn to the Lord who keeps his promises to Israel. In 56:1-8, foreigners are invited to come to God’s “holy mountain” in Jerusalem, for the temple will be a house of prayer for all the nations (56:7; cf. Mt 21:13).<\/p>\n<p>Believing Gentiles are contrasted sharply with unbelieving Jews, and in 56:9–57:13 Isaiah returns again to the theme of judgment. Israel suffers because her leaders are wicked and because the people are guilty of idolatry. Spiritual healing is available, but unless individuals repent, they cannot be part of the remnant who will return from exile and enjoy peace in the Promised Land.<\/p>\n<h5>Ultimate Blessing and Final Judgment (58–66)<\/h5>\n<p>The last nine chapters of Isaiah emphasize redemption and glory, but the reality of judgment is also very much in evidence. In fact, chapters 58 and 59 bemoan the sins of Israel. The people are hypocritical in their worship; they are selfish and fail to keep the Sabbath. Lying, oppression, and murder separate the people from God. When Isaiah openly confesses these sins (59:12-13), the Lord suddenly takes action on behalf of his people. Like a mighty warrior, he rescues the believing remnant from Babylon and brings them back to Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p>In chapter 60 the glory and wealth of Jerusalem reach new heights. Both the city and the sanctuary are adorned with splendor, matching the prosperity of Solomon’s reign. Just as the nations treated Solomon with honor, so earth’s leaders will assist and strengthen the returning exiles. While it is true that the Persian government did help the Jews repeatedly, the conditions described here will have their ultimate fulfillment during the Millennium and in connection with the new Jerusalem (cf. Rv 21:23; 22:5). The ancient ruins will be rebuilt (Is 61:4), and the Lord will fulfill the covenant made with Abraham and David (Is 61:8; cf. Gn 12:1-3; Is 55:3). Jerusalem will be the city of the holy people, the redeemed of the Lord (Is 62:12), and the Lord will take delight in her (v 4).<\/p>\n<p>In order to accomplish salvation for his people, God will have to judge the ungodly first. The great trampling of the winepress (63:2-3) graphically portrays the judgment process and is linked with the Day of the Lord (cf. 13:3; 34:2). Since God has promised to intervene on behalf of his people, Isaiah prays for the realization of that promise (63:7–64:12). He recalls God’s faithfulness in the past and pleads that he will again have mercy upon his suffering people.<\/p>\n<p>The answer to Isaiah’s prayer is found in chapter 65. God does promise to give the Holy Land back to his servants, to those who worship him and obey him. But for that segment of the nation that continues in its obstinacy, God promises anguish and destruction. The ultimate joy of God’s servants is contained in a description of new heavens and a new earth (65:17-25). Peace, long life, and prosperity will be among the blessings enjoyed in an era that seems to combine features of the Millennium and the eternal state (cf. ch 60).<\/p>\n<p>In a fitting summary, chapter 66 ties together the themes of salvation and judgment. God will comfort Jerusalem and abundantly bless her, but sinners are the objects of his wrath. Those who honor him will endure forever, but those who rebel will suffer everlasting rejection.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Isaiah (Person); Israel, History of; Messiah; Prophecy; Prophet, Prophetess; Servant of the Lord; Virgin Birth of Jesus.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ISAIAH, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Literary Unity<\/p>\n<p>• Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>The prophet Isaiah, whose name means “the Lord saves,” lived and ministered in Jerusalem. Because of his repeated contact with the kings of Judah, some scholars believed that Isaiah was related to the royal family, but this is not certain. According to chapters 7 and 8, Isaiah was married and had at least two sons, Shear-jashub and Maher-shalal-hash-baz, whose symbolic names illustrated God’s dealings with the nation as a whole. The “disciples” mentioned in 8:16 probably assisted Isaiah in his ministry and may have helped him record the book that bears his name.<\/p>\n<p>When Isaiah saw the Lord in the famous temple vision described in chapter 6, he was willing to go wherever God sent him, even though he would face strong opposition (6:9-10). King Ahaz proved to be particularly resistant to Isaiah’s advice (7:4-17), and the people in general ridiculed his preaching (5:10-12; 28:9-10). During the reign of the godly Hezekiah, however, Isaiah’s ministry was much appreciated, and the king consulted him eagerly during times of crisis (37:1-7, 21-35).<\/p>\n<p>Isaiah is usually regarded as the greatest of the writing prophets. Some of the chapters in his book display an unparalleled literary beauty and make use of poetic devices and a rich variety of symbols. Chapters 40–66 contain many powerful passages that underscore the grandeur of the book. It is ironic, then, that many scholars attribute these chapters to a “second” or “third” Isaiah, unknown authors who wrote much later than Isaiah in connection with the Babylonian exile. Yet elsewhere in the OT, the names of all who wrote the prophetic books are preserved, and it would be most unusual for the Jews not to know who wrote such magnificent prophecy as chapters 40–66.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Date\">Date<\/p>\n<p>Since many of the events recorded in chapters 1–39 took place during the ministry of Isaiah, most of these chapters were probably written by about 700 <span>BC<\/span> or shortly thereafter. The destruction of the Assyrian army in 701 <span>BC<\/span> represents the climax of the first half of the book, fulfilling the prophecy of 10:16, 24-34 and 30:31-33. In 37:38 Isaiah refers to the death of King Sennacherib, which did not occur until 681 <span>BC<\/span>. This means that some of the earlier chapters, along with 40–66, were probably written later, during Isaiah’s retirement years. A gap of several decades could help account for the change in subject matter that is found in the last half of the book. In these chapters Isaiah projects into the future as he addresses the Jews who would be in exile in Babylon about 550 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>Isaiah’s public ministry occurred primarily from 740–700 <span>BC<\/span>, a period marked by the rapid expansion of the nation of Assyria. Under King Tiglath-pileser III (745–727 <span>BC<\/span>), the Assyrians moved to the west and south, and by 738 <span>BC<\/span> the Assyrian monarch was demanding tribute from Damascus and Israel. About 734 <span>BC<\/span> Rezin of Damascus (Syria) and Pekah of Israel organized a coalition to rebel against Assyria, and they tried to enlist the support of King Ahaz of Judah. But Ahaz refused to join, and when the kings of Damascus and Israel invaded Judah (see 7:1), Ahaz appealed directly to Tiglath-pileser for help (cf. 2 Kgs 16:7-9). With little hesitation the Assyrians returned to capture Damascus and to turn the northern kingdom of Israel into an Assyrian province.<\/p>\n<p>The puppet king Hoshea ruled over Israel from 732–723 BC but was imprisoned when he joined a revolt against Shalmaneser V, the new Assyrian king. Shalmaneser besieged the capital city of Samaria, which finally fell in 722 <span>BC<\/span>, spelling the end of the northern kingdom. Sargon succeeded Shalmaneser in 722 and had to quell a number of revolts. In 711 <span>BC<\/span> Sargon captured the Philistine city of Ashdod in a campaign that became the occasion of Isaiah’s prophecy of chapter 20.<\/p>\n\n<p>Even more important was the widespread rebellion that broke out with the accession of Sennacherib in 705 <span>BC<\/span>. King Hezekiah of Judah withheld his normal tribute payment, and by 701 <span>BC<\/span> Sennacherib had invaded Palestine to punish the rebels. The details of this campaign are given in Isaiah 36–37 and tell how city after city was captured by the Assyrians before the invaders stood at the gates of Jerusalem and demanded total surrender. With almost no hope of survival, Hezekiah nevertheless was encouraged by Isaiah to trust God, and in one night the angel of the Lord struck down 185,000 Assyrian soldiers, virtually wiping out Sennacherib’s army (Is 37:36-37).<\/p>\n<p>In an effort to befriend the enemies of Assyria, Hezekiah showed his treasures to envoys of the king of Babylon (39:1-4). Isaiah warned that someday the Babylonian armies would conquer Jerusalem and carry off those very treasures, along with the residents of the city (vv 5-7). Not only did Isaiah predict the Babylonian captivity of 586–539 <span>BC<\/span> (cf. 6:11-12), but he also foretold that Israel would be released from Babylon (48:20). The Chaldean kingdom led by Nebuchadnezzar would be God’s instrument of judgment upon Judah, but they too would suffer defeat. One of Isaiah’s most remarkable prophecies was the naming of Cyrus, king of Persia, the ruler who would conquer the Babylonians in 539 <span>BC<\/span> and release Israel from exile (cf. 44:28). Along with the Medes (cf. 13:17), Cyrus won several important victories before sending his troops against Babylon. Isaiah hailed him as one anointed by the Lord to bring deliverance for Israel (45:1-5).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LiteraryUnity\">Literary Unity<\/p>\n<p>Largely because of the references to the later kingdoms of Babylon and Persia, the unity of Isaiah has been called into question. Chapters 40–66 move abruptly into the exilic period of 550 <span>BC<\/span>, almost 150 years after Isaiah lived. Moreover, the Servant of the Lord plays a prominent role in these chapters and the messianic king fades into the background. Brilliant poetic passages are found in chapters 40, 53, 55, and 60, demonstrating remarkable depth and power.<\/p>\n<p>Although these factors are sometimes cited as a sign of disunity, there are actually strong indications for unity in the book. For example, the historical interlude (chs 36–39) forms a hinge or bridge that links chapters 1–35 and 40–66. Chapters 36–37 complete the Assyrian section, and chapters 38–39 introduce the Babylonian material. Most of the linking chapters are written in prose, while the others (in some translations) are largely poetry. From the standpoint of verbal or stylistic unity, one can point to Isaiah’s favorite title for God, “the Holy One of Israel.” This title appears 12 times in chapters 1–39, and 14 times in chapters 40–66, but only seven times in the rest of the OT. A study of the famous Servant Songs of 52:13–53:12 reveals several ties with earlier passages, especially in chapters 1–6. The servant who is smitten and wounded (53:4-5) receives the same punishment as the beaten and injured nation of 1:5-6 (also cf. 52:13 with 2:12 and 6:1).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheologicalTeaching\">Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>Isaiah is to the OT as the book of Romans is to the NT—a book filled with rich theological truth. Like Romans, Isaiah unveils the sinfulness of God’s rebellious people and his gracious provision of salvation. Because God is the Holy One of Israel (1:4; 6:3), he cannot ignore sin but must punish those who are guilty. Both Israel (5:30; 42:25) and the other nations (2:11, 17, 20) experience a time of judgment known as the Day of the Lord. In anger God raises his hand against his people (cf. 5:25), but ultimately his wrath is poured out upon Babylon and the nations (cf. 13:3-5; 34:2).<\/p>\n<p>With the fall of Assyria and Babylon, the Day of the Lord becomes a day of joyous victory (10:27; 61:2). According to Isaiah 63:4, it is the year of the Lord’s redemption. Earlier, Israel had been redeemed from slavery in Egypt; now the return from the Babylonian captivity brings equal joy (52:9; 61:1). The ultimate redemption is to be accomplished through the death of Christ, and Isaiah 53 describes our Lord’s suffering and death in graphic terms. His ministry as the Suffering Servant is also introduced in 49:4 and 50:6-7; meanwhile, 49:6 states that the servant will be “a light for the Gentiles.” Looking ahead to the Second Coming, Isaiah predicts a messianic age of peace and righteousness. Nations will “beat their swords into plowshares” (2:4) and the “Prince of Peace” will rule forever (9:6-7).<\/p>\n<p>Throughout the book God is pictured as the all-powerful Creator (48:13)—the sovereign One seated on a throne, high and exalted; the King, the Lord Almighty (6:1, 5). He controls the armies of the earth (13:4) and removes rulers as he wills (40:23-24). Before him, nations “are but a drop in the bucket” (40:15, <span>nlt<\/span>), and compared with him all idols are worthless and without power (41:29; 44:6). This is the God who shows his fury to his foes and his love to his servants (66:14).<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Messages of Judgment and Hope (1–12)<\/h5>\n<p>In the opening chapter Isaiah characterizes Israel (including Judah) as “a sinful nation” that has rebelled against God. Although the people regularly bring offerings to him, their worship is hypocritical, an attempt to mask their oppression of the poor and helpless. The Lord encourages the nation to repent of their sin or face the fires of judgment. After this introduction, Isaiah turns to describe the peace of the messianic age in 2:1-4. The day will come when all nations will obey God’s word and live at peace. “The mountain of the <span>Lord<\/span>”—Jerusalem—will be raised up “and all the nations shall flow to it” (2:2-3, <span>rsv<\/span>). In the meantime, however, both Israel and the nations have exalted themselves against the Lord, and he will judge them in an awesome display of power. For Israel, God’s judgment will bring great upheaval, including the loss of its leaders. Defiant and ruthless, the rulers will face either death or deportation. Chapter 3 ends by denouncing the pride and vanity of the women of Zion; they, too, will suffer disgrace. After Jerusalem is cleansed of its sin, the remnant will enjoy the rule of “the branch of the <span>Lord<\/span>,” who will protect and shield his people (4:2-6).<\/p>\n<p>In 5:1-7 Isaiah presents a short song about Israel as God’s vineyard. The Lord did everything possible to ensure a yield of good grapes, but the vineyard produced nothing but bad fruit and had to be destroyed. Isaiah then pronounces six woes against Israel, and announces that the Assyrian army will invade the land. Against the backdrop of Israel’s sin, Isaiah (ch 6) gives an account of the vision through which he was called as a prophet. Overwhelmed by the holiness of God and by his own sinfulness, Isaiah thought he was ruined, but when he was assured that his sins were forgiven, he responded positively to God’s call in spite of the stubbornness of the nation to which he was sent.<\/p>\n<p>One of the most stubborn individuals in all the nation was King Ahaz of Judah, and chapter 7 describes Isaiah’s encounter with this godless ruler. When Ahaz was threatened by Damascus and the northern kingdom, he refused to believe Isaiah’s promise that God would protect him. This was the occasion on which Isaiah gave Ahaz the sign of Immanuel (7:14). The “virgin” refers ultimately to Mary and “Immanuel” to Christ (Mt 1:23), but in the near fulfillment the child could be Isaiah’s own son Maher-shalal-hash-baz (Is 8:3). (<em>See<\/em> four interpretations of this passage in Virgin Birth of Jesus.) This name (meaning “swift to plunder and quick to spoil,” v 1, <span>nlt<\/span> mg) would be a sign that soon Judah’s enemies would fall; “Immanuel” signified that God would be with Judah (v 10, <span>nlt<\/span> mg). However, if Ahaz appealed for help to the king of Assyria, Isaiah warned him, Assyria’s powerful armies would one day invade Judah also (cf. 7:17-25; 8:6-8). The destruction brought by Assyria would plunge Judah into a time of famine and distress (8:21-22).<\/p>\n<p>Nevertheless, the gloom and darkness associated with the Assyrian invasion would not last indefinitely, and 9:1-5 speaks of a time of peace and joy. Verses 6-7 introduce a child who would become a righteous King and would rule forever. This “Prince of Peace” is the Messiah, the “Mighty God” whose kingdom is described in 2:2-4.<\/p>\n<p>For the immediate future, however, both Israel and Judah will suffer the agony of war as punishment for their sins. God is angry with his people because they are proud and arrogant, and their leaders disregard the pleas of the poor and needy. Civil war and foreign invasion will crush the hapless nation (9:8–10:4). But once Israel has been judged, God will turn his hand against Assyria, the instrument he has used to judge other nations. Because of her string of victories, Assyria is filled with pride and is eager for more triumph. Yet even at the moment when Jerusalem is about to succumb, God will cut down the Assyrian army like a cedar in Lebanon and spare his people (10:26-34).<\/p>\n<p>After Assyria’s defeat, Isaiah describes the restoration of Israel and the powerful rule of the Messiah (ch 11). Both Jews and Gentiles will be attracted to Jerusalem to enjoy an era of peace and justice. Like David, the Messiah will have the Spirit of God resting upon him as he judges the wicked and protects the needy. To conclude these opening messages, Isaiah offers two short songs of praise that celebrate God’s past deliverance and his promise of future blessing (ch 12).<\/p>\n<h5>Oracles against the Nations (13–23)<\/h5>\n<p>Although Babylon is not the major power of the day, Isaiah begins his announcements of judgment with two chapters about the destruction of Assyria’s neighbor to the south. Babylon will eventually conquer Jerusalem (between 605 and 586 <span>BC<\/span>), but the Medes (13:17) along with the Elamites will capture Babylon (539 <span>BC<\/span>). In spite of the glory to be achieved by future kings of Babylon, God will bring their pomp down to the grave (14:9-10). The chapter ends with short prophecies against Assyria and the Philistines.<\/p>\n<p>One of Israel’s oldest enemies was the nation of Moab, situated east of the Dead Sea. Even though it was a small country, Isaiah devotes two chapters to these descendants of Lot. Chapter 15 describes the extensive mourning that will overwhelm their cities. After a brief interlude urging the Moabites to submit to Israel and to her God (16:1-5), Isaiah notes that pride will lead to Moab’s downfall. Sounds of weeping fill the land as the vines and fields wither and are trampled.<\/p>\n<p>In chapter 17 the fourth oracle is directed against Damascus and Ephraim (the northern kingdom of Israel), probably reflecting their alliance against Judah about 734 <span>BC<\/span>. Both nations will face ruin, and Ephraim is condemned for abandoning the Lord, her “Savior” and “Rock” (17:10).<\/p>\n<p>In chapters 18 and 19 Isaiah turns to the south and addresses Ethiopia and Egypt, countries that had strong links from 715–633 <span>BC<\/span>, when an Ethiopian named Shabako became pharaoh in Egypt. But Egypt is plagued with disunity and suffers greatly at the hands of Assyrian kings. In spite of the supposed wisdom of her leaders, Egypt faces economic and political ruin (19:5-15). Yet the time is coming when the Egyptians will be restored and will worship the God of Israel. Along with Assyria and Israel, Egypt will become a blessing (19:24). Some interpreters think this is a prophecy of the salvation of Gentiles during the church age, but others relate this day to the peace of the millennial age (cf. 2:2-4; 11:6-9). For the immediate future, however, Isaiah announces that Assyria will take many Egyptians and Ethiopians into captivity (ch 20).<\/p>\n<p>A second oracle about Babylon (cf. 13:1–14:23) is contained in chapter 21, and Isaiah is staggered as he considers the impact of Babylon’s fall (21:3-4). When Babylon collapses, the world will know that her gods were powerless (21:9; cf. Rv 14:8; 18:2).<\/p>\n<p>Although it seems out of place among these oracles against the nations, chapter 22 condemns the city of Jerusalem. Like the nations, Jerusalem is full of revelry (22:2) but will soon experience the terrors of a siege. Since the people no longer rely on the Lord (v 11), he will hand them over to the enemy. Jerusalem’s unfaithfulness is exemplified by Shebna, a high official guilty of pride and materialism whose position will be taken by the godly Eliakim (vv 15-23).<\/p>\n<p>The last oracle (ch 23) is directed against the city of Tyre, which resisted capture until Alexander the Great conquered the island fortress in 332 <span>BC<\/span>. When Tyre fell, the economy of the entire Mediterranean world was shaken, for her ships had carried the goods of the nations far and wide.<\/p>\n<h5>Final Judgment and Blessing (24–27)<\/h5>\n<p>This section functions as a grand finale to chapters 13–23 in that it anticipates God’s judgment upon the nations and the inauguration of the kingdom of God. A defiled earth must bear its punishment (24:5-6) and even the forces of Satan face judgment (vv 21-22).<\/p>\n<p>In chapter 25 Isaiah rejoices over God’s great triumph and looks ahead to a day when death will be swallowed up and tears will be wiped from all faces (25:8). Israel’s longtime enemies, symbolized by Moab, will be laid low (vv 10-12), but Jerusalem will be a stronghold for the righteous (26:1-3). In 26:7-19 the nation prays that these promises will become a reality. Verses 20-21 indicate that the Lord will indeed respond, pouring out his wrath upon a sin-cursed earth and upon Satan himself (27:1). When that takes place, Israel will be a fruitful vineyard, a blessing to the whole world (27:2-6; contrast 5:1-7). First, however, Israel will have to endure war and exile, and then the remnant will return to Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<h5>A Series of Woes (28–33)<\/h5>\n<p>Returning to his own historical period, Isaiah pronounces a series of woes upon both the northern and southern kingdoms, as well as one upon Assyria (ch 33). Chapter 28 begins with a description of the fading power of Samaria, the capital of the northern kingdom. Verses 7-10 portray the leaders of Judah in the same light; they have disregarded Isaiah’s message and are out of touch with God. Judgment is on the way, and their false preparation (vv 15, 18) will be of no avail. God will fight against Israel (vv 21-22), and even Jerusalem will be put under siege until God in his mercy intervenes (29:1-8). Because of their hypocritical worship, the people deserve to be punished, but in the future Israel will again acknowledge the Lord and be made physically and spiritually whole (29:17-24).<\/p>\n<p>Chapters 30 and 31 denounce Judah’s proposed alliance with Egypt in the effort to thwart Assyria. God wants his people to trust him, not their unreliable neighbors to the south. The Lord promises to protect Jerusalem (30:18; 31:5) and defeat the invading Assyrian army (30:31-33; 31:8-9). None can stand before his mighty sword.<\/p>\n<p>Continuing on this positive note, Isaiah goes on to emphasize the righteous rule of the messianic king in chapters 32 and 33. Zion will enjoy peace and security at last (32:2, 17-18; 33:6), a great change from Isaiah’s own time. In eighth-century <span>BC<\/span> Judah the women might feel secure (32:9), but the Assyrian troops will devastate the crops and precipitate widespread mourning. However, the lamenting will soon end, as the prophet pronounces woe upon Assyria in 33:1. After Isaiah prays for the destruction of Assyria (33:2-9), God promises to take action (vv 10-12). Gone will be the enemy soldiers and officials, for the Lord will save his people and bring them justice and security.<\/p>\n<h5>More Judgment and Blessing (34–35)<\/h5>\n<p>This section forms a climax to chapters 28–33. Once more, cataclysmic judgment precedes a time of blessing and restoration. In chapter 34 Isaiah depicts a judgment of cosmic dimensions as he moves to a consideration of the last days. Heaven and earth endure the wrath of God that is poured out upon the nations, and verse 4 provides the basis for John’s description of the great tribulation in Revelation 6:13-14. Edom (like Moab; see Is 25:10-12) represents a world judged by the sword of the Lord in his day of vengeance.<\/p>\n<p>Chapter 35, on the other hand, speaks of joy and restoration in a passage that pulsates with life. A blooming desert corresponds to the physical and spiritual age when God will come to redeem his people. Both the return of the Israelites from the Babylonian captivity and the second coming of Christ fit this glorious scene.<\/p>\n<h5>Historical Interlude (36–39)<\/h5>\n<p>These chapters form the hinge that connects the two halves of the book. Chapters 36 and 37 contain the fulfillment of Isaiah’s prophecies about Assyria’s collapse, and chapters 38 and 39 introduce the Babylonian captivity that forms the backdrop for chapters 40–66. In 701 <span>BC<\/span> King Sennacherib of Assyria demands the unconditional surrender of Jerusalem. He sends his field commander to address the people and try to gain their submission. With persuasive words, the commander tries to convince the city that surrender is the best policy. Amazingly the people do not panic, and King Hezekiah asks Isaiah to pray for the beleaguered city. The prophet does so and announces that the proud Assyrians will not triumph. Instead, they suffer a terrible disaster as the angel of the Lord strikes down 185,000 men.<\/p>\n<p>Chapters 38 and 39 relate another crisis in Hezekiah’s life when he becomes desperately ill. Miraculously, God heals him, and Hezekiah praises the Lord for his gracious intervention. When the king of Babylon sends envoys to congratulate Hezekiah on his recovery, Hezekiah foolishly shows these messengers his royal treasures. Isaiah solemnly announces that someday the armies of Babylon will capture Jerusalem, plunder the land, and take away these treasures.<\/p>\n<h5>The Return from Babylon (40–48)<\/h5>\n<p>The Babylonian captivity eventually comes, but Isaiah promises that it will end. God, the incomparably powerful Creator, is far greater than any king, nation, or god, and he will bring his people back to Jerusalem. To accomplish this return from exile, God raises up Cyrus, the king of Persia (41:2, 25). The Lord does not forget his people, and he encourages them to take heart and to rejoice.<\/p>\n<p>In chapter 42 we are introduced to a person even more significant than Cyrus the Persian. Verses 1-7 (the first of four Servant Songs) describe the servant of the Lord, who will bring justice to the nations and will be “a light for the Gentiles” (42:6). This is the Messiah, and the redemption he will accomplish on Calvary (cf. ch 53) is greater than the release from Babylon. In light of the good news associated with the servant, Isaiah praises the Lord for punishing the wicked and rescuing his wayward people. Chapter 43 declares that nothing will stand in the way of Israel’s return, and the Lord will remember their sins no more. In fact, he will pour out his Spirit on their descendants (44:3).<\/p>\n<p>A God so great is far more powerful than any idol. In 44:6-20 Isaiah makes use of satire to show the worthlessness of man-made images. God alone has the power to create and to restore, and he will bring Cyrus on the scene to effect the release of the exiles and to begin the rebuilding of Jerusalem. Chapters 46 and 47 contrast the God of Israel and the idols of Babylon. When God raises up Cyrus, Babylon’s idols will be unable to save their nation, and the queen of kingdoms (47:5) will collapse along with her sorcerers and astrologers. The final chapter in this section (ch 48) restates God’s purpose of gaining release of the Israelites from Babylon through his chosen ally, Cyrus of Persia.<\/p>\n<h5>Salvation through the Servant of the Lord (49–57)<\/h5>\n<p>Chapters 49–53 contain the final three Servant Songs (cf. also 42:1-7), culminating in the death of the servant for the sins of the world (52:13–53:12). In the second Servant Song (49:1-7), Isaiah describes the call and ministry of the servant, noting that he will face strong opposition as he accomplishes salvation for Israel and the nations. The rest of chapter 49 deals primarily with the way God will bring Israel back from exile. Soon the land will be filled with a mighty throng (vv 19-21), and the Gentiles will acknowledge Israel and her God (vv 22-23).<\/p>\n<p>Although Israel has fully deserved the exile because of her sins (50:1-3), the suffering endured by the servant (vv 4-11; the third Servant Song) is wholly undeserved. The beating and mocking of verse 6 are prophetic of Christ’s experience (cf. Mt 27:26, 30; Mk 15:19). In verses 10-11 of Isaiah 50 the whole nation is challenged to trust in the Lord, as the servant did. There is, in fact, a believing remnant who obey the Lord (51:1-8), and the Lord promises that he will restore them to their homeland. Israel has drunk the cup of God’s wrath (vv 17, 22), but the good news of release from exile causes even the ruins of Jerusalem to burst into songs of joy (52:7-10).<\/p>\n<p>Yet the best news of all is salvation from sin; the final Servant Song (52:13–53:12) tells how Christ wins freedom for those held in bondage to sin. In this brief passage we learn how Christ suffers rejection (53:3) and even disfigurement (52:14). Led like a lamb to the slaughter (53:7), he carries our sins in his body as he dies in ignominy. The people think he is suffering for his own sins (v 4), but he is “pierced” and “crushed for our iniquities” (v 5). The first and last paragraphs of this section (52:13-15; 53:10-12) state that through his suffering the servant is highly exalted. What seems like a terrible defeat is actually victory over death and Satan and brings salvation for many.<\/p>\n<p>As a direct result of the servant’s death, great joy comes to all people. In chapter 54 this joy is reflected in Jerusalem’s new status as the Lord’s wife. Her descendants will be numerous and eager to learn from the Lord. For the first time the plural “servants of the <span>Lord<\/span>” appears (54:17), apparently including all believers, whether Jew or Gentile (cf. 65:8-9, 13-15). Joy and prosperity also characterize chapter 55, an invitation to a great spiritual banquet. All people are urged to turn to the Lord who keeps his promises to Israel. In 56:1-8, foreigners are invited to come to God’s “holy mountain” in Jerusalem, for the temple will be a house of prayer for all the nations (56:7; cf. Mt 21:13).<\/p>\n<p>Believing Gentiles are contrasted sharply with unbelieving Jews, and in 56:9–57:13 Isaiah returns again to the theme of judgment. Israel suffers because her leaders are wicked and because the people are guilty of idolatry. Spiritual healing is available, but unless individuals repent, they cannot be part of the remnant who will return from exile and enjoy peace in the Promised Land.<\/p>\n<h5>Ultimate Blessing and Final Judgment (58–66)<\/h5>\n<p>The last nine chapters of Isaiah emphasize redemption and glory, but the reality of judgment is also very much in evidence. In fact, chapters 58 and 59 bemoan the sins of Israel. The people are hypocritical in their worship; they are selfish and fail to keep the Sabbath. Lying, oppression, and murder separate the people from God. When Isaiah openly confesses these sins (59:12-13), the Lord suddenly takes action on behalf of his people. Like a mighty warrior, he rescues the believing remnant from Babylon and brings them back to Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p>In chapter 60 the glory and wealth of Jerusalem reach new heights. Both the city and the sanctuary are adorned with splendor, matching the prosperity of Solomon’s reign. Just as the nations treated Solomon with honor, so earth’s leaders will assist and strengthen the returning exiles. While it is true that the Persian government did help the Jews repeatedly, the conditions described here will have their ultimate fulfillment during the Millennium and in connection with the new Jerusalem (cf. Rv 21:23; 22:5). The ancient ruins will be rebuilt (Is 61:4), and the Lord will fulfill the covenant made with Abraham and David (Is 61:8; cf. Gn 12:1-3; Is 55:3). Jerusalem will be the city of the holy people, the redeemed of the Lord (Is 62:12), and the Lord will take delight in her (v 4).<\/p>\n<p>In order to accomplish salvation for his people, God will have to judge the ungodly first. The great trampling of the winepress (63:2-3) graphically portrays the judgment process and is linked with the Day of the Lord (cf. 13:3; 34:2). Since God has promised to intervene on behalf of his people, Isaiah prays for the realization of that promise (63:7–64:12). He recalls God’s faithfulness in the past and pleads that he will again have mercy upon his suffering people.<\/p>\n<p>The answer to Isaiah’s prayer is found in chapter 65. God does promise to give the Holy Land back to his servants, to those who worship him and obey him. But for that segment of the nation that continues in its obstinacy, God promises anguish and destruction. The ultimate joy of God’s servants is contained in a description of new heavens and a new earth (65:17-25). Peace, long life, and prosperity will be among the blessings enjoyed in an era that seems to combine features of the Millennium and the eternal state (cf. ch 60).<\/p>\n<p>In a fitting summary, chapter 66 ties together the themes of salvation and judgment. God will comfort Jerusalem and abundantly bless her, but sinners are the objects of his wrath. Those who honor him will endure forever, but those who rebel will suffer everlasting rejection.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Isaiah (Person); Israel, History of; Messiah; Prophecy; Prophet, Prophetess; Servant of the Lord; Virgin Birth of Jesus.<\/p>","summary_ro":"ISAIAH, Book of Preview • Author • Date • Background • Literary Unity • Theological Teaching • Content Author The prophet Isaiah, whose name means “the Lord saves,” lived and ministered in Jerusalem. Because of his repeated contact with the kings of Judah, some scholars believed that Isaiah was related to the royal family, but this is not certain. According to chapters 7 and 8, Isaiah was married and had at least two sons, Shear-jashub and Maher-shalal-hash-baz, whose symbolic names illustrat...","summary_en":"ISAIAH, Book of Preview • Author • Date • Background • Literary Unity • Theological Teaching • Content Author The prophet Isaiah, whose name means “the Lord saves,” lived and ministered in Jerusalem. Because of his repeated contact with the kings of Judah, some scholars believed that Isaiah was related to the royal family, but this is not certain. According to chapters 7 and 8, Isaiah was married and had at least two sons, Shear-jashub and Maher-shalal-hash-baz, whose symbolic names illustrat...","source":"Articles\/I.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":51185,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 10:16","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 10:16","content_ro":"<p><strong>10:16<\/strong> The fulfillment of this prophecy was in 701 <span>BC<\/span>, when 185,000 Assyrian troops were killed by <em>plague<\/em> and <em>flaming fire<\/em> (see 37:36).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>10:16<\/strong> The fulfillment of this prophecy was in 701 <span>BC<\/span>, when 185,000 Assyrian troops were killed by <em>plague<\/em> and <em>flaming fire<\/em> (see 37:36).<\/p>","summary_ro":"10:16 The fulfillment of this prophecy was in 701 BC, when 185,000 Assyrian troops were killed by plague and flaming fire (see 37:36).","summary_en":"10:16 The fulfillment of this prophecy was in 701 BC, when 185,000 Assyrian troops were killed by plague and flaming fire (see 37:36).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":78811,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 10:16","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 10:16","content_ro":"<p><strong>10:16<\/strong> The fulfillment of this prophecy was in 701 <span>BC<\/span>, when 185,000 Assyrian troops were killed by <em>plague<\/em> and <em>flaming fire<\/em> (see 37:36).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>10:16<\/strong> The fulfillment of this prophecy was in 701 <span>BC<\/span>, when 185,000 Assyrian troops were killed by <em>plague<\/em> and <em>flaming fire<\/em> (see 37:36).<\/p>","summary_ro":"10:16 The fulfillment of this prophecy was in 701 BC, when 185,000 Assyrian troops were killed by plague and flaming fire (see 37:36).","summary_en":"10:16 The fulfillment of this prophecy was in 701 BC, when 185,000 Assyrian troops were killed by plague and flaming fire (see 37:36).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":106437,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 10:16","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 10:16","content_ro":"<p><strong>10:16<\/strong> The fulfillment of this prophecy was in 701 <span>BC<\/span>, when 185,000 Assyrian troops were killed by <em>plague<\/em> and <em>flaming fire<\/em> (see 37:36).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>10:16<\/strong> The fulfillment of this prophecy was in 701 <span>BC<\/span>, when 185,000 Assyrian troops were killed by <em>plague<\/em> and <em>flaming fire<\/em> (see 37:36).<\/p>","summary_ro":"10:16 The fulfillment of this prophecy was in 701 BC, when 185,000 Assyrian troops were killed by plague and flaming fire (see 37:36).","summary_en":"10:16 The fulfillment of this prophecy was in 701 BC, when 185,000 Assyrian troops were killed by plague and flaming fire (see 37:36).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":134063,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 10:16","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 10:16","content_ro":"<p><strong>10:16<\/strong> The fulfillment of this prophecy was in 701 <span>BC<\/span>, when 185,000 Assyrian troops were killed by <em>plague<\/em> and <em>flaming fire<\/em> (see 37:36).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>10:16<\/strong> The fulfillment of this prophecy was in 701 <span>BC<\/span>, when 185,000 Assyrian troops were killed by <em>plague<\/em> and <em>flaming fire<\/em> (see 37:36).<\/p>","summary_ro":"10:16 The fulfillment of this prophecy was in 701 BC, when 185,000 Assyrian troops were killed by plague and flaming fire (see 37:36).","summary_en":"10:16 The fulfillment of this prophecy was in 701 BC, when 185,000 Assyrian troops were killed by plague and flaming fire (see 37:36).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"17":[{"id":30741,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Plants","title_en":"Plants","content_ro":"<h3>PLANTS<\/h3>\n<p>Identifying biblical plants has always been a difficult task, partly because people continue to identify the biblical elm, sycamore, lily, rose, and vine with modern plants, and also because they assume that all the plants now growing in the Holy Land were there in ancient biblical days, or that the plants referred to in the Bible are still to be found there today. Unfortunately, many plants now quite common in the Holy Land were not there in biblical days. Many plants that once grew in abundance in the Holy Land are now extinct. Some have been driven out by foreign invaders; others have been exterminated or nearly exterminated by overcultivation of the land, the destruction of forests, and the resulting changes in climatic and other environmental conditions. At one time the Holy Land was a land of palm trees, with the date palm as abundant and characteristic there as it was in Egypt, but today the date palm is much less common. Similarly, in antiquity, the towering cedars clothed the slopes of Lebanon and other mountain ranges. Now the few remaining specimens must be carefully fenced in to protect them against trampling and the ravages of goats.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Acacia<\/p>\n<p>• Acanthus<\/p>\n<p>• Algum<\/p>\n<p>• Almond<\/p>\n<p>• Almug<\/p>\n<p>• Aloe<\/p>\n<p>• Apple<\/p>\n<p>• Apricot<\/p>\n<p>• Ash<\/p>\n<p>• Aspen<\/p>\n<p>• Balm<\/p>\n<p>• Barley<\/p>\n<p>• Bdellium<\/p>\n<p>• Bean<\/p>\n<p>• Bitter Herbs<\/p>\n<p>• Boxthorn, European<\/p>\n<p>• Box Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Bramble<\/p>\n<p>• Broom<\/p>\n<p>• Buckthorn<\/p>\n<p>• Bush<\/p>\n<p>• Buttercup<\/p>\n<p>• Calamus<\/p>\n<p>• Cane<\/p>\n<p>• Caper Plant<\/p>\n<p>• Carob Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Cassia<\/p>\n<p>• Castor Oil Plant<\/p>\n<p>• Cedar<\/p>\n<p>• Chicory<\/p>\n<p>• Cinnamon<\/p>\n<p>• Citron Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Coriander<\/p>\n<p>• Cotton<\/p>\n<p>• Cucumber<\/p>\n<p>• Cummin<\/p>\n<p>• Cypress<\/p>\n<p>• Dandelion<\/p>\n<p>• Darnel Grass<\/p>\n<p>• Dill<\/p>\n<p>• Ebony<\/p>\n<p>• Endive<\/p>\n<p>• Fig, Fig Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Fir Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Flax<\/p>\n<p>• Frankincense<\/p>\n<p>• Galbanum<\/p>\n<p>• Garlic<\/p>\n<p>• Gourd, Wild<\/p>\n<p>• Hedge<\/p>\n<p>• Henna<\/p>\n<p>• Hyacinth<\/p>\n<p>• Hyssop<\/p>\n<p>• Juniper<\/p>\n<p>• Laurel or Sweet Bay<\/p>\n<p>• Leek<\/p>\n<p>• Lentil<\/p>\n<p>• Lettuce<\/p>\n<p>• Lily<\/p>\n<p>• Lotus Bush<\/p>\n<p>• Mallow<\/p>\n<p>• Mandrake<\/p>\n<p>• Melon<\/p>\n<p>• Millet<\/p>\n<p>• Mint<\/p>\n<p>• Mulberry<\/p>\n<p>• Mustard<\/p>\n<p>• Myrrh<\/p>\n<p>• Myrtle<\/p>\n<p>• Narcissus<\/p>\n<p>• Nard<\/p>\n<p>• Nettle<\/p>\n<p>• Nutmeg Flower<\/p>\n<p>• Oak<\/p>\n<p>• Oil Tree, Oleaster<\/p>\n<p>• Oleander<\/p>\n<p>• Olive, Olive Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Onion<\/p>\n<p>• Palm<\/p>\n<p>• Papyrus<\/p>\n<p>• Pine Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Pistachio<\/p>\n<p>• Plane Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Pomegranate<\/p>\n<p>• Poplar<\/p>\n<p>• Quince<\/p>\n<p>• Reed<\/p>\n<p>• Rue<\/p>\n<p>• Rush<\/p>\n<p>• Saffron<\/p>\n<p>• Sage<\/p>\n<p>• Spelt<\/p>\n<p>• Storax Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Sycamore<\/p>\n<p>• Tamarisk<\/p>\n<p>• Terebinth<\/p>\n<p>• Thistle, Thorn<\/p>\n<p>• Tulip<\/p>\n<p>• Tumbleweed<\/p>\n<p>• Vegetable<\/p>\n<p>• Vine<\/p>\n<p>• Walnut<\/p>\n<p>• Water Lily<\/p>\n<p>• Wheat<\/p>\n<p>• Wormwood<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Acacia\">Acacia <em>(Acacia tortilis<\/em> and <em>A. seyal)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any tree or shrub of the mimosa family of plants growing in warm regions. The plant referred to in the <span>kjv<\/span> as “shittah” (singular) or “shittim” (plural) is undoubtedly the acacia tree, the only timber tree of any considerable size in the Arabian desert. <em>Acacia tortilis<\/em> is by far the largest and most common tree in the desert in which the Israelites wandered for 40 years. It is especially conspicuous on Mt Sinai and was probably the species used for the tabernacle furnishings. <em>A. seyal<\/em> is less common, at least today. It can grow as high as 25 feet (7.6 meters), and bears yellow flowers on twisted branches. The wood is close grained, heavy and hard, orange-brown in color, and much valued in cabinetwork. The ancient Egyptians clamped shut mummy coffins with acacia wood.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Acanthus\">Acanthus <em>(Acanthus syriacus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The acanthus, perhaps referred to in Job 30:7 and Zephaniah 2:9, is a perennial thistlelike herb or small shrub about three feet (.9 meter) tall, and is a common weed in all Eastern countries. It has been used since time immemorial as a model for the leaf or scroll decorations in art.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Algum\">Algum <em>(Juniperus excelsa Bieb)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The timber from Lebanon referred to in 2 Chronicles 2:8 is probably the juniper. Some translators hold, however, that algum and almug are Hebrew variants for the same tree (see <span>nlt<\/span> mg, 2 Chr 2:8).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Almug (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Almond\">Almond <em>(Amygdalus communis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The almond is a peachlike tree with saw-toothed pointed leaves and gray bark. It grows to a height of from 10 to 25 feet (3 to 7.6 meters). It blooms very early in the year; its Hebrew name has its roots in “watch for.” To the Jews it was a welcome harbinger of spring (Jer 1:11).<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Almug\">Almug <em>(Pterocarpus santalinus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The precious wood imported by King Solomon and used in making the pillars for the temple and for making harps and psalteries (1 Kgs 10:11-12). This timber was brought by sea from Ophir to Ezion-geber, near Elath. Modern authorities suggest that Ophir was either in Arabia, India, or East Africa near Mozambique. The reference to “algum“ in 2 Chronicles 2:8 is possibly to this tree. <em>See<\/em> Algum (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Aloe\">Aloe <em>(Aloe succotrina, Aquilaria agallocha)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Chiefly African, lilylike plant of the genus <em>Aloes,<\/em> certain species of which yield a drug and a fiber. Aloe is an aromatic substance mentioned in the Bible, together with myrrh, balm, and other fragrant plants (Ps 45:8; Prv 7:17; Sg 4:14; Jn 19:39). Most scholars think these passages refer to two different plants. The OT plant is likely to have been <em>Aquilaria agallocha,<\/em> the eaglewood, a large tree growing up to 120 feet (36.6 meters) tall with a trunk 12 feet (3.7 meters) in circumference. It is native to northern India, Malaya, and Indochina. The decaying wood is highly fragrant, and as such is highly valued as perfume and incense and for fumigation.<\/p>\n<p>The aloe of John 19:39 is thought to be the true aloe <em>(Aloe succotrina),<\/em> the juice of which was used by the Egyptians in embalming. Its smell, however, is not very agreeable, and it has a bitter taste. It is sometimes used by veterinarians as a horse medicine.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Apple\">Apple <em>(Malus sylvestris)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The identity of the fruit identified by the Hebrew word <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">tappuach<\/span> (Prv 25:11; Sg 2:3, 5; 7:8; 8:5) continues to be debated. In most English translations it has been rendered “apple” because of its close linguistic tie to the Arabic word <em>tuffah.<\/em> Many scholars identify this tree as the apricot, questioning whether apples fit the biblical description “apples of gold” and whether the apple tree was cultivated in ancient Palestine. Recent excavations at Kadesh-barnea, however, have uncovered carbonized apples, probably a crab apple <em>(Malus sylvestris),<\/em> dating to the ninth century <span>BC<\/span>. This would certainly allow for this ornamental apple’s cultivation in Solomon’s gardens.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Apricot (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Apricot\">Apricot <em>(Prunus armeniaca)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The identification of the Hebrew word <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">tappuach<\/span> with the apricot continues to be debated. The apricot tree produces yellow-orange peachlike edible fruit and is native to western Asia and Africa. It is abundant in the Holy Land and probably has been so since early biblical times. The tree is a round-headed reddish-barked tree growing 30 feet (9.1 meters) tall. Most translations render this Hebrew word “apple,” though many scholars identify it with the apricot because of its descriptions in the biblical text (see Prv 25:11; Sg 2:3, 5; 7:8; 8:5; Jl 1:12).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Apple (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Ash\">Ash <em>(Alhagi maurorum, Fraxinus ornus, Tamarix mannifera)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>There are several ash trees found in the Near East. One of these, the prickly alhagi <em>(Alhagi maurorum),<\/em> is a member of the pea family. It is a low, many-stemmed, much-branched shrub growing about three feet (.9 meter) tall with somewhat hairy twigs and pealike flowers. During the heat of the day, leaves exude a sweet, gummy substance that hardens in the air and is collected by shaking the bushes over a spread-out cloth.<\/p>\n<p>The manna tamarisk <em>(Tamarix mannifera)<\/em> is a multibranched shrub or a small tree 9 to 15 feet (2.7 to 4.6 meters) tall with rigid branches that have tiny pink flowers. It is found on deserts from the Holy Land to Arabia and the Sinai.<\/p>\n<p>The flowering or manna ash <em>(Fraxinus ornus)<\/em> is a tree that grows from 15 to 50 feet (4.6 to 15.2 meters) tall. The fruits are very similar to those produced by our species of ash. The ash of Isaiah 44:14 (<span>kjv<\/span>) is believed to be the Aleppo pine.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Aspen\">Aspen <em>(Populus euphratica<\/em> or <em>P. tremula)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of several trees of the genus <em>Populus<\/em> with leaves attached by flattened leafstalks so that they tremble or “quake” in the wind.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Balm\">Balm <em>(Balanites aegyptiaca, Pistacia lentiscus, Commiphora opobalsamum<\/em><em>)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>An oily aromatic resin exuded by chiefly tropical trees and shrubs and used medicinally; trees and shrubs producing this substance. References in Genesis 37:25, Jeremiah 8:22, 46:11, and 51:8 are thought to be either the Jericho balsam <em>(Balanites aegyptiaca)<\/em> or the lentisk or mastic tree <em>(Pistacia lentiscus).<\/em> The Jericho balsam is very common in Egypt, North Africa, the plains of Jericho, and the hot plains bordering on the Dead Sea. It is a small desert-loving plant, 9 to 15 feet (2.7 to 4.6 meters) tall, with slender, thorny branches and small clusters of green flowers.<\/p>\n<p>The lentisk or mastic tree is native to the Holy Land, and the reference in Genesis 43:11 is probably to this plant, since the implication is that this is a native product of the Holy Land unknown in Egypt at the time. This tree is a shrubby or bushy tree 3 to 10 feet (.9 to 3 meters) tall with evergreen leaves. The “balm” is a fragrant gummy exudation of the sap secured by making incisions in the stems and branches, usually in August. The best grades are in the form of yellow-white translucent tears or drops; they are employed in medicine as an astringent. The poorer grades are used extensively as a varnish. Children in the East use it as chewing gum.<\/p>\n<p>References to spices in 1 Kings 10:10, 2 Kings 20:13, Song of Songs 3:6, Isaiah 39:2, and Ezekiel 27:17 are thought to be the balm of Gilead <em>(Commiphora opobalsamum),<\/em> which in spite of its name is not a native of Gilead or even of the Holy Land but is indigenous to Arabia, especially the mountainous regions of Yemen. The trees were still in existence on the plain of Jericho at the time of the Roman conquest. The Roman conquerors carried branches to Rome as trophies of their victory over the Jews.<\/p>\n<p>This tree is a small, stiff-branched evergreen tree seldom more than 15 feet (4.6 meters) high with straggling branches. The “balm” is obtained by making incisions in the stem and branches of the tree. The sap soon hardens into small irregular nodules that are collected. Gum is also procured from green and ripe fruit.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Myrrh (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Barley\">Barley <em>(Hordeum distichon)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>A cereal grass bearing bearded flower spikes and edible seeds. The common barley <em>(Hordeum distichon),<\/em> the winter barley <em>(H. hex<\/em><em>astichon),<\/em> and the spring barley <em>(H. vulgare)<\/em> have been cultivated in temperate regions of the world since time immemorial and today still constitute one of the principal grain foods. Barley and wheat were the two staple cereal crops of Egypt and the Holy Land. Being less expensive, barley was mostly used for feeding cattle, although it was also used by itself or mixed with wheat and other seed as food for man (Ez 4:9-12). Barley is mentioned in the Bible over 30 times, either as a plant growing in the fields or in reference to products made from it, such as barley meal, barley bread, barley cakes, and barley loaves. As the common food of the poor, barley was also regarded as a symbol of poverty and cheapness or worthlessness (Hos 3:2).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Bdellium\">Bdellium <em>(Commiphora africana)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Aromatic gum resin similar to myrrh, produced by various trees of the genus <em>Commiphora<\/em> of Africa and western Asia. The reference in Genesis 2:12 and Numbers 11:7 to bdellium is thought by most scholars today to refer to a gum resin, obtained from a shrub, <em>Commiphora africana<\/em>, that grows in south Arabia and northeastern Africa. The resin is yellowish, transparent, and fragrant, and looks like a pearl.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Bean\">Bean <em>(Faba vulgaris)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The references in 2 Samuel 17:27-28 and Ezekiel 4:9 are generally regarded as referring to the broad bean. This species, an annual plant, is thought originally to have grown in northern Persia, but it was extensively cultivated in western Asia in very early times as a food plant. Beans have been found in the mummy coffins of Egyptian tombs, and they were also cultivated by the Greeks and Romans.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"BitterHerbs\">Bitter Herbs <em>(Cichorium endivia, Taraxacum officinale, Lactuca sativa)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The “bitter herbs” of Exodus 12:8 and Numbers 9:11 seem to have been plants like endive <em>(Cichorium endivia),<\/em> the common chicory <em>(Cichorium intybus),<\/em> lettuce <em>(Lactuca sativa),<\/em> or the common dandelion <em>(Taraxacum officinale).<\/em> These are all weedy plants common in modern Egypt and western Asia and are still eaten by people living there. The leaves of the ordinary garden lettuce are intensely bitter when bleached. This is also true of the common dandelion. Others suggest that the bitter herbs were derived from thorns and thistles.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"BoxthornEuropean\">Boxthorn, European <em>(Lycium europaeum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Various thorny shrubs, some species of which bear purplish flowers and brightly colored berries. The reference in Judges 9:14-15 is thought to be to the European boxthorn or desert-thorn. It is a thorny shrub 6 to 12 feet (1.8 to 3.7 meters) tall with clustered leaves and small violet flowers eventually producing small globular red berries. It is native to and common throughout the Holy Land, especially in the region from Lebanon to the Dead Sea.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"BoxTree\">Box Tree <em>(Buxus longifolia)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The long-leaved box tree is a hardy evergreen tree found in the mountainous regions of the northern part of the Holy Land, the Galilean hills, and Lebanon. It grows to a height of about 20 feet (6.1 meters) with a slender trunk seldom more than six to eight inches (15.2 to 20.3 centimeters) in diameter. Its wood is very hard and takes a fine polish. It was cultivated by the Romans for its hard wood, which they inlaid with ivory for cabinets and jewel caskets. Scriptural references include Isaiah 41:19 and 60:13.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Bramble\">Bramble <em>(Rubus sanctus, R. ulmifolius)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The Palestinian bramble <em>(Rubus sanctus)<\/em> and the closely related elm-leaf bramble <em>(R. ulmifolius)<\/em> are prickly evergreen shrubs that spread by means of suckers. The stems and young shoots are covered with a characteristic bloom or whitish powder and short hairs. The prickles are strong, erect, and hairy. The flowers are white, pink, rose, or purple in color, and the fruit is round and black.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Thistle, Thorn (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Broom\">Broom <em>(Retama raetam)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>A shrub native to Eurasia. The word translated “juniper” in the <span>kjv<\/span> has nothing to do with the true junipers but refers rather to a species of broom, known as the white broom <em>(Retama raetam).<\/em> Its branches are longer and flexible, forming an erect, dense bush 3 to 12 feet (.9 to 3.7 meters) tall. The leaves are small and sparse, yet it forms an agreeable shade in a desert region. The white pealike flowers are sweet and very fragrant and are borne in clusters along the twigs. It is a beautiful shrub that grows in the desert regions of Palestine, Syria, and Persia. In many desert areas it is the only bush that affords any shade (1 Kgs 19:4-5).<\/p>\n<p>The “juniper roots” of Job 30:4 are not the roots of either the juniper or white broom. The roots of the latter are very nauseating and could not be eaten in the manner described by Job. Job’s “juniper roots” were probably an edible parasitic plant <em>(Cynomorium coccineum).<\/em> This plant grows in salt marshes and maritime sands. It is frequently eaten in times of food scarcity and at one time was highly prized for its supposed medicinal value in the treatment of dysentery.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Buckthorn\">Buckthorn <em>(Rhamnus palaestina)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The Palestinian buckthorn is a shrub or small tree attaining a height of three to six feet (.9 to 1.8 meters) with velvety, thorny branches, evergreen leaves, and clusters of small flowers blooming in March or April. It grows in thickets and on hillsides from Syria and Lebanon through the Holy Land to Arabia and the Sinai.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Bush\">Bush <em>(Acacia nilotica, Loranthus acaciae)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Low, branching, woody plant, usually smaller than a tree. There are differences of opinion in regard to the bush out of which the Lord appeared to Moses (Ex 3:2-4). From the biblical account, it seems most likely that the event was a miraculous one. However, some seek a natural explanation and believe that the burning bush may have been the crimson-flowered mistletoe or acacia strap flower <em>(Loranthus acaciae),<\/em> which grows in great profusion as a partial parasite on the various acacia shrubs, such as the thorny acacia <em>(Acacia nilotica),<\/em> in the Holy Land and Sinai. When in full bloom, the mistletoe imparts to the shrub or tree the appearance of being on fire because its brilliant flame-colored blossoms stand out against the green foliage and yellow flowers of the host plants.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Buttercup\">Buttercup <em>(Ranunculus asiaticus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The Persian buttercup is one of the flowers or grasses of the field (Mt 6:28-30). It is a showy plant blooming in all brilliant colors except blue, with double flowers sometimes measuring two inches (5.1 centimeters) across.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Calamus\">Calamus <em>(Acorus calamus, Andropogon aroma<\/em><em>ticus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>A plant, or its aromatic root; any of a variety of tropical Asiatic palms. One of the plants that grew in Solomon’s garden (Sg 4:14). The sweet flag <em>(Acorus<\/em> <em>calamus)<\/em> and the beardgrass <em>(Andropogon aromaticus)<\/em> have been suggested as the plants from which calamus came. The sweet flag is highly aromatic and grows in Europe and Asia, but it is not known in the Holy Land. Indigenous to India, beardgrass is highly odoriferous when bruised and is thought to have furnished the calamus of the Bible. It yields an oil known as ginger-grass oil.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cane\">Cane <em>(Saccharum officinarum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>It is thought that there were two species of sugarcane indigenous to and growing wild in the Holy Land. One of these, <em>Saccharum sara,<\/em> is known to be only from Lebanon. The other native species is <em>S. biflorum,<\/em> which grows on the banks of ditches and streams from Syria and Lebanon through the Holy Land south to Stony Arabia and the Sinai. This may be the wild cane familiar to the Jews. Most authorities, however, think that the “sweet cane” of Isaiah 43:24 was the true sugarcane <em>(S. officinarum).<\/em> This plant is thought to have originated in the tropics of the eastern hemisphere. It has been cultivated by people since time immemorial and is not now known in the wild state anywhere. It is a tall, stout perennial grass, maizelike in aspect with many jointed stems and a large plumelike terminal cluster of flowers.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CaperPlant\">Caper Plant <em>(Capparis sincula)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Spiny, trailing shrub of Mediterranean region; the flower bud of this shrub. The word “desire” in Ecclesiastes 12:5 may actually refer to the caper berry. The common caper or caper berry grows profusely in Syria, Lebanon, the Holy Land, and in the mountain valleys of Sinai. The plant may sometimes grow upright but more generally spreads itself weakly over the ground like a vine, covering rocks, ruins, and old walls like ivy. The young flower buds, pickled in vinegar, were used by the ancients as a condiment for meat. The berries were also used in cooking.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CarobTree\">Carob Tree <em>(Ceratonia siliqua)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Evergreen of the Mediterranean region having edible pods. Scholars generally agree that the pods of the carob or locust tree were the “husks” of Jesus’ parable of the prodigal son (Lk 15:16). The carob is an attractive evergreen leguminous tree that is very common throughout the Holy Land, Syria, and Egypt. The pods are most abundant in April and May and contain numerous pealike seeds embedded in an agreeably flavored mucilaginous sweetish pulp. The pods are also used abundantly now as they were in antiquity for feeding cattle, horses, and pigs. In time of scarcity, they are used as human food and perhaps even regularly by the very poor. The carob is frequently mentioned in the Talmud as a source of good food for domestic animals. The seeds of the carob were formerly employed as a standard of weight and are the source of the term “carat.” Some commentators suggest that the “locusts” eaten by John the Baptist (Mt 3:4) were not insects but the fruit of the carob tree.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cassia\">Cassia <em>(Cinnamomum cassia, Saussurea lappa)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Tree of tropical Asia with bark similar but inferior to cinnamon. The “cassia” of Exodus 30:24 and Ezekiel 27:19 is the cassia bark tree, <em>Cinnamomum cassia.<\/em> In Psalm 45:8 the reference seems to be to the Indian orris, <em>Saussurea lappa.<\/em><\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CastorOilPlant\">Castor Oil Plant <em>(Ricinus communis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Large plant, native to tropical Africa and Asia, cultivated for ornamental reasons and for extraction of oil from its seeds. The gourd of Jonah 4:6-7 was probably the ordinary castor bean. The castor bean is a tender shrub, growing 3 to 12 or more feet (.9 to 3.7 meters) tall with huge leaves that resemble the outstretched human hand. The castor bean plant is found in waste places, especially near water, in both Lebanon and the Holy Land and often is cultivated. In hot climates it becomes treelike and affords a dense shade by the abundance of its huge, umbrella-like leaves. It is known in the Orient for the rapidity of its growth. The oil extracted from the seeds of the castor bean was used by the Jews in ceremonial rites and is mentioned among the five kinds of oil that rabbinical tradition sanctioned for such use. The seeds themselves are poisonous when eaten.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cedar\">Cedar <em>(Cedrus libani)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of several coniferous evergreen trees of the genus native to the Old World. With few exceptions, the references to “cedar” are to the well-known cedar of Lebanon. This is a noble tree, the tallest and most massive with which the Israelites were acquainted. It grows quite rapidly, attaining a height of up to 120 feet (36.6 meters) with a trunk diameter of as much as 8 feet (2.4 meters). In Solomon’s day these trees were obviously abundant on the mountains of Lebanon, but now, because of excessive lumbering, they are very rare. The cedar of Lebanon was held in high esteem not only for its vigor, beauty, and age but also for the fragrance and remarkable lasting qualities of the wood. It symbolizes grandeur, might, majesty, dignity, lofty stature, and wide expansion. References in Ezekiel 17:3, 22-24, and 31:3-18 beautifully illustrate how these lofty kings of the forest symbolize and typify worldly strength, power, and glory.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Chicory\">Chicory <em>(Cichorium intybus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Bitter Herbs (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cinnamon\">Cinnamon <em>(Cinnamomum zeylanicum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Two varieties of trees of this genus, native to tropical Asia, with aromatic bark that, when ground, is used as a spice. The cinnamon of Exodus 30:23, Proverbs 7:17, Song of Songs 4:14, and Revelation 18:13 is undoubtedly <em>Cinnamomum zeylanicum.<\/em> The tree is a rather low-growing one, never getting more than 30 feet (9.1 meters) high, with a smooth, ash-colored bark and widespread branches and white flowers. Its shiny, beautifully veined evergreen leaves grow about nine inches (22.9 centimeters) long and two inches (5.1 centimeters) wide.<\/p>\n<p>The Jews always regarded cinnamon as a deliciously fragrant substance and valued it highly as a spice and a perfume. It was one of the principal ingredients used in the manufacture of the precious ointments, or “holy oil,” that Moses was commanded to use in the tabernacle for anointing the sacred vessels and officiating priests. It was undoubtedly very costly and precious.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CitronTree\">Citron Tree <em>(Tetraclinis articulata)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Tree native to Asia bearing lemonlike fruit with a thick, fragrant rind. It seldom exceeds a height of 30 feet (9.1 meters) and has hard, dark-colored, durable, fragrant wood that takes a fine polish. The wood was one of the most highly prized woods of the ancients, who employed it extensively for cabinetwork. It was commonly referred to as being worth its weight in gold. The wood, owing to its resinous properties, is slow to decay and remains practically uninjured by insects.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Coriander\">Coriander <em>(Coriandrum sativum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The references in Exodus 16:31 and Numbers 11:7 are clearly to the common coriander plant. The coriander was found quite commonly growing along with grain in cultivated fields throughout the Holy Land. It grows wild in Egypt and was used by the ancients both as condiment and as a medicine. The leaves are quite aromatic and are used in soups and for flavoring puddings, curries, and wines. The coriander is still used today as a spice by the Arabs. In Scripture it is mentioned only in connection with manna, which was said to resemble coriander seeds in size, shape, and color.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cotton\">Cotton <em>(Gossypium herbaceum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of various plants or shrubs of this genus grown in warm climates for the soft white fiber attached to their seeds and the oil from these seeds. The “green” of the <span>kjv<\/span> in Esther 1:6 is undoubtedly a reference to the Levant cotton <em>(Gossypium herbaceum)<\/em> that was cultivated since time immemorial in the Far East. Alexander the Great brought it back from India. It is probable that the Jews became acquainted with cotton during the period of their Persian captivity under King Ahasuerus.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cucumber\">Cucumber <em>(Cucumis chate, C. sativus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The cucumber is an annual climbing or trailing vine, the origin of which is unknown. It has been cultivated in all the warm countries of the Old World since prehistoric times. Cucumbers are usually eaten raw; a cucumber and a barley cake or some other kind of bread often constitute a meal. The reference to “a lodge in a garden of cucumbers” (Is 1:8) refers to the crudely built small house or lodge often set up in Palestinian cucumber fields and vineyards.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cummin\">Cummin <em>(Cuminum cyminum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The references in Isaiah 28:25-27 and Matthew 23:23 are clearly to the cummin—a common, annual plant of the carrot family said to be native to Egypt and the region of the eastern Mediterranean. It has long been cultivated for its powerfully aromatic and pungent seeds, which are similar to caraway seeds but larger. They do not have as agreeable a taste as caraway seeds but nevertheless were used extensively as a flavor or spice and sometimes were even mixed with flour in making bread. Cummin was also used medicinally and as a condiment with fish and meats.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cypress\">Cypress <em>(Cupressus sempervirens horizontalis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The cypress is a massive, tall-growing evergreen with scalelike leaves and is widely distributed in the mountainous regions of the Holy Land. On Mt Lebanon and Mt Hermon it grows together with the cedar and oak. Its usual height is 50 to 60 feet (15.2 to 18.3 meters), but it may grow as tall as 80 feet (24.2 meters). It is said to have been used extensively in shipbuilding by the Phoenicians, Cretans, and Greeks. There is general agreement that the “gopher wood” of Genesis 6:14 is cypress because the wood is very durable.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Dandelion\">Dandelion <em>(Taraxacum officinale)<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Bitter Herbs (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DarnelGrass\">Darnel Grass <em>(Lolium temulentum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>It is generally agreed that the “tares” of the <span>kjv<\/span> (Mt 13:24-30) are the annual or bearded darnel grass. It is a strong grass closely resembling wheat or rye in appearance. The seeds are much smaller than those of wheat or rye, but it is extremely difficult to distinguish it from wheat or rye in its early stages. If it is not eradicated early but is left until the time of harvest, it is cut down with the wheat and the two are subsequently very difficult to separate. The seeds are poisonous, either due to some chemicals naturally present or because of a fungus that grows within the seeds.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Dill\">Dill <em>(Anethum graveolens)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Dill is a weedy annual plant resembling parsley and fennel, 12 to 20 inches (30.5 to 50.8 centimeters) tall with yellow flowers. The reference in Matthew 23:23 (<span>kjv<\/span>) to anise is probably a reference to dill. This plant is widely cultivated for seeds that are aromatic and carminative.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Ebony\">Ebony <em>(Diospyros ebenaster, D. ebenum, D. mela<\/em><em>noxylon)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Chiefly tropical tree of southern Asia with hard, dark-colored heartwood. Ebony comes from the date plum or date tree <em>(Diospyros ebenaster<\/em> and <em>D. melanoxylon)<\/em> of India and is quite different from the date palm. It was sent by Phoenician ships across the Arabian Sea and up the Red Sea to the market in Tyre, from which it was carried overland by camel caravans. The outer wood of these trees is white and soft, but when old, the interior wood becomes hard, black, heavy, and durable and still constitutes most of the costly ebony of commerce. Ebony takes on a fine polish and is highly valued for cabinetwork, for turnery, for the manufacture of fancy ornamental articles and instruments, and as a veneer for other woods.<\/p>\n<p>Ezekiel mentions ivory and ebony together (Ez 27:15). Ebony was and still is frequently inlaid with ivory, with which it contrasts so strikingly in color.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Endive\">Endive <em>(Cichorium endivia)<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Bitter Herbs (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FigFigTree\">Fig, Fig Tree <em>(Ficus carica)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of several trees or shrubs of this genus, native to the Mediterranean region; its edible fruit. The common fig, mentioned some 60 times in the Bible, is one of the most important Bible plants. Its leaves are spoken of first in Genesis 3:7. The fig is generally regarded as native to southwestern Asia and Syria, but already in early times it was also cultivated extensively in Egypt and the Holy Land, where it was one of the principal foods. First Samuel 25:18 states that a part of the gift sent by Abigail to David consisted of 200 cakes of figs.<\/p>\n<p>The fig tree has a very peculiar type of fruit called a syconium, which is actually a very much enlarged and fleshy receptacle. It is pollinated by a wasp, without which it cannot get its fruit; this was discovered when it was first transplanted to California.<\/p>\n<p>The fig puts out its earliest fruit buds before its leaves, the former in February and the latter in April or May. When the leaves are out, the fruit ought to be ripe (Mt 21:19).<\/p>\n<p>Whenever the prophets of old berated the people for their wickedness, they often threatened that the vine and the fig crops would be destroyed. And when they held out the promise of great rewards, they said that the vine and fig crop would be restored (Jer 8:13; Hos 2:12; Jl 1:7, 12; Mi 4:4; Zec 3:10).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FirTree\">Fir Tree <em>(Abies cilicica)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>This a generic term for various evergreen trees having flat needles and erect cones. In all probability, most of the references in Scripture to the fir are references to the pine, cypress, or juniper. The only true fir in the Holy Land grows in the higher parts of Lebanon and the mountains northward. It attains a height of 30 to 75 feet (9.1 to 22.9 meters) and is widely cultivated.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Flax\">Flax <em>(Linum usitatissimum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of several plants of this genus, one particularly being widely cultivated for the linseed oil from its seeds and the fine textile fibers from its stems. Flax is the oldest known of the textile fibers. Cotton is identified only once in the Bible (Est 1:6). There is no mention of any other fiber plant being cultivated in Egypt or the Holy Land in biblical days, and for that reason it is thought that linen was the material out of which clothes other than woolen ones were made. Linen was also used for domestic purposes such as towels (Jn 13:4-5), napkins (11:44), girdles and undergarments (Is 3:23; Mk 14:51), nets (Is 19:8-9), and measuring lines (Ez 40:3). The priests serving in the temple were to wear nothing but linen clothes; a mixed cloth of wool and flax together was strictly forbidden to the Jews (Lv 19:19; Dt 22:11).<\/p>\n<p>At least three kinds of linen were used in biblical times, and apparently there were particular uses for each kind. Ordinary linen of coarsest texture is mentioned in Leviticus 6:10, Ezekiel 9:2, Daniel 10:5, and Revelation 15:6. The second type of linen of superior quality is mentioned in Exodus 26:1 and 39:27. A third type of linen of finest texture and high cost is mentioned in 1 Chronicles 15:27, Esther 8:15, and Revelation 19:8.<\/p>\n<p>The common flax plant grows from one to four feet (.3 to 1.2 meters) tall with a simple, slender, wirelike stem and numerous small, pale, lancelike green leaves. The failure of the flax crop is listed as one of God’s punishments (Hos 2:9). The manufacture of linen from flax fibers was a domestic industry of Jewish women (Prv 31:13, 19), ranging from ordinary clothing to the robes and aprons worn by the priest and temple attendants. Linen was also used for wicks in lamps (Is 42:3).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Frankincense\">Frankincense <em>(Boswellia)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Aromatic genus resin used chiefly as incense. Frankincense is obtained from three species of a single genus of plants that grow in southern Arabia, Ethiopia, Somaliland, India, and the East Indies. The trees are large in size, related to the turpentine or terebinth tree and to those that produce balsam and myrrh. The gum has a bitter taste and gives off a strong odor in the form of a volatile oil when warmed or burned. It is obtained by successive incisions in the bark of the trunk and in the branches of living trees. It is thought that the Hebrews imported all their frankincense from Arabia, especially from the region about Sheba.<\/p>\n<p>Frankincense is mentioned 21 times in the Bible (e.g., Ex 30:34; 1 Chr 9:29; Neh 13:9; Sg 3:6; 4:6, 14; Mt 2:11; Rv 18:13) and was probably employed almost exclusively in the sacrificial services of the tabernacle and temple until the time of Solomon. It has always been the most important incense resin in the world.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Galbanum\">Galbanum <em>(Ferula galbaniflua)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Galbanum is a malodorous yellowish or brownish gum resin containing the chemical substance umbelliferone, obtained from several species of plants related to the fennel, native to Syria and Persia. The gum is a natural exudation of the stem or is obtained by making a transverse incision in the young stem a few inches above the ground. The milky juice soon hardens and forms one of the kinds of commercial galbanum. Its odor is strongly balsamic, pungent, and disagreeable when burned. Galbanum was one of the ingredients used to form the “holy incense” (Ex 30:34).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Garlic\">Garlic <em>(Allium sativum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Onion (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"GourdWild\">Gourd, Wild <em>(Citrullus colocynthis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>There has been considerable difference of opinion regarding the meaning of the words translated “wild gourds” (2 Kgs 4:39) or “gall” (Dt 29:18; 32:32; Ps 69:21; Jer 8:14; 9:15; 23:15; Lam 3:5, 19; Am 6:12; Mt 27:34; Acts 8:23). Most scholars today believe the plant referred to was the colocynth, a cucumber-like vine that trails on the ground or climbs over shrubs and fences. The fruit contains a soft spongy pulp, which is intensely bitter, strongly cathartic, and sometimes poisonous.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Hedge\">Hedge <em>(Rhamnus palaestina, Balanites aegyptiaca, Lycium europaeum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Row of closely planted shrubs or low-growing trees forming a fence or boundary. A number of plants were used to provide hedges in Bible times. One of these was the Palestine buckthorn, <em>Rhamnus palaestina.<\/em> This plant is a shrub or a small tree growing from three to six feet (.9 to 1.8 meters) tall with velvety, thorny branches, evergreen leaves, and clusters of small flowers blooming in March and April. It grows in thickets and on hillsides from Syria through the Holy Land to Arabia and the Sinai. The Jericho balsam <em>(Balanites aegyptiaca)<\/em> and the European boxthorn <em>(Lycium europaeum)<\/em> are also prickly shrubs widely used as hedges in the Holy Land and may be the plants referred to in Proverbs 15:19 and Hosea 2:6.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Henna\">Henna <em>(Lawsonia inermis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Tree or shrub of Asia and northern Africa with fragrant reddish or white flowers and leaves from which a reddish dye is made. The plant referred to in Song of Songs 1:14 and 4:13 and translated as “camphire” (<span>kjv<\/span>) is thought by scholars today to refer to the henna plant. It is a native of northern India and grows wild in the Sudan, Egypt, Arabia, Syria, Lebanon, and the Holy Land. It grows from 4 to 12 feet (1.2 to 3.7 meters) tall, and its scent is similar to that of roses.<\/p>\n<p>Henna leaves are dried, crushed into a powder, mixed with water, and made into a paste that has been used since time immemorial as a cosmetic. A number of mummies have been found decorated with henna. Henna was used to provide a bright yellow, orange, or red color to the fingernails, toenails, the tips of the fingers, the palms of the hand, and the soles of the feet of young girls. Men also used it for coloring their beards and the manes and tails of horses. The dye had to be renewed once every two or three weeks. This use of henna as a cosmetic was common in Egypt at the time the children of Israel were there as slaves; they were undoubtedly familiar with it.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Hyacinth\">Hyacinth <em>(Hyacinthus orientalis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The lily referred to in Song of Songs 2:1-2, 16; 4:5; and 6:2-4 may well be the garden hyacinth. It is native to, and very common in, the fields and rocky places in the Holy Land, Lebanon, and northward. Its flowers in the wild form are always deep blue and very fragrant.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Lily (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Hyssop\">Hyssop <em>(Origanum maru)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Woody plant native to Asia with spikes of small blue flowers and aromatic leaves used as a condiment and in perfumery. There is little agreement among botanists as to the exact identity of the biblical “hyssop.” Some have suggested <em>Hyssopus offici<\/em><em>nalis,<\/em> the well-known garden herb now called hyssop. However, this plant is not native either to the Holy Land or Egypt, being found only in southern Europe. Moreover, it does not fit the requirements of the biblical plant.<\/p>\n<p>The “hyssop” of the OT is likely the Syrian or Egyptian marjoram <em>(Origanum maru).<\/em> It is referred to in Exodus 12:22; Leviticus 14:4-6, 52; Numbers 19:6, 18; 1 Kings 4:33; Psalm 51:7; and Hebrews 9:19. The marjorams are mints growing (under favorable conditions) about two or three feet (.6 to .9 meter) tall, but more often are dwarfed when growing in rock crevices and walls (cf. 1 Kgs 4:33). An aromatic substance is obtained from the crushed and dried leaves. If gathered together in a bunch with leaves and flowers, the hairy stems of the marjoram would hold liquid very well and would make an excellent sprinkler.<\/p>\n\n<p>The hyssop of the crucifixion passage in the NT (Jn 19:29) is probably the sorghum, a tall cereal plant grown primarily for food but also used for brushes and mops.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Juniper\">Juniper <em>(Juniperus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Variety of evergreen tree or shrub. The plant referred to in Jeremiah 17:6 and 48:6 and translated in the <span>kjv<\/span> “heath” is probably the savin or Phoenician juniper. The Phoenician juniper, <em>Juniperus phoenicia,<\/em> is found in the hills and rocky places of Arabia. The savin juniper, <em>J. sabina,<\/em> is common throughout the deserts, plains, and rocky places of Syria and Palestine. These references are to the brown-berried cedar, or sharp cedar.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LaurelorSweetBay\">Laurel or Sweet Bay <em>(Laurus nobilis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Shrub or tree native to the Mediterranean region. While the reference in Psalm 37:35 may be to the cedar of Lebanon, most scholars refer the “green bay tree” (<span>kjv<\/span>) of the psalmist to the sweet bay, a native of the Holy Land, inhabiting thickets and woods from the coast to the middle montane zone. It is an evergreen tree attaining a height from 40 to 60 feet (12.2 to 18.3 meters).<\/p>\n<p>Even though the tree is abundant on Mt Carmel and around Hebron, it is generally not common in the Holy Land. Its leaves are still used as a condiment, and its fruit, leaves, and bark have long been used in medicine.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Leek\">Leek <em>(Allium porrum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Onion (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Lentil\">Lentil <em>(Lens esculenta)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The lentil plant to which Genesis 25:29-34, 2 Samuel 17:27-29, 23:11, and Ezekiel 4:9 refer is a small, erect, annual, vetchlike plant with slender stems and tendril-bearing leaves. It produces small, white, violet-striped flowers with flat, pealike pods in which the lentils are borne.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Lettuce\">Lettuce <em>(Lactuca sativa)<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Bitter Herbs (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Lily\">Lily <em>(Lilium)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of various plants of the genus <em>Lilium<\/em> having large, variously colored, trumpet-shaped flowers; and related plants. The lily is one of the most famous of all the plants in the Bible, but it is also one about which there has been considerable difference of opinion. It seems probable that several kinds of plants, perhaps five or six, are called lilies in the <span>kjv<\/span>. Most authorities regard the Palestine anemone or wind flower, <em>Anemone coronaria,<\/em> as the “lily of the field” (Mt 6:28, <span>kjv<\/span>) that surpassed Solomon in all his glory. These flowers are found in every part of the Holy Land in profusion; the most common forms are scarlet or yellow, but the Palestine anemone may also be blue, purple, rose, or white in color. The flower attains a diameter of two and three-quarter inches (7 centimeters).<\/p>\n<p>An alternative suggestion is the Palestinian chamomile, <em>Anthemis palaestina,<\/em> a common, white, daisylike plant. The chamomile is gathered like dry grass and thrown into the furnace when it dries up.<\/p>\n<p>Another proposed plant is <em>Lilium chalcedonicum,<\/em> the scarlet or Martagon lily. The statement in Song of Songs 5:13—“his lips like lilies”—would better fit this plant than the Palestine anemone. The reference is apparently to a rare plant of exceptional beauty. The scarlet lily is rare in the Holy Land; indeed, some botanists doubt that it lives there.<\/p>\n<p>The references in 1 Kings 7:19, 22, 26 and 2 Chronicles 4:5 are probably to the water lily, <em>Nymphaea alba,<\/em> which served as the pattern. The water lily is quite common in Europe and also in the Holy Land and northern Africa.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LotusBush\">Lotus Bush <em>(Zizyphus lotus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The “shady trees” of Job 40:21-22 (<span>kjv<\/span>; cf. <span>nlt<\/span> “lotus plants”) may refer to the lotus bush of the Middle East, <em>Zizyphus lotus,<\/em> a shrub or low tree that grows to a height of about five feet (1.5 meters) with smooth, zigzag, whitish branches.<\/p>\n<p>Other commentators believe that the shady trees of Job are large-leafed trees such as the plane tree, <em>Platanus orientalis,<\/em> or the oleander, <em>Nerium oleander.<\/em> This suggestion is based on the assumption that the animal described in Job 40 is the hippopotamus, and it seems unlikely that the hippopotamus would live under a lotus bush or even be found in places where this shrub grows. These individuals regard the plane tree or the oleander as more likely.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mallow\">Mallow <em>(Atriplex)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The Hebrew word used in Job 30:4 implies saltiness, and for this reason botanists believe that it refers to one of the species of the saltwort or orach. Twenty-one species of saltwort occur in the Holy Land, almost all of which are common and could well meet the requirements of the text. <em>Atriplex halimus<\/em> is the species usually suggested, a strong-growing bushy shrub related to the spinach.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mandrake\">Mandrake <em>(Mandragora officinarum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The mandrake or love apple is a stemless herbaceous perennial related to the nightshade, potato, and tomato. It has a large, beetlike, often forked taproot from the top of which arise many dark leaves about a foot (30.5 centimeters) long and four inches (10.2 centimeters) wide. The plant is slightly poisonous, and the thick taproots have some resemblance in shape to the lower parts of the human body. For this reason certain aphrodisiac properties were ascribed to it (cf. Gn 30:14-16).<\/p>\n<p>The love apple was a common plant in deserted fields throughout the Holy Land. It is native to the entire Mediterranean region, southern Europe, and Asia Minor. The mandrake is mentioned in Song of Songs 7:13, though some scholars believe the writer may actually have been referring to the citron or to the common edible field mushroom, <em>Agaricus campestris.<\/em><\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Melon\">Melon <em>(Cucumis melo, Citrullus vulgaris)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of several varieties of these two related vines having a hard rind and juicy flesh. The melons of Numbers 11:5 may be either the muskmelon <em>(Cucumis melo)<\/em> or the watermelon <em>(Citrullus vulgaris).<\/em> It may be that both fruits are referred to.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Millet\">Millet <em>(Panicum miliaceum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>A grass grown in Eurasia for its edible seed. Millet seeds are the smallest of all the grass seeds cultivated as food but are produced profusely. Millet is an annual grass seldom more that two feet (.6 meter) tall. The small seeds of the millet are used on cakes and eaten uncooked by the poor of the land.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mint\">Mint <em>(Mentha)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of various plants of this family with aromatic foliage that is processed for flavoring. Quite a few mints are common in the Holy Land, but the horse mint <em>(Mentha longifolia)<\/em> is probably the one referred to in Matthew 23:23 and Luke 11:42. Mints were employed by the ancient Hebrews, Greeks, and Romans for flavoring, as a carminative in medicine, and as a condiment in cooking.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mulberry\">Mulberry <em>(Morus nigra)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any tree of this family, some bearing dark-purple fruit and one bearing white fruit, having leaves used as food for silkworms. The sycamine tree of Luke 17:6 (<span>kjv<\/span>) is evidently the black mulberry, <em>Morus nigra.<\/em> It is a low-growing, thick-crowned, stiff-branched tree standing from 24 to 35 feet (7.3 to 10.7 meters) tall, though rarely more than 30 feet (9.1 meters) tall. Originally native to northern Persia, it is now cultivated throughout the Middle East for its fruit. The Chinese or Indian species, <em>M. alba,<\/em> was until recently widely cultivated in Syria and the Holy Land but is not indigenous.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mustard\">Mustard <em>(Brassica nigra, B. arvensis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Various plants of this genus are native to Eurasia, some of which are cultivated for their edible seeds. While there is disagreement about the identity of the “mustard” of Matthew 13:31-32, 17:20, Mark 4:31, Luke 13:19, and 17:6, it is generally thought to be the ordinary black mustard, <em>Brassica nigra.<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The mustard Jesus referred to may be the charlock or wild mustard, <em>B. arvensis,<\/em> which normally grows from one to three feet (.3 to .9 meter) tall. Some have suggested that it was actually <em>Salvadora persica,<\/em> found in thickets around the Dead Sea. The plant has a pleasant aromatic taste resembling that of mustard, and if taken in considerable quantity, it will produce an irritation of the nose and eyes similar to that of mustard. However, this plant does not grow as far north as Galilee, and the fruits are rather large and stony, thus hardly fitting the description of the parable.<\/p>\n<p>While the seeds of the mustard are not the smallest known, they were probably the smallest familiar to the common people who comprised Jesus’ audience in Galilee.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Myrrh\">Myrrh <em>(Commiphora myrrha, C. kataf)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Shrub or tree exuding an aromatic gum resin used in perfume and incense. Most of the references in Scripture to myrrh are to <em>Commiphora myrrha,<\/em> although <em>C. kataf<\/em> may also be involved since it grows in the same region and is similar. The two trees are native to Arabia, Ethiopia, and the Somali coast of east Africa. They yield a gummy exudation that constitutes most of the myrrh of commerce. Both species are low, scrubby, thick- and stiff-branched thorny shrubs or small trees that grow in rocky places, especially on limestone hills. In the East it is highly regarded as an aromatic substance, perfume, and medicine. The ancient Egyptians burned it in their temples and embalmed their dead with it; the Jews also used it for embalming (Jn 19:39). The Hebrews held it in high regard as a perfume (Ps 45:8).<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Myrtle\">Myrtle <em>(Myrtus communis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The myrtle tree is common in the Holy Land, especially around Bethlehem, Lebanon, Hebron, and the slopes of Mt Carmel and Mt Tabor. It is native to western Asia and in good environments grows into a small evergreen tree 20 to 30 feet (6.2 to 9.1 meters) tall. More often, however, it is a straggling bush 1½ to 4 feet (.5 to 1.2 meters) tall.<\/p>\n<p>In the Bible, myrtle is referred to chiefly as a symbol of God’s generosity. Branches of myrtle trees were included among those that Nehemiah ordered to be gathered for the Feast of Tabernacles (Neh 8:15). The myrtle was symbolic not only of peace but also of justice.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Narcissus\">Narcissus <em>(Narcissus tazetta)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Widely cultivated plant of this family with narrow leaves and usually white or yellow flowers with a cup-crown or trumpet-shaped crown. The polyanthus narcissus <em>(Narcissus tazetta)<\/em> appears to be the plant referred to in Isaiah 35:1. This narcissus grows abundantly on the plains of Sharon and elsewhere in Palestine. Being sweet-smelling, it is a great favorite.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Nard\">Nard <em>(Nardostachys jatamansi)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The nard is a perennial herb with strong, pleasantly scented roots. It is native to high altitudes in the Himalayas, and its range extends from there into western Asia. The roots and spikelike wooly young stems are dried before the leaves unfold and are used for making perfume. It is still used in India as a perfume for the hair, and there is every reason to believe that the spikenard of Scripture (Sg 1:12; 4:13-14; Mk 14:3; Jn 12:3) came originally from India.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Nettle\">Nettle <em>(Urtica)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Plant of this genus having toothed leaves covered with hairs that exude a stinging flush. Four species of nettle are found in the Holy Land: the common or great nettle, <em>Urtica dioica;<\/em> the Roman nettle, <em>U. pilulifera;<\/em> the small nettle, <em>U. urens;<\/em> and <em>U. caudata,<\/em> which is similar to the small nettle. Some nettles attain a height of five to six feet (1.5 to 1.8 meters). They are common pests of waste places and fields. They are often seen occupying ground that was once cultivated but has since been neglected (Is 34:13; Hos 9:6).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"NutmegFlower\">Nutmeg Flower <em>(Nigella sativa)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The “fitches” of Isaiah 28:25-27 (<span>kjv<\/span>) are probably the nutmeg flower, an annual plant of the buttercup family. The plant grows wild in southern Europe, Syria, Egypt, north Africa, and other Mediterranean lands, where it is extensively cultivated for its strongly pungent, pepperlike aromatic seeds. These are sprinkled over some kinds of bread and cakes in the East and are used for flavoring curries and other dishes in the Holy Land and Egypt. Cummin and nutmeg flowers are still gathered in the Holy Land in the same way described by Isaiah.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Oak\">Oak <em>(Quercus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>At least five species of oaks are found in Palestine. One of these is the kermes oak <em>(Quercus coccifera),<\/em> the host of the insect <em>Coccus ilicis,<\/em> which produces the scarlet dye used in coloring linen and wool (Gn 38:28-30; Ex 25:4; 26:1; 28:33; 35:23; 39:24; Lv 14:4-6, 51-52; Nm 19:6; 2 Chr 2:7, 14; 3:14; Is 1:18; Heb 9:19; Rv 18:12). The kermes oak grows from 6 to 35 feet (1.8 to 10.7 meters) tall and is found in the mountainous regions of Syria, Lebanon, and the Holy Land. When it grows alone, the kermes oak often becomes a large tree. It was regularly planted by tombs in the East. The oak was always respected and even venerated in biblical times for its large size and strength, and great men were usually buried in its shade. Abraham’s oak in Hebron is an example.<\/p>\n<p>A second oak is the valonia oak <em>(Q. aegilops),<\/em> perhaps the oak of Isaiah 2:13 and 44:14. It is common in the middle montane zones and probably was abundant in the area around Bashan. The oak of Genesis 35:4, 8 is thought to have been the holm oak <em>(Q. ilex),<\/em> an evergreen oak that grows to a height of 60 feet (18.3 meters). Still another oak is <em>Q. lusitanica,<\/em> the cypress oak, a small deciduous tree seldom more than 20 feet (6.1 meters) tall. The very large acorns of this tree were sometimes eaten.<\/p>\n<p>The word translated “plain” (<span>kjv<\/span>) in Genesis 12:6, 13:18, 14:13, and 18:1 should probably be translated “oak.”<\/p>\n<p>The many references to “groves” in the OT, usually in connection with the worship of Baal or other heathen gods (Ex 34:13; Dt 16:21; Jgs 3:7; 1 Kgs 14:23; 18:19; 2 Kgs 17:16—all <span>kjv<\/span>), were probably groves of sacred oak trees.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"OilTreeOleaster\">Oil Tree, Oleaster <em>(Elaeagnus angustifolia)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Small Eurasian tree with oblong silvery leaves, greenish flowers, and olivelike fruit. There is question as to which tree is referred to when 1 Kings 6:23, 31-33 and 1 Chronicles 27:28 refer to “olive trees.” The same word occurs in Isaiah 41:19 and Micah 6:7. The plant referred to is probably the narrow-leaved oleaster <em>(Elaeagnus angustifolia),<\/em> a small stiff-branched tree or graceful shrub growing from 15 to 20 feet (4.6 to 6.1 meters) tall, common in all parts of the Holy Land except in the Jordan Valley. At one time it was particularly common on Mt Tabor and at Hebron and Samaria. The wood is hard and fine-grained and therefore well suited for carving of images and figures. The oil that it yields is a rather inferior type used in medication but not for food; this may be the oil of Micah 6:7.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Oleander\">Oleander <em>(Nerium oleander)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any poisonous evergreen shrub of this genus growing in warm climates. One of the suggestions for the plants identified as “roses” in various translations (Ecclus 24:14, <span>kjv<\/span>) is the oleander. This plant, originally native to the East Indies, has been cultivated throughout the warm regions of the world for centuries. It flourishes in the Holy Land today and forms dense thickets in some parts of the Jordan Valley. It is usually a shrub from 3 to 12 feet (.9 to 3.7 meters) tall. Every part of the plant is dangerously poisonous.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"OliveOliveTree\">Olive, Olive Tree <em>(Olea europaea)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Old world semitropical evergreen tree bearing edible fruit. The olive, <em>Olea europaea,<\/em> was unquestionably one of the most valuable trees known to the Jews. There are innumerable references to it in Scripture, as well as to olive oil, which was used for anointing. The tree is quite common in the Holy Land, and in many places it is the only tree of any substantial size. The branches of the wild olive are rather stiff and spinescent, and the typical cultivated tree is a multi-branched evergreen, 20 or more feet (6.1 meters) tall, with a gnarled trunk and smooth, ash-colored bark. The leaves are leathery and the flowers are small, yellow or white. The fruits are large, black or violet, ripening in September, and it is the outer fleshy parts of the fruit that yield the valuable olive oil of commerce. Thirty-one percent of the ripe fruit is oil. The ripe fruit is eaten raw, as is the green, unripe fruit. The wood of the trunk and limbs is hard, rich yellow or amber in color, and fine-grained, often handsomely variegated. It is still used today for the finest cabinetwork and turnery. The tree grows very slowly, but it attains a great age. It is difficult to kill the olive tree by cutting it down, because new sprouts are sent up from the root and all around the margins of the old stump, often forming a grove of two to five trunks, all from a single root that originally supported only one tree.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Onion\">Onion <em>(Allium)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The onions referred to in Numbers 11:5 are undoubtedly <em>Allium cepa,<\/em> the Egyptian onion, which is made up of a compact coated bulb formed of layers consisting of broad fleshy bases of closely overlapping leaves. The leaves are slender and hollow. The entire plant has a characteristic pungent taste and odor.<\/p>\n\n<p>Closely related to the onion is the garlic, <em>A. sativum.<\/em> The common garlic is a hardy, bulbous perennial plant that is cultivated in Europe, western Asia, and Egypt. The leaves are narrow, flat, and ribbonlike. It is extremely popular with people of the Mediterranean region.<\/p>\n<p>Still another one of the onions is the leek, <em>A. porrum.<\/em> The bulb of the leek differs from that of the onion and garlic in that it is slender, cylindrical, and more than six inches (15.2 centimeters) in length. The flavor resembles that of the onion but is more pungent. The leaves are eaten as a relish or are cooked in soups. The bulbs are cut into small pieces and employed as seasoning for meat.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Palm\">Palm <em>(Phoenix dactylifera)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The palm tree of the Bible is undoubtedly the date palm. At one time it was as characteristic of the Holy Land as it is still today of Egypt. It is characterized by a branchless, tapering stem of up to 80 feet (24.2 meters) or more in height and a large terminal cluster of feathery leaves, each six to nine feet (1.8 to 2.7 meters) or more long. Because of its height and unusual structure, it was natural that it should be used as a form of ornamentation in Eastern architecture. The stem and leaves were favorite subjects of architectural embellishment. The immense, branchlike leaves that are referred to as branches in the Bible were symbols of triumph and were used on occasions of great rejoicing (Jn 12:13; Rv 7:9). The large leaves are still used to cover the roofs and sides of houses and to give solidity to reed fences. Mats, baskets, and even dishes are made of them. Small leaves are used as dusters, and the wood of the trunk is used for timber. Rope is made from the weblike integument in the crown. The fruit, borne in an immense drooping cluster, which may weigh from 30 to 50 pounds (13.6 to 22.7 kilograms), is the chief food of many natives of Arabia and north Africa. A single tree may yield up to 200 pounds (90.7 kilograms) of dates a year. They may be dried for future use.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Papyrus\">Papyrus <em>(Cyperus papyrus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The Egyptian bulrush or papyrus (Ex 2:3-5; Jb 8:11; Is 18:2; 19:6-7; 35:7; 58:5) has smooth three-sided stems ordinarily attaining a height of 8 to 10 feet (2.4 to 3 meters), but sometimes even 16 feet (4.9 meters), and a thickness of two to three inches (5.1 to 7.6 centimeters) at the base with a large tuft of florets at the end. The papyrus formerly grew in great abundance along the banks of the Nile, forming what was almost a dense jungle. Today it is practically extinct in lower Egypt, although it is still found along the White Nile and in the Sudan. The papyrus still grows in parts of the Holy Land, especially around the north end of the plain of Galilee and the Huleh swamps.<\/p>\n\n<p>In addition to being used for making small vessels to float in water (Ex 2:3), for mats, and for various other domestic purposes, it is best known as the source of ancient paper. In manufacturing paper from papyrus, the stems of the plant were first peeled and the pitch then cut longitudinally into thin slices that were laid side by side. These were then sprinkled with water and pressed to unite the whole into one piece. The sheet was then dried and cut into pieces of the required size. In the better grades of papyrus paper, several layers of stem slices were laid crosswise on each other.<\/p>\n<p>The pale, fawn-colored, tassel-like inflorescences at the summit of the stems were used to adorn Egyptian temples and to crown the statues of gods. They were also worn as crowns by famous men and national heroes.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PineTree\">Pine Tree <em>(Pinus brutia, P. halepensis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Various evergreen trees of this family with needle-shaped leaves in clusters and seed-bearing cones. While there is considerable confusion concerning the conifers of the Bible, it seems apparent that pines are referred to in such passages as Leviticus 23:40; Nehemiah 8:15; Isaiah 41:19; and 60:13. One of the Holy Land’s pines is the Brutian pine <em>(Pinus brutia),<\/em> a mountain-inhabiting species of the northern regions of Palestine. It attains a height of 10 to 35 feet (3 to 10.7 meters) with a rather diffuse growth and branches in whorls.<\/p>\n<p>Another of the pines is the Aleppo pine, <em>Pinus halepensis.<\/em> Most of the instances of the occurrence of “fir” or “fir tree” in the <span>kjv<\/span> probably refer to the Aleppo pine (2 Sm 6:5; 1 Kgs 5:8, 10; 6:34; 2 Kgs 19:23; 2 Chr 2:8; Ps 104:17; Sg 1:17; Is 14:8; 37:24; 55:13; 60:13; Ez 27:5; 31:8; Hos 14:8; Na 2:3; Zec 11:2). It grows from 9 to 60 feet (2.7 to 18.3 meters) tall with diffuse ascending branches and yellowish or brownish branchlets.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Pistachio\">Pistachio <em>(Pistacia terebinthus, P. vera)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The Palestine terebinth or turpentine tree is a large deciduous tree with straggling boughs. In the winter, without its leaves, it looks much like the oak. It grows from 12 to 25 feet (3.7 to 7.6 meters) tall. Every part of the tree contains a fragrant, resinous juice. It is common on the lower slopes of the hills throughout Syria, Lebanon, Palestine, and Arabia, generally growing as a solitary tree and found mostly in localities too warm or too dry for the oak that it generally replaces. Since it is native to Gilead, it is quite probable that its resinous juice formed part of the spicery that the Israelites carried to Egypt from Gilead (Gn 37:25).<\/p>\n<p>The nuts of Genesis 43:11 are apparently pistachio nuts from the pistachio tree, <em>Pistacia vera,<\/em> closely related to the terebinth. It attains a height of 10 to 30 feet (3 to 9.1 meters) with a spreading top. It is found wild in many rocky parts of Lebanon and the Holy Land. The nut has a light-colored shell and the kernel has a sweet delicate flavor much relished wherever it grows.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PlaneTree\">Plane Tree <em>(Platanus orientalis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of several trees of this family with bell-shaped fruit clusters and usually an outer bark that flakes off in patches or strips. The references in Genesis 30:37 and Ezekiel 31:8 are apparently not to the chestnut tree, which is not indigenous to Palestine, but to the oriental plane tree, <em>Platanus orientalis.<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The plane tree is a massive tree 60 feet (18.3 meters) or more tall with a trunk often of vast circumference, sometimes as much as 40 feet (12.2 meters). The outer bark peels off in sheets or scales, thus exposing a smooth whitish or yellowish inner bark. The tree is common throughout Lebanon, Syria, and the Holy Land, growing even in subalpine regions. However, it is primarily a tree of the plains and lowlands, growing on the edges of streams and lakes and in marshy places.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Pomegranate\">Pomegranate <em>(Punica granatum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The pomegranate is usually a small, bushlike tree but may occasionally become a large, branching shrub or small tree reaching a height of 20 to 30 feet (6.1 to 9.1 meters). The branches are often thorny. The showy bell-like flowers are usually scarlet, though sometimes yellow or white. The globular fruit is as large as an orange or medium-size apple. It has a hard rind of a bright red or yellowish color when ripe and is surmounted by the dry sepals that resemble a crown. The fruit itself is a crimson juicy pulp in which many red seeds are imbedded. The flowers of the pomegranate undoubtedly served as a pattern for the golden bells referred to in Exodus 28:33-34 and 39:24-26, and the open flowers of 1 Kings 6:32. The erect calyx lobes on the fruit served as a model for crowns of kings.<\/p>\n<p>The pomegranate is native to Asia, but it has been cultivated since prehistoric times and is now quite common in the Holy Land, in Egypt, and along the shores of the Mediterranean. It is listed as one of the pleasant fruits of Egypt (Nm 20:5) and one of the promised blessings of the Holy Land (Dt 8:8).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Poplar\">Poplar <em>(Populus euphratica, P. alba)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Fast-growing deciduous tree of the same genus as the aspen and cottonwood. The <span>kjv<\/span> references in 2 Samuel 5:23-24 and 1 Chronicles 14:14-15 to mulberry trees are more probably to the Euphrates poplar or aspen, <em>Populus euphratica.<\/em> This tree grows to a height of 30 to 45 feet (9.1 to 13.7 meters) with spreading branches. The Euphrates aspen is found only on rivers and stream banks throughout the area from Syria through the Holy Land to Stony Arabia. It is especially common in the Jordan Valley.<\/p>\n<p>The white poplar <em>(Populus alba)<\/em> is common in wet places in Syria, Lebanon, the Holy Land, and Sinai. It attains a height of 30 to 60 feet (9.1 to 18.3 meters) with spreading branches. Some suggest that the altars of various pagan religions were usually erected on the top of a hill and in the shade of a poplar grove.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Quince\">Quince <em>(Cydonia oblonga)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Tree native to western Asia, having white flowers and applelike fruit that is edible when cooked. Some believe that the “apples” of the OT were quinces, <em>Cydonia oblonga.<\/em> The quince tree is quite common in the Holy Land, though chiefly as a cultivated tree. It may occur wild in the northern parts of Syria. It is native to northern Persia and Asia Minor. The fruit is yellowish and highly fragrant, and it is the fragrance that caused it to be held in high regard by the ancients.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Reed\">Reed <em>(Juncus, Scirpus, Typha angustata, Arundo donax)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Numerous species of the rush and bulrush grow in the Holy Land. There are at least 21 varieties of rushes. The common soft rush or bog rush <em>(Juncus effusus)<\/em> is found in wet places, even in the Sinai and other deserts. The sea or hard rush <em>(J. maritimus)<\/em> is found in damp places throughout the Holy Land and even in Sinai.<\/p>\n<p>At least 15 kinds of bulrushes <em>(Scirpus)<\/em> are known in the Holy Land. The cluster-headed club rush <em>(Scirpus holoschoenus)<\/em> is common in damp places throughout the Holy Land to the Sinai. The lake club rush or tall bulrush <em>(S. lacustris)<\/em> is found in swamps and ditches throughout northern Africa to the Dead Sea. The sea club rush or salt marsh club rush <em>(S. maritimus)<\/em> is found in ditches and swamps in many places of the Holy Land. Any of these species may be the one referred to in Job 8:11; Isaiah 9:14; 19:6, 15.<\/p>\n<p>The reference in Genesis 41:2 to the feeding of cattle in the meadow seems to be to the tall reed <em>(Arundo donax),<\/em> which grows 18 feet (5.5 meters) or more in height. This plant is also known as the Persian reed and is common throughout the Holy Land, Syria, and the Sinai peninsula. It is a gigantic grass that may have a stem diameter of two or three inches (5.1 to 7.6 centimeters) at the base and is terminated by a plume of white flowers similar to those of the sugarcane or pampas grass. The plant was used for many purposes by the ancients: for walking sticks, fishing rods, measuring rods, and musical pipes. It is, therefore, quite possible that the “reed” of Matthew 27:48 and Mark 15:36 was a carpenter’s reed or measuring rod.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Papyrus.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Rue\">Rue <em>(Ruta chalepensis, R. graveolens)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Aromatic Eurasian plant with evergreen leaves that yield an acrid, volatile oil once used in medicine. There is little question as to the correctness of the translation of “rue” in Luke 11:42, but there is some doubt as to the exact species. Most writers think that it was the common rue <em>(Rue graveolens),<\/em> a perennial shrubby plant with erect stems two to three feet (.6 to .9 meter) tall and deeply cut leaves. A very strong odor emanates from the foliage. This species is native to the Mediterranean region and grows wild in the Holy Land, especially on Mt Tabor.<\/p>\n<p>Rue was highly thought of by the ancients as a medicinal, supposed to prevent dizziness, dumbness, epilepsy, eye inflammations, insanity, and the “evil eye.” Rue was also used for seasoning dishes.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Rush\">Rush <em>(Butomus umbellatus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Generic term for any of various grasslike marsh plants having pliant, hollow, or pithy stems. There is considerable uncertainty about the identification of the plant referred to in Genesis 41:2 translated in the <span>kjv<\/span> as “meadow,” and in Job 8:11 as “flag.” Since it is mentioned along with the papyrus in the Job passage, it seems that it refers to a specific kind of plant rather than to an aggregate of plants in a meadow. From the description in Genesis as being a plant on which Pharaoh’s cattle might feed along the banks of the Nile and yet not the papyrus, it may refer to the flowering rush or water gladiola <em>(Butomus umbellatus),<\/em> which flourishes both in Egypt and in the Holy Land, along with the papyrus.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Reed.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Saffron\">Saffron <em>(Crocus sativus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Saffron, referred to in Song of Songs 4:14, is the product of several species of <em>Crocus,<\/em> especially of the blue-flowered saffron crocus <em>(C. sativus),<\/em> which is native to Greece and Asia Minor. The commercial product consists of the stigma and upper portions of the style, the top parts of the flower ovary, which are collected shortly after the flower opens. It requires at least 4,000 stigmas to make an ounce of saffron. After being gathered, the stigmas are dried in the sun, pounded, and made into small cakes. Saffron is used principally as a yellow dye and also as a fruit coloring for curries and stews.<\/p>\n<p>Another, entirely different kind of dye-producing plant <em>(Carthamus tinctorius)<\/em> called carthamine, bastard saffron, or safflower is a member of the thistle family. Its red florets yield a dye used extensively for coloring silk, in cooking, and for adulterating genuine saffron. It is an annual spiny plant three to four and a half feet (1.4 meters) tall, native to Syria and Egypt. In Egypt the grave clothes of mummies were dyed with this material, and it is quite possible that this plant may also have been the saffron of the Bible.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Sage\">Sage <em>(Salvia judaica)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The Judean sage grows to three feet (.9 meter) tall in the mountains and hills of Palestine. Its stems are four-angled, stiff, and rough. The plant grows from Syria south through Nazareth, Hebron, Tiberius, Samaria, and Judea.<\/p>\n<p>This plant is the origin of the design of the seven-branched lampstand of Exodus 37:17-18, which is known as the menorah, the traditional Jewish symbol. The inflorescence of the plant, when pressed flat, has almost exactly the same shape and form as the seven-branched candlestick, with its central spike and three pairs of side branches each bending upward and inward in a symmetrical fashion. On each branch of the plant’s inflorescence are whorls or buds that perhaps give the idea for the “knops” (<span>kjv<\/span>) or “knobs” on the biblical golden candlesticks.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Spelt\">Spelt <em>(Triticum aestivum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Hardy member of the wheat family. The rye of Exodus 9:32 and Isaiah 28:25, as well as the fitches of Ezekiel 4:9 (all <span>kjv<\/span>) are thought to be spelt. It is a hard-grained species of wheat with loose ears and grains triangular in cross-section, and was the most common form of wheat in early times. It has a stouter stem than wheat and strong spikes of grain. Bread made of its flour is much inferior to that made from wheat, but spelt will thrive in almost any kind of soil and will yield a crop on land that is unfit for wheat. The ancients preferred it to barley for bread.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"StoraxTree\">Storax Tree <em>(Styrax officinalis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Various trees of this genus yielding an aromatic resin. Today it is thought that the stacte of Exodus 30:34 was derived from the storax tree. It is an irregularly stiff-branched shrub or small tree 9 to 20 feet (2.7 to 6.1 meters) tall. This tree is abundant on low hills and rocky places from Lebanon through the Holy Land. Its gum is obtained by making incisions in the stems and branches. It is highly perfumed and is still prized today as a perfume.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Sycamore\">Sycamore-fig <em>(Ficus sycomorus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Tree of northeastern Africa and adjacent Asia, related to the fig. The word translated “sycamore” in 1 Kings 10:27; 1 Chronicles 27:28; 2 Chronicles 1:15; 9:27; Psalm 78:47; Isaiah 9:10; Amos 7:14; and Luke 19:4 undoubtedly refers to the well-known sycamore-fig, which is also known as the mulberry-fig or fig-mulberry. It should not be confused with the common sycamore of the North American continent, which is actually a plane tree. The sycamore-fig of the Bible is a strong-growing, robust, wide-spreading tree growing 30 to 40 feet (9.1 to 12.2 meters) tall and sometimes attaining a trunk circumference of 20 feet (6.1 meters) or more with a crown 120 feet (36.6 meters) in diameter. It is a tree that is easily climbed and is frequently planted along roadsides, which accounts for the reference in Luke 19:4. It produces an abundant amount of fruit in clusters on all parts of the tree, on both young and old branches and even on the trunk itself. It is very similar to the common fig, only smaller and much inferior in quality. In David’s day it was so valuable that he appointed a special overseer for the sycamore trees (1 Chr 27:28). It is thought that Amos was not a gatherer of sycamore fruit but rather a dresser of sycamore trees.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Tamarisk\">Tamarisk <em>(Tamarix)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The references in Genesis 21:33 and 1 Samuel 22:6 and 31:13 seem to be to the tamarisk. These trees or shrubs are small and fast-growing with a durable wood. They are abundant in deserts, dunes, and salt marshes. <em>Tamarix aphylla<\/em> is leafless and has small white flowers. These trees or shrubs often provide a soothing touch of green foliage and a promise of cooling shade to the traveler. Tamarisks are able to survive because they either have small, scalelike leaves, which lose little moisture by transpiration, or no leaves at all. The larger of the tamarisks are valued for their wood in a region where wood is scarce. The wood was used for building and also as a source of an excellent type of charcoal.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Terebinth\">Terebinth <em>(Pistacia terebinthus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Pistachio (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ThistleThorn\">Thistle, Thorn <em>(Lycium europaeum, Solanum incanum, Centaurea, Silybum marianum, Ruscus aculeatus, Agrostemma githago, Paliurus spina-christi, Zizyphus spina-christi)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>There are 22 different Hebrew and Greek words used in Scripture to refer to spiny or prickly shrubs or weeds, and these are translated as “bramble,” “brier,” “cockle,” “thorn,” and “thistle.” At present, there are about 125 species of thorns and thistles that grow in the Holy Land.<\/p>\n<p>The bramble in the allegory of Judges 9:14-15 is believed to refer to the European boxthorn or desert-thorn, <em>Lycium europaeum.<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The general consensus is that the “briers” of Isaiah 10:17, 55:13, Micah 7:4, and Hebrews 6:8 are the Palestine nightshade <em>(Solanum incanum),<\/em> or “Jericho potato.”<\/p>\n<p>The thistles of Genesis 3:17-18, 2 Kings 14:9, 2 Chronicles 25:18, Hosea 10:8, and Matthew 7:16, as well as the thorns of Matthew 13:7 and Hebrews 6:8, are thought to be one of the species of the thistle, <em>Centaurea.<\/em> Among the more common thistles in the Holy Land are the true star-thistle <em>(Centaurea calcitrapa),<\/em> the dwarf centaury <em>(C. verutum),<\/em> the Iberian centaury <em>(C. iberica),<\/em> and the lady’s thistle <em>(Silybum marianum).<\/em> Some thistles attain a height of five to six feet (.9 to 1.8 meters). Thistles are characteristic of an area that is uncultivated and neglected. Many have beautiful flowers, but all are covered with sharp spines.<\/p>\n<p>The references in Ezekiel 2:6 to “briers” and Ezekiel 28:24 to a “pricking brier” may be to the prickly butchers-broom or knee-holly, <em>Ruscus aculeatus.<\/em> The plant is common in rocky woods in the northern regions of the Holy Land, especially around Mt Tabor and Mt Carmel.<\/p>\n<p>The cockle of Job 31:40 (<span>nlt<\/span> “weeds”) perhaps refers to the corn cockle, <em>Agrostemma githago.<\/em> This plant is common in grainfields throughout the Holy Land. It is a strong-growing and troublesome weed in grainfields, growing from one to three feet (.3 to .9 meter) tall.<\/p>\n<p>Many commentators think that the “thorns” out of which the crown of thorns (Mt 27:29; Jn 19:2) was made were from the Christ-thorn <em>(Paliurus spina-christi).<\/em> This belief has led to its specific name; the Christ-thorn is a spiny plant that ordinarily grows as a straggling shrub three to nine feet (.9 to 2.7 meters) tall. The flexible branches are armed at the base of each leaf with a pair of unequal, stiff, sharp spines. The unusual pliable texture of the young branches renders it particularly easy to plait into a crownlike wreath.<\/p>\n<p>The thorns of Judges 8:7, Isaiah 7:19, 9:18, 55:13, and Matthew 7:16 may refer to the Syrian Christ-thorn <em>(Zizyphus spina-christi),<\/em> a shrub or small tree 9 to 15 feet (2.7 to 4.6 meters) tall, sometimes growing into a 40-foot (12.2-meter) tree with smooth white branches bearing a pair of stout, unequal, recurved spines at the back of each leaf.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Bramble; Buckthorn (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Tulip\">Tulip <em>(Tulipa montana, T. sharonensis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of several bulbous plants of this family native to Asia. The rose of Sharon in Song of Songs 2:1 may be the mountain tulip, <em>Tulipa montana,<\/em> or the closely related Sharon tulip, <em>T. sharonensis.<\/em> The former is an attractive plant that grows from a bulb and has leaves that are often wavy-margined. The species is common in the mountainous regions of Syria, Lebanon, and the Anti-Lebanon. It is primarily a mountainous species. The Sharon tulip <em>(T. sharonensis)<\/em> is found in sandy places on the Sharon coastal plains.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Tumbleweed\">Tumbleweed <em>(Gundelia tournefortii, Anastatica hierochuntica)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The references in Psalm 83:13 to “whirling dust” and in Isaiah 17:13 to “wheel” or “rolling thing” (<span>niv<\/span> “tumbleweed”) seem to be to the Palestinian tumbleweed <em>(Gundelia tournefortii),<\/em> a member of the thistle family. It is a prickly herb with milky juice. It rolls over the land and gathers in tremendous heaps in hollows.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Vegetable\">Vegetable<\/p>\n<p>Scriptural references to vegetables are probably, in most cases, to the dried leguminous seeds of beans and lentils.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Vine\">Vine <em>(Vitis vinifera)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any plant with a flexible stem that climbs, twines, or creeps along a surface or support. The common grapevine <em>(Vitis vinifera)<\/em> is mentioned throughout the Bible. The fruitful vine (Ez 17:5-10) and the vine brought out of Egypt (Ps 80:8) were symbolic of the Jewish people. Jesus compares himself to the true vine, of which his disciples were the branches (Jn 15:1-6).<\/p>\n<p>The grapevine of the Old World sometimes assumes the characteristics of a tree, with stems up to a foot and a half (45.7 centimeters) in diameter, the branches then being trained on a trellis and bearing bunches of grapes 10 to 12 pounds (4.5 to 5.4 kilograms) in weight, with the individual grapes the size of small plums. Bunches have been produced weighing as much as 26 pounds (11.8 kilograms). The vines of the Holy Land were always renowned both for the luxuriance of their growth and for the immense clusters of grapes they produced. Thus it does not seem improbable that the spies sent to the Promised Land should have employed a pole to transport some of the clusters home (Nm 13:23-24).<\/p>\n<p>The wild grape <em>(Vitis orientalis)<\/em> is referred to in Isaiah 5:2-4, Jeremiah 2:21, and Ezekiel 15:2-6. It is known as the native wild fox grape and has small, black, acidic berries about the size of currants with little juice.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Walnut\">Walnut <em>(Juglans regia)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of several trees of this genus having round, sticky fruit enclosing an edible nut. The reference in Song of Songs 6:11 to “nuts” is thought to refer to the Persian or common walnut, <em>Juglans regia.<\/em> The tree is believed to have been indigenous to northern Persia, but it is actually found wild in many parts of northern India, eastward as far as China, and westward through Persia. At the time of Solomon, it was widely cultivated for its fruit throughout the East. Perhaps Solomon’s garden of nuts was a part of his extensive gardens at Etham, six miles (9.7 kilometers) from Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"WaterLily\">Water Lily <em>(Nymphaea)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of numerous aquatic plants of this genus with floating leaves and showy flowers. The carved lily ornamentation of 1 Kings 7:19-26 and 2 Chronicles 4:5 was probably patterned after the flowers of the water lily. Few flowers can equal the Egyptian lotus or water lily <em>(Nymphaea lotus)<\/em> in beauty. It looks very much like a large white rose and at one time floated in profusion on the waters of the Nile.<\/p>\n<p>The common European white water lily <em>(N. alba)<\/em> was also familiar to the children of Israel. It grows not only in Europe but also in the Holy Land and North Africa. It is, however, not as common in Egypt as is the white lotus.<\/p>\n<p>Another water lily with which the Israelites were probably familiar is the blue lotus, <em>N. caerulea.<\/em> Its leaves are 12 to 16 inches (30.5 to 40.6 centimeters) across and it has light-blue flowers that are three to six inches (7.6 to 15.2 centimeters) in diameter.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Wheat\">Wheat <em>(Triticum aestivum, T. compositum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Various cereal grasses of this family widely cultivated for its edible grain. Five kinds of wheat are native to—and still wild in—the Holy Land, and at least eight others are cultivated there today; probably most, if not all, were known in Bible times. The wild varieties were probably more abundant then than they are today. Among these are the einkorn <em>(T. monococcum),<\/em> the thaoudar <em>(T. thaoudar),<\/em> and the wild emmer <em>(T. dicoccoides).<\/em> The composite wheat <em>(T. compositum),<\/em> with its branched spikes, often bearing as many as seven heads per stalk, is definitely referred to in Genesis 41:5-57. It is depicted on numerous Egyptian monuments and on inscriptions and is still commonly seen in the Nile Delta, where it is known as “mummy wheat.” It is also cultivated in the Holy Land.<\/p>\n<p>The most frequently mentioned wheat of the Bible is undoubtedly the commonly cultivated summer and winter wheat, <em>Triticum aestivum.<\/em> It is an abundant annual grass cultivated in Egypt and other Eastern lands since earliest times. The exact place of its origin is unknown. Grains of wheat have been found in the most ancient Egyptian tombs and in the remains of prehistoric lake dwellings in Switzerland. It was certainly the chief grain of Mesopotamia in Jacob’s time (Gn 30:14).<\/p>\n<p>Corn in biblical days often included a mixture of peas, beans, lentils, cummin, barley, millet, and spelt, but wheat was always its main constituent. Egypt was a great grain-producing country, and Abram (Gn 12:10) and Joseph’s brothers (ch 42) naturally turned to Egypt for wheat when famine visited Canaan.<\/p>\n<p>The mills, millstones, granaries, and threshing floors mentioned in the Bible all refer to equipment employed in processing grain to produce flour. The fine flour of which the showbread loaves were made (Lv 24:5) was unquestionably wheat flour. Wheat intended for home consumption was often stored in the central part of the house; this explains the story told in 2 Samuel 4:6. It was also sometimes stored in dry wells (2 Sm 17:19).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Wormwood\">Wormwood <em>(Artemisia judaica, A. herba-alba)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Wormwood is a general name given to a group of woody plants with a strong aromatic odor. Wormwood plants have a strong, bitter taste, and their young shoots and branch tips furnish the “wormwood” of commerce. Its bitter taste accounts for its being spoken of with gall—as being symbolic of bitter calamity and sorrow (Prv 5:4; Jer 9:15; 23:15; Lam 3:15, 19). <em>Artemisia herba-alba<\/em> is the common species of wormwood in the Holy Land today. It is strongly aromatic, smelling like camphor, and bitter. <em>A. judaica<\/em> occurs only in the Sinai.<\/p>\n<p>Absinthe is made from species of this group. It first leads to greater activity and pleasant sensations and fills the mind with grandiose ideas (Lam 3:15). The habitual use of it, however, brings on a stupor and gradual diminution of intellectual faculties, ending in delirium and even death. Perhaps the hemlock of Amos 6:12 was wormwood.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>PLANTS<\/h3>\n<p>Identifying biblical plants has always been a difficult task, partly because people continue to identify the biblical elm, sycamore, lily, rose, and vine with modern plants, and also because they assume that all the plants now growing in the Holy Land were there in ancient biblical days, or that the plants referred to in the Bible are still to be found there today. Unfortunately, many plants now quite common in the Holy Land were not there in biblical days. Many plants that once grew in abundance in the Holy Land are now extinct. Some have been driven out by foreign invaders; others have been exterminated or nearly exterminated by overcultivation of the land, the destruction of forests, and the resulting changes in climatic and other environmental conditions. At one time the Holy Land was a land of palm trees, with the date palm as abundant and characteristic there as it was in Egypt, but today the date palm is much less common. Similarly, in antiquity, the towering cedars clothed the slopes of Lebanon and other mountain ranges. Now the few remaining specimens must be carefully fenced in to protect them against trampling and the ravages of goats.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Acacia<\/p>\n<p>• Acanthus<\/p>\n<p>• Algum<\/p>\n<p>• Almond<\/p>\n<p>• Almug<\/p>\n<p>• Aloe<\/p>\n<p>• Apple<\/p>\n<p>• Apricot<\/p>\n<p>• Ash<\/p>\n<p>• Aspen<\/p>\n<p>• Balm<\/p>\n<p>• Barley<\/p>\n<p>• Bdellium<\/p>\n<p>• Bean<\/p>\n<p>• Bitter Herbs<\/p>\n<p>• Boxthorn, European<\/p>\n<p>• Box Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Bramble<\/p>\n<p>• Broom<\/p>\n<p>• Buckthorn<\/p>\n<p>• Bush<\/p>\n<p>• Buttercup<\/p>\n<p>• Calamus<\/p>\n<p>• Cane<\/p>\n<p>• Caper Plant<\/p>\n<p>• Carob Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Cassia<\/p>\n<p>• Castor Oil Plant<\/p>\n<p>• Cedar<\/p>\n<p>• Chicory<\/p>\n<p>• Cinnamon<\/p>\n<p>• Citron Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Coriander<\/p>\n<p>• Cotton<\/p>\n<p>• Cucumber<\/p>\n<p>• Cummin<\/p>\n<p>• Cypress<\/p>\n<p>• Dandelion<\/p>\n<p>• Darnel Grass<\/p>\n<p>• Dill<\/p>\n<p>• Ebony<\/p>\n<p>• Endive<\/p>\n<p>• Fig, Fig Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Fir Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Flax<\/p>\n<p>• Frankincense<\/p>\n<p>• Galbanum<\/p>\n<p>• Garlic<\/p>\n<p>• Gourd, Wild<\/p>\n<p>• Hedge<\/p>\n<p>• Henna<\/p>\n<p>• Hyacinth<\/p>\n<p>• Hyssop<\/p>\n<p>• Juniper<\/p>\n<p>• Laurel or Sweet Bay<\/p>\n<p>• Leek<\/p>\n<p>• Lentil<\/p>\n<p>• Lettuce<\/p>\n<p>• Lily<\/p>\n<p>• Lotus Bush<\/p>\n<p>• Mallow<\/p>\n<p>• Mandrake<\/p>\n<p>• Melon<\/p>\n<p>• Millet<\/p>\n<p>• Mint<\/p>\n<p>• Mulberry<\/p>\n<p>• Mustard<\/p>\n<p>• Myrrh<\/p>\n<p>• Myrtle<\/p>\n<p>• Narcissus<\/p>\n<p>• Nard<\/p>\n<p>• Nettle<\/p>\n<p>• Nutmeg Flower<\/p>\n<p>• Oak<\/p>\n<p>• Oil Tree, Oleaster<\/p>\n<p>• Oleander<\/p>\n<p>• Olive, Olive Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Onion<\/p>\n<p>• Palm<\/p>\n<p>• Papyrus<\/p>\n<p>• Pine Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Pistachio<\/p>\n<p>• Plane Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Pomegranate<\/p>\n<p>• Poplar<\/p>\n<p>• Quince<\/p>\n<p>• Reed<\/p>\n<p>• Rue<\/p>\n<p>• Rush<\/p>\n<p>• Saffron<\/p>\n<p>• Sage<\/p>\n<p>• Spelt<\/p>\n<p>• Storax Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Sycamore<\/p>\n<p>• Tamarisk<\/p>\n<p>• Terebinth<\/p>\n<p>• Thistle, Thorn<\/p>\n<p>• Tulip<\/p>\n<p>• Tumbleweed<\/p>\n<p>• Vegetable<\/p>\n<p>• Vine<\/p>\n<p>• Walnut<\/p>\n<p>• Water Lily<\/p>\n<p>• Wheat<\/p>\n<p>• Wormwood<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Acacia\">Acacia <em>(Acacia tortilis<\/em> and <em>A. seyal)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any tree or shrub of the mimosa family of plants growing in warm regions. The plant referred to in the <span>kjv<\/span> as “shittah” (singular) or “shittim” (plural) is undoubtedly the acacia tree, the only timber tree of any considerable size in the Arabian desert. <em>Acacia tortilis<\/em> is by far the largest and most common tree in the desert in which the Israelites wandered for 40 years. It is especially conspicuous on Mt Sinai and was probably the species used for the tabernacle furnishings. <em>A. seyal<\/em> is less common, at least today. It can grow as high as 25 feet (7.6 meters), and bears yellow flowers on twisted branches. The wood is close grained, heavy and hard, orange-brown in color, and much valued in cabinetwork. The ancient Egyptians clamped shut mummy coffins with acacia wood.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Acanthus\">Acanthus <em>(Acanthus syriacus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The acanthus, perhaps referred to in Job 30:7 and Zephaniah 2:9, is a perennial thistlelike herb or small shrub about three feet (.9 meter) tall, and is a common weed in all Eastern countries. It has been used since time immemorial as a model for the leaf or scroll decorations in art.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Algum\">Algum <em>(Juniperus excelsa Bieb)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The timber from Lebanon referred to in 2 Chronicles 2:8 is probably the juniper. Some translators hold, however, that algum and almug are Hebrew variants for the same tree (see <span>nlt<\/span> mg, 2 Chr 2:8).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Almug (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Almond\">Almond <em>(Amygdalus communis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The almond is a peachlike tree with saw-toothed pointed leaves and gray bark. It grows to a height of from 10 to 25 feet (3 to 7.6 meters). It blooms very early in the year; its Hebrew name has its roots in “watch for.” To the Jews it was a welcome harbinger of spring (Jer 1:11).<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Almug\">Almug <em>(Pterocarpus santalinus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The precious wood imported by King Solomon and used in making the pillars for the temple and for making harps and psalteries (1 Kgs 10:11-12). This timber was brought by sea from Ophir to Ezion-geber, near Elath. Modern authorities suggest that Ophir was either in Arabia, India, or East Africa near Mozambique. The reference to “algum“ in 2 Chronicles 2:8 is possibly to this tree. <em>See<\/em> Algum (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Aloe\">Aloe <em>(Aloe succotrina, Aquilaria agallocha)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Chiefly African, lilylike plant of the genus <em>Aloes,<\/em> certain species of which yield a drug and a fiber. Aloe is an aromatic substance mentioned in the Bible, together with myrrh, balm, and other fragrant plants (Ps 45:8; Prv 7:17; Sg 4:14; Jn 19:39). Most scholars think these passages refer to two different plants. The OT plant is likely to have been <em>Aquilaria agallocha,<\/em> the eaglewood, a large tree growing up to 120 feet (36.6 meters) tall with a trunk 12 feet (3.7 meters) in circumference. It is native to northern India, Malaya, and Indochina. The decaying wood is highly fragrant, and as such is highly valued as perfume and incense and for fumigation.<\/p>\n<p>The aloe of John 19:39 is thought to be the true aloe <em>(Aloe succotrina),<\/em> the juice of which was used by the Egyptians in embalming. Its smell, however, is not very agreeable, and it has a bitter taste. It is sometimes used by veterinarians as a horse medicine.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Apple\">Apple <em>(Malus sylvestris)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The identity of the fruit identified by the Hebrew word <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">tappuach<\/span> (Prv 25:11; Sg 2:3, 5; 7:8; 8:5) continues to be debated. In most English translations it has been rendered “apple” because of its close linguistic tie to the Arabic word <em>tuffah.<\/em> Many scholars identify this tree as the apricot, questioning whether apples fit the biblical description “apples of gold” and whether the apple tree was cultivated in ancient Palestine. Recent excavations at Kadesh-barnea, however, have uncovered carbonized apples, probably a crab apple <em>(Malus sylvestris),<\/em> dating to the ninth century <span>BC<\/span>. This would certainly allow for this ornamental apple’s cultivation in Solomon’s gardens.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Apricot (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Apricot\">Apricot <em>(Prunus armeniaca)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The identification of the Hebrew word <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">tappuach<\/span> with the apricot continues to be debated. The apricot tree produces yellow-orange peachlike edible fruit and is native to western Asia and Africa. It is abundant in the Holy Land and probably has been so since early biblical times. The tree is a round-headed reddish-barked tree growing 30 feet (9.1 meters) tall. Most translations render this Hebrew word “apple,” though many scholars identify it with the apricot because of its descriptions in the biblical text (see Prv 25:11; Sg 2:3, 5; 7:8; 8:5; Jl 1:12).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Apple (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Ash\">Ash <em>(Alhagi maurorum, Fraxinus ornus, Tamarix mannifera)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>There are several ash trees found in the Near East. One of these, the prickly alhagi <em>(Alhagi maurorum),<\/em> is a member of the pea family. It is a low, many-stemmed, much-branched shrub growing about three feet (.9 meter) tall with somewhat hairy twigs and pealike flowers. During the heat of the day, leaves exude a sweet, gummy substance that hardens in the air and is collected by shaking the bushes over a spread-out cloth.<\/p>\n<p>The manna tamarisk <em>(Tamarix mannifera)<\/em> is a multibranched shrub or a small tree 9 to 15 feet (2.7 to 4.6 meters) tall with rigid branches that have tiny pink flowers. It is found on deserts from the Holy Land to Arabia and the Sinai.<\/p>\n<p>The flowering or manna ash <em>(Fraxinus ornus)<\/em> is a tree that grows from 15 to 50 feet (4.6 to 15.2 meters) tall. The fruits are very similar to those produced by our species of ash. The ash of Isaiah 44:14 (<span>kjv<\/span>) is believed to be the Aleppo pine.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Aspen\">Aspen <em>(Populus euphratica<\/em> or <em>P. tremula)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of several trees of the genus <em>Populus<\/em> with leaves attached by flattened leafstalks so that they tremble or “quake” in the wind.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Balm\">Balm <em>(Balanites aegyptiaca, Pistacia lentiscus, Commiphora opobalsamum<\/em><em>)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>An oily aromatic resin exuded by chiefly tropical trees and shrubs and used medicinally; trees and shrubs producing this substance. References in Genesis 37:25, Jeremiah 8:22, 46:11, and 51:8 are thought to be either the Jericho balsam <em>(Balanites aegyptiaca)<\/em> or the lentisk or mastic tree <em>(Pistacia lentiscus).<\/em> The Jericho balsam is very common in Egypt, North Africa, the plains of Jericho, and the hot plains bordering on the Dead Sea. It is a small desert-loving plant, 9 to 15 feet (2.7 to 4.6 meters) tall, with slender, thorny branches and small clusters of green flowers.<\/p>\n<p>The lentisk or mastic tree is native to the Holy Land, and the reference in Genesis 43:11 is probably to this plant, since the implication is that this is a native product of the Holy Land unknown in Egypt at the time. This tree is a shrubby or bushy tree 3 to 10 feet (.9 to 3 meters) tall with evergreen leaves. The “balm” is a fragrant gummy exudation of the sap secured by making incisions in the stems and branches, usually in August. The best grades are in the form of yellow-white translucent tears or drops; they are employed in medicine as an astringent. The poorer grades are used extensively as a varnish. Children in the East use it as chewing gum.<\/p>\n<p>References to spices in 1 Kings 10:10, 2 Kings 20:13, Song of Songs 3:6, Isaiah 39:2, and Ezekiel 27:17 are thought to be the balm of Gilead <em>(Commiphora opobalsamum),<\/em> which in spite of its name is not a native of Gilead or even of the Holy Land but is indigenous to Arabia, especially the mountainous regions of Yemen. The trees were still in existence on the plain of Jericho at the time of the Roman conquest. The Roman conquerors carried branches to Rome as trophies of their victory over the Jews.<\/p>\n<p>This tree is a small, stiff-branched evergreen tree seldom more than 15 feet (4.6 meters) high with straggling branches. The “balm” is obtained by making incisions in the stem and branches of the tree. The sap soon hardens into small irregular nodules that are collected. Gum is also procured from green and ripe fruit.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Myrrh (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Barley\">Barley <em>(Hordeum distichon)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>A cereal grass bearing bearded flower spikes and edible seeds. The common barley <em>(Hordeum distichon),<\/em> the winter barley <em>(H. hex<\/em><em>astichon),<\/em> and the spring barley <em>(H. vulgare)<\/em> have been cultivated in temperate regions of the world since time immemorial and today still constitute one of the principal grain foods. Barley and wheat were the two staple cereal crops of Egypt and the Holy Land. Being less expensive, barley was mostly used for feeding cattle, although it was also used by itself or mixed with wheat and other seed as food for man (Ez 4:9-12). Barley is mentioned in the Bible over 30 times, either as a plant growing in the fields or in reference to products made from it, such as barley meal, barley bread, barley cakes, and barley loaves. As the common food of the poor, barley was also regarded as a symbol of poverty and cheapness or worthlessness (Hos 3:2).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Bdellium\">Bdellium <em>(Commiphora africana)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Aromatic gum resin similar to myrrh, produced by various trees of the genus <em>Commiphora<\/em> of Africa and western Asia. The reference in Genesis 2:12 and Numbers 11:7 to bdellium is thought by most scholars today to refer to a gum resin, obtained from a shrub, <em>Commiphora africana<\/em>, that grows in south Arabia and northeastern Africa. The resin is yellowish, transparent, and fragrant, and looks like a pearl.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Bean\">Bean <em>(Faba vulgaris)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The references in 2 Samuel 17:27-28 and Ezekiel 4:9 are generally regarded as referring to the broad bean. This species, an annual plant, is thought originally to have grown in northern Persia, but it was extensively cultivated in western Asia in very early times as a food plant. Beans have been found in the mummy coffins of Egyptian tombs, and they were also cultivated by the Greeks and Romans.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"BitterHerbs\">Bitter Herbs <em>(Cichorium endivia, Taraxacum officinale, Lactuca sativa)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The “bitter herbs” of Exodus 12:8 and Numbers 9:11 seem to have been plants like endive <em>(Cichorium endivia),<\/em> the common chicory <em>(Cichorium intybus),<\/em> lettuce <em>(Lactuca sativa),<\/em> or the common dandelion <em>(Taraxacum officinale).<\/em> These are all weedy plants common in modern Egypt and western Asia and are still eaten by people living there. The leaves of the ordinary garden lettuce are intensely bitter when bleached. This is also true of the common dandelion. Others suggest that the bitter herbs were derived from thorns and thistles.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"BoxthornEuropean\">Boxthorn, European <em>(Lycium europaeum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Various thorny shrubs, some species of which bear purplish flowers and brightly colored berries. The reference in Judges 9:14-15 is thought to be to the European boxthorn or desert-thorn. It is a thorny shrub 6 to 12 feet (1.8 to 3.7 meters) tall with clustered leaves and small violet flowers eventually producing small globular red berries. It is native to and common throughout the Holy Land, especially in the region from Lebanon to the Dead Sea.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"BoxTree\">Box Tree <em>(Buxus longifolia)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The long-leaved box tree is a hardy evergreen tree found in the mountainous regions of the northern part of the Holy Land, the Galilean hills, and Lebanon. It grows to a height of about 20 feet (6.1 meters) with a slender trunk seldom more than six to eight inches (15.2 to 20.3 centimeters) in diameter. Its wood is very hard and takes a fine polish. It was cultivated by the Romans for its hard wood, which they inlaid with ivory for cabinets and jewel caskets. Scriptural references include Isaiah 41:19 and 60:13.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Bramble\">Bramble <em>(Rubus sanctus, R. ulmifolius)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The Palestinian bramble <em>(Rubus sanctus)<\/em> and the closely related elm-leaf bramble <em>(R. ulmifolius)<\/em> are prickly evergreen shrubs that spread by means of suckers. The stems and young shoots are covered with a characteristic bloom or whitish powder and short hairs. The prickles are strong, erect, and hairy. The flowers are white, pink, rose, or purple in color, and the fruit is round and black.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Thistle, Thorn (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Broom\">Broom <em>(Retama raetam)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>A shrub native to Eurasia. The word translated “juniper” in the <span>kjv<\/span> has nothing to do with the true junipers but refers rather to a species of broom, known as the white broom <em>(Retama raetam).<\/em> Its branches are longer and flexible, forming an erect, dense bush 3 to 12 feet (.9 to 3.7 meters) tall. The leaves are small and sparse, yet it forms an agreeable shade in a desert region. The white pealike flowers are sweet and very fragrant and are borne in clusters along the twigs. It is a beautiful shrub that grows in the desert regions of Palestine, Syria, and Persia. In many desert areas it is the only bush that affords any shade (1 Kgs 19:4-5).<\/p>\n<p>The “juniper roots” of Job 30:4 are not the roots of either the juniper or white broom. The roots of the latter are very nauseating and could not be eaten in the manner described by Job. Job’s “juniper roots” were probably an edible parasitic plant <em>(Cynomorium coccineum).<\/em> This plant grows in salt marshes and maritime sands. It is frequently eaten in times of food scarcity and at one time was highly prized for its supposed medicinal value in the treatment of dysentery.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Buckthorn\">Buckthorn <em>(Rhamnus palaestina)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The Palestinian buckthorn is a shrub or small tree attaining a height of three to six feet (.9 to 1.8 meters) with velvety, thorny branches, evergreen leaves, and clusters of small flowers blooming in March or April. It grows in thickets and on hillsides from Syria and Lebanon through the Holy Land to Arabia and the Sinai.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Bush\">Bush <em>(Acacia nilotica, Loranthus acaciae)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Low, branching, woody plant, usually smaller than a tree. There are differences of opinion in regard to the bush out of which the Lord appeared to Moses (Ex 3:2-4). From the biblical account, it seems most likely that the event was a miraculous one. However, some seek a natural explanation and believe that the burning bush may have been the crimson-flowered mistletoe or acacia strap flower <em>(Loranthus acaciae),<\/em> which grows in great profusion as a partial parasite on the various acacia shrubs, such as the thorny acacia <em>(Acacia nilotica),<\/em> in the Holy Land and Sinai. When in full bloom, the mistletoe imparts to the shrub or tree the appearance of being on fire because its brilliant flame-colored blossoms stand out against the green foliage and yellow flowers of the host plants.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Buttercup\">Buttercup <em>(Ranunculus asiaticus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The Persian buttercup is one of the flowers or grasses of the field (Mt 6:28-30). It is a showy plant blooming in all brilliant colors except blue, with double flowers sometimes measuring two inches (5.1 centimeters) across.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Calamus\">Calamus <em>(Acorus calamus, Andropogon aroma<\/em><em>ticus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>A plant, or its aromatic root; any of a variety of tropical Asiatic palms. One of the plants that grew in Solomon’s garden (Sg 4:14). The sweet flag <em>(Acorus<\/em> <em>calamus)<\/em> and the beardgrass <em>(Andropogon aromaticus)<\/em> have been suggested as the plants from which calamus came. The sweet flag is highly aromatic and grows in Europe and Asia, but it is not known in the Holy Land. Indigenous to India, beardgrass is highly odoriferous when bruised and is thought to have furnished the calamus of the Bible. It yields an oil known as ginger-grass oil.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cane\">Cane <em>(Saccharum officinarum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>It is thought that there were two species of sugarcane indigenous to and growing wild in the Holy Land. One of these, <em>Saccharum sara,<\/em> is known to be only from Lebanon. The other native species is <em>S. biflorum,<\/em> which grows on the banks of ditches and streams from Syria and Lebanon through the Holy Land south to Stony Arabia and the Sinai. This may be the wild cane familiar to the Jews. Most authorities, however, think that the “sweet cane” of Isaiah 43:24 was the true sugarcane <em>(S. officinarum).<\/em> This plant is thought to have originated in the tropics of the eastern hemisphere. It has been cultivated by people since time immemorial and is not now known in the wild state anywhere. It is a tall, stout perennial grass, maizelike in aspect with many jointed stems and a large plumelike terminal cluster of flowers.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CaperPlant\">Caper Plant <em>(Capparis sincula)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Spiny, trailing shrub of Mediterranean region; the flower bud of this shrub. The word “desire” in Ecclesiastes 12:5 may actually refer to the caper berry. The common caper or caper berry grows profusely in Syria, Lebanon, the Holy Land, and in the mountain valleys of Sinai. The plant may sometimes grow upright but more generally spreads itself weakly over the ground like a vine, covering rocks, ruins, and old walls like ivy. The young flower buds, pickled in vinegar, were used by the ancients as a condiment for meat. The berries were also used in cooking.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CarobTree\">Carob Tree <em>(Ceratonia siliqua)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Evergreen of the Mediterranean region having edible pods. Scholars generally agree that the pods of the carob or locust tree were the “husks” of Jesus’ parable of the prodigal son (Lk 15:16). The carob is an attractive evergreen leguminous tree that is very common throughout the Holy Land, Syria, and Egypt. The pods are most abundant in April and May and contain numerous pealike seeds embedded in an agreeably flavored mucilaginous sweetish pulp. The pods are also used abundantly now as they were in antiquity for feeding cattle, horses, and pigs. In time of scarcity, they are used as human food and perhaps even regularly by the very poor. The carob is frequently mentioned in the Talmud as a source of good food for domestic animals. The seeds of the carob were formerly employed as a standard of weight and are the source of the term “carat.” Some commentators suggest that the “locusts” eaten by John the Baptist (Mt 3:4) were not insects but the fruit of the carob tree.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cassia\">Cassia <em>(Cinnamomum cassia, Saussurea lappa)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Tree of tropical Asia with bark similar but inferior to cinnamon. The “cassia” of Exodus 30:24 and Ezekiel 27:19 is the cassia bark tree, <em>Cinnamomum cassia.<\/em> In Psalm 45:8 the reference seems to be to the Indian orris, <em>Saussurea lappa.<\/em><\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CastorOilPlant\">Castor Oil Plant <em>(Ricinus communis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Large plant, native to tropical Africa and Asia, cultivated for ornamental reasons and for extraction of oil from its seeds. The gourd of Jonah 4:6-7 was probably the ordinary castor bean. The castor bean is a tender shrub, growing 3 to 12 or more feet (.9 to 3.7 meters) tall with huge leaves that resemble the outstretched human hand. The castor bean plant is found in waste places, especially near water, in both Lebanon and the Holy Land and often is cultivated. In hot climates it becomes treelike and affords a dense shade by the abundance of its huge, umbrella-like leaves. It is known in the Orient for the rapidity of its growth. The oil extracted from the seeds of the castor bean was used by the Jews in ceremonial rites and is mentioned among the five kinds of oil that rabbinical tradition sanctioned for such use. The seeds themselves are poisonous when eaten.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cedar\">Cedar <em>(Cedrus libani)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of several coniferous evergreen trees of the genus native to the Old World. With few exceptions, the references to “cedar” are to the well-known cedar of Lebanon. This is a noble tree, the tallest and most massive with which the Israelites were acquainted. It grows quite rapidly, attaining a height of up to 120 feet (36.6 meters) with a trunk diameter of as much as 8 feet (2.4 meters). In Solomon’s day these trees were obviously abundant on the mountains of Lebanon, but now, because of excessive lumbering, they are very rare. The cedar of Lebanon was held in high esteem not only for its vigor, beauty, and age but also for the fragrance and remarkable lasting qualities of the wood. It symbolizes grandeur, might, majesty, dignity, lofty stature, and wide expansion. References in Ezekiel 17:3, 22-24, and 31:3-18 beautifully illustrate how these lofty kings of the forest symbolize and typify worldly strength, power, and glory.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Chicory\">Chicory <em>(Cichorium intybus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Bitter Herbs (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cinnamon\">Cinnamon <em>(Cinnamomum zeylanicum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Two varieties of trees of this genus, native to tropical Asia, with aromatic bark that, when ground, is used as a spice. The cinnamon of Exodus 30:23, Proverbs 7:17, Song of Songs 4:14, and Revelation 18:13 is undoubtedly <em>Cinnamomum zeylanicum.<\/em> The tree is a rather low-growing one, never getting more than 30 feet (9.1 meters) high, with a smooth, ash-colored bark and widespread branches and white flowers. Its shiny, beautifully veined evergreen leaves grow about nine inches (22.9 centimeters) long and two inches (5.1 centimeters) wide.<\/p>\n<p>The Jews always regarded cinnamon as a deliciously fragrant substance and valued it highly as a spice and a perfume. It was one of the principal ingredients used in the manufacture of the precious ointments, or “holy oil,” that Moses was commanded to use in the tabernacle for anointing the sacred vessels and officiating priests. It was undoubtedly very costly and precious.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CitronTree\">Citron Tree <em>(Tetraclinis articulata)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Tree native to Asia bearing lemonlike fruit with a thick, fragrant rind. It seldom exceeds a height of 30 feet (9.1 meters) and has hard, dark-colored, durable, fragrant wood that takes a fine polish. The wood was one of the most highly prized woods of the ancients, who employed it extensively for cabinetwork. It was commonly referred to as being worth its weight in gold. The wood, owing to its resinous properties, is slow to decay and remains practically uninjured by insects.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Coriander\">Coriander <em>(Coriandrum sativum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The references in Exodus 16:31 and Numbers 11:7 are clearly to the common coriander plant. The coriander was found quite commonly growing along with grain in cultivated fields throughout the Holy Land. It grows wild in Egypt and was used by the ancients both as condiment and as a medicine. The leaves are quite aromatic and are used in soups and for flavoring puddings, curries, and wines. The coriander is still used today as a spice by the Arabs. In Scripture it is mentioned only in connection with manna, which was said to resemble coriander seeds in size, shape, and color.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cotton\">Cotton <em>(Gossypium herbaceum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of various plants or shrubs of this genus grown in warm climates for the soft white fiber attached to their seeds and the oil from these seeds. The “green” of the <span>kjv<\/span> in Esther 1:6 is undoubtedly a reference to the Levant cotton <em>(Gossypium herbaceum)<\/em> that was cultivated since time immemorial in the Far East. Alexander the Great brought it back from India. It is probable that the Jews became acquainted with cotton during the period of their Persian captivity under King Ahasuerus.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cucumber\">Cucumber <em>(Cucumis chate, C. sativus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The cucumber is an annual climbing or trailing vine, the origin of which is unknown. It has been cultivated in all the warm countries of the Old World since prehistoric times. Cucumbers are usually eaten raw; a cucumber and a barley cake or some other kind of bread often constitute a meal. The reference to “a lodge in a garden of cucumbers” (Is 1:8) refers to the crudely built small house or lodge often set up in Palestinian cucumber fields and vineyards.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cummin\">Cummin <em>(Cuminum cyminum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The references in Isaiah 28:25-27 and Matthew 23:23 are clearly to the cummin—a common, annual plant of the carrot family said to be native to Egypt and the region of the eastern Mediterranean. It has long been cultivated for its powerfully aromatic and pungent seeds, which are similar to caraway seeds but larger. They do not have as agreeable a taste as caraway seeds but nevertheless were used extensively as a flavor or spice and sometimes were even mixed with flour in making bread. Cummin was also used medicinally and as a condiment with fish and meats.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cypress\">Cypress <em>(Cupressus sempervirens horizontalis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The cypress is a massive, tall-growing evergreen with scalelike leaves and is widely distributed in the mountainous regions of the Holy Land. On Mt Lebanon and Mt Hermon it grows together with the cedar and oak. Its usual height is 50 to 60 feet (15.2 to 18.3 meters), but it may grow as tall as 80 feet (24.2 meters). It is said to have been used extensively in shipbuilding by the Phoenicians, Cretans, and Greeks. There is general agreement that the “gopher wood” of Genesis 6:14 is cypress because the wood is very durable.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Dandelion\">Dandelion <em>(Taraxacum officinale)<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Bitter Herbs (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DarnelGrass\">Darnel Grass <em>(Lolium temulentum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>It is generally agreed that the “tares” of the <span>kjv<\/span> (Mt 13:24-30) are the annual or bearded darnel grass. It is a strong grass closely resembling wheat or rye in appearance. The seeds are much smaller than those of wheat or rye, but it is extremely difficult to distinguish it from wheat or rye in its early stages. If it is not eradicated early but is left until the time of harvest, it is cut down with the wheat and the two are subsequently very difficult to separate. The seeds are poisonous, either due to some chemicals naturally present or because of a fungus that grows within the seeds.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Dill\">Dill <em>(Anethum graveolens)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Dill is a weedy annual plant resembling parsley and fennel, 12 to 20 inches (30.5 to 50.8 centimeters) tall with yellow flowers. The reference in Matthew 23:23 (<span>kjv<\/span>) to anise is probably a reference to dill. This plant is widely cultivated for seeds that are aromatic and carminative.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Ebony\">Ebony <em>(Diospyros ebenaster, D. ebenum, D. mela<\/em><em>noxylon)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Chiefly tropical tree of southern Asia with hard, dark-colored heartwood. Ebony comes from the date plum or date tree <em>(Diospyros ebenaster<\/em> and <em>D. melanoxylon)<\/em> of India and is quite different from the date palm. It was sent by Phoenician ships across the Arabian Sea and up the Red Sea to the market in Tyre, from which it was carried overland by camel caravans. The outer wood of these trees is white and soft, but when old, the interior wood becomes hard, black, heavy, and durable and still constitutes most of the costly ebony of commerce. Ebony takes on a fine polish and is highly valued for cabinetwork, for turnery, for the manufacture of fancy ornamental articles and instruments, and as a veneer for other woods.<\/p>\n<p>Ezekiel mentions ivory and ebony together (Ez 27:15). Ebony was and still is frequently inlaid with ivory, with which it contrasts so strikingly in color.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Endive\">Endive <em>(Cichorium endivia)<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Bitter Herbs (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FigFigTree\">Fig, Fig Tree <em>(Ficus carica)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of several trees or shrubs of this genus, native to the Mediterranean region; its edible fruit. The common fig, mentioned some 60 times in the Bible, is one of the most important Bible plants. Its leaves are spoken of first in Genesis 3:7. The fig is generally regarded as native to southwestern Asia and Syria, but already in early times it was also cultivated extensively in Egypt and the Holy Land, where it was one of the principal foods. First Samuel 25:18 states that a part of the gift sent by Abigail to David consisted of 200 cakes of figs.<\/p>\n<p>The fig tree has a very peculiar type of fruit called a syconium, which is actually a very much enlarged and fleshy receptacle. It is pollinated by a wasp, without which it cannot get its fruit; this was discovered when it was first transplanted to California.<\/p>\n<p>The fig puts out its earliest fruit buds before its leaves, the former in February and the latter in April or May. When the leaves are out, the fruit ought to be ripe (Mt 21:19).<\/p>\n<p>Whenever the prophets of old berated the people for their wickedness, they often threatened that the vine and the fig crops would be destroyed. And when they held out the promise of great rewards, they said that the vine and fig crop would be restored (Jer 8:13; Hos 2:12; Jl 1:7, 12; Mi 4:4; Zec 3:10).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FirTree\">Fir Tree <em>(Abies cilicica)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>This a generic term for various evergreen trees having flat needles and erect cones. In all probability, most of the references in Scripture to the fir are references to the pine, cypress, or juniper. The only true fir in the Holy Land grows in the higher parts of Lebanon and the mountains northward. It attains a height of 30 to 75 feet (9.1 to 22.9 meters) and is widely cultivated.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Flax\">Flax <em>(Linum usitatissimum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of several plants of this genus, one particularly being widely cultivated for the linseed oil from its seeds and the fine textile fibers from its stems. Flax is the oldest known of the textile fibers. Cotton is identified only once in the Bible (Est 1:6). There is no mention of any other fiber plant being cultivated in Egypt or the Holy Land in biblical days, and for that reason it is thought that linen was the material out of which clothes other than woolen ones were made. Linen was also used for domestic purposes such as towels (Jn 13:4-5), napkins (11:44), girdles and undergarments (Is 3:23; Mk 14:51), nets (Is 19:8-9), and measuring lines (Ez 40:3). The priests serving in the temple were to wear nothing but linen clothes; a mixed cloth of wool and flax together was strictly forbidden to the Jews (Lv 19:19; Dt 22:11).<\/p>\n<p>At least three kinds of linen were used in biblical times, and apparently there were particular uses for each kind. Ordinary linen of coarsest texture is mentioned in Leviticus 6:10, Ezekiel 9:2, Daniel 10:5, and Revelation 15:6. The second type of linen of superior quality is mentioned in Exodus 26:1 and 39:27. A third type of linen of finest texture and high cost is mentioned in 1 Chronicles 15:27, Esther 8:15, and Revelation 19:8.<\/p>\n<p>The common flax plant grows from one to four feet (.3 to 1.2 meters) tall with a simple, slender, wirelike stem and numerous small, pale, lancelike green leaves. The failure of the flax crop is listed as one of God’s punishments (Hos 2:9). The manufacture of linen from flax fibers was a domestic industry of Jewish women (Prv 31:13, 19), ranging from ordinary clothing to the robes and aprons worn by the priest and temple attendants. Linen was also used for wicks in lamps (Is 42:3).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Frankincense\">Frankincense <em>(Boswellia)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Aromatic genus resin used chiefly as incense. Frankincense is obtained from three species of a single genus of plants that grow in southern Arabia, Ethiopia, Somaliland, India, and the East Indies. The trees are large in size, related to the turpentine or terebinth tree and to those that produce balsam and myrrh. The gum has a bitter taste and gives off a strong odor in the form of a volatile oil when warmed or burned. It is obtained by successive incisions in the bark of the trunk and in the branches of living trees. It is thought that the Hebrews imported all their frankincense from Arabia, especially from the region about Sheba.<\/p>\n<p>Frankincense is mentioned 21 times in the Bible (e.g., Ex 30:34; 1 Chr 9:29; Neh 13:9; Sg 3:6; 4:6, 14; Mt 2:11; Rv 18:13) and was probably employed almost exclusively in the sacrificial services of the tabernacle and temple until the time of Solomon. It has always been the most important incense resin in the world.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Galbanum\">Galbanum <em>(Ferula galbaniflua)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Galbanum is a malodorous yellowish or brownish gum resin containing the chemical substance umbelliferone, obtained from several species of plants related to the fennel, native to Syria and Persia. The gum is a natural exudation of the stem or is obtained by making a transverse incision in the young stem a few inches above the ground. The milky juice soon hardens and forms one of the kinds of commercial galbanum. Its odor is strongly balsamic, pungent, and disagreeable when burned. Galbanum was one of the ingredients used to form the “holy incense” (Ex 30:34).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Garlic\">Garlic <em>(Allium sativum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Onion (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"GourdWild\">Gourd, Wild <em>(Citrullus colocynthis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>There has been considerable difference of opinion regarding the meaning of the words translated “wild gourds” (2 Kgs 4:39) or “gall” (Dt 29:18; 32:32; Ps 69:21; Jer 8:14; 9:15; 23:15; Lam 3:5, 19; Am 6:12; Mt 27:34; Acts 8:23). Most scholars today believe the plant referred to was the colocynth, a cucumber-like vine that trails on the ground or climbs over shrubs and fences. The fruit contains a soft spongy pulp, which is intensely bitter, strongly cathartic, and sometimes poisonous.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Hedge\">Hedge <em>(Rhamnus palaestina, Balanites aegyptiaca, Lycium europaeum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Row of closely planted shrubs or low-growing trees forming a fence or boundary. A number of plants were used to provide hedges in Bible times. One of these was the Palestine buckthorn, <em>Rhamnus palaestina.<\/em> This plant is a shrub or a small tree growing from three to six feet (.9 to 1.8 meters) tall with velvety, thorny branches, evergreen leaves, and clusters of small flowers blooming in March and April. It grows in thickets and on hillsides from Syria through the Holy Land to Arabia and the Sinai. The Jericho balsam <em>(Balanites aegyptiaca)<\/em> and the European boxthorn <em>(Lycium europaeum)<\/em> are also prickly shrubs widely used as hedges in the Holy Land and may be the plants referred to in Proverbs 15:19 and Hosea 2:6.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Henna\">Henna <em>(Lawsonia inermis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Tree or shrub of Asia and northern Africa with fragrant reddish or white flowers and leaves from which a reddish dye is made. The plant referred to in Song of Songs 1:14 and 4:13 and translated as “camphire” (<span>kjv<\/span>) is thought by scholars today to refer to the henna plant. It is a native of northern India and grows wild in the Sudan, Egypt, Arabia, Syria, Lebanon, and the Holy Land. It grows from 4 to 12 feet (1.2 to 3.7 meters) tall, and its scent is similar to that of roses.<\/p>\n<p>Henna leaves are dried, crushed into a powder, mixed with water, and made into a paste that has been used since time immemorial as a cosmetic. A number of mummies have been found decorated with henna. Henna was used to provide a bright yellow, orange, or red color to the fingernails, toenails, the tips of the fingers, the palms of the hand, and the soles of the feet of young girls. Men also used it for coloring their beards and the manes and tails of horses. The dye had to be renewed once every two or three weeks. This use of henna as a cosmetic was common in Egypt at the time the children of Israel were there as slaves; they were undoubtedly familiar with it.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Hyacinth\">Hyacinth <em>(Hyacinthus orientalis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The lily referred to in Song of Songs 2:1-2, 16; 4:5; and 6:2-4 may well be the garden hyacinth. It is native to, and very common in, the fields and rocky places in the Holy Land, Lebanon, and northward. Its flowers in the wild form are always deep blue and very fragrant.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Lily (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Hyssop\">Hyssop <em>(Origanum maru)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Woody plant native to Asia with spikes of small blue flowers and aromatic leaves used as a condiment and in perfumery. There is little agreement among botanists as to the exact identity of the biblical “hyssop.” Some have suggested <em>Hyssopus offici<\/em><em>nalis,<\/em> the well-known garden herb now called hyssop. However, this plant is not native either to the Holy Land or Egypt, being found only in southern Europe. Moreover, it does not fit the requirements of the biblical plant.<\/p>\n<p>The “hyssop” of the OT is likely the Syrian or Egyptian marjoram <em>(Origanum maru).<\/em> It is referred to in Exodus 12:22; Leviticus 14:4-6, 52; Numbers 19:6, 18; 1 Kings 4:33; Psalm 51:7; and Hebrews 9:19. The marjorams are mints growing (under favorable conditions) about two or three feet (.6 to .9 meter) tall, but more often are dwarfed when growing in rock crevices and walls (cf. 1 Kgs 4:33). An aromatic substance is obtained from the crushed and dried leaves. If gathered together in a bunch with leaves and flowers, the hairy stems of the marjoram would hold liquid very well and would make an excellent sprinkler.<\/p>\n\n<p>The hyssop of the crucifixion passage in the NT (Jn 19:29) is probably the sorghum, a tall cereal plant grown primarily for food but also used for brushes and mops.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Juniper\">Juniper <em>(Juniperus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Variety of evergreen tree or shrub. The plant referred to in Jeremiah 17:6 and 48:6 and translated in the <span>kjv<\/span> “heath” is probably the savin or Phoenician juniper. The Phoenician juniper, <em>Juniperus phoenicia,<\/em> is found in the hills and rocky places of Arabia. The savin juniper, <em>J. sabina,<\/em> is common throughout the deserts, plains, and rocky places of Syria and Palestine. These references are to the brown-berried cedar, or sharp cedar.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LaurelorSweetBay\">Laurel or Sweet Bay <em>(Laurus nobilis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Shrub or tree native to the Mediterranean region. While the reference in Psalm 37:35 may be to the cedar of Lebanon, most scholars refer the “green bay tree” (<span>kjv<\/span>) of the psalmist to the sweet bay, a native of the Holy Land, inhabiting thickets and woods from the coast to the middle montane zone. It is an evergreen tree attaining a height from 40 to 60 feet (12.2 to 18.3 meters).<\/p>\n<p>Even though the tree is abundant on Mt Carmel and around Hebron, it is generally not common in the Holy Land. Its leaves are still used as a condiment, and its fruit, leaves, and bark have long been used in medicine.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Leek\">Leek <em>(Allium porrum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Onion (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Lentil\">Lentil <em>(Lens esculenta)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The lentil plant to which Genesis 25:29-34, 2 Samuel 17:27-29, 23:11, and Ezekiel 4:9 refer is a small, erect, annual, vetchlike plant with slender stems and tendril-bearing leaves. It produces small, white, violet-striped flowers with flat, pealike pods in which the lentils are borne.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Lettuce\">Lettuce <em>(Lactuca sativa)<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Bitter Herbs (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Lily\">Lily <em>(Lilium)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of various plants of the genus <em>Lilium<\/em> having large, variously colored, trumpet-shaped flowers; and related plants. The lily is one of the most famous of all the plants in the Bible, but it is also one about which there has been considerable difference of opinion. It seems probable that several kinds of plants, perhaps five or six, are called lilies in the <span>kjv<\/span>. Most authorities regard the Palestine anemone or wind flower, <em>Anemone coronaria,<\/em> as the “lily of the field” (Mt 6:28, <span>kjv<\/span>) that surpassed Solomon in all his glory. These flowers are found in every part of the Holy Land in profusion; the most common forms are scarlet or yellow, but the Palestine anemone may also be blue, purple, rose, or white in color. The flower attains a diameter of two and three-quarter inches (7 centimeters).<\/p>\n<p>An alternative suggestion is the Palestinian chamomile, <em>Anthemis palaestina,<\/em> a common, white, daisylike plant. The chamomile is gathered like dry grass and thrown into the furnace when it dries up.<\/p>\n<p>Another proposed plant is <em>Lilium chalcedonicum,<\/em> the scarlet or Martagon lily. The statement in Song of Songs 5:13—“his lips like lilies”—would better fit this plant than the Palestine anemone. The reference is apparently to a rare plant of exceptional beauty. The scarlet lily is rare in the Holy Land; indeed, some botanists doubt that it lives there.<\/p>\n<p>The references in 1 Kings 7:19, 22, 26 and 2 Chronicles 4:5 are probably to the water lily, <em>Nymphaea alba,<\/em> which served as the pattern. The water lily is quite common in Europe and also in the Holy Land and northern Africa.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LotusBush\">Lotus Bush <em>(Zizyphus lotus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The “shady trees” of Job 40:21-22 (<span>kjv<\/span>; cf. <span>nlt<\/span> “lotus plants”) may refer to the lotus bush of the Middle East, <em>Zizyphus lotus,<\/em> a shrub or low tree that grows to a height of about five feet (1.5 meters) with smooth, zigzag, whitish branches.<\/p>\n<p>Other commentators believe that the shady trees of Job are large-leafed trees such as the plane tree, <em>Platanus orientalis,<\/em> or the oleander, <em>Nerium oleander.<\/em> This suggestion is based on the assumption that the animal described in Job 40 is the hippopotamus, and it seems unlikely that the hippopotamus would live under a lotus bush or even be found in places where this shrub grows. These individuals regard the plane tree or the oleander as more likely.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mallow\">Mallow <em>(Atriplex)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The Hebrew word used in Job 30:4 implies saltiness, and for this reason botanists believe that it refers to one of the species of the saltwort or orach. Twenty-one species of saltwort occur in the Holy Land, almost all of which are common and could well meet the requirements of the text. <em>Atriplex halimus<\/em> is the species usually suggested, a strong-growing bushy shrub related to the spinach.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mandrake\">Mandrake <em>(Mandragora officinarum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The mandrake or love apple is a stemless herbaceous perennial related to the nightshade, potato, and tomato. It has a large, beetlike, often forked taproot from the top of which arise many dark leaves about a foot (30.5 centimeters) long and four inches (10.2 centimeters) wide. The plant is slightly poisonous, and the thick taproots have some resemblance in shape to the lower parts of the human body. For this reason certain aphrodisiac properties were ascribed to it (cf. Gn 30:14-16).<\/p>\n<p>The love apple was a common plant in deserted fields throughout the Holy Land. It is native to the entire Mediterranean region, southern Europe, and Asia Minor. The mandrake is mentioned in Song of Songs 7:13, though some scholars believe the writer may actually have been referring to the citron or to the common edible field mushroom, <em>Agaricus campestris.<\/em><\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Melon\">Melon <em>(Cucumis melo, Citrullus vulgaris)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of several varieties of these two related vines having a hard rind and juicy flesh. The melons of Numbers 11:5 may be either the muskmelon <em>(Cucumis melo)<\/em> or the watermelon <em>(Citrullus vulgaris).<\/em> It may be that both fruits are referred to.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Millet\">Millet <em>(Panicum miliaceum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>A grass grown in Eurasia for its edible seed. Millet seeds are the smallest of all the grass seeds cultivated as food but are produced profusely. Millet is an annual grass seldom more that two feet (.6 meter) tall. The small seeds of the millet are used on cakes and eaten uncooked by the poor of the land.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mint\">Mint <em>(Mentha)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of various plants of this family with aromatic foliage that is processed for flavoring. Quite a few mints are common in the Holy Land, but the horse mint <em>(Mentha longifolia)<\/em> is probably the one referred to in Matthew 23:23 and Luke 11:42. Mints were employed by the ancient Hebrews, Greeks, and Romans for flavoring, as a carminative in medicine, and as a condiment in cooking.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mulberry\">Mulberry <em>(Morus nigra)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any tree of this family, some bearing dark-purple fruit and one bearing white fruit, having leaves used as food for silkworms. The sycamine tree of Luke 17:6 (<span>kjv<\/span>) is evidently the black mulberry, <em>Morus nigra.<\/em> It is a low-growing, thick-crowned, stiff-branched tree standing from 24 to 35 feet (7.3 to 10.7 meters) tall, though rarely more than 30 feet (9.1 meters) tall. Originally native to northern Persia, it is now cultivated throughout the Middle East for its fruit. The Chinese or Indian species, <em>M. alba,<\/em> was until recently widely cultivated in Syria and the Holy Land but is not indigenous.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mustard\">Mustard <em>(Brassica nigra, B. arvensis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Various plants of this genus are native to Eurasia, some of which are cultivated for their edible seeds. While there is disagreement about the identity of the “mustard” of Matthew 13:31-32, 17:20, Mark 4:31, Luke 13:19, and 17:6, it is generally thought to be the ordinary black mustard, <em>Brassica nigra.<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The mustard Jesus referred to may be the charlock or wild mustard, <em>B. arvensis,<\/em> which normally grows from one to three feet (.3 to .9 meter) tall. Some have suggested that it was actually <em>Salvadora persica,<\/em> found in thickets around the Dead Sea. The plant has a pleasant aromatic taste resembling that of mustard, and if taken in considerable quantity, it will produce an irritation of the nose and eyes similar to that of mustard. However, this plant does not grow as far north as Galilee, and the fruits are rather large and stony, thus hardly fitting the description of the parable.<\/p>\n<p>While the seeds of the mustard are not the smallest known, they were probably the smallest familiar to the common people who comprised Jesus’ audience in Galilee.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Myrrh\">Myrrh <em>(Commiphora myrrha, C. kataf)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Shrub or tree exuding an aromatic gum resin used in perfume and incense. Most of the references in Scripture to myrrh are to <em>Commiphora myrrha,<\/em> although <em>C. kataf<\/em> may also be involved since it grows in the same region and is similar. The two trees are native to Arabia, Ethiopia, and the Somali coast of east Africa. They yield a gummy exudation that constitutes most of the myrrh of commerce. Both species are low, scrubby, thick- and stiff-branched thorny shrubs or small trees that grow in rocky places, especially on limestone hills. In the East it is highly regarded as an aromatic substance, perfume, and medicine. The ancient Egyptians burned it in their temples and embalmed their dead with it; the Jews also used it for embalming (Jn 19:39). The Hebrews held it in high regard as a perfume (Ps 45:8).<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Myrtle\">Myrtle <em>(Myrtus communis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The myrtle tree is common in the Holy Land, especially around Bethlehem, Lebanon, Hebron, and the slopes of Mt Carmel and Mt Tabor. It is native to western Asia and in good environments grows into a small evergreen tree 20 to 30 feet (6.2 to 9.1 meters) tall. More often, however, it is a straggling bush 1½ to 4 feet (.5 to 1.2 meters) tall.<\/p>\n<p>In the Bible, myrtle is referred to chiefly as a symbol of God’s generosity. Branches of myrtle trees were included among those that Nehemiah ordered to be gathered for the Feast of Tabernacles (Neh 8:15). The myrtle was symbolic not only of peace but also of justice.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Narcissus\">Narcissus <em>(Narcissus tazetta)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Widely cultivated plant of this family with narrow leaves and usually white or yellow flowers with a cup-crown or trumpet-shaped crown. The polyanthus narcissus <em>(Narcissus tazetta)<\/em> appears to be the plant referred to in Isaiah 35:1. This narcissus grows abundantly on the plains of Sharon and elsewhere in Palestine. Being sweet-smelling, it is a great favorite.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Nard\">Nard <em>(Nardostachys jatamansi)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The nard is a perennial herb with strong, pleasantly scented roots. It is native to high altitudes in the Himalayas, and its range extends from there into western Asia. The roots and spikelike wooly young stems are dried before the leaves unfold and are used for making perfume. It is still used in India as a perfume for the hair, and there is every reason to believe that the spikenard of Scripture (Sg 1:12; 4:13-14; Mk 14:3; Jn 12:3) came originally from India.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Nettle\">Nettle <em>(Urtica)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Plant of this genus having toothed leaves covered with hairs that exude a stinging flush. Four species of nettle are found in the Holy Land: the common or great nettle, <em>Urtica dioica;<\/em> the Roman nettle, <em>U. pilulifera;<\/em> the small nettle, <em>U. urens;<\/em> and <em>U. caudata,<\/em> which is similar to the small nettle. Some nettles attain a height of five to six feet (1.5 to 1.8 meters). They are common pests of waste places and fields. They are often seen occupying ground that was once cultivated but has since been neglected (Is 34:13; Hos 9:6).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"NutmegFlower\">Nutmeg Flower <em>(Nigella sativa)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The “fitches” of Isaiah 28:25-27 (<span>kjv<\/span>) are probably the nutmeg flower, an annual plant of the buttercup family. The plant grows wild in southern Europe, Syria, Egypt, north Africa, and other Mediterranean lands, where it is extensively cultivated for its strongly pungent, pepperlike aromatic seeds. These are sprinkled over some kinds of bread and cakes in the East and are used for flavoring curries and other dishes in the Holy Land and Egypt. Cummin and nutmeg flowers are still gathered in the Holy Land in the same way described by Isaiah.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Oak\">Oak <em>(Quercus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>At least five species of oaks are found in Palestine. One of these is the kermes oak <em>(Quercus coccifera),<\/em> the host of the insect <em>Coccus ilicis,<\/em> which produces the scarlet dye used in coloring linen and wool (Gn 38:28-30; Ex 25:4; 26:1; 28:33; 35:23; 39:24; Lv 14:4-6, 51-52; Nm 19:6; 2 Chr 2:7, 14; 3:14; Is 1:18; Heb 9:19; Rv 18:12). The kermes oak grows from 6 to 35 feet (1.8 to 10.7 meters) tall and is found in the mountainous regions of Syria, Lebanon, and the Holy Land. When it grows alone, the kermes oak often becomes a large tree. It was regularly planted by tombs in the East. The oak was always respected and even venerated in biblical times for its large size and strength, and great men were usually buried in its shade. Abraham’s oak in Hebron is an example.<\/p>\n<p>A second oak is the valonia oak <em>(Q. aegilops),<\/em> perhaps the oak of Isaiah 2:13 and 44:14. It is common in the middle montane zones and probably was abundant in the area around Bashan. The oak of Genesis 35:4, 8 is thought to have been the holm oak <em>(Q. ilex),<\/em> an evergreen oak that grows to a height of 60 feet (18.3 meters). Still another oak is <em>Q. lusitanica,<\/em> the cypress oak, a small deciduous tree seldom more than 20 feet (6.1 meters) tall. The very large acorns of this tree were sometimes eaten.<\/p>\n<p>The word translated “plain” (<span>kjv<\/span>) in Genesis 12:6, 13:18, 14:13, and 18:1 should probably be translated “oak.”<\/p>\n<p>The many references to “groves” in the OT, usually in connection with the worship of Baal or other heathen gods (Ex 34:13; Dt 16:21; Jgs 3:7; 1 Kgs 14:23; 18:19; 2 Kgs 17:16—all <span>kjv<\/span>), were probably groves of sacred oak trees.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"OilTreeOleaster\">Oil Tree, Oleaster <em>(Elaeagnus angustifolia)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Small Eurasian tree with oblong silvery leaves, greenish flowers, and olivelike fruit. There is question as to which tree is referred to when 1 Kings 6:23, 31-33 and 1 Chronicles 27:28 refer to “olive trees.” The same word occurs in Isaiah 41:19 and Micah 6:7. The plant referred to is probably the narrow-leaved oleaster <em>(Elaeagnus angustifolia),<\/em> a small stiff-branched tree or graceful shrub growing from 15 to 20 feet (4.6 to 6.1 meters) tall, common in all parts of the Holy Land except in the Jordan Valley. At one time it was particularly common on Mt Tabor and at Hebron and Samaria. The wood is hard and fine-grained and therefore well suited for carving of images and figures. The oil that it yields is a rather inferior type used in medication but not for food; this may be the oil of Micah 6:7.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Oleander\">Oleander <em>(Nerium oleander)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any poisonous evergreen shrub of this genus growing in warm climates. One of the suggestions for the plants identified as “roses” in various translations (Ecclus 24:14, <span>kjv<\/span>) is the oleander. This plant, originally native to the East Indies, has been cultivated throughout the warm regions of the world for centuries. It flourishes in the Holy Land today and forms dense thickets in some parts of the Jordan Valley. It is usually a shrub from 3 to 12 feet (.9 to 3.7 meters) tall. Every part of the plant is dangerously poisonous.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"OliveOliveTree\">Olive, Olive Tree <em>(Olea europaea)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Old world semitropical evergreen tree bearing edible fruit. The olive, <em>Olea europaea,<\/em> was unquestionably one of the most valuable trees known to the Jews. There are innumerable references to it in Scripture, as well as to olive oil, which was used for anointing. The tree is quite common in the Holy Land, and in many places it is the only tree of any substantial size. The branches of the wild olive are rather stiff and spinescent, and the typical cultivated tree is a multi-branched evergreen, 20 or more feet (6.1 meters) tall, with a gnarled trunk and smooth, ash-colored bark. The leaves are leathery and the flowers are small, yellow or white. The fruits are large, black or violet, ripening in September, and it is the outer fleshy parts of the fruit that yield the valuable olive oil of commerce. Thirty-one percent of the ripe fruit is oil. The ripe fruit is eaten raw, as is the green, unripe fruit. The wood of the trunk and limbs is hard, rich yellow or amber in color, and fine-grained, often handsomely variegated. It is still used today for the finest cabinetwork and turnery. The tree grows very slowly, but it attains a great age. It is difficult to kill the olive tree by cutting it down, because new sprouts are sent up from the root and all around the margins of the old stump, often forming a grove of two to five trunks, all from a single root that originally supported only one tree.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Onion\">Onion <em>(Allium)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The onions referred to in Numbers 11:5 are undoubtedly <em>Allium cepa,<\/em> the Egyptian onion, which is made up of a compact coated bulb formed of layers consisting of broad fleshy bases of closely overlapping leaves. The leaves are slender and hollow. The entire plant has a characteristic pungent taste and odor.<\/p>\n\n<p>Closely related to the onion is the garlic, <em>A. sativum.<\/em> The common garlic is a hardy, bulbous perennial plant that is cultivated in Europe, western Asia, and Egypt. The leaves are narrow, flat, and ribbonlike. It is extremely popular with people of the Mediterranean region.<\/p>\n<p>Still another one of the onions is the leek, <em>A. porrum.<\/em> The bulb of the leek differs from that of the onion and garlic in that it is slender, cylindrical, and more than six inches (15.2 centimeters) in length. The flavor resembles that of the onion but is more pungent. The leaves are eaten as a relish or are cooked in soups. The bulbs are cut into small pieces and employed as seasoning for meat.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Palm\">Palm <em>(Phoenix dactylifera)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The palm tree of the Bible is undoubtedly the date palm. At one time it was as characteristic of the Holy Land as it is still today of Egypt. It is characterized by a branchless, tapering stem of up to 80 feet (24.2 meters) or more in height and a large terminal cluster of feathery leaves, each six to nine feet (1.8 to 2.7 meters) or more long. Because of its height and unusual structure, it was natural that it should be used as a form of ornamentation in Eastern architecture. The stem and leaves were favorite subjects of architectural embellishment. The immense, branchlike leaves that are referred to as branches in the Bible were symbols of triumph and were used on occasions of great rejoicing (Jn 12:13; Rv 7:9). The large leaves are still used to cover the roofs and sides of houses and to give solidity to reed fences. Mats, baskets, and even dishes are made of them. Small leaves are used as dusters, and the wood of the trunk is used for timber. Rope is made from the weblike integument in the crown. The fruit, borne in an immense drooping cluster, which may weigh from 30 to 50 pounds (13.6 to 22.7 kilograms), is the chief food of many natives of Arabia and north Africa. A single tree may yield up to 200 pounds (90.7 kilograms) of dates a year. They may be dried for future use.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Papyrus\">Papyrus <em>(Cyperus papyrus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The Egyptian bulrush or papyrus (Ex 2:3-5; Jb 8:11; Is 18:2; 19:6-7; 35:7; 58:5) has smooth three-sided stems ordinarily attaining a height of 8 to 10 feet (2.4 to 3 meters), but sometimes even 16 feet (4.9 meters), and a thickness of two to three inches (5.1 to 7.6 centimeters) at the base with a large tuft of florets at the end. The papyrus formerly grew in great abundance along the banks of the Nile, forming what was almost a dense jungle. Today it is practically extinct in lower Egypt, although it is still found along the White Nile and in the Sudan. The papyrus still grows in parts of the Holy Land, especially around the north end of the plain of Galilee and the Huleh swamps.<\/p>\n\n<p>In addition to being used for making small vessels to float in water (Ex 2:3), for mats, and for various other domestic purposes, it is best known as the source of ancient paper. In manufacturing paper from papyrus, the stems of the plant were first peeled and the pitch then cut longitudinally into thin slices that were laid side by side. These were then sprinkled with water and pressed to unite the whole into one piece. The sheet was then dried and cut into pieces of the required size. In the better grades of papyrus paper, several layers of stem slices were laid crosswise on each other.<\/p>\n<p>The pale, fawn-colored, tassel-like inflorescences at the summit of the stems were used to adorn Egyptian temples and to crown the statues of gods. They were also worn as crowns by famous men and national heroes.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PineTree\">Pine Tree <em>(Pinus brutia, P. halepensis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Various evergreen trees of this family with needle-shaped leaves in clusters and seed-bearing cones. While there is considerable confusion concerning the conifers of the Bible, it seems apparent that pines are referred to in such passages as Leviticus 23:40; Nehemiah 8:15; Isaiah 41:19; and 60:13. One of the Holy Land’s pines is the Brutian pine <em>(Pinus brutia),<\/em> a mountain-inhabiting species of the northern regions of Palestine. It attains a height of 10 to 35 feet (3 to 10.7 meters) with a rather diffuse growth and branches in whorls.<\/p>\n<p>Another of the pines is the Aleppo pine, <em>Pinus halepensis.<\/em> Most of the instances of the occurrence of “fir” or “fir tree” in the <span>kjv<\/span> probably refer to the Aleppo pine (2 Sm 6:5; 1 Kgs 5:8, 10; 6:34; 2 Kgs 19:23; 2 Chr 2:8; Ps 104:17; Sg 1:17; Is 14:8; 37:24; 55:13; 60:13; Ez 27:5; 31:8; Hos 14:8; Na 2:3; Zec 11:2). It grows from 9 to 60 feet (2.7 to 18.3 meters) tall with diffuse ascending branches and yellowish or brownish branchlets.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Pistachio\">Pistachio <em>(Pistacia terebinthus, P. vera)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The Palestine terebinth or turpentine tree is a large deciduous tree with straggling boughs. In the winter, without its leaves, it looks much like the oak. It grows from 12 to 25 feet (3.7 to 7.6 meters) tall. Every part of the tree contains a fragrant, resinous juice. It is common on the lower slopes of the hills throughout Syria, Lebanon, Palestine, and Arabia, generally growing as a solitary tree and found mostly in localities too warm or too dry for the oak that it generally replaces. Since it is native to Gilead, it is quite probable that its resinous juice formed part of the spicery that the Israelites carried to Egypt from Gilead (Gn 37:25).<\/p>\n<p>The nuts of Genesis 43:11 are apparently pistachio nuts from the pistachio tree, <em>Pistacia vera,<\/em> closely related to the terebinth. It attains a height of 10 to 30 feet (3 to 9.1 meters) with a spreading top. It is found wild in many rocky parts of Lebanon and the Holy Land. The nut has a light-colored shell and the kernel has a sweet delicate flavor much relished wherever it grows.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PlaneTree\">Plane Tree <em>(Platanus orientalis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of several trees of this family with bell-shaped fruit clusters and usually an outer bark that flakes off in patches or strips. The references in Genesis 30:37 and Ezekiel 31:8 are apparently not to the chestnut tree, which is not indigenous to Palestine, but to the oriental plane tree, <em>Platanus orientalis.<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The plane tree is a massive tree 60 feet (18.3 meters) or more tall with a trunk often of vast circumference, sometimes as much as 40 feet (12.2 meters). The outer bark peels off in sheets or scales, thus exposing a smooth whitish or yellowish inner bark. The tree is common throughout Lebanon, Syria, and the Holy Land, growing even in subalpine regions. However, it is primarily a tree of the plains and lowlands, growing on the edges of streams and lakes and in marshy places.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Pomegranate\">Pomegranate <em>(Punica granatum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The pomegranate is usually a small, bushlike tree but may occasionally become a large, branching shrub or small tree reaching a height of 20 to 30 feet (6.1 to 9.1 meters). The branches are often thorny. The showy bell-like flowers are usually scarlet, though sometimes yellow or white. The globular fruit is as large as an orange or medium-size apple. It has a hard rind of a bright red or yellowish color when ripe and is surmounted by the dry sepals that resemble a crown. The fruit itself is a crimson juicy pulp in which many red seeds are imbedded. The flowers of the pomegranate undoubtedly served as a pattern for the golden bells referred to in Exodus 28:33-34 and 39:24-26, and the open flowers of 1 Kings 6:32. The erect calyx lobes on the fruit served as a model for crowns of kings.<\/p>\n<p>The pomegranate is native to Asia, but it has been cultivated since prehistoric times and is now quite common in the Holy Land, in Egypt, and along the shores of the Mediterranean. It is listed as one of the pleasant fruits of Egypt (Nm 20:5) and one of the promised blessings of the Holy Land (Dt 8:8).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Poplar\">Poplar <em>(Populus euphratica, P. alba)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Fast-growing deciduous tree of the same genus as the aspen and cottonwood. The <span>kjv<\/span> references in 2 Samuel 5:23-24 and 1 Chronicles 14:14-15 to mulberry trees are more probably to the Euphrates poplar or aspen, <em>Populus euphratica.<\/em> This tree grows to a height of 30 to 45 feet (9.1 to 13.7 meters) with spreading branches. The Euphrates aspen is found only on rivers and stream banks throughout the area from Syria through the Holy Land to Stony Arabia. It is especially common in the Jordan Valley.<\/p>\n<p>The white poplar <em>(Populus alba)<\/em> is common in wet places in Syria, Lebanon, the Holy Land, and Sinai. It attains a height of 30 to 60 feet (9.1 to 18.3 meters) with spreading branches. Some suggest that the altars of various pagan religions were usually erected on the top of a hill and in the shade of a poplar grove.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Quince\">Quince <em>(Cydonia oblonga)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Tree native to western Asia, having white flowers and applelike fruit that is edible when cooked. Some believe that the “apples” of the OT were quinces, <em>Cydonia oblonga.<\/em> The quince tree is quite common in the Holy Land, though chiefly as a cultivated tree. It may occur wild in the northern parts of Syria. It is native to northern Persia and Asia Minor. The fruit is yellowish and highly fragrant, and it is the fragrance that caused it to be held in high regard by the ancients.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Reed\">Reed <em>(Juncus, Scirpus, Typha angustata, Arundo donax)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Numerous species of the rush and bulrush grow in the Holy Land. There are at least 21 varieties of rushes. The common soft rush or bog rush <em>(Juncus effusus)<\/em> is found in wet places, even in the Sinai and other deserts. The sea or hard rush <em>(J. maritimus)<\/em> is found in damp places throughout the Holy Land and even in Sinai.<\/p>\n<p>At least 15 kinds of bulrushes <em>(Scirpus)<\/em> are known in the Holy Land. The cluster-headed club rush <em>(Scirpus holoschoenus)<\/em> is common in damp places throughout the Holy Land to the Sinai. The lake club rush or tall bulrush <em>(S. lacustris)<\/em> is found in swamps and ditches throughout northern Africa to the Dead Sea. The sea club rush or salt marsh club rush <em>(S. maritimus)<\/em> is found in ditches and swamps in many places of the Holy Land. Any of these species may be the one referred to in Job 8:11; Isaiah 9:14; 19:6, 15.<\/p>\n<p>The reference in Genesis 41:2 to the feeding of cattle in the meadow seems to be to the tall reed <em>(Arundo donax),<\/em> which grows 18 feet (5.5 meters) or more in height. This plant is also known as the Persian reed and is common throughout the Holy Land, Syria, and the Sinai peninsula. It is a gigantic grass that may have a stem diameter of two or three inches (5.1 to 7.6 centimeters) at the base and is terminated by a plume of white flowers similar to those of the sugarcane or pampas grass. The plant was used for many purposes by the ancients: for walking sticks, fishing rods, measuring rods, and musical pipes. It is, therefore, quite possible that the “reed” of Matthew 27:48 and Mark 15:36 was a carpenter’s reed or measuring rod.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Papyrus.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Rue\">Rue <em>(Ruta chalepensis, R. graveolens)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Aromatic Eurasian plant with evergreen leaves that yield an acrid, volatile oil once used in medicine. There is little question as to the correctness of the translation of “rue” in Luke 11:42, but there is some doubt as to the exact species. Most writers think that it was the common rue <em>(Rue graveolens),<\/em> a perennial shrubby plant with erect stems two to three feet (.6 to .9 meter) tall and deeply cut leaves. A very strong odor emanates from the foliage. This species is native to the Mediterranean region and grows wild in the Holy Land, especially on Mt Tabor.<\/p>\n<p>Rue was highly thought of by the ancients as a medicinal, supposed to prevent dizziness, dumbness, epilepsy, eye inflammations, insanity, and the “evil eye.” Rue was also used for seasoning dishes.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Rush\">Rush <em>(Butomus umbellatus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Generic term for any of various grasslike marsh plants having pliant, hollow, or pithy stems. There is considerable uncertainty about the identification of the plant referred to in Genesis 41:2 translated in the <span>kjv<\/span> as “meadow,” and in Job 8:11 as “flag.” Since it is mentioned along with the papyrus in the Job passage, it seems that it refers to a specific kind of plant rather than to an aggregate of plants in a meadow. From the description in Genesis as being a plant on which Pharaoh’s cattle might feed along the banks of the Nile and yet not the papyrus, it may refer to the flowering rush or water gladiola <em>(Butomus umbellatus),<\/em> which flourishes both in Egypt and in the Holy Land, along with the papyrus.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Reed.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Saffron\">Saffron <em>(Crocus sativus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Saffron, referred to in Song of Songs 4:14, is the product of several species of <em>Crocus,<\/em> especially of the blue-flowered saffron crocus <em>(C. sativus),<\/em> which is native to Greece and Asia Minor. The commercial product consists of the stigma and upper portions of the style, the top parts of the flower ovary, which are collected shortly after the flower opens. It requires at least 4,000 stigmas to make an ounce of saffron. After being gathered, the stigmas are dried in the sun, pounded, and made into small cakes. Saffron is used principally as a yellow dye and also as a fruit coloring for curries and stews.<\/p>\n<p>Another, entirely different kind of dye-producing plant <em>(Carthamus tinctorius)<\/em> called carthamine, bastard saffron, or safflower is a member of the thistle family. Its red florets yield a dye used extensively for coloring silk, in cooking, and for adulterating genuine saffron. It is an annual spiny plant three to four and a half feet (1.4 meters) tall, native to Syria and Egypt. In Egypt the grave clothes of mummies were dyed with this material, and it is quite possible that this plant may also have been the saffron of the Bible.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Sage\">Sage <em>(Salvia judaica)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The Judean sage grows to three feet (.9 meter) tall in the mountains and hills of Palestine. Its stems are four-angled, stiff, and rough. The plant grows from Syria south through Nazareth, Hebron, Tiberius, Samaria, and Judea.<\/p>\n<p>This plant is the origin of the design of the seven-branched lampstand of Exodus 37:17-18, which is known as the menorah, the traditional Jewish symbol. The inflorescence of the plant, when pressed flat, has almost exactly the same shape and form as the seven-branched candlestick, with its central spike and three pairs of side branches each bending upward and inward in a symmetrical fashion. On each branch of the plant’s inflorescence are whorls or buds that perhaps give the idea for the “knops” (<span>kjv<\/span>) or “knobs” on the biblical golden candlesticks.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Spelt\">Spelt <em>(Triticum aestivum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Hardy member of the wheat family. The rye of Exodus 9:32 and Isaiah 28:25, as well as the fitches of Ezekiel 4:9 (all <span>kjv<\/span>) are thought to be spelt. It is a hard-grained species of wheat with loose ears and grains triangular in cross-section, and was the most common form of wheat in early times. It has a stouter stem than wheat and strong spikes of grain. Bread made of its flour is much inferior to that made from wheat, but spelt will thrive in almost any kind of soil and will yield a crop on land that is unfit for wheat. The ancients preferred it to barley for bread.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"StoraxTree\">Storax Tree <em>(Styrax officinalis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Various trees of this genus yielding an aromatic resin. Today it is thought that the stacte of Exodus 30:34 was derived from the storax tree. It is an irregularly stiff-branched shrub or small tree 9 to 20 feet (2.7 to 6.1 meters) tall. This tree is abundant on low hills and rocky places from Lebanon through the Holy Land. Its gum is obtained by making incisions in the stems and branches. It is highly perfumed and is still prized today as a perfume.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Sycamore\">Sycamore-fig <em>(Ficus sycomorus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Tree of northeastern Africa and adjacent Asia, related to the fig. The word translated “sycamore” in 1 Kings 10:27; 1 Chronicles 27:28; 2 Chronicles 1:15; 9:27; Psalm 78:47; Isaiah 9:10; Amos 7:14; and Luke 19:4 undoubtedly refers to the well-known sycamore-fig, which is also known as the mulberry-fig or fig-mulberry. It should not be confused with the common sycamore of the North American continent, which is actually a plane tree. The sycamore-fig of the Bible is a strong-growing, robust, wide-spreading tree growing 30 to 40 feet (9.1 to 12.2 meters) tall and sometimes attaining a trunk circumference of 20 feet (6.1 meters) or more with a crown 120 feet (36.6 meters) in diameter. It is a tree that is easily climbed and is frequently planted along roadsides, which accounts for the reference in Luke 19:4. It produces an abundant amount of fruit in clusters on all parts of the tree, on both young and old branches and even on the trunk itself. It is very similar to the common fig, only smaller and much inferior in quality. In David’s day it was so valuable that he appointed a special overseer for the sycamore trees (1 Chr 27:28). It is thought that Amos was not a gatherer of sycamore fruit but rather a dresser of sycamore trees.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Tamarisk\">Tamarisk <em>(Tamarix)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The references in Genesis 21:33 and 1 Samuel 22:6 and 31:13 seem to be to the tamarisk. These trees or shrubs are small and fast-growing with a durable wood. They are abundant in deserts, dunes, and salt marshes. <em>Tamarix aphylla<\/em> is leafless and has small white flowers. These trees or shrubs often provide a soothing touch of green foliage and a promise of cooling shade to the traveler. Tamarisks are able to survive because they either have small, scalelike leaves, which lose little moisture by transpiration, or no leaves at all. The larger of the tamarisks are valued for their wood in a region where wood is scarce. The wood was used for building and also as a source of an excellent type of charcoal.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Terebinth\">Terebinth <em>(Pistacia terebinthus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Pistachio (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ThistleThorn\">Thistle, Thorn <em>(Lycium europaeum, Solanum incanum, Centaurea, Silybum marianum, Ruscus aculeatus, Agrostemma githago, Paliurus spina-christi, Zizyphus spina-christi)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>There are 22 different Hebrew and Greek words used in Scripture to refer to spiny or prickly shrubs or weeds, and these are translated as “bramble,” “brier,” “cockle,” “thorn,” and “thistle.” At present, there are about 125 species of thorns and thistles that grow in the Holy Land.<\/p>\n<p>The bramble in the allegory of Judges 9:14-15 is believed to refer to the European boxthorn or desert-thorn, <em>Lycium europaeum.<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The general consensus is that the “briers” of Isaiah 10:17, 55:13, Micah 7:4, and Hebrews 6:8 are the Palestine nightshade <em>(Solanum incanum),<\/em> or “Jericho potato.”<\/p>\n<p>The thistles of Genesis 3:17-18, 2 Kings 14:9, 2 Chronicles 25:18, Hosea 10:8, and Matthew 7:16, as well as the thorns of Matthew 13:7 and Hebrews 6:8, are thought to be one of the species of the thistle, <em>Centaurea.<\/em> Among the more common thistles in the Holy Land are the true star-thistle <em>(Centaurea calcitrapa),<\/em> the dwarf centaury <em>(C. verutum),<\/em> the Iberian centaury <em>(C. iberica),<\/em> and the lady’s thistle <em>(Silybum marianum).<\/em> Some thistles attain a height of five to six feet (.9 to 1.8 meters). Thistles are characteristic of an area that is uncultivated and neglected. Many have beautiful flowers, but all are covered with sharp spines.<\/p>\n<p>The references in Ezekiel 2:6 to “briers” and Ezekiel 28:24 to a “pricking brier” may be to the prickly butchers-broom or knee-holly, <em>Ruscus aculeatus.<\/em> The plant is common in rocky woods in the northern regions of the Holy Land, especially around Mt Tabor and Mt Carmel.<\/p>\n<p>The cockle of Job 31:40 (<span>nlt<\/span> “weeds”) perhaps refers to the corn cockle, <em>Agrostemma githago.<\/em> This plant is common in grainfields throughout the Holy Land. It is a strong-growing and troublesome weed in grainfields, growing from one to three feet (.3 to .9 meter) tall.<\/p>\n<p>Many commentators think that the “thorns” out of which the crown of thorns (Mt 27:29; Jn 19:2) was made were from the Christ-thorn <em>(Paliurus spina-christi).<\/em> This belief has led to its specific name; the Christ-thorn is a spiny plant that ordinarily grows as a straggling shrub three to nine feet (.9 to 2.7 meters) tall. The flexible branches are armed at the base of each leaf with a pair of unequal, stiff, sharp spines. The unusual pliable texture of the young branches renders it particularly easy to plait into a crownlike wreath.<\/p>\n<p>The thorns of Judges 8:7, Isaiah 7:19, 9:18, 55:13, and Matthew 7:16 may refer to the Syrian Christ-thorn <em>(Zizyphus spina-christi),<\/em> a shrub or small tree 9 to 15 feet (2.7 to 4.6 meters) tall, sometimes growing into a 40-foot (12.2-meter) tree with smooth white branches bearing a pair of stout, unequal, recurved spines at the back of each leaf.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Bramble; Buckthorn (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Tulip\">Tulip <em>(Tulipa montana, T. sharonensis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of several bulbous plants of this family native to Asia. The rose of Sharon in Song of Songs 2:1 may be the mountain tulip, <em>Tulipa montana,<\/em> or the closely related Sharon tulip, <em>T. sharonensis.<\/em> The former is an attractive plant that grows from a bulb and has leaves that are often wavy-margined. The species is common in the mountainous regions of Syria, Lebanon, and the Anti-Lebanon. It is primarily a mountainous species. The Sharon tulip <em>(T. sharonensis)<\/em> is found in sandy places on the Sharon coastal plains.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Tumbleweed\">Tumbleweed <em>(Gundelia tournefortii, Anastatica hierochuntica)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The references in Psalm 83:13 to “whirling dust” and in Isaiah 17:13 to “wheel” or “rolling thing” (<span>niv<\/span> “tumbleweed”) seem to be to the Palestinian tumbleweed <em>(Gundelia tournefortii),<\/em> a member of the thistle family. It is a prickly herb with milky juice. It rolls over the land and gathers in tremendous heaps in hollows.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Vegetable\">Vegetable<\/p>\n<p>Scriptural references to vegetables are probably, in most cases, to the dried leguminous seeds of beans and lentils.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Vine\">Vine <em>(Vitis vinifera)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any plant with a flexible stem that climbs, twines, or creeps along a surface or support. The common grapevine <em>(Vitis vinifera)<\/em> is mentioned throughout the Bible. The fruitful vine (Ez 17:5-10) and the vine brought out of Egypt (Ps 80:8) were symbolic of the Jewish people. Jesus compares himself to the true vine, of which his disciples were the branches (Jn 15:1-6).<\/p>\n<p>The grapevine of the Old World sometimes assumes the characteristics of a tree, with stems up to a foot and a half (45.7 centimeters) in diameter, the branches then being trained on a trellis and bearing bunches of grapes 10 to 12 pounds (4.5 to 5.4 kilograms) in weight, with the individual grapes the size of small plums. Bunches have been produced weighing as much as 26 pounds (11.8 kilograms). The vines of the Holy Land were always renowned both for the luxuriance of their growth and for the immense clusters of grapes they produced. Thus it does not seem improbable that the spies sent to the Promised Land should have employed a pole to transport some of the clusters home (Nm 13:23-24).<\/p>\n<p>The wild grape <em>(Vitis orientalis)<\/em> is referred to in Isaiah 5:2-4, Jeremiah 2:21, and Ezekiel 15:2-6. It is known as the native wild fox grape and has small, black, acidic berries about the size of currants with little juice.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Walnut\">Walnut <em>(Juglans regia)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of several trees of this genus having round, sticky fruit enclosing an edible nut. The reference in Song of Songs 6:11 to “nuts” is thought to refer to the Persian or common walnut, <em>Juglans regia.<\/em> The tree is believed to have been indigenous to northern Persia, but it is actually found wild in many parts of northern India, eastward as far as China, and westward through Persia. At the time of Solomon, it was widely cultivated for its fruit throughout the East. Perhaps Solomon’s garden of nuts was a part of his extensive gardens at Etham, six miles (9.7 kilometers) from Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"WaterLily\">Water Lily <em>(Nymphaea)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of numerous aquatic plants of this genus with floating leaves and showy flowers. The carved lily ornamentation of 1 Kings 7:19-26 and 2 Chronicles 4:5 was probably patterned after the flowers of the water lily. Few flowers can equal the Egyptian lotus or water lily <em>(Nymphaea lotus)<\/em> in beauty. It looks very much like a large white rose and at one time floated in profusion on the waters of the Nile.<\/p>\n<p>The common European white water lily <em>(N. alba)<\/em> was also familiar to the children of Israel. It grows not only in Europe but also in the Holy Land and North Africa. It is, however, not as common in Egypt as is the white lotus.<\/p>\n<p>Another water lily with which the Israelites were probably familiar is the blue lotus, <em>N. caerulea.<\/em> Its leaves are 12 to 16 inches (30.5 to 40.6 centimeters) across and it has light-blue flowers that are three to six inches (7.6 to 15.2 centimeters) in diameter.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Wheat\">Wheat <em>(Triticum aestivum, T. compositum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Various cereal grasses of this family widely cultivated for its edible grain. Five kinds of wheat are native to—and still wild in—the Holy Land, and at least eight others are cultivated there today; probably most, if not all, were known in Bible times. The wild varieties were probably more abundant then than they are today. Among these are the einkorn <em>(T. monococcum),<\/em> the thaoudar <em>(T. thaoudar),<\/em> and the wild emmer <em>(T. dicoccoides).<\/em> The composite wheat <em>(T. compositum),<\/em> with its branched spikes, often bearing as many as seven heads per stalk, is definitely referred to in Genesis 41:5-57. It is depicted on numerous Egyptian monuments and on inscriptions and is still commonly seen in the Nile Delta, where it is known as “mummy wheat.” It is also cultivated in the Holy Land.<\/p>\n<p>The most frequently mentioned wheat of the Bible is undoubtedly the commonly cultivated summer and winter wheat, <em>Triticum aestivum.<\/em> It is an abundant annual grass cultivated in Egypt and other Eastern lands since earliest times. The exact place of its origin is unknown. Grains of wheat have been found in the most ancient Egyptian tombs and in the remains of prehistoric lake dwellings in Switzerland. It was certainly the chief grain of Mesopotamia in Jacob’s time (Gn 30:14).<\/p>\n<p>Corn in biblical days often included a mixture of peas, beans, lentils, cummin, barley, millet, and spelt, but wheat was always its main constituent. Egypt was a great grain-producing country, and Abram (Gn 12:10) and Joseph’s brothers (ch 42) naturally turned to Egypt for wheat when famine visited Canaan.<\/p>\n<p>The mills, millstones, granaries, and threshing floors mentioned in the Bible all refer to equipment employed in processing grain to produce flour. The fine flour of which the showbread loaves were made (Lv 24:5) was unquestionably wheat flour. Wheat intended for home consumption was often stored in the central part of the house; this explains the story told in 2 Samuel 4:6. It was also sometimes stored in dry wells (2 Sm 17:19).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Wormwood\">Wormwood <em>(Artemisia judaica, A. herba-alba)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Wormwood is a general name given to a group of woody plants with a strong aromatic odor. Wormwood plants have a strong, bitter taste, and their young shoots and branch tips furnish the “wormwood” of commerce. Its bitter taste accounts for its being spoken of with gall—as being symbolic of bitter calamity and sorrow (Prv 5:4; Jer 9:15; 23:15; Lam 3:15, 19). <em>Artemisia herba-alba<\/em> is the common species of wormwood in the Holy Land today. It is strongly aromatic, smelling like camphor, and bitter. <em>A. judaica<\/em> occurs only in the Sinai.<\/p>\n<p>Absinthe is made from species of this group. It first leads to greater activity and pleasant sensations and fills the mind with grandiose ideas (Lam 3:15). The habitual use of it, however, brings on a stupor and gradual diminution of intellectual faculties, ending in delirium and even death. Perhaps the hemlock of Amos 6:12 was wormwood.<\/p>","summary_ro":"PLANTS Identifying biblical plants has always been a difficult task, partly because people continue to identify the biblical elm, sycamore, lily, rose, and vine with modern plants, and also because they assume that all the plants now growing in the Holy Land were there in ancient biblical days, or that the plants referred to in the Bible are still to be found there today. Unfortunately, many plants now quite common in the Holy Land were not there in biblical days. Many plants that once grew i...","summary_en":"PLANTS Identifying biblical plants has always been a difficult task, partly because people continue to identify the biblical elm, sycamore, lily, rose, and vine with modern plants, and also because they assume that all the plants now growing in the Holy Land were there in ancient biblical days, or that the plants referred to in the Bible are still to be found there today. Unfortunately, many plants now quite common in the Holy Land were not there in biblical days. Many plants that once grew i...","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":63894,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Holy One of Israel","title_en":"The Holy One of Israel","content_ro":"<h3>The Holy One of Israel<\/h3>\n<p>The phrase <em>The Holy One of Israel<\/em> is particularly prominent in the book of Isaiah, occurring around two dozen times. The Holy One is the King (6:5), the righteous and just one (26:7), the incomparable God (40:25), and the Redeemer of his people (41:14). Anyone coming to the Holy One must worship him in reverence and awe. The Holy One identifies himself with Mount Zion, called holy because it is his symbolic dwelling place (see 18:7; 24:23; 27:13; 56:7; 60:1-22).<\/p>\n<p>The Holy One stands apart from all his creation because he is morally perfect. Sinful people cannot dwell with him (see 1:4). God’s holiness requires ritual purity and moral perfection. God is a consuming fire who purges away anything that does not conform to his holy will (see 33:14).<\/p>\n<p>Yet the Holy One sets aside a remnant for himself (4:2-3; 6:13). He washes away their filth and commits to be present with them (12:6), his own redeemed people (35:8-9; 62:12; see also 49:7). He demonstrates his holy power as he comes to the aid of sinful and weak humans, rescues them from the exile that their sin creates, and opens up the new creation for them.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Pss 71:22-23; 78:41; Prov 9:10; Isa 6:1-5; 10:17, 20; 17:7; 29:17-24; 30:15; 41:14, 17-20; 43:1-4, 10-21; 48:17-18; 54:4-5; 55:5; 57:15; Jer 50:29; 51:5; Ezek 39:7-8; Hos 11:8-9; Hab 3:3-6; John 6:66-69; Acts 2:27; 13:35; Rev 16:5-7<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Holy One of Israel<\/h3>\n<p>The phrase <em>The Holy One of Israel<\/em> is particularly prominent in the book of Isaiah, occurring around two dozen times. The Holy One is the King (6:5), the righteous and just one (26:7), the incomparable God (40:25), and the Redeemer of his people (41:14). Anyone coming to the Holy One must worship him in reverence and awe. The Holy One identifies himself with Mount Zion, called holy because it is his symbolic dwelling place (see 18:7; 24:23; 27:13; 56:7; 60:1-22).<\/p>\n<p>The Holy One stands apart from all his creation because he is morally perfect. Sinful people cannot dwell with him (see 1:4). God’s holiness requires ritual purity and moral perfection. God is a consuming fire who purges away anything that does not conform to his holy will (see 33:14).<\/p>\n<p>Yet the Holy One sets aside a remnant for himself (4:2-3; 6:13). He washes away their filth and commits to be present with them (12:6), his own redeemed people (35:8-9; 62:12; see also 49:7). He demonstrates his holy power as he comes to the aid of sinful and weak humans, rescues them from the exile that their sin creates, and opens up the new creation for them.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Pss 71:22-23; 78:41; Prov 9:10; Isa 6:1-5; 10:17, 20; 17:7; 29:17-24; 30:15; 41:14, 17-20; 43:1-4, 10-21; 48:17-18; 54:4-5; 55:5; 57:15; Jer 50:29; 51:5; Ezek 39:7-8; Hos 11:8-9; Hab 3:3-6; John 6:66-69; Acts 2:27; 13:35; Rev 16:5-7<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Holy One of Israel The phrase The Holy One of Israel is particularly prominent in the book of Isaiah, occurring around two dozen times. The Holy One is the King (6:5), the righteous and just one (26:7), the incomparable God (40:25), and the Redeemer of his people (41:14). Anyone coming to the Holy One must worship him in reverence and awe. The Holy One identifies himself with Mount Zion, called holy because it is his symbolic dwelling place (see 18:7; 24:23; 27:13; 56:7; 60:1-22). The Hol...","summary_en":"The Holy One of Israel The phrase The Holy One of Israel is particularly prominent in the book of Isaiah, occurring around two dozen times. The Holy One is the King (6:5), the righteous and just one (26:7), the incomparable God (40:25), and the Redeemer of his people (41:14). Anyone coming to the Holy One must worship him in reverence and awe. The Holy One identifies himself with Mount Zion, called holy because it is his symbolic dwelling place (see 18:7; 24:23; 27:13; 56:7; 60:1-22). The Hol...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":91520,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Holy One of Israel","title_en":"The Holy One of Israel","content_ro":"<h3>The Holy One of Israel<\/h3>\n<p>The phrase <em>The Holy One of Israel<\/em> is particularly prominent in the book of Isaiah, occurring around two dozen times. The Holy One is the King (6:5), the righteous and just one (26:7), the incomparable God (40:25), and the Redeemer of his people (41:14). Anyone coming to the Holy One must worship him in reverence and awe. The Holy One identifies himself with Mount Zion, called holy because it is his symbolic dwelling place (see 18:7; 24:23; 27:13; 56:7; 60:1-22).<\/p>\n<p>The Holy One stands apart from all his creation because he is morally perfect. Sinful people cannot dwell with him (see 1:4). God’s holiness requires ritual purity and moral perfection. God is a consuming fire who purges away anything that does not conform to his holy will (see 33:14).<\/p>\n<p>Yet the Holy One sets aside a remnant for himself (4:2-3; 6:13). He washes away their filth and commits to be present with them (12:6), his own redeemed people (35:8-9; 62:12; see also 49:7). He demonstrates his holy power as he comes to the aid of sinful and weak humans, rescues them from the exile that their sin creates, and opens up the new creation for them.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Pss 71:22-23; 78:41; Prov 9:10; Isa 6:1-5; 10:17, 20; 17:7; 29:17-24; 30:15; 41:14, 17-20; 43:1-4, 10-21; 48:17-18; 54:4-5; 55:5; 57:15; Jer 50:29; 51:5; Ezek 39:7-8; Hos 11:8-9; Hab 3:3-6; John 6:66-69; Acts 2:27; 13:35; Rev 16:5-7<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Holy One of Israel<\/h3>\n<p>The phrase <em>The Holy One of Israel<\/em> is particularly prominent in the book of Isaiah, occurring around two dozen times. The Holy One is the King (6:5), the righteous and just one (26:7), the incomparable God (40:25), and the Redeemer of his people (41:14). Anyone coming to the Holy One must worship him in reverence and awe. The Holy One identifies himself with Mount Zion, called holy because it is his symbolic dwelling place (see 18:7; 24:23; 27:13; 56:7; 60:1-22).<\/p>\n<p>The Holy One stands apart from all his creation because he is morally perfect. Sinful people cannot dwell with him (see 1:4). God’s holiness requires ritual purity and moral perfection. God is a consuming fire who purges away anything that does not conform to his holy will (see 33:14).<\/p>\n<p>Yet the Holy One sets aside a remnant for himself (4:2-3; 6:13). He washes away their filth and commits to be present with them (12:6), his own redeemed people (35:8-9; 62:12; see also 49:7). He demonstrates his holy power as he comes to the aid of sinful and weak humans, rescues them from the exile that their sin creates, and opens up the new creation for them.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Pss 71:22-23; 78:41; Prov 9:10; Isa 6:1-5; 10:17, 20; 17:7; 29:17-24; 30:15; 41:14, 17-20; 43:1-4, 10-21; 48:17-18; 54:4-5; 55:5; 57:15; Jer 50:29; 51:5; Ezek 39:7-8; Hos 11:8-9; Hab 3:3-6; John 6:66-69; Acts 2:27; 13:35; Rev 16:5-7<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Holy One of Israel The phrase The Holy One of Israel is particularly prominent in the book of Isaiah, occurring around two dozen times. The Holy One is the King (6:5), the righteous and just one (26:7), the incomparable God (40:25), and the Redeemer of his people (41:14). Anyone coming to the Holy One must worship him in reverence and awe. The Holy One identifies himself with Mount Zion, called holy because it is his symbolic dwelling place (see 18:7; 24:23; 27:13; 56:7; 60:1-22). The Hol...","summary_en":"The Holy One of Israel The phrase The Holy One of Israel is particularly prominent in the book of Isaiah, occurring around two dozen times. The Holy One is the King (6:5), the righteous and just one (26:7), the incomparable God (40:25), and the Redeemer of his people (41:14). Anyone coming to the Holy One must worship him in reverence and awe. The Holy One identifies himself with Mount Zion, called holy because it is his symbolic dwelling place (see 18:7; 24:23; 27:13; 56:7; 60:1-22). The Hol...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":119146,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Holy One of Israel","title_en":"The Holy One of Israel","content_ro":"<h3>The Holy One of Israel<\/h3>\n<p>The phrase <em>The Holy One of Israel<\/em> is particularly prominent in the book of Isaiah, occurring around two dozen times. The Holy One is the King (6:5), the righteous and just one (26:7), the incomparable God (40:25), and the Redeemer of his people (41:14). Anyone coming to the Holy One must worship him in reverence and awe. The Holy One identifies himself with Mount Zion, called holy because it is his symbolic dwelling place (see 18:7; 24:23; 27:13; 56:7; 60:1-22).<\/p>\n<p>The Holy One stands apart from all his creation because he is morally perfect. Sinful people cannot dwell with him (see 1:4). God’s holiness requires ritual purity and moral perfection. God is a consuming fire who purges away anything that does not conform to his holy will (see 33:14).<\/p>\n<p>Yet the Holy One sets aside a remnant for himself (4:2-3; 6:13). He washes away their filth and commits to be present with them (12:6), his own redeemed people (35:8-9; 62:12; see also 49:7). He demonstrates his holy power as he comes to the aid of sinful and weak humans, rescues them from the exile that their sin creates, and opens up the new creation for them.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Pss 71:22-23; 78:41; Prov 9:10; Isa 6:1-5; 10:17, 20; 17:7; 29:17-24; 30:15; 41:14, 17-20; 43:1-4, 10-21; 48:17-18; 54:4-5; 55:5; 57:15; Jer 50:29; 51:5; Ezek 39:7-8; Hos 11:8-9; Hab 3:3-6; John 6:66-69; Acts 2:27; 13:35; Rev 16:5-7<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Holy One of Israel<\/h3>\n<p>The phrase <em>The Holy One of Israel<\/em> is particularly prominent in the book of Isaiah, occurring around two dozen times. The Holy One is the King (6:5), the righteous and just one (26:7), the incomparable God (40:25), and the Redeemer of his people (41:14). Anyone coming to the Holy One must worship him in reverence and awe. The Holy One identifies himself with Mount Zion, called holy because it is his symbolic dwelling place (see 18:7; 24:23; 27:13; 56:7; 60:1-22).<\/p>\n<p>The Holy One stands apart from all his creation because he is morally perfect. Sinful people cannot dwell with him (see 1:4). God’s holiness requires ritual purity and moral perfection. God is a consuming fire who purges away anything that does not conform to his holy will (see 33:14).<\/p>\n<p>Yet the Holy One sets aside a remnant for himself (4:2-3; 6:13). He washes away their filth and commits to be present with them (12:6), his own redeemed people (35:8-9; 62:12; see also 49:7). He demonstrates his holy power as he comes to the aid of sinful and weak humans, rescues them from the exile that their sin creates, and opens up the new creation for them.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Pss 71:22-23; 78:41; Prov 9:10; Isa 6:1-5; 10:17, 20; 17:7; 29:17-24; 30:15; 41:14, 17-20; 43:1-4, 10-21; 48:17-18; 54:4-5; 55:5; 57:15; Jer 50:29; 51:5; Ezek 39:7-8; Hos 11:8-9; Hab 3:3-6; John 6:66-69; Acts 2:27; 13:35; Rev 16:5-7<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Holy One of Israel The phrase The Holy One of Israel is particularly prominent in the book of Isaiah, occurring around two dozen times. The Holy One is the King (6:5), the righteous and just one (26:7), the incomparable God (40:25), and the Redeemer of his people (41:14). Anyone coming to the Holy One must worship him in reverence and awe. The Holy One identifies himself with Mount Zion, called holy because it is his symbolic dwelling place (see 18:7; 24:23; 27:13; 56:7; 60:1-22). The Hol...","summary_en":"The Holy One of Israel The phrase The Holy One of Israel is particularly prominent in the book of Isaiah, occurring around two dozen times. The Holy One is the King (6:5), the righteous and just one (26:7), the incomparable God (40:25), and the Redeemer of his people (41:14). Anyone coming to the Holy One must worship him in reverence and awe. The Holy One identifies himself with Mount Zion, called holy because it is his symbolic dwelling place (see 18:7; 24:23; 27:13; 56:7; 60:1-22). The Hol...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":146772,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Holy One of Israel","title_en":"The Holy One of Israel","content_ro":"<h3>The Holy One of Israel<\/h3>\n<p>The phrase <em>The Holy One of Israel<\/em> is particularly prominent in the book of Isaiah, occurring around two dozen times. The Holy One is the King (6:5), the righteous and just one (26:7), the incomparable God (40:25), and the Redeemer of his people (41:14). Anyone coming to the Holy One must worship him in reverence and awe. The Holy One identifies himself with Mount Zion, called holy because it is his symbolic dwelling place (see 18:7; 24:23; 27:13; 56:7; 60:1-22).<\/p>\n<p>The Holy One stands apart from all his creation because he is morally perfect. Sinful people cannot dwell with him (see 1:4). God’s holiness requires ritual purity and moral perfection. God is a consuming fire who purges away anything that does not conform to his holy will (see 33:14).<\/p>\n<p>Yet the Holy One sets aside a remnant for himself (4:2-3; 6:13). He washes away their filth and commits to be present with them (12:6), his own redeemed people (35:8-9; 62:12; see also 49:7). He demonstrates his holy power as he comes to the aid of sinful and weak humans, rescues them from the exile that their sin creates, and opens up the new creation for them.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Pss 71:22-23; 78:41; Prov 9:10; Isa 6:1-5; 10:17, 20; 17:7; 29:17-24; 30:15; 41:14, 17-20; 43:1-4, 10-21; 48:17-18; 54:4-5; 55:5; 57:15; Jer 50:29; 51:5; Ezek 39:7-8; Hos 11:8-9; Hab 3:3-6; John 6:66-69; Acts 2:27; 13:35; Rev 16:5-7<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Holy One of Israel<\/h3>\n<p>The phrase <em>The Holy One of Israel<\/em> is particularly prominent in the book of Isaiah, occurring around two dozen times. The Holy One is the King (6:5), the righteous and just one (26:7), the incomparable God (40:25), and the Redeemer of his people (41:14). Anyone coming to the Holy One must worship him in reverence and awe. The Holy One identifies himself with Mount Zion, called holy because it is his symbolic dwelling place (see 18:7; 24:23; 27:13; 56:7; 60:1-22).<\/p>\n<p>The Holy One stands apart from all his creation because he is morally perfect. Sinful people cannot dwell with him (see 1:4). God’s holiness requires ritual purity and moral perfection. God is a consuming fire who purges away anything that does not conform to his holy will (see 33:14).<\/p>\n<p>Yet the Holy One sets aside a remnant for himself (4:2-3; 6:13). He washes away their filth and commits to be present with them (12:6), his own redeemed people (35:8-9; 62:12; see also 49:7). He demonstrates his holy power as he comes to the aid of sinful and weak humans, rescues them from the exile that their sin creates, and opens up the new creation for them.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Pss 71:22-23; 78:41; Prov 9:10; Isa 6:1-5; 10:17, 20; 17:7; 29:17-24; 30:15; 41:14, 17-20; 43:1-4, 10-21; 48:17-18; 54:4-5; 55:5; 57:15; Jer 50:29; 51:5; Ezek 39:7-8; Hos 11:8-9; Hab 3:3-6; John 6:66-69; Acts 2:27; 13:35; Rev 16:5-7<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Holy One of Israel The phrase The Holy One of Israel is particularly prominent in the book of Isaiah, occurring around two dozen times. The Holy One is the King (6:5), the righteous and just one (26:7), the incomparable God (40:25), and the Redeemer of his people (41:14). Anyone coming to the Holy One must worship him in reverence and awe. The Holy One identifies himself with Mount Zion, called holy because it is his symbolic dwelling place (see 18:7; 24:23; 27:13; 56:7; 60:1-22). The Hol...","summary_en":"The Holy One of Israel The phrase The Holy One of Israel is particularly prominent in the book of Isaiah, occurring around two dozen times. The Holy One is the King (6:5), the righteous and just one (26:7), the incomparable God (40:25), and the Redeemer of his people (41:14). Anyone coming to the Holy One must worship him in reverence and awe. The Holy One identifies himself with Mount Zion, called holy because it is his symbolic dwelling place (see 18:7; 24:23; 27:13; 56:7; 60:1-22). The Hol...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"18":[{"id":18158,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Jaar","title_en":"Jaar","content_ro":"<h3>JAAR<\/h3>\n<p>Most common word in Hebrew for “forest.” It refers to forests generally (Is 10:18) and to specific forests, such as the “forest of Ephraim” (2 Sm 18:6) and the “forest of Hereth” (1 Sm 22:5), both associated with King David. It also occurs as the name of one of Solomon’s buildings, “the Palace of the Forest of Lebanon” (1 Kgs 7:2), apparently because of its extensive use of cedar. Only one occurrence of “Jaar” seems to be a proper name. Psalm 132:6 alludes to the transfer of the ark from Kiriath-jearim to Jerusalem. Here it is called the field of Jaar (or “the wood,” <span>kjv<\/span>), perhaps a poetic abbreviation.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>JAAR<\/h3>\n<p>Most common word in Hebrew for “forest.” It refers to forests generally (Is 10:18) and to specific forests, such as the “forest of Ephraim” (2 Sm 18:6) and the “forest of Hereth” (1 Sm 22:5), both associated with King David. It also occurs as the name of one of Solomon’s buildings, “the Palace of the Forest of Lebanon” (1 Kgs 7:2), apparently because of its extensive use of cedar. Only one occurrence of “Jaar” seems to be a proper name. Psalm 132:6 alludes to the transfer of the ark from Kiriath-jearim to Jerusalem. Here it is called the field of Jaar (or “the wood,” <span>kjv<\/span>), perhaps a poetic abbreviation.<\/p>","summary_ro":"JAAR Most common word in Hebrew for “forest.” It refers to forests generally (Is 10:18) and to specific forests, such as the “forest of Ephraim” (2 Sm 18:6) and the “forest of Hereth” (1 Sm 22:5), both associated with King David. It also occurs as the name of one of Solomon’s buildings, “the Palace of the Forest of Lebanon” (1 Kgs 7:2), apparently because of its extensive use of cedar. Only one occurrence of “Jaar” seems to be a proper name. Psalm 132:6 alludes to the transfer of the ark from...","summary_en":"JAAR Most common word in Hebrew for “forest.” It refers to forests generally (Is 10:18) and to specific forests, such as the “forest of Ephraim” (2 Sm 18:6) and the “forest of Hereth” (1 Sm 22:5), both associated with King David. It also occurs as the name of one of Solomon’s buildings, “the Palace of the Forest of Lebanon” (1 Kgs 7:2), apparently because of its extensive use of cedar. Only one occurrence of “Jaar” seems to be a proper name. Psalm 132:6 alludes to the transfer of the ark from...","source":"Articles\/J.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"19":[{"id":63830,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Remnant","title_en":"The Remnant","content_ro":"<h3>The Remnant<\/h3>\n<p>In the face of foreign invasion and the prospect of exile, the notion of the remnant was a source of hope for God’s people (see Mic 2:12-13; 4:6-8). While the Exile would be the outworking of God’s judgment on his people, God indicated that he would not completely destroy them (see Hos 11:8-11). The fact that a remnant was preserved demonstrated God’s mercy and faithfulness.<\/p>\n<p>The theme of the remnant was integral to Isaiah’s message. In fact, one of his sons was named Shear-jashub, which means “a remnant will return” (Isa 7:3; see 10:21). Isaiah prophesied that when the Lord judged his people with destruction (which occurred at the hands of the Babylonians in 605–586 <span>BC<\/span>), he would save a small community—the remnant—to be the core of a new beginning. Because the population of Judah would be decimated (as the northern kingdom of Israel had been already), this remnant would be a very small beginning. It is depicted as a “branch” (4:2), a “stump” (6:13), a community of the “poor” and “needy” (25:4), and “handpicked grain” (27:12-13). This remnant was to put their trust in the Lord while waiting for him to establish his rule and come to reward them (see 3:10; 40:10). The Lord promised that this small community would swell into a huge multitude that would come out of both Israel and the Gentile nations (27:6; 60:3).<\/p>\n<p>In fulfillment of prophecy, a remnant of God’s people were allowed to return to Jerusalem and rebuild the Temple during the reign of King Cyrus of Persia (Ezra 1:2-4). Ezra the priest recognized this preservation of a remnant as purely an act of God’s grace, an act that could be jeopardized if the people followed their ancestors in disobedience (Ezra 9:5-15).<\/p>\n<p>The notion of the remnant serves as an encouragement to remain faithful to God in the midst of the unfaithfulness of others. In the case of the people of Israel and Judah, such faithfulness would lead to the restoration of their land and to the blessings God had promised his people.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>2 Kgs 19:31; 2 Chr 36:20; Ezra 9:14; Isa 1:8-9; 4:1-3; 6:13; 10:19-22; 11:10-16; 27:12-13; 28:5; 37:31-32; 46:3-4; Jer 6:9; 23:3-4; 31:7-8; Amos 5:15; Mic 2:12; 4:6-7; 5:7-8; 7:18; Zeph 3:11-13<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Remnant<\/h3>\n<p>In the face of foreign invasion and the prospect of exile, the notion of the remnant was a source of hope for God’s people (see Mic 2:12-13; 4:6-8). While the Exile would be the outworking of God’s judgment on his people, God indicated that he would not completely destroy them (see Hos 11:8-11). The fact that a remnant was preserved demonstrated God’s mercy and faithfulness.<\/p>\n<p>The theme of the remnant was integral to Isaiah’s message. In fact, one of his sons was named Shear-jashub, which means “a remnant will return” (Isa 7:3; see 10:21). Isaiah prophesied that when the Lord judged his people with destruction (which occurred at the hands of the Babylonians in 605–586 <span>BC<\/span>), he would save a small community—the remnant—to be the core of a new beginning. Because the population of Judah would be decimated (as the northern kingdom of Israel had been already), this remnant would be a very small beginning. It is depicted as a “branch” (4:2), a “stump” (6:13), a community of the “poor” and “needy” (25:4), and “handpicked grain” (27:12-13). This remnant was to put their trust in the Lord while waiting for him to establish his rule and come to reward them (see 3:10; 40:10). The Lord promised that this small community would swell into a huge multitude that would come out of both Israel and the Gentile nations (27:6; 60:3).<\/p>\n<p>In fulfillment of prophecy, a remnant of God’s people were allowed to return to Jerusalem and rebuild the Temple during the reign of King Cyrus of Persia (Ezra 1:2-4). Ezra the priest recognized this preservation of a remnant as purely an act of God’s grace, an act that could be jeopardized if the people followed their ancestors in disobedience (Ezra 9:5-15).<\/p>\n<p>The notion of the remnant serves as an encouragement to remain faithful to God in the midst of the unfaithfulness of others. In the case of the people of Israel and Judah, such faithfulness would lead to the restoration of their land and to the blessings God had promised his people.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>2 Kgs 19:31; 2 Chr 36:20; Ezra 9:14; Isa 1:8-9; 4:1-3; 6:13; 10:19-22; 11:10-16; 27:12-13; 28:5; 37:31-32; 46:3-4; Jer 6:9; 23:3-4; 31:7-8; Amos 5:15; Mic 2:12; 4:6-7; 5:7-8; 7:18; Zeph 3:11-13<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Remnant In the face of foreign invasion and the prospect of exile, the notion of the remnant was a source of hope for God’s people (see Mic 2:12-13; 4:6-8). While the Exile would be the outworking of God’s judgment on his people, God indicated that he would not completely destroy them (see Hos 11:8-11). The fact that a remnant was preserved demonstrated God’s mercy and faithfulness. The theme of the remnant was integral to Isaiah’s message. In fact, one of his sons was named Shear-jashub,...","summary_en":"The Remnant In the face of foreign invasion and the prospect of exile, the notion of the remnant was a source of hope for God’s people (see Mic 2:12-13; 4:6-8). While the Exile would be the outworking of God’s judgment on his people, God indicated that he would not completely destroy them (see Hos 11:8-11). The fact that a remnant was preserved demonstrated God’s mercy and faithfulness. The theme of the remnant was integral to Isaiah’s message. In fact, one of his sons was named Shear-jashub,...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":91456,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Remnant","title_en":"The Remnant","content_ro":"<h3>The Remnant<\/h3>\n<p>In the face of foreign invasion and the prospect of exile, the notion of the remnant was a source of hope for God’s people (see Mic 2:12-13; 4:6-8). While the Exile would be the outworking of God’s judgment on his people, God indicated that he would not completely destroy them (see Hos 11:8-11). The fact that a remnant was preserved demonstrated God’s mercy and faithfulness.<\/p>\n<p>The theme of the remnant was integral to Isaiah’s message. In fact, one of his sons was named Shear-jashub, which means “a remnant will return” (Isa 7:3; see 10:21). Isaiah prophesied that when the Lord judged his people with destruction (which occurred at the hands of the Babylonians in 605–586 <span>BC<\/span>), he would save a small community—the remnant—to be the core of a new beginning. Because the population of Judah would be decimated (as the northern kingdom of Israel had been already), this remnant would be a very small beginning. It is depicted as a “branch” (4:2), a “stump” (6:13), a community of the “poor” and “needy” (25:4), and “handpicked grain” (27:12-13). This remnant was to put their trust in the Lord while waiting for him to establish his rule and come to reward them (see 3:10; 40:10). The Lord promised that this small community would swell into a huge multitude that would come out of both Israel and the Gentile nations (27:6; 60:3).<\/p>\n<p>In fulfillment of prophecy, a remnant of God’s people were allowed to return to Jerusalem and rebuild the Temple during the reign of King Cyrus of Persia (Ezra 1:2-4). Ezra the priest recognized this preservation of a remnant as purely an act of God’s grace, an act that could be jeopardized if the people followed their ancestors in disobedience (Ezra 9:5-15).<\/p>\n<p>The notion of the remnant serves as an encouragement to remain faithful to God in the midst of the unfaithfulness of others. In the case of the people of Israel and Judah, such faithfulness would lead to the restoration of their land and to the blessings God had promised his people.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>2 Kgs 19:31; 2 Chr 36:20; Ezra 9:14; Isa 1:8-9; 4:1-3; 6:13; 10:19-22; 11:10-16; 27:12-13; 28:5; 37:31-32; 46:3-4; Jer 6:9; 23:3-4; 31:7-8; Amos 5:15; Mic 2:12; 4:6-7; 5:7-8; 7:18; Zeph 3:11-13<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Remnant<\/h3>\n<p>In the face of foreign invasion and the prospect of exile, the notion of the remnant was a source of hope for God’s people (see Mic 2:12-13; 4:6-8). While the Exile would be the outworking of God’s judgment on his people, God indicated that he would not completely destroy them (see Hos 11:8-11). The fact that a remnant was preserved demonstrated God’s mercy and faithfulness.<\/p>\n<p>The theme of the remnant was integral to Isaiah’s message. In fact, one of his sons was named Shear-jashub, which means “a remnant will return” (Isa 7:3; see 10:21). Isaiah prophesied that when the Lord judged his people with destruction (which occurred at the hands of the Babylonians in 605–586 <span>BC<\/span>), he would save a small community—the remnant—to be the core of a new beginning. Because the population of Judah would be decimated (as the northern kingdom of Israel had been already), this remnant would be a very small beginning. It is depicted as a “branch” (4:2), a “stump” (6:13), a community of the “poor” and “needy” (25:4), and “handpicked grain” (27:12-13). This remnant was to put their trust in the Lord while waiting for him to establish his rule and come to reward them (see 3:10; 40:10). The Lord promised that this small community would swell into a huge multitude that would come out of both Israel and the Gentile nations (27:6; 60:3).<\/p>\n<p>In fulfillment of prophecy, a remnant of God’s people were allowed to return to Jerusalem and rebuild the Temple during the reign of King Cyrus of Persia (Ezra 1:2-4). Ezra the priest recognized this preservation of a remnant as purely an act of God’s grace, an act that could be jeopardized if the people followed their ancestors in disobedience (Ezra 9:5-15).<\/p>\n<p>The notion of the remnant serves as an encouragement to remain faithful to God in the midst of the unfaithfulness of others. In the case of the people of Israel and Judah, such faithfulness would lead to the restoration of their land and to the blessings God had promised his people.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>2 Kgs 19:31; 2 Chr 36:20; Ezra 9:14; Isa 1:8-9; 4:1-3; 6:13; 10:19-22; 11:10-16; 27:12-13; 28:5; 37:31-32; 46:3-4; Jer 6:9; 23:3-4; 31:7-8; Amos 5:15; Mic 2:12; 4:6-7; 5:7-8; 7:18; Zeph 3:11-13<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Remnant In the face of foreign invasion and the prospect of exile, the notion of the remnant was a source of hope for God’s people (see Mic 2:12-13; 4:6-8). While the Exile would be the outworking of God’s judgment on his people, God indicated that he would not completely destroy them (see Hos 11:8-11). The fact that a remnant was preserved demonstrated God’s mercy and faithfulness. The theme of the remnant was integral to Isaiah’s message. In fact, one of his sons was named Shear-jashub,...","summary_en":"The Remnant In the face of foreign invasion and the prospect of exile, the notion of the remnant was a source of hope for God’s people (see Mic 2:12-13; 4:6-8). While the Exile would be the outworking of God’s judgment on his people, God indicated that he would not completely destroy them (see Hos 11:8-11). The fact that a remnant was preserved demonstrated God’s mercy and faithfulness. The theme of the remnant was integral to Isaiah’s message. In fact, one of his sons was named Shear-jashub,...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":119082,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Remnant","title_en":"The Remnant","content_ro":"<h3>The Remnant<\/h3>\n<p>In the face of foreign invasion and the prospect of exile, the notion of the remnant was a source of hope for God’s people (see Mic 2:12-13; 4:6-8). While the Exile would be the outworking of God’s judgment on his people, God indicated that he would not completely destroy them (see Hos 11:8-11). The fact that a remnant was preserved demonstrated God’s mercy and faithfulness.<\/p>\n<p>The theme of the remnant was integral to Isaiah’s message. In fact, one of his sons was named Shear-jashub, which means “a remnant will return” (Isa 7:3; see 10:21). Isaiah prophesied that when the Lord judged his people with destruction (which occurred at the hands of the Babylonians in 605–586 <span>BC<\/span>), he would save a small community—the remnant—to be the core of a new beginning. Because the population of Judah would be decimated (as the northern kingdom of Israel had been already), this remnant would be a very small beginning. It is depicted as a “branch” (4:2), a “stump” (6:13), a community of the “poor” and “needy” (25:4), and “handpicked grain” (27:12-13). This remnant was to put their trust in the Lord while waiting for him to establish his rule and come to reward them (see 3:10; 40:10). The Lord promised that this small community would swell into a huge multitude that would come out of both Israel and the Gentile nations (27:6; 60:3).<\/p>\n<p>In fulfillment of prophecy, a remnant of God’s people were allowed to return to Jerusalem and rebuild the Temple during the reign of King Cyrus of Persia (Ezra 1:2-4). Ezra the priest recognized this preservation of a remnant as purely an act of God’s grace, an act that could be jeopardized if the people followed their ancestors in disobedience (Ezra 9:5-15).<\/p>\n<p>The notion of the remnant serves as an encouragement to remain faithful to God in the midst of the unfaithfulness of others. In the case of the people of Israel and Judah, such faithfulness would lead to the restoration of their land and to the blessings God had promised his people.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>2 Kgs 19:31; 2 Chr 36:20; Ezra 9:14; Isa 1:8-9; 4:1-3; 6:13; 10:19-22; 11:10-16; 27:12-13; 28:5; 37:31-32; 46:3-4; Jer 6:9; 23:3-4; 31:7-8; Amos 5:15; Mic 2:12; 4:6-7; 5:7-8; 7:18; Zeph 3:11-13<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Remnant<\/h3>\n<p>In the face of foreign invasion and the prospect of exile, the notion of the remnant was a source of hope for God’s people (see Mic 2:12-13; 4:6-8). While the Exile would be the outworking of God’s judgment on his people, God indicated that he would not completely destroy them (see Hos 11:8-11). The fact that a remnant was preserved demonstrated God’s mercy and faithfulness.<\/p>\n<p>The theme of the remnant was integral to Isaiah’s message. In fact, one of his sons was named Shear-jashub, which means “a remnant will return” (Isa 7:3; see 10:21). Isaiah prophesied that when the Lord judged his people with destruction (which occurred at the hands of the Babylonians in 605–586 <span>BC<\/span>), he would save a small community—the remnant—to be the core of a new beginning. Because the population of Judah would be decimated (as the northern kingdom of Israel had been already), this remnant would be a very small beginning. It is depicted as a “branch” (4:2), a “stump” (6:13), a community of the “poor” and “needy” (25:4), and “handpicked grain” (27:12-13). This remnant was to put their trust in the Lord while waiting for him to establish his rule and come to reward them (see 3:10; 40:10). The Lord promised that this small community would swell into a huge multitude that would come out of both Israel and the Gentile nations (27:6; 60:3).<\/p>\n<p>In fulfillment of prophecy, a remnant of God’s people were allowed to return to Jerusalem and rebuild the Temple during the reign of King Cyrus of Persia (Ezra 1:2-4). Ezra the priest recognized this preservation of a remnant as purely an act of God’s grace, an act that could be jeopardized if the people followed their ancestors in disobedience (Ezra 9:5-15).<\/p>\n<p>The notion of the remnant serves as an encouragement to remain faithful to God in the midst of the unfaithfulness of others. In the case of the people of Israel and Judah, such faithfulness would lead to the restoration of their land and to the blessings God had promised his people.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>2 Kgs 19:31; 2 Chr 36:20; Ezra 9:14; Isa 1:8-9; 4:1-3; 6:13; 10:19-22; 11:10-16; 27:12-13; 28:5; 37:31-32; 46:3-4; Jer 6:9; 23:3-4; 31:7-8; Amos 5:15; Mic 2:12; 4:6-7; 5:7-8; 7:18; Zeph 3:11-13<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Remnant In the face of foreign invasion and the prospect of exile, the notion of the remnant was a source of hope for God’s people (see Mic 2:12-13; 4:6-8). While the Exile would be the outworking of God’s judgment on his people, God indicated that he would not completely destroy them (see Hos 11:8-11). The fact that a remnant was preserved demonstrated God’s mercy and faithfulness. The theme of the remnant was integral to Isaiah’s message. In fact, one of his sons was named Shear-jashub,...","summary_en":"The Remnant In the face of foreign invasion and the prospect of exile, the notion of the remnant was a source of hope for God’s people (see Mic 2:12-13; 4:6-8). While the Exile would be the outworking of God’s judgment on his people, God indicated that he would not completely destroy them (see Hos 11:8-11). The fact that a remnant was preserved demonstrated God’s mercy and faithfulness. The theme of the remnant was integral to Isaiah’s message. In fact, one of his sons was named Shear-jashub,...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":146708,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Remnant","title_en":"The Remnant","content_ro":"<h3>The Remnant<\/h3>\n<p>In the face of foreign invasion and the prospect of exile, the notion of the remnant was a source of hope for God’s people (see Mic 2:12-13; 4:6-8). While the Exile would be the outworking of God’s judgment on his people, God indicated that he would not completely destroy them (see Hos 11:8-11). The fact that a remnant was preserved demonstrated God’s mercy and faithfulness.<\/p>\n<p>The theme of the remnant was integral to Isaiah’s message. In fact, one of his sons was named Shear-jashub, which means “a remnant will return” (Isa 7:3; see 10:21). Isaiah prophesied that when the Lord judged his people with destruction (which occurred at the hands of the Babylonians in 605–586 <span>BC<\/span>), he would save a small community—the remnant—to be the core of a new beginning. Because the population of Judah would be decimated (as the northern kingdom of Israel had been already), this remnant would be a very small beginning. It is depicted as a “branch” (4:2), a “stump” (6:13), a community of the “poor” and “needy” (25:4), and “handpicked grain” (27:12-13). This remnant was to put their trust in the Lord while waiting for him to establish his rule and come to reward them (see 3:10; 40:10). The Lord promised that this small community would swell into a huge multitude that would come out of both Israel and the Gentile nations (27:6; 60:3).<\/p>\n<p>In fulfillment of prophecy, a remnant of God’s people were allowed to return to Jerusalem and rebuild the Temple during the reign of King Cyrus of Persia (Ezra 1:2-4). Ezra the priest recognized this preservation of a remnant as purely an act of God’s grace, an act that could be jeopardized if the people followed their ancestors in disobedience (Ezra 9:5-15).<\/p>\n<p>The notion of the remnant serves as an encouragement to remain faithful to God in the midst of the unfaithfulness of others. In the case of the people of Israel and Judah, such faithfulness would lead to the restoration of their land and to the blessings God had promised his people.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>2 Kgs 19:31; 2 Chr 36:20; Ezra 9:14; Isa 1:8-9; 4:1-3; 6:13; 10:19-22; 11:10-16; 27:12-13; 28:5; 37:31-32; 46:3-4; Jer 6:9; 23:3-4; 31:7-8; Amos 5:15; Mic 2:12; 4:6-7; 5:7-8; 7:18; Zeph 3:11-13<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Remnant<\/h3>\n<p>In the face of foreign invasion and the prospect of exile, the notion of the remnant was a source of hope for God’s people (see Mic 2:12-13; 4:6-8). While the Exile would be the outworking of God’s judgment on his people, God indicated that he would not completely destroy them (see Hos 11:8-11). The fact that a remnant was preserved demonstrated God’s mercy and faithfulness.<\/p>\n<p>The theme of the remnant was integral to Isaiah’s message. In fact, one of his sons was named Shear-jashub, which means “a remnant will return” (Isa 7:3; see 10:21). Isaiah prophesied that when the Lord judged his people with destruction (which occurred at the hands of the Babylonians in 605–586 <span>BC<\/span>), he would save a small community—the remnant—to be the core of a new beginning. Because the population of Judah would be decimated (as the northern kingdom of Israel had been already), this remnant would be a very small beginning. It is depicted as a “branch” (4:2), a “stump” (6:13), a community of the “poor” and “needy” (25:4), and “handpicked grain” (27:12-13). This remnant was to put their trust in the Lord while waiting for him to establish his rule and come to reward them (see 3:10; 40:10). The Lord promised that this small community would swell into a huge multitude that would come out of both Israel and the Gentile nations (27:6; 60:3).<\/p>\n<p>In fulfillment of prophecy, a remnant of God’s people were allowed to return to Jerusalem and rebuild the Temple during the reign of King Cyrus of Persia (Ezra 1:2-4). Ezra the priest recognized this preservation of a remnant as purely an act of God’s grace, an act that could be jeopardized if the people followed their ancestors in disobedience (Ezra 9:5-15).<\/p>\n<p>The notion of the remnant serves as an encouragement to remain faithful to God in the midst of the unfaithfulness of others. In the case of the people of Israel and Judah, such faithfulness would lead to the restoration of their land and to the blessings God had promised his people.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>2 Kgs 19:31; 2 Chr 36:20; Ezra 9:14; Isa 1:8-9; 4:1-3; 6:13; 10:19-22; 11:10-16; 27:12-13; 28:5; 37:31-32; 46:3-4; Jer 6:9; 23:3-4; 31:7-8; Amos 5:15; Mic 2:12; 4:6-7; 5:7-8; 7:18; Zeph 3:11-13<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Remnant In the face of foreign invasion and the prospect of exile, the notion of the remnant was a source of hope for God’s people (see Mic 2:12-13; 4:6-8). While the Exile would be the outworking of God’s judgment on his people, God indicated that he would not completely destroy them (see Hos 11:8-11). The fact that a remnant was preserved demonstrated God’s mercy and faithfulness. The theme of the remnant was integral to Isaiah’s message. In fact, one of his sons was named Shear-jashub,...","summary_en":"The Remnant In the face of foreign invasion and the prospect of exile, the notion of the remnant was a source of hope for God’s people (see Mic 2:12-13; 4:6-8). While the Exile would be the outworking of God’s judgment on his people, God indicated that he would not completely destroy them (see Hos 11:8-11). The fact that a remnant was preserved demonstrated God’s mercy and faithfulness. The theme of the remnant was integral to Isaiah’s message. In fact, one of his sons was named Shear-jashub,...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"20":[{"id":7502,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Conversion","title_en":"Conversion","content_ro":"<h3>CONVERSION<\/h3>\n<p>Total change in one’s direction in life or moral orientation. For Christians this means a change from an orientation that does not take God into account to one in which the person is submitted to Christ. Conversion is the result of repentance.<\/p>\n<p>In the OT conversion is basically a turning or returning from one’s former course of life toward the Lord, the God of Israel. Israel often had to return to their God (Dt 4:30), either as individuals (Ps 51) or as a nation (Jer 4:1); foreign nations needed to turn to God for the first time (Ps 22:27). The characteristic feature is that one turns from wickedness (Jer 26:3; 36:3; Ez 18:21, 27; 33:9, 11), from a life of disloyalty to God to a life of obedience to God (Is 10:20-21; 14:2; Jer 34:15; Hos 14:4). Conversion means a change in inward orientation that finds expression in a changed lifestyle.<\/p>\n<p>In the NT John the Baptist begins the call to conversion (Mt 3:2; Mk 1:4; Lk 3:3), giving a prophetic call for people to change their minds (which is the root meaning of the Greek term) in the light of the nearness of God’s kingdom. This change of life must include a change in actions to prove its reality (Mt 3:8; Lk 3:8). Jesus preached the same message (Mt 4:17; Mk 1:15), adding that since the kingdom had arrived in his person, obedience to him was part of the good news of conversion. Yet it could also be bad news, for one would be damned if he failed to make this radical change (Mt 11:20; Lk 13:3-5). Conversion is radical but also simple, for it requires the simplicity of a child who commits his whole self, not the calculating self-protectiveness of the adult (Mt 18:3).<\/p>\n<p>Outside the Gospels, “conversion” is not a frequently used term except in the book of Acts, where it forms the call to commitment climaxing evangelistic sermons (2:38; 3:19; 8:22), describes the commitment of new Christians to the Lord (9:35; 11:21), and pictures the change of life as a turning from darkness to light (26:18-20). Later writers look back upon conversion (2 Cor 3:16), worry about Christians converting to paganism or Judaism (Gal 4:9), and call for the reconversion of Christians who have left the faith and are in danger of judgment (Jas 5:19-20; Rv 2:5, 16, 22; 3:19).<\/p>\n<p>As in the OT and in the preaching of John and Jesus, conversion has three factors. First, it is a turning <em>from<\/em> something, which includes specific sins, false gods, or simply a life lived for oneself (1 Thes 1:9; Rv 9:20-21; 16:11). Second, conversion is a product of the will of God and his gracious working in the world (Acts 11:18; Rom 2:4; 2 Cor 7:10; 2 Tm 2:25; 2 Pt 3:9). Third, conversion is a turning <em>to<\/em> someone, a commitment of one’s whole life to God in Jesus Christ (Acts 14:15; 1 Thes 1:9; 1 Pt 2:25). It is thus a total reorientation, whether spectacular or undramatic, sudden or gradual, emotional or calm, in which a person transfers his or her total allegiance to God.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Faith; Grace; Justification, Justified; Repentance; Sanctification.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>CONVERSION<\/h3>\n<p>Total change in one’s direction in life or moral orientation. For Christians this means a change from an orientation that does not take God into account to one in which the person is submitted to Christ. Conversion is the result of repentance.<\/p>\n<p>In the OT conversion is basically a turning or returning from one’s former course of life toward the Lord, the God of Israel. Israel often had to return to their God (Dt 4:30), either as individuals (Ps 51) or as a nation (Jer 4:1); foreign nations needed to turn to God for the first time (Ps 22:27). The characteristic feature is that one turns from wickedness (Jer 26:3; 36:3; Ez 18:21, 27; 33:9, 11), from a life of disloyalty to God to a life of obedience to God (Is 10:20-21; 14:2; Jer 34:15; Hos 14:4). Conversion means a change in inward orientation that finds expression in a changed lifestyle.<\/p>\n<p>In the NT John the Baptist begins the call to conversion (Mt 3:2; Mk 1:4; Lk 3:3), giving a prophetic call for people to change their minds (which is the root meaning of the Greek term) in the light of the nearness of God’s kingdom. This change of life must include a change in actions to prove its reality (Mt 3:8; Lk 3:8). Jesus preached the same message (Mt 4:17; Mk 1:15), adding that since the kingdom had arrived in his person, obedience to him was part of the good news of conversion. Yet it could also be bad news, for one would be damned if he failed to make this radical change (Mt 11:20; Lk 13:3-5). Conversion is radical but also simple, for it requires the simplicity of a child who commits his whole self, not the calculating self-protectiveness of the adult (Mt 18:3).<\/p>\n<p>Outside the Gospels, “conversion” is not a frequently used term except in the book of Acts, where it forms the call to commitment climaxing evangelistic sermons (2:38; 3:19; 8:22), describes the commitment of new Christians to the Lord (9:35; 11:21), and pictures the change of life as a turning from darkness to light (26:18-20). Later writers look back upon conversion (2 Cor 3:16), worry about Christians converting to paganism or Judaism (Gal 4:9), and call for the reconversion of Christians who have left the faith and are in danger of judgment (Jas 5:19-20; Rv 2:5, 16, 22; 3:19).<\/p>\n<p>As in the OT and in the preaching of John and Jesus, conversion has three factors. First, it is a turning <em>from<\/em> something, which includes specific sins, false gods, or simply a life lived for oneself (1 Thes 1:9; Rv 9:20-21; 16:11). Second, conversion is a product of the will of God and his gracious working in the world (Acts 11:18; Rom 2:4; 2 Cor 7:10; 2 Tm 2:25; 2 Pt 3:9). Third, conversion is a turning <em>to<\/em> someone, a commitment of one’s whole life to God in Jesus Christ (Acts 14:15; 1 Thes 1:9; 1 Pt 2:25). It is thus a total reorientation, whether spectacular or undramatic, sudden or gradual, emotional or calm, in which a person transfers his or her total allegiance to God.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Faith; Grace; Justification, Justified; Repentance; Sanctification.<\/p>","summary_ro":"CONVERSION Total change in one’s direction in life or moral orientation. For Christians this means a change from an orientation that does not take God into account to one in which the person is submitted to Christ. Conversion is the result of repentance. In the OT conversion is basically a turning or returning from one’s former course of life toward the Lord, the God of Israel. Israel often had to return to their God (Dt 4:30), either as individuals (Ps 51) or as a nation (Jer 4:1); foreign n...","summary_en":"CONVERSION Total change in one’s direction in life or moral orientation. For Christians this means a change from an orientation that does not take God into account to one in which the person is submitted to Christ. Conversion is the result of repentance. In the OT conversion is basically a turning or returning from one’s former course of life toward the Lord, the God of Israel. Israel often had to return to their God (Dt 4:30), either as individuals (Ps 51) or as a nation (Jer 4:1); foreign n...","source":"Articles\/C.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":51186,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 10:20","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 10:20","content_ro":"<p><strong>10:20-27<\/strong> In the midst of Assyrian oppression, there was hope for the remnant. This passage develops more fully the meaning of Shear-jashub, <em>a remnant will return<\/em> (10:21; see 7:3; 8:18).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>10:20-27<\/strong> In the midst of Assyrian oppression, there was hope for the remnant. This passage develops more fully the meaning of Shear-jashub, <em>a remnant will return<\/em> (10:21; see 7:3; 8:18).<\/p>","summary_ro":"10:20-27 In the midst of Assyrian oppression, there was hope for the remnant. This passage develops more fully the meaning of Shear-jashub, a remnant will return (10:21; see 7:3; 8:18).","summary_en":"10:20-27 In the midst of Assyrian oppression, there was hope for the remnant. This passage develops more fully the meaning of Shear-jashub, a remnant will return (10:21; see 7:3; 8:18).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":51187,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 10:20","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 10:20","content_ro":"<p><strong>10:20<\/strong> <em>left . . . the survivors:<\/em> A remnant from Jerusalem barely survived, but their safety was secure because God promised to preserve them (see 1:8-9; 4:2; 6:13; 37:31-32). • All these wars would teach the Israelite remnant to <em>no longer depend on allies<\/em> such as Assyria. Instead, they would <em>faithfully trust<\/em> in the Lord (see 8:13; 17:7).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>10:20<\/strong> <em>left . . . the survivors:<\/em> A remnant from Jerusalem barely survived, but their safety was secure because God promised to preserve them (see 1:8-9; 4:2; 6:13; 37:31-32). • All these wars would teach the Israelite remnant to <em>no longer depend on allies<\/em> such as Assyria. Instead, they would <em>faithfully trust<\/em> in the Lord (see 8:13; 17:7).<\/p>","summary_ro":"10:20 left . . . the survivors: A remnant from Jerusalem barely survived, but their safety was secure because God promised to preserve them (see 1:8-9; 4:2; 6:13; 37:31-32). • All these wars would teach the Israelite remnant to no longer depend on allies such as Assyria. Instead, they would faithfully trust in the Lord (see 8:13; 17:7).","summary_en":"10:20 left . . . the survivors: A remnant from Jerusalem barely survived, but their safety was secure because God promised to preserve them (see 1:8-9; 4:2; 6:13; 37:31-32). • All these wars would teach the Israelite remnant to no longer depend on allies such as Assyria. Instead, they would faithfully trust in the Lord (see 8:13; 17:7).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":78812,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 10:20","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 10:20","content_ro":"<p><strong>10:20-27<\/strong> In the midst of Assyrian oppression, there was hope for the remnant. This passage develops more fully the meaning of Shear-jashub, <em>a remnant will return<\/em> (10:21; see 7:3; 8:18).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>10:20-27<\/strong> In the midst of Assyrian oppression, there was hope for the remnant. This passage develops more fully the meaning of Shear-jashub, <em>a remnant will return<\/em> (10:21; see 7:3; 8:18).<\/p>","summary_ro":"10:20-27 In the midst of Assyrian oppression, there was hope for the remnant. This passage develops more fully the meaning of Shear-jashub, a remnant will return (10:21; see 7:3; 8:18).","summary_en":"10:20-27 In the midst of Assyrian oppression, there was hope for the remnant. This passage develops more fully the meaning of Shear-jashub, a remnant will return (10:21; see 7:3; 8:18).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":78813,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 10:20","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 10:20","content_ro":"<p><strong>10:20<\/strong> <em>left . . . the survivors:<\/em> A remnant from Jerusalem barely survived, but their safety was secure because God promised to preserve them (see 1:8-9; 4:2; 6:13; 37:31-32). • All these wars would teach the Israelite remnant to <em>no longer depend on allies<\/em> such as Assyria. Instead, they would <em>faithfully trust<\/em> in the Lord (see 8:13; 17:7).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>10:20<\/strong> <em>left . . . the survivors:<\/em> A remnant from Jerusalem barely survived, but their safety was secure because God promised to preserve them (see 1:8-9; 4:2; 6:13; 37:31-32). • All these wars would teach the Israelite remnant to <em>no longer depend on allies<\/em> such as Assyria. Instead, they would <em>faithfully trust<\/em> in the Lord (see 8:13; 17:7).<\/p>","summary_ro":"10:20 left . . . the survivors: A remnant from Jerusalem barely survived, but their safety was secure because God promised to preserve them (see 1:8-9; 4:2; 6:13; 37:31-32). • All these wars would teach the Israelite remnant to no longer depend on allies such as Assyria. Instead, they would faithfully trust in the Lord (see 8:13; 17:7).","summary_en":"10:20 left . . . the survivors: A remnant from Jerusalem barely survived, but their safety was secure because God promised to preserve them (see 1:8-9; 4:2; 6:13; 37:31-32). • All these wars would teach the Israelite remnant to no longer depend on allies such as Assyria. Instead, they would faithfully trust in the Lord (see 8:13; 17:7).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":106438,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 10:20","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 10:20","content_ro":"<p><strong>10:20-27<\/strong> In the midst of Assyrian oppression, there was hope for the remnant. This passage develops more fully the meaning of Shear-jashub, <em>a remnant will return<\/em> (10:21; see 7:3; 8:18).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>10:20-27<\/strong> In the midst of Assyrian oppression, there was hope for the remnant. This passage develops more fully the meaning of Shear-jashub, <em>a remnant will return<\/em> (10:21; see 7:3; 8:18).<\/p>","summary_ro":"10:20-27 In the midst of Assyrian oppression, there was hope for the remnant. This passage develops more fully the meaning of Shear-jashub, a remnant will return (10:21; see 7:3; 8:18).","summary_en":"10:20-27 In the midst of Assyrian oppression, there was hope for the remnant. This passage develops more fully the meaning of Shear-jashub, a remnant will return (10:21; see 7:3; 8:18).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":106439,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 10:20","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 10:20","content_ro":"<p><strong>10:20<\/strong> <em>left . . . the survivors:<\/em> A remnant from Jerusalem barely survived, but their safety was secure because God promised to preserve them (see 1:8-9; 4:2; 6:13; 37:31-32). • All these wars would teach the Israelite remnant to <em>no longer depend on allies<\/em> such as Assyria. Instead, they would <em>faithfully trust<\/em> in the Lord (see 8:13; 17:7).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>10:20<\/strong> <em>left . . . the survivors:<\/em> A remnant from Jerusalem barely survived, but their safety was secure because God promised to preserve them (see 1:8-9; 4:2; 6:13; 37:31-32). • All these wars would teach the Israelite remnant to <em>no longer depend on allies<\/em> such as Assyria. Instead, they would <em>faithfully trust<\/em> in the Lord (see 8:13; 17:7).<\/p>","summary_ro":"10:20 left . . . the survivors: A remnant from Jerusalem barely survived, but their safety was secure because God promised to preserve them (see 1:8-9; 4:2; 6:13; 37:31-32). • All these wars would teach the Israelite remnant to no longer depend on allies such as Assyria. Instead, they would faithfully trust in the Lord (see 8:13; 17:7).","summary_en":"10:20 left . . . the survivors: A remnant from Jerusalem barely survived, but their safety was secure because God promised to preserve them (see 1:8-9; 4:2; 6:13; 37:31-32). • All these wars would teach the Israelite remnant to no longer depend on allies such as Assyria. Instead, they would faithfully trust in the Lord (see 8:13; 17:7).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":134064,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 10:20","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 10:20","content_ro":"<p><strong>10:20-27<\/strong> In the midst of Assyrian oppression, there was hope for the remnant. This passage develops more fully the meaning of Shear-jashub, <em>a remnant will return<\/em> (10:21; see 7:3; 8:18).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>10:20-27<\/strong> In the midst of Assyrian oppression, there was hope for the remnant. This passage develops more fully the meaning of Shear-jashub, <em>a remnant will return<\/em> (10:21; see 7:3; 8:18).<\/p>","summary_ro":"10:20-27 In the midst of Assyrian oppression, there was hope for the remnant. This passage develops more fully the meaning of Shear-jashub, a remnant will return (10:21; see 7:3; 8:18).","summary_en":"10:20-27 In the midst of Assyrian oppression, there was hope for the remnant. This passage develops more fully the meaning of Shear-jashub, a remnant will return (10:21; see 7:3; 8:18).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":134065,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 10:20","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 10:20","content_ro":"<p><strong>10:20<\/strong> <em>left . . . the survivors:<\/em> A remnant from Jerusalem barely survived, but their safety was secure because God promised to preserve them (see 1:8-9; 4:2; 6:13; 37:31-32). • All these wars would teach the Israelite remnant to <em>no longer depend on allies<\/em> such as Assyria. Instead, they would <em>faithfully trust<\/em> in the Lord (see 8:13; 17:7).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>10:20<\/strong> <em>left . . . the survivors:<\/em> A remnant from Jerusalem barely survived, but their safety was secure because God promised to preserve them (see 1:8-9; 4:2; 6:13; 37:31-32). • All these wars would teach the Israelite remnant to <em>no longer depend on allies<\/em> such as Assyria. Instead, they would <em>faithfully trust<\/em> in the Lord (see 8:13; 17:7).<\/p>","summary_ro":"10:20 left . . . the survivors: A remnant from Jerusalem barely survived, but their safety was secure because God promised to preserve them (see 1:8-9; 4:2; 6:13; 37:31-32). • All these wars would teach the Israelite remnant to no longer depend on allies such as Assyria. Instead, they would faithfully trust in the Lord (see 8:13; 17:7).","summary_en":"10:20 left . . . the survivors: A remnant from Jerusalem barely survived, but their safety was secure because God promised to preserve them (see 1:8-9; 4:2; 6:13; 37:31-32). • All these wars would teach the Israelite remnant to no longer depend on allies such as Assyria. Instead, they would faithfully trust in the Lord (see 8:13; 17:7).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":61625,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God’s Faithfulness to His People","title_en":"God’s Faithfulness to His People","content_ro":"<h3>God’s Faithfulness to His People<\/h3>\n<p>When God established the covenant with his people Israel, it included blessings for obedience and curses for disobedience (see Deut 28:1-68). Many years later, when Solomon had finished dedicating the Temple, the Lord appeared to him and reminded him that if the people were unfaithful to this covenant, sure judgment would follow (1 Kgs 9:6-9). Conversely, if they were faithful, God would dwell among them and never forsake them (6:12-13).<\/p>\n<p>God had called the nation Israel to be his covenant people (Exod 19:5-6; 1 Kgs 8:53). Despite this unique identity, the people of Israel were frequently rebellious toward God (see, e.g., Exod 32:1-6; Num 14:1-12; Judg 2:10-15). Even during the height of God’s blessing of Israel (Solomon’s reign) the people “sacrificed their offerings at local places of worship” (3:2), an expression of their ongoing commitment to pagan worship (see also 1 Kgs 11:4-13). Both the northern and southern kingdoms later fell into this sin (12:31-32; 13:2, 32-33; 14:22-24; 15:14; 22:43). Every ruler of the northern kingdom led the people into apostate religious practices, resulting in Israel being sent into exile in 722 <span>BC<\/span>. While the southern kingdom experienced occasional religious reform, such reform would only be temporary, and Judah would ultimately suffer a similar fate in being exiled by the Babylonians in 586 <span>BC<\/span>. Still, God retained a faithful remnant among his people (see, e.g., 1 Kgs 19:18; Isa 10:20-34) and had plans for their future well-being (see Isa 4:2-6; Isa 40:1-11; Jer 30:1-24). In spite of his people’s unfaithfulness, God maintained his love and faithfulness toward them and desired to restore them (Hos 2:1-23).<\/p>\n<p>God still has a people who are his own (1 Cor 1:2; 1 Pet 1:1). Those who follow Christ are his “chosen people” (1 Pet 2:9-10, who constitute the temple of God (2 Cor 6:14–7:1). They have God’s promise that he will never forsake them but will always be faithful to his promises to them (John 14:16; 2 Tim 2:13).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 32:10; Exod 3:13-17; 34:6; Deut 7:9; 31:6; Josh 1:5; 21:45; 2 Sam 7:16; 1 Kgs 6:12-13; 8:29-53; 9:3-9; Pss 31:1-5; 91:4; Isa 40:1-11; 54:8; Lam 3:22-24; Mic 7:18-20; John 14:16; Rom 3:3-4; 11:25-29; 1 Cor 10:13; 2 Cor 1:20; 2 Tim 2:13; Titus 1:2; Heb 10:23; 11:11; 1 Pet 4:19; Rev 1:4-5; 19:11<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God’s Faithfulness to His People<\/h3>\n<p>When God established the covenant with his people Israel, it included blessings for obedience and curses for disobedience (see Deut 28:1-68). Many years later, when Solomon had finished dedicating the Temple, the Lord appeared to him and reminded him that if the people were unfaithful to this covenant, sure judgment would follow (1 Kgs 9:6-9). Conversely, if they were faithful, God would dwell among them and never forsake them (6:12-13).<\/p>\n<p>God had called the nation Israel to be his covenant people (Exod 19:5-6; 1 Kgs 8:53). Despite this unique identity, the people of Israel were frequently rebellious toward God (see, e.g., Exod 32:1-6; Num 14:1-12; Judg 2:10-15). Even during the height of God’s blessing of Israel (Solomon’s reign) the people “sacrificed their offerings at local places of worship” (3:2), an expression of their ongoing commitment to pagan worship (see also 1 Kgs 11:4-13). Both the northern and southern kingdoms later fell into this sin (12:31-32; 13:2, 32-33; 14:22-24; 15:14; 22:43). Every ruler of the northern kingdom led the people into apostate religious practices, resulting in Israel being sent into exile in 722 <span>BC<\/span>. While the southern kingdom experienced occasional religious reform, such reform would only be temporary, and Judah would ultimately suffer a similar fate in being exiled by the Babylonians in 586 <span>BC<\/span>. Still, God retained a faithful remnant among his people (see, e.g., 1 Kgs 19:18; Isa 10:20-34) and had plans for their future well-being (see Isa 4:2-6; Isa 40:1-11; Jer 30:1-24). In spite of his people’s unfaithfulness, God maintained his love and faithfulness toward them and desired to restore them (Hos 2:1-23).<\/p>\n<p>God still has a people who are his own (1 Cor 1:2; 1 Pet 1:1). Those who follow Christ are his “chosen people” (1 Pet 2:9-10, who constitute the temple of God (2 Cor 6:14–7:1). They have God’s promise that he will never forsake them but will always be faithful to his promises to them (John 14:16; 2 Tim 2:13).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 32:10; Exod 3:13-17; 34:6; Deut 7:9; 31:6; Josh 1:5; 21:45; 2 Sam 7:16; 1 Kgs 6:12-13; 8:29-53; 9:3-9; Pss 31:1-5; 91:4; Isa 40:1-11; 54:8; Lam 3:22-24; Mic 7:18-20; John 14:16; Rom 3:3-4; 11:25-29; 1 Cor 10:13; 2 Cor 1:20; 2 Tim 2:13; Titus 1:2; Heb 10:23; 11:11; 1 Pet 4:19; Rev 1:4-5; 19:11<\/p>","summary_ro":"God’s Faithfulness to His People When God established the covenant with his people Israel, it included blessings for obedience and curses for disobedience (see Deut 28:1-68). Many years later, when Solomon had finished dedicating the Temple, the Lord appeared to him and reminded him that if the people were unfaithful to this covenant, sure judgment would follow (1 Kgs 9:6-9). Conversely, if they were faithful, God would dwell among them and never forsake them (6:12-13). God had called the nat...","summary_en":"God’s Faithfulness to His People When God established the covenant with his people Israel, it included blessings for obedience and curses for disobedience (see Deut 28:1-68). Many years later, when Solomon had finished dedicating the Temple, the Lord appeared to him and reminded him that if the people were unfaithful to this covenant, sure judgment would follow (1 Kgs 9:6-9). Conversely, if they were faithful, God would dwell among them and never forsake them (6:12-13). God had called the nat...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":63895,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Holy One of Israel","title_en":"The Holy One of Israel","content_ro":"<h3>The Holy One of Israel<\/h3>\n<p>The phrase <em>The Holy One of Israel<\/em> is particularly prominent in the book of Isaiah, occurring around two dozen times. The Holy One is the King (6:5), the righteous and just one (26:7), the incomparable God (40:25), and the Redeemer of his people (41:14). Anyone coming to the Holy One must worship him in reverence and awe. The Holy One identifies himself with Mount Zion, called holy because it is his symbolic dwelling place (see 18:7; 24:23; 27:13; 56:7; 60:1-22).<\/p>\n<p>The Holy One stands apart from all his creation because he is morally perfect. Sinful people cannot dwell with him (see 1:4). God’s holiness requires ritual purity and moral perfection. God is a consuming fire who purges away anything that does not conform to his holy will (see 33:14).<\/p>\n<p>Yet the Holy One sets aside a remnant for himself (4:2-3; 6:13). He washes away their filth and commits to be present with them (12:6), his own redeemed people (35:8-9; 62:12; see also 49:7). He demonstrates his holy power as he comes to the aid of sinful and weak humans, rescues them from the exile that their sin creates, and opens up the new creation for them.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Pss 71:22-23; 78:41; Prov 9:10; Isa 6:1-5; 10:17, 20; 17:7; 29:17-24; 30:15; 41:14, 17-20; 43:1-4, 10-21; 48:17-18; 54:4-5; 55:5; 57:15; Jer 50:29; 51:5; Ezek 39:7-8; Hos 11:8-9; Hab 3:3-6; John 6:66-69; Acts 2:27; 13:35; Rev 16:5-7<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Holy One of Israel<\/h3>\n<p>The phrase <em>The Holy One of Israel<\/em> is particularly prominent in the book of Isaiah, occurring around two dozen times. The Holy One is the King (6:5), the righteous and just one (26:7), the incomparable God (40:25), and the Redeemer of his people (41:14). Anyone coming to the Holy One must worship him in reverence and awe. The Holy One identifies himself with Mount Zion, called holy because it is his symbolic dwelling place (see 18:7; 24:23; 27:13; 56:7; 60:1-22).<\/p>\n<p>The Holy One stands apart from all his creation because he is morally perfect. Sinful people cannot dwell with him (see 1:4). God’s holiness requires ritual purity and moral perfection. God is a consuming fire who purges away anything that does not conform to his holy will (see 33:14).<\/p>\n<p>Yet the Holy One sets aside a remnant for himself (4:2-3; 6:13). He washes away their filth and commits to be present with them (12:6), his own redeemed people (35:8-9; 62:12; see also 49:7). He demonstrates his holy power as he comes to the aid of sinful and weak humans, rescues them from the exile that their sin creates, and opens up the new creation for them.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Pss 71:22-23; 78:41; Prov 9:10; Isa 6:1-5; 10:17, 20; 17:7; 29:17-24; 30:15; 41:14, 17-20; 43:1-4, 10-21; 48:17-18; 54:4-5; 55:5; 57:15; Jer 50:29; 51:5; Ezek 39:7-8; Hos 11:8-9; Hab 3:3-6; John 6:66-69; Acts 2:27; 13:35; Rev 16:5-7<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Holy One of Israel The phrase The Holy One of Israel is particularly prominent in the book of Isaiah, occurring around two dozen times. The Holy One is the King (6:5), the righteous and just one (26:7), the incomparable God (40:25), and the Redeemer of his people (41:14). Anyone coming to the Holy One must worship him in reverence and awe. The Holy One identifies himself with Mount Zion, called holy because it is his symbolic dwelling place (see 18:7; 24:23; 27:13; 56:7; 60:1-22). The Hol...","summary_en":"The Holy One of Israel The phrase The Holy One of Israel is particularly prominent in the book of Isaiah, occurring around two dozen times. The Holy One is the King (6:5), the righteous and just one (26:7), the incomparable God (40:25), and the Redeemer of his people (41:14). Anyone coming to the Holy One must worship him in reverence and awe. The Holy One identifies himself with Mount Zion, called holy because it is his symbolic dwelling place (see 18:7; 24:23; 27:13; 56:7; 60:1-22). The Hol...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":89251,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God’s Faithfulness to His People","title_en":"God’s Faithfulness to His People","content_ro":"<h3>God’s Faithfulness to His People<\/h3>\n<p>When God established the covenant with his people Israel, it included blessings for obedience and curses for disobedience (see Deut 28:1-68). Many years later, when Solomon had finished dedicating the Temple, the Lord appeared to him and reminded him that if the people were unfaithful to this covenant, sure judgment would follow (1 Kgs 9:6-9). Conversely, if they were faithful, God would dwell among them and never forsake them (6:12-13).<\/p>\n<p>God had called the nation Israel to be his covenant people (Exod 19:5-6; 1 Kgs 8:53). Despite this unique identity, the people of Israel were frequently rebellious toward God (see, e.g., Exod 32:1-6; Num 14:1-12; Judg 2:10-15). Even during the height of God’s blessing of Israel (Solomon’s reign) the people “sacrificed their offerings at local places of worship” (3:2), an expression of their ongoing commitment to pagan worship (see also 1 Kgs 11:4-13). Both the northern and southern kingdoms later fell into this sin (12:31-32; 13:2, 32-33; 14:22-24; 15:14; 22:43). Every ruler of the northern kingdom led the people into apostate religious practices, resulting in Israel being sent into exile in 722 <span>BC<\/span>. While the southern kingdom experienced occasional religious reform, such reform would only be temporary, and Judah would ultimately suffer a similar fate in being exiled by the Babylonians in 586 <span>BC<\/span>. Still, God retained a faithful remnant among his people (see, e.g., 1 Kgs 19:18; Isa 10:20-34) and had plans for their future well-being (see Isa 4:2-6; Isa 40:1-11; Jer 30:1-24). In spite of his people’s unfaithfulness, God maintained his love and faithfulness toward them and desired to restore them (Hos 2:1-23).<\/p>\n<p>God still has a people who are his own (1 Cor 1:2; 1 Pet 1:1). Those who follow Christ are his “chosen people” (1 Pet 2:9-10, who constitute the temple of God (2 Cor 6:14–7:1). They have God’s promise that he will never forsake them but will always be faithful to his promises to them (John 14:16; 2 Tim 2:13).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 32:10; Exod 3:13-17; 34:6; Deut 7:9; 31:6; Josh 1:5; 21:45; 2 Sam 7:16; 1 Kgs 6:12-13; 8:29-53; 9:3-9; Pss 31:1-5; 91:4; Isa 40:1-11; 54:8; Lam 3:22-24; Mic 7:18-20; John 14:16; Rom 3:3-4; 11:25-29; 1 Cor 10:13; 2 Cor 1:20; 2 Tim 2:13; Titus 1:2; Heb 10:23; 11:11; 1 Pet 4:19; Rev 1:4-5; 19:11<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God’s Faithfulness to His People<\/h3>\n<p>When God established the covenant with his people Israel, it included blessings for obedience and curses for disobedience (see Deut 28:1-68). Many years later, when Solomon had finished dedicating the Temple, the Lord appeared to him and reminded him that if the people were unfaithful to this covenant, sure judgment would follow (1 Kgs 9:6-9). Conversely, if they were faithful, God would dwell among them and never forsake them (6:12-13).<\/p>\n<p>God had called the nation Israel to be his covenant people (Exod 19:5-6; 1 Kgs 8:53). Despite this unique identity, the people of Israel were frequently rebellious toward God (see, e.g., Exod 32:1-6; Num 14:1-12; Judg 2:10-15). Even during the height of God’s blessing of Israel (Solomon’s reign) the people “sacrificed their offerings at local places of worship” (3:2), an expression of their ongoing commitment to pagan worship (see also 1 Kgs 11:4-13). Both the northern and southern kingdoms later fell into this sin (12:31-32; 13:2, 32-33; 14:22-24; 15:14; 22:43). Every ruler of the northern kingdom led the people into apostate religious practices, resulting in Israel being sent into exile in 722 <span>BC<\/span>. While the southern kingdom experienced occasional religious reform, such reform would only be temporary, and Judah would ultimately suffer a similar fate in being exiled by the Babylonians in 586 <span>BC<\/span>. Still, God retained a faithful remnant among his people (see, e.g., 1 Kgs 19:18; Isa 10:20-34) and had plans for their future well-being (see Isa 4:2-6; Isa 40:1-11; Jer 30:1-24). In spite of his people’s unfaithfulness, God maintained his love and faithfulness toward them and desired to restore them (Hos 2:1-23).<\/p>\n<p>God still has a people who are his own (1 Cor 1:2; 1 Pet 1:1). Those who follow Christ are his “chosen people” (1 Pet 2:9-10, who constitute the temple of God (2 Cor 6:14–7:1). They have God’s promise that he will never forsake them but will always be faithful to his promises to them (John 14:16; 2 Tim 2:13).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 32:10; Exod 3:13-17; 34:6; Deut 7:9; 31:6; Josh 1:5; 21:45; 2 Sam 7:16; 1 Kgs 6:12-13; 8:29-53; 9:3-9; Pss 31:1-5; 91:4; Isa 40:1-11; 54:8; Lam 3:22-24; Mic 7:18-20; John 14:16; Rom 3:3-4; 11:25-29; 1 Cor 10:13; 2 Cor 1:20; 2 Tim 2:13; Titus 1:2; Heb 10:23; 11:11; 1 Pet 4:19; Rev 1:4-5; 19:11<\/p>","summary_ro":"God’s Faithfulness to His People When God established the covenant with his people Israel, it included blessings for obedience and curses for disobedience (see Deut 28:1-68). Many years later, when Solomon had finished dedicating the Temple, the Lord appeared to him and reminded him that if the people were unfaithful to this covenant, sure judgment would follow (1 Kgs 9:6-9). Conversely, if they were faithful, God would dwell among them and never forsake them (6:12-13). God had called the nat...","summary_en":"God’s Faithfulness to His People When God established the covenant with his people Israel, it included blessings for obedience and curses for disobedience (see Deut 28:1-68). Many years later, when Solomon had finished dedicating the Temple, the Lord appeared to him and reminded him that if the people were unfaithful to this covenant, sure judgment would follow (1 Kgs 9:6-9). Conversely, if they were faithful, God would dwell among them and never forsake them (6:12-13). God had called the nat...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":91521,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Holy One of Israel","title_en":"The Holy One of Israel","content_ro":"<h3>The Holy One of Israel<\/h3>\n<p>The phrase <em>The Holy One of Israel<\/em> is particularly prominent in the book of Isaiah, occurring around two dozen times. The Holy One is the King (6:5), the righteous and just one (26:7), the incomparable God (40:25), and the Redeemer of his people (41:14). Anyone coming to the Holy One must worship him in reverence and awe. The Holy One identifies himself with Mount Zion, called holy because it is his symbolic dwelling place (see 18:7; 24:23; 27:13; 56:7; 60:1-22).<\/p>\n<p>The Holy One stands apart from all his creation because he is morally perfect. Sinful people cannot dwell with him (see 1:4). God’s holiness requires ritual purity and moral perfection. God is a consuming fire who purges away anything that does not conform to his holy will (see 33:14).<\/p>\n<p>Yet the Holy One sets aside a remnant for himself (4:2-3; 6:13). He washes away their filth and commits to be present with them (12:6), his own redeemed people (35:8-9; 62:12; see also 49:7). He demonstrates his holy power as he comes to the aid of sinful and weak humans, rescues them from the exile that their sin creates, and opens up the new creation for them.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Pss 71:22-23; 78:41; Prov 9:10; Isa 6:1-5; 10:17, 20; 17:7; 29:17-24; 30:15; 41:14, 17-20; 43:1-4, 10-21; 48:17-18; 54:4-5; 55:5; 57:15; Jer 50:29; 51:5; Ezek 39:7-8; Hos 11:8-9; Hab 3:3-6; John 6:66-69; Acts 2:27; 13:35; Rev 16:5-7<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Holy One of Israel<\/h3>\n<p>The phrase <em>The Holy One of Israel<\/em> is particularly prominent in the book of Isaiah, occurring around two dozen times. The Holy One is the King (6:5), the righteous and just one (26:7), the incomparable God (40:25), and the Redeemer of his people (41:14). Anyone coming to the Holy One must worship him in reverence and awe. The Holy One identifies himself with Mount Zion, called holy because it is his symbolic dwelling place (see 18:7; 24:23; 27:13; 56:7; 60:1-22).<\/p>\n<p>The Holy One stands apart from all his creation because he is morally perfect. Sinful people cannot dwell with him (see 1:4). God’s holiness requires ritual purity and moral perfection. God is a consuming fire who purges away anything that does not conform to his holy will (see 33:14).<\/p>\n<p>Yet the Holy One sets aside a remnant for himself (4:2-3; 6:13). He washes away their filth and commits to be present with them (12:6), his own redeemed people (35:8-9; 62:12; see also 49:7). He demonstrates his holy power as he comes to the aid of sinful and weak humans, rescues them from the exile that their sin creates, and opens up the new creation for them.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Pss 71:22-23; 78:41; Prov 9:10; Isa 6:1-5; 10:17, 20; 17:7; 29:17-24; 30:15; 41:14, 17-20; 43:1-4, 10-21; 48:17-18; 54:4-5; 55:5; 57:15; Jer 50:29; 51:5; Ezek 39:7-8; Hos 11:8-9; Hab 3:3-6; John 6:66-69; Acts 2:27; 13:35; Rev 16:5-7<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Holy One of Israel The phrase The Holy One of Israel is particularly prominent in the book of Isaiah, occurring around two dozen times. The Holy One is the King (6:5), the righteous and just one (26:7), the incomparable God (40:25), and the Redeemer of his people (41:14). Anyone coming to the Holy One must worship him in reverence and awe. The Holy One identifies himself with Mount Zion, called holy because it is his symbolic dwelling place (see 18:7; 24:23; 27:13; 56:7; 60:1-22). The Hol...","summary_en":"The Holy One of Israel The phrase The Holy One of Israel is particularly prominent in the book of Isaiah, occurring around two dozen times. The Holy One is the King (6:5), the righteous and just one (26:7), the incomparable God (40:25), and the Redeemer of his people (41:14). Anyone coming to the Holy One must worship him in reverence and awe. The Holy One identifies himself with Mount Zion, called holy because it is his symbolic dwelling place (see 18:7; 24:23; 27:13; 56:7; 60:1-22). The Hol...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":116877,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God’s Faithfulness to His People","title_en":"God’s Faithfulness to His People","content_ro":"<h3>God’s Faithfulness to His People<\/h3>\n<p>When God established the covenant with his people Israel, it included blessings for obedience and curses for disobedience (see Deut 28:1-68). Many years later, when Solomon had finished dedicating the Temple, the Lord appeared to him and reminded him that if the people were unfaithful to this covenant, sure judgment would follow (1 Kgs 9:6-9). Conversely, if they were faithful, God would dwell among them and never forsake them (6:12-13).<\/p>\n<p>God had called the nation Israel to be his covenant people (Exod 19:5-6; 1 Kgs 8:53). Despite this unique identity, the people of Israel were frequently rebellious toward God (see, e.g., Exod 32:1-6; Num 14:1-12; Judg 2:10-15). Even during the height of God’s blessing of Israel (Solomon’s reign) the people “sacrificed their offerings at local places of worship” (3:2), an expression of their ongoing commitment to pagan worship (see also 1 Kgs 11:4-13). Both the northern and southern kingdoms later fell into this sin (12:31-32; 13:2, 32-33; 14:22-24; 15:14; 22:43). Every ruler of the northern kingdom led the people into apostate religious practices, resulting in Israel being sent into exile in 722 <span>BC<\/span>. While the southern kingdom experienced occasional religious reform, such reform would only be temporary, and Judah would ultimately suffer a similar fate in being exiled by the Babylonians in 586 <span>BC<\/span>. Still, God retained a faithful remnant among his people (see, e.g., 1 Kgs 19:18; Isa 10:20-34) and had plans for their future well-being (see Isa 4:2-6; Isa 40:1-11; Jer 30:1-24). In spite of his people’s unfaithfulness, God maintained his love and faithfulness toward them and desired to restore them (Hos 2:1-23).<\/p>\n<p>God still has a people who are his own (1 Cor 1:2; 1 Pet 1:1). Those who follow Christ are his “chosen people” (1 Pet 2:9-10, who constitute the temple of God (2 Cor 6:14–7:1). They have God’s promise that he will never forsake them but will always be faithful to his promises to them (John 14:16; 2 Tim 2:13).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 32:10; Exod 3:13-17; 34:6; Deut 7:9; 31:6; Josh 1:5; 21:45; 2 Sam 7:16; 1 Kgs 6:12-13; 8:29-53; 9:3-9; Pss 31:1-5; 91:4; Isa 40:1-11; 54:8; Lam 3:22-24; Mic 7:18-20; John 14:16; Rom 3:3-4; 11:25-29; 1 Cor 10:13; 2 Cor 1:20; 2 Tim 2:13; Titus 1:2; Heb 10:23; 11:11; 1 Pet 4:19; Rev 1:4-5; 19:11<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God’s Faithfulness to His People<\/h3>\n<p>When God established the covenant with his people Israel, it included blessings for obedience and curses for disobedience (see Deut 28:1-68). Many years later, when Solomon had finished dedicating the Temple, the Lord appeared to him and reminded him that if the people were unfaithful to this covenant, sure judgment would follow (1 Kgs 9:6-9). Conversely, if they were faithful, God would dwell among them and never forsake them (6:12-13).<\/p>\n<p>God had called the nation Israel to be his covenant people (Exod 19:5-6; 1 Kgs 8:53). Despite this unique identity, the people of Israel were frequently rebellious toward God (see, e.g., Exod 32:1-6; Num 14:1-12; Judg 2:10-15). Even during the height of God’s blessing of Israel (Solomon’s reign) the people “sacrificed their offerings at local places of worship” (3:2), an expression of their ongoing commitment to pagan worship (see also 1 Kgs 11:4-13). Both the northern and southern kingdoms later fell into this sin (12:31-32; 13:2, 32-33; 14:22-24; 15:14; 22:43). Every ruler of the northern kingdom led the people into apostate religious practices, resulting in Israel being sent into exile in 722 <span>BC<\/span>. While the southern kingdom experienced occasional religious reform, such reform would only be temporary, and Judah would ultimately suffer a similar fate in being exiled by the Babylonians in 586 <span>BC<\/span>. Still, God retained a faithful remnant among his people (see, e.g., 1 Kgs 19:18; Isa 10:20-34) and had plans for their future well-being (see Isa 4:2-6; Isa 40:1-11; Jer 30:1-24). In spite of his people’s unfaithfulness, God maintained his love and faithfulness toward them and desired to restore them (Hos 2:1-23).<\/p>\n<p>God still has a people who are his own (1 Cor 1:2; 1 Pet 1:1). Those who follow Christ are his “chosen people” (1 Pet 2:9-10, who constitute the temple of God (2 Cor 6:14–7:1). They have God’s promise that he will never forsake them but will always be faithful to his promises to them (John 14:16; 2 Tim 2:13).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 32:10; Exod 3:13-17; 34:6; Deut 7:9; 31:6; Josh 1:5; 21:45; 2 Sam 7:16; 1 Kgs 6:12-13; 8:29-53; 9:3-9; Pss 31:1-5; 91:4; Isa 40:1-11; 54:8; Lam 3:22-24; Mic 7:18-20; John 14:16; Rom 3:3-4; 11:25-29; 1 Cor 10:13; 2 Cor 1:20; 2 Tim 2:13; Titus 1:2; Heb 10:23; 11:11; 1 Pet 4:19; Rev 1:4-5; 19:11<\/p>","summary_ro":"God’s Faithfulness to His People When God established the covenant with his people Israel, it included blessings for obedience and curses for disobedience (see Deut 28:1-68). Many years later, when Solomon had finished dedicating the Temple, the Lord appeared to him and reminded him that if the people were unfaithful to this covenant, sure judgment would follow (1 Kgs 9:6-9). Conversely, if they were faithful, God would dwell among them and never forsake them (6:12-13). God had called the nat...","summary_en":"God’s Faithfulness to His People When God established the covenant with his people Israel, it included blessings for obedience and curses for disobedience (see Deut 28:1-68). Many years later, when Solomon had finished dedicating the Temple, the Lord appeared to him and reminded him that if the people were unfaithful to this covenant, sure judgment would follow (1 Kgs 9:6-9). Conversely, if they were faithful, God would dwell among them and never forsake them (6:12-13). God had called the nat...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":119147,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Holy One of Israel","title_en":"The Holy One of Israel","content_ro":"<h3>The Holy One of Israel<\/h3>\n<p>The phrase <em>The Holy One of Israel<\/em> is particularly prominent in the book of Isaiah, occurring around two dozen times. The Holy One is the King (6:5), the righteous and just one (26:7), the incomparable God (40:25), and the Redeemer of his people (41:14). Anyone coming to the Holy One must worship him in reverence and awe. The Holy One identifies himself with Mount Zion, called holy because it is his symbolic dwelling place (see 18:7; 24:23; 27:13; 56:7; 60:1-22).<\/p>\n<p>The Holy One stands apart from all his creation because he is morally perfect. Sinful people cannot dwell with him (see 1:4). God’s holiness requires ritual purity and moral perfection. God is a consuming fire who purges away anything that does not conform to his holy will (see 33:14).<\/p>\n<p>Yet the Holy One sets aside a remnant for himself (4:2-3; 6:13). He washes away their filth and commits to be present with them (12:6), his own redeemed people (35:8-9; 62:12; see also 49:7). He demonstrates his holy power as he comes to the aid of sinful and weak humans, rescues them from the exile that their sin creates, and opens up the new creation for them.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Pss 71:22-23; 78:41; Prov 9:10; Isa 6:1-5; 10:17, 20; 17:7; 29:17-24; 30:15; 41:14, 17-20; 43:1-4, 10-21; 48:17-18; 54:4-5; 55:5; 57:15; Jer 50:29; 51:5; Ezek 39:7-8; Hos 11:8-9; Hab 3:3-6; John 6:66-69; Acts 2:27; 13:35; Rev 16:5-7<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Holy One of Israel<\/h3>\n<p>The phrase <em>The Holy One of Israel<\/em> is particularly prominent in the book of Isaiah, occurring around two dozen times. The Holy One is the King (6:5), the righteous and just one (26:7), the incomparable God (40:25), and the Redeemer of his people (41:14). Anyone coming to the Holy One must worship him in reverence and awe. The Holy One identifies himself with Mount Zion, called holy because it is his symbolic dwelling place (see 18:7; 24:23; 27:13; 56:7; 60:1-22).<\/p>\n<p>The Holy One stands apart from all his creation because he is morally perfect. Sinful people cannot dwell with him (see 1:4). God’s holiness requires ritual purity and moral perfection. God is a consuming fire who purges away anything that does not conform to his holy will (see 33:14).<\/p>\n<p>Yet the Holy One sets aside a remnant for himself (4:2-3; 6:13). He washes away their filth and commits to be present with them (12:6), his own redeemed people (35:8-9; 62:12; see also 49:7). He demonstrates his holy power as he comes to the aid of sinful and weak humans, rescues them from the exile that their sin creates, and opens up the new creation for them.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Pss 71:22-23; 78:41; Prov 9:10; Isa 6:1-5; 10:17, 20; 17:7; 29:17-24; 30:15; 41:14, 17-20; 43:1-4, 10-21; 48:17-18; 54:4-5; 55:5; 57:15; Jer 50:29; 51:5; Ezek 39:7-8; Hos 11:8-9; Hab 3:3-6; John 6:66-69; Acts 2:27; 13:35; Rev 16:5-7<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Holy One of Israel The phrase The Holy One of Israel is particularly prominent in the book of Isaiah, occurring around two dozen times. The Holy One is the King (6:5), the righteous and just one (26:7), the incomparable God (40:25), and the Redeemer of his people (41:14). Anyone coming to the Holy One must worship him in reverence and awe. The Holy One identifies himself with Mount Zion, called holy because it is his symbolic dwelling place (see 18:7; 24:23; 27:13; 56:7; 60:1-22). The Hol...","summary_en":"The Holy One of Israel The phrase The Holy One of Israel is particularly prominent in the book of Isaiah, occurring around two dozen times. The Holy One is the King (6:5), the righteous and just one (26:7), the incomparable God (40:25), and the Redeemer of his people (41:14). Anyone coming to the Holy One must worship him in reverence and awe. The Holy One identifies himself with Mount Zion, called holy because it is his symbolic dwelling place (see 18:7; 24:23; 27:13; 56:7; 60:1-22). The Hol...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":144503,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God’s Faithfulness to His People","title_en":"God’s Faithfulness to His People","content_ro":"<h3>God’s Faithfulness to His People<\/h3>\n<p>When God established the covenant with his people Israel, it included blessings for obedience and curses for disobedience (see Deut 28:1-68). Many years later, when Solomon had finished dedicating the Temple, the Lord appeared to him and reminded him that if the people were unfaithful to this covenant, sure judgment would follow (1 Kgs 9:6-9). Conversely, if they were faithful, God would dwell among them and never forsake them (6:12-13).<\/p>\n<p>God had called the nation Israel to be his covenant people (Exod 19:5-6; 1 Kgs 8:53). Despite this unique identity, the people of Israel were frequently rebellious toward God (see, e.g., Exod 32:1-6; Num 14:1-12; Judg 2:10-15). Even during the height of God’s blessing of Israel (Solomon’s reign) the people “sacrificed their offerings at local places of worship” (3:2), an expression of their ongoing commitment to pagan worship (see also 1 Kgs 11:4-13). Both the northern and southern kingdoms later fell into this sin (12:31-32; 13:2, 32-33; 14:22-24; 15:14; 22:43). Every ruler of the northern kingdom led the people into apostate religious practices, resulting in Israel being sent into exile in 722 <span>BC<\/span>. While the southern kingdom experienced occasional religious reform, such reform would only be temporary, and Judah would ultimately suffer a similar fate in being exiled by the Babylonians in 586 <span>BC<\/span>. Still, God retained a faithful remnant among his people (see, e.g., 1 Kgs 19:18; Isa 10:20-34) and had plans for their future well-being (see Isa 4:2-6; Isa 40:1-11; Jer 30:1-24). In spite of his people’s unfaithfulness, God maintained his love and faithfulness toward them and desired to restore them (Hos 2:1-23).<\/p>\n<p>God still has a people who are his own (1 Cor 1:2; 1 Pet 1:1). Those who follow Christ are his “chosen people” (1 Pet 2:9-10, who constitute the temple of God (2 Cor 6:14–7:1). They have God’s promise that he will never forsake them but will always be faithful to his promises to them (John 14:16; 2 Tim 2:13).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 32:10; Exod 3:13-17; 34:6; Deut 7:9; 31:6; Josh 1:5; 21:45; 2 Sam 7:16; 1 Kgs 6:12-13; 8:29-53; 9:3-9; Pss 31:1-5; 91:4; Isa 40:1-11; 54:8; Lam 3:22-24; Mic 7:18-20; John 14:16; Rom 3:3-4; 11:25-29; 1 Cor 10:13; 2 Cor 1:20; 2 Tim 2:13; Titus 1:2; Heb 10:23; 11:11; 1 Pet 4:19; Rev 1:4-5; 19:11<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God’s Faithfulness to His People<\/h3>\n<p>When God established the covenant with his people Israel, it included blessings for obedience and curses for disobedience (see Deut 28:1-68). Many years later, when Solomon had finished dedicating the Temple, the Lord appeared to him and reminded him that if the people were unfaithful to this covenant, sure judgment would follow (1 Kgs 9:6-9). Conversely, if they were faithful, God would dwell among them and never forsake them (6:12-13).<\/p>\n<p>God had called the nation Israel to be his covenant people (Exod 19:5-6; 1 Kgs 8:53). Despite this unique identity, the people of Israel were frequently rebellious toward God (see, e.g., Exod 32:1-6; Num 14:1-12; Judg 2:10-15). Even during the height of God’s blessing of Israel (Solomon’s reign) the people “sacrificed their offerings at local places of worship” (3:2), an expression of their ongoing commitment to pagan worship (see also 1 Kgs 11:4-13). Both the northern and southern kingdoms later fell into this sin (12:31-32; 13:2, 32-33; 14:22-24; 15:14; 22:43). Every ruler of the northern kingdom led the people into apostate religious practices, resulting in Israel being sent into exile in 722 <span>BC<\/span>. While the southern kingdom experienced occasional religious reform, such reform would only be temporary, and Judah would ultimately suffer a similar fate in being exiled by the Babylonians in 586 <span>BC<\/span>. Still, God retained a faithful remnant among his people (see, e.g., 1 Kgs 19:18; Isa 10:20-34) and had plans for their future well-being (see Isa 4:2-6; Isa 40:1-11; Jer 30:1-24). In spite of his people’s unfaithfulness, God maintained his love and faithfulness toward them and desired to restore them (Hos 2:1-23).<\/p>\n<p>God still has a people who are his own (1 Cor 1:2; 1 Pet 1:1). Those who follow Christ are his “chosen people” (1 Pet 2:9-10, who constitute the temple of God (2 Cor 6:14–7:1). They have God’s promise that he will never forsake them but will always be faithful to his promises to them (John 14:16; 2 Tim 2:13).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 32:10; Exod 3:13-17; 34:6; Deut 7:9; 31:6; Josh 1:5; 21:45; 2 Sam 7:16; 1 Kgs 6:12-13; 8:29-53; 9:3-9; Pss 31:1-5; 91:4; Isa 40:1-11; 54:8; Lam 3:22-24; Mic 7:18-20; John 14:16; Rom 3:3-4; 11:25-29; 1 Cor 10:13; 2 Cor 1:20; 2 Tim 2:13; Titus 1:2; Heb 10:23; 11:11; 1 Pet 4:19; Rev 1:4-5; 19:11<\/p>","summary_ro":"God’s Faithfulness to His People When God established the covenant with his people Israel, it included blessings for obedience and curses for disobedience (see Deut 28:1-68). Many years later, when Solomon had finished dedicating the Temple, the Lord appeared to him and reminded him that if the people were unfaithful to this covenant, sure judgment would follow (1 Kgs 9:6-9). Conversely, if they were faithful, God would dwell among them and never forsake them (6:12-13). God had called the nat...","summary_en":"God’s Faithfulness to His People When God established the covenant with his people Israel, it included blessings for obedience and curses for disobedience (see Deut 28:1-68). Many years later, when Solomon had finished dedicating the Temple, the Lord appeared to him and reminded him that if the people were unfaithful to this covenant, sure judgment would follow (1 Kgs 9:6-9). Conversely, if they were faithful, God would dwell among them and never forsake them (6:12-13). God had called the nat...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":146773,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Holy One of Israel","title_en":"The Holy One of Israel","content_ro":"<h3>The Holy One of Israel<\/h3>\n<p>The phrase <em>The Holy One of Israel<\/em> is particularly prominent in the book of Isaiah, occurring around two dozen times. The Holy One is the King (6:5), the righteous and just one (26:7), the incomparable God (40:25), and the Redeemer of his people (41:14). Anyone coming to the Holy One must worship him in reverence and awe. The Holy One identifies himself with Mount Zion, called holy because it is his symbolic dwelling place (see 18:7; 24:23; 27:13; 56:7; 60:1-22).<\/p>\n<p>The Holy One stands apart from all his creation because he is morally perfect. Sinful people cannot dwell with him (see 1:4). God’s holiness requires ritual purity and moral perfection. God is a consuming fire who purges away anything that does not conform to his holy will (see 33:14).<\/p>\n<p>Yet the Holy One sets aside a remnant for himself (4:2-3; 6:13). He washes away their filth and commits to be present with them (12:6), his own redeemed people (35:8-9; 62:12; see also 49:7). He demonstrates his holy power as he comes to the aid of sinful and weak humans, rescues them from the exile that their sin creates, and opens up the new creation for them.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Pss 71:22-23; 78:41; Prov 9:10; Isa 6:1-5; 10:17, 20; 17:7; 29:17-24; 30:15; 41:14, 17-20; 43:1-4, 10-21; 48:17-18; 54:4-5; 55:5; 57:15; Jer 50:29; 51:5; Ezek 39:7-8; Hos 11:8-9; Hab 3:3-6; John 6:66-69; Acts 2:27; 13:35; Rev 16:5-7<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Holy One of Israel<\/h3>\n<p>The phrase <em>The Holy One of Israel<\/em> is particularly prominent in the book of Isaiah, occurring around two dozen times. The Holy One is the King (6:5), the righteous and just one (26:7), the incomparable God (40:25), and the Redeemer of his people (41:14). Anyone coming to the Holy One must worship him in reverence and awe. The Holy One identifies himself with Mount Zion, called holy because it is his symbolic dwelling place (see 18:7; 24:23; 27:13; 56:7; 60:1-22).<\/p>\n<p>The Holy One stands apart from all his creation because he is morally perfect. Sinful people cannot dwell with him (see 1:4). God’s holiness requires ritual purity and moral perfection. God is a consuming fire who purges away anything that does not conform to his holy will (see 33:14).<\/p>\n<p>Yet the Holy One sets aside a remnant for himself (4:2-3; 6:13). He washes away their filth and commits to be present with them (12:6), his own redeemed people (35:8-9; 62:12; see also 49:7). He demonstrates his holy power as he comes to the aid of sinful and weak humans, rescues them from the exile that their sin creates, and opens up the new creation for them.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Pss 71:22-23; 78:41; Prov 9:10; Isa 6:1-5; 10:17, 20; 17:7; 29:17-24; 30:15; 41:14, 17-20; 43:1-4, 10-21; 48:17-18; 54:4-5; 55:5; 57:15; Jer 50:29; 51:5; Ezek 39:7-8; Hos 11:8-9; Hab 3:3-6; John 6:66-69; Acts 2:27; 13:35; Rev 16:5-7<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Holy One of Israel The phrase The Holy One of Israel is particularly prominent in the book of Isaiah, occurring around two dozen times. The Holy One is the King (6:5), the righteous and just one (26:7), the incomparable God (40:25), and the Redeemer of his people (41:14). Anyone coming to the Holy One must worship him in reverence and awe. The Holy One identifies himself with Mount Zion, called holy because it is his symbolic dwelling place (see 18:7; 24:23; 27:13; 56:7; 60:1-22). The Hol...","summary_en":"The Holy One of Israel The phrase The Holy One of Israel is particularly prominent in the book of Isaiah, occurring around two dozen times. The Holy One is the King (6:5), the righteous and just one (26:7), the incomparable God (40:25), and the Redeemer of his people (41:14). Anyone coming to the Holy One must worship him in reverence and awe. The Holy One identifies himself with Mount Zion, called holy because it is his symbolic dwelling place (see 18:7; 24:23; 27:13; 56:7; 60:1-22). The Hol...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"21":[{"id":63814,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Remnant","title_en":"The Remnant","content_ro":"<h3>The Remnant<\/h3>\n<p>In the face of foreign invasion and the prospect of exile, the notion of the remnant was a source of hope for God’s people (see Mic 2:12-13; 4:6-8). While the Exile would be the outworking of God’s judgment on his people, God indicated that he would not completely destroy them (see Hos 11:8-11). The fact that a remnant was preserved demonstrated God’s mercy and faithfulness.<\/p>\n<p>The theme of the remnant was integral to Isaiah’s message. In fact, one of his sons was named Shear-jashub, which means “a remnant will return” (Isa 7:3; see 10:21). Isaiah prophesied that when the Lord judged his people with destruction (which occurred at the hands of the Babylonians in 605–586 <span>BC<\/span>), he would save a small community—the remnant—to be the core of a new beginning. Because the population of Judah would be decimated (as the northern kingdom of Israel had been already), this remnant would be a very small beginning. It is depicted as a “branch” (4:2), a “stump” (6:13), a community of the “poor” and “needy” (25:4), and “handpicked grain” (27:12-13). This remnant was to put their trust in the Lord while waiting for him to establish his rule and come to reward them (see 3:10; 40:10). The Lord promised that this small community would swell into a huge multitude that would come out of both Israel and the Gentile nations (27:6; 60:3).<\/p>\n<p>In fulfillment of prophecy, a remnant of God’s people were allowed to return to Jerusalem and rebuild the Temple during the reign of King Cyrus of Persia (Ezra 1:2-4). Ezra the priest recognized this preservation of a remnant as purely an act of God’s grace, an act that could be jeopardized if the people followed their ancestors in disobedience (Ezra 9:5-15).<\/p>\n<p>The notion of the remnant serves as an encouragement to remain faithful to God in the midst of the unfaithfulness of others. In the case of the people of Israel and Judah, such faithfulness would lead to the restoration of their land and to the blessings God had promised his people.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>2 Kgs 19:31; 2 Chr 36:20; Ezra 9:14; Isa 1:8-9; 4:1-3; 6:13; 10:19-22; 11:10-16; 27:12-13; 28:5; 37:31-32; 46:3-4; Jer 6:9; 23:3-4; 31:7-8; Amos 5:15; Mic 2:12; 4:6-7; 5:7-8; 7:18; Zeph 3:11-13<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Remnant<\/h3>\n<p>In the face of foreign invasion and the prospect of exile, the notion of the remnant was a source of hope for God’s people (see Mic 2:12-13; 4:6-8). While the Exile would be the outworking of God’s judgment on his people, God indicated that he would not completely destroy them (see Hos 11:8-11). The fact that a remnant was preserved demonstrated God’s mercy and faithfulness.<\/p>\n<p>The theme of the remnant was integral to Isaiah’s message. In fact, one of his sons was named Shear-jashub, which means “a remnant will return” (Isa 7:3; see 10:21). Isaiah prophesied that when the Lord judged his people with destruction (which occurred at the hands of the Babylonians in 605–586 <span>BC<\/span>), he would save a small community—the remnant—to be the core of a new beginning. Because the population of Judah would be decimated (as the northern kingdom of Israel had been already), this remnant would be a very small beginning. It is depicted as a “branch” (4:2), a “stump” (6:13), a community of the “poor” and “needy” (25:4), and “handpicked grain” (27:12-13). This remnant was to put their trust in the Lord while waiting for him to establish his rule and come to reward them (see 3:10; 40:10). The Lord promised that this small community would swell into a huge multitude that would come out of both Israel and the Gentile nations (27:6; 60:3).<\/p>\n<p>In fulfillment of prophecy, a remnant of God’s people were allowed to return to Jerusalem and rebuild the Temple during the reign of King Cyrus of Persia (Ezra 1:2-4). Ezra the priest recognized this preservation of a remnant as purely an act of God’s grace, an act that could be jeopardized if the people followed their ancestors in disobedience (Ezra 9:5-15).<\/p>\n<p>The notion of the remnant serves as an encouragement to remain faithful to God in the midst of the unfaithfulness of others. In the case of the people of Israel and Judah, such faithfulness would lead to the restoration of their land and to the blessings God had promised his people.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>2 Kgs 19:31; 2 Chr 36:20; Ezra 9:14; Isa 1:8-9; 4:1-3; 6:13; 10:19-22; 11:10-16; 27:12-13; 28:5; 37:31-32; 46:3-4; Jer 6:9; 23:3-4; 31:7-8; Amos 5:15; Mic 2:12; 4:6-7; 5:7-8; 7:18; Zeph 3:11-13<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Remnant In the face of foreign invasion and the prospect of exile, the notion of the remnant was a source of hope for God’s people (see Mic 2:12-13; 4:6-8). While the Exile would be the outworking of God’s judgment on his people, God indicated that he would not completely destroy them (see Hos 11:8-11). The fact that a remnant was preserved demonstrated God’s mercy and faithfulness. The theme of the remnant was integral to Isaiah’s message. In fact, one of his sons was named Shear-jashub,...","summary_en":"The Remnant In the face of foreign invasion and the prospect of exile, the notion of the remnant was a source of hope for God’s people (see Mic 2:12-13; 4:6-8). While the Exile would be the outworking of God’s judgment on his people, God indicated that he would not completely destroy them (see Hos 11:8-11). The fact that a remnant was preserved demonstrated God’s mercy and faithfulness. The theme of the remnant was integral to Isaiah’s message. In fact, one of his sons was named Shear-jashub,...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":91440,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Remnant","title_en":"The Remnant","content_ro":"<h3>The Remnant<\/h3>\n<p>In the face of foreign invasion and the prospect of exile, the notion of the remnant was a source of hope for God’s people (see Mic 2:12-13; 4:6-8). While the Exile would be the outworking of God’s judgment on his people, God indicated that he would not completely destroy them (see Hos 11:8-11). The fact that a remnant was preserved demonstrated God’s mercy and faithfulness.<\/p>\n<p>The theme of the remnant was integral to Isaiah’s message. In fact, one of his sons was named Shear-jashub, which means “a remnant will return” (Isa 7:3; see 10:21). Isaiah prophesied that when the Lord judged his people with destruction (which occurred at the hands of the Babylonians in 605–586 <span>BC<\/span>), he would save a small community—the remnant—to be the core of a new beginning. Because the population of Judah would be decimated (as the northern kingdom of Israel had been already), this remnant would be a very small beginning. It is depicted as a “branch” (4:2), a “stump” (6:13), a community of the “poor” and “needy” (25:4), and “handpicked grain” (27:12-13). This remnant was to put their trust in the Lord while waiting for him to establish his rule and come to reward them (see 3:10; 40:10). The Lord promised that this small community would swell into a huge multitude that would come out of both Israel and the Gentile nations (27:6; 60:3).<\/p>\n<p>In fulfillment of prophecy, a remnant of God’s people were allowed to return to Jerusalem and rebuild the Temple during the reign of King Cyrus of Persia (Ezra 1:2-4). Ezra the priest recognized this preservation of a remnant as purely an act of God’s grace, an act that could be jeopardized if the people followed their ancestors in disobedience (Ezra 9:5-15).<\/p>\n<p>The notion of the remnant serves as an encouragement to remain faithful to God in the midst of the unfaithfulness of others. In the case of the people of Israel and Judah, such faithfulness would lead to the restoration of their land and to the blessings God had promised his people.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>2 Kgs 19:31; 2 Chr 36:20; Ezra 9:14; Isa 1:8-9; 4:1-3; 6:13; 10:19-22; 11:10-16; 27:12-13; 28:5; 37:31-32; 46:3-4; Jer 6:9; 23:3-4; 31:7-8; Amos 5:15; Mic 2:12; 4:6-7; 5:7-8; 7:18; Zeph 3:11-13<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Remnant<\/h3>\n<p>In the face of foreign invasion and the prospect of exile, the notion of the remnant was a source of hope for God’s people (see Mic 2:12-13; 4:6-8). While the Exile would be the outworking of God’s judgment on his people, God indicated that he would not completely destroy them (see Hos 11:8-11). The fact that a remnant was preserved demonstrated God’s mercy and faithfulness.<\/p>\n<p>The theme of the remnant was integral to Isaiah’s message. In fact, one of his sons was named Shear-jashub, which means “a remnant will return” (Isa 7:3; see 10:21). Isaiah prophesied that when the Lord judged his people with destruction (which occurred at the hands of the Babylonians in 605–586 <span>BC<\/span>), he would save a small community—the remnant—to be the core of a new beginning. Because the population of Judah would be decimated (as the northern kingdom of Israel had been already), this remnant would be a very small beginning. It is depicted as a “branch” (4:2), a “stump” (6:13), a community of the “poor” and “needy” (25:4), and “handpicked grain” (27:12-13). This remnant was to put their trust in the Lord while waiting for him to establish his rule and come to reward them (see 3:10; 40:10). The Lord promised that this small community would swell into a huge multitude that would come out of both Israel and the Gentile nations (27:6; 60:3).<\/p>\n<p>In fulfillment of prophecy, a remnant of God’s people were allowed to return to Jerusalem and rebuild the Temple during the reign of King Cyrus of Persia (Ezra 1:2-4). Ezra the priest recognized this preservation of a remnant as purely an act of God’s grace, an act that could be jeopardized if the people followed their ancestors in disobedience (Ezra 9:5-15).<\/p>\n<p>The notion of the remnant serves as an encouragement to remain faithful to God in the midst of the unfaithfulness of others. In the case of the people of Israel and Judah, such faithfulness would lead to the restoration of their land and to the blessings God had promised his people.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>2 Kgs 19:31; 2 Chr 36:20; Ezra 9:14; Isa 1:8-9; 4:1-3; 6:13; 10:19-22; 11:10-16; 27:12-13; 28:5; 37:31-32; 46:3-4; Jer 6:9; 23:3-4; 31:7-8; Amos 5:15; Mic 2:12; 4:6-7; 5:7-8; 7:18; Zeph 3:11-13<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Remnant In the face of foreign invasion and the prospect of exile, the notion of the remnant was a source of hope for God’s people (see Mic 2:12-13; 4:6-8). While the Exile would be the outworking of God’s judgment on his people, God indicated that he would not completely destroy them (see Hos 11:8-11). The fact that a remnant was preserved demonstrated God’s mercy and faithfulness. The theme of the remnant was integral to Isaiah’s message. In fact, one of his sons was named Shear-jashub,...","summary_en":"The Remnant In the face of foreign invasion and the prospect of exile, the notion of the remnant was a source of hope for God’s people (see Mic 2:12-13; 4:6-8). While the Exile would be the outworking of God’s judgment on his people, God indicated that he would not completely destroy them (see Hos 11:8-11). The fact that a remnant was preserved demonstrated God’s mercy and faithfulness. The theme of the remnant was integral to Isaiah’s message. In fact, one of his sons was named Shear-jashub,...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":119066,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Remnant","title_en":"The Remnant","content_ro":"<h3>The Remnant<\/h3>\n<p>In the face of foreign invasion and the prospect of exile, the notion of the remnant was a source of hope for God’s people (see Mic 2:12-13; 4:6-8). While the Exile would be the outworking of God’s judgment on his people, God indicated that he would not completely destroy them (see Hos 11:8-11). The fact that a remnant was preserved demonstrated God’s mercy and faithfulness.<\/p>\n<p>The theme of the remnant was integral to Isaiah’s message. In fact, one of his sons was named Shear-jashub, which means “a remnant will return” (Isa 7:3; see 10:21). Isaiah prophesied that when the Lord judged his people with destruction (which occurred at the hands of the Babylonians in 605–586 <span>BC<\/span>), he would save a small community—the remnant—to be the core of a new beginning. Because the population of Judah would be decimated (as the northern kingdom of Israel had been already), this remnant would be a very small beginning. It is depicted as a “branch” (4:2), a “stump” (6:13), a community of the “poor” and “needy” (25:4), and “handpicked grain” (27:12-13). This remnant was to put their trust in the Lord while waiting for him to establish his rule and come to reward them (see 3:10; 40:10). The Lord promised that this small community would swell into a huge multitude that would come out of both Israel and the Gentile nations (27:6; 60:3).<\/p>\n<p>In fulfillment of prophecy, a remnant of God’s people were allowed to return to Jerusalem and rebuild the Temple during the reign of King Cyrus of Persia (Ezra 1:2-4). Ezra the priest recognized this preservation of a remnant as purely an act of God’s grace, an act that could be jeopardized if the people followed their ancestors in disobedience (Ezra 9:5-15).<\/p>\n<p>The notion of the remnant serves as an encouragement to remain faithful to God in the midst of the unfaithfulness of others. In the case of the people of Israel and Judah, such faithfulness would lead to the restoration of their land and to the blessings God had promised his people.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>2 Kgs 19:31; 2 Chr 36:20; Ezra 9:14; Isa 1:8-9; 4:1-3; 6:13; 10:19-22; 11:10-16; 27:12-13; 28:5; 37:31-32; 46:3-4; Jer 6:9; 23:3-4; 31:7-8; Amos 5:15; Mic 2:12; 4:6-7; 5:7-8; 7:18; Zeph 3:11-13<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Remnant<\/h3>\n<p>In the face of foreign invasion and the prospect of exile, the notion of the remnant was a source of hope for God’s people (see Mic 2:12-13; 4:6-8). While the Exile would be the outworking of God’s judgment on his people, God indicated that he would not completely destroy them (see Hos 11:8-11). The fact that a remnant was preserved demonstrated God’s mercy and faithfulness.<\/p>\n<p>The theme of the remnant was integral to Isaiah’s message. In fact, one of his sons was named Shear-jashub, which means “a remnant will return” (Isa 7:3; see 10:21). Isaiah prophesied that when the Lord judged his people with destruction (which occurred at the hands of the Babylonians in 605–586 <span>BC<\/span>), he would save a small community—the remnant—to be the core of a new beginning. Because the population of Judah would be decimated (as the northern kingdom of Israel had been already), this remnant would be a very small beginning. It is depicted as a “branch” (4:2), a “stump” (6:13), a community of the “poor” and “needy” (25:4), and “handpicked grain” (27:12-13). This remnant was to put their trust in the Lord while waiting for him to establish his rule and come to reward them (see 3:10; 40:10). The Lord promised that this small community would swell into a huge multitude that would come out of both Israel and the Gentile nations (27:6; 60:3).<\/p>\n<p>In fulfillment of prophecy, a remnant of God’s people were allowed to return to Jerusalem and rebuild the Temple during the reign of King Cyrus of Persia (Ezra 1:2-4). Ezra the priest recognized this preservation of a remnant as purely an act of God’s grace, an act that could be jeopardized if the people followed their ancestors in disobedience (Ezra 9:5-15).<\/p>\n<p>The notion of the remnant serves as an encouragement to remain faithful to God in the midst of the unfaithfulness of others. In the case of the people of Israel and Judah, such faithfulness would lead to the restoration of their land and to the blessings God had promised his people.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>2 Kgs 19:31; 2 Chr 36:20; Ezra 9:14; Isa 1:8-9; 4:1-3; 6:13; 10:19-22; 11:10-16; 27:12-13; 28:5; 37:31-32; 46:3-4; Jer 6:9; 23:3-4; 31:7-8; Amos 5:15; Mic 2:12; 4:6-7; 5:7-8; 7:18; Zeph 3:11-13<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Remnant In the face of foreign invasion and the prospect of exile, the notion of the remnant was a source of hope for God’s people (see Mic 2:12-13; 4:6-8). While the Exile would be the outworking of God’s judgment on his people, God indicated that he would not completely destroy them (see Hos 11:8-11). The fact that a remnant was preserved demonstrated God’s mercy and faithfulness. The theme of the remnant was integral to Isaiah’s message. In fact, one of his sons was named Shear-jashub,...","summary_en":"The Remnant In the face of foreign invasion and the prospect of exile, the notion of the remnant was a source of hope for God’s people (see Mic 2:12-13; 4:6-8). While the Exile would be the outworking of God’s judgment on his people, God indicated that he would not completely destroy them (see Hos 11:8-11). The fact that a remnant was preserved demonstrated God’s mercy and faithfulness. The theme of the remnant was integral to Isaiah’s message. In fact, one of his sons was named Shear-jashub,...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":146692,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Remnant","title_en":"The Remnant","content_ro":"<h3>The Remnant<\/h3>\n<p>In the face of foreign invasion and the prospect of exile, the notion of the remnant was a source of hope for God’s people (see Mic 2:12-13; 4:6-8). While the Exile would be the outworking of God’s judgment on his people, God indicated that he would not completely destroy them (see Hos 11:8-11). The fact that a remnant was preserved demonstrated God’s mercy and faithfulness.<\/p>\n<p>The theme of the remnant was integral to Isaiah’s message. In fact, one of his sons was named Shear-jashub, which means “a remnant will return” (Isa 7:3; see 10:21). Isaiah prophesied that when the Lord judged his people with destruction (which occurred at the hands of the Babylonians in 605–586 <span>BC<\/span>), he would save a small community—the remnant—to be the core of a new beginning. Because the population of Judah would be decimated (as the northern kingdom of Israel had been already), this remnant would be a very small beginning. It is depicted as a “branch” (4:2), a “stump” (6:13), a community of the “poor” and “needy” (25:4), and “handpicked grain” (27:12-13). This remnant was to put their trust in the Lord while waiting for him to establish his rule and come to reward them (see 3:10; 40:10). The Lord promised that this small community would swell into a huge multitude that would come out of both Israel and the Gentile nations (27:6; 60:3).<\/p>\n<p>In fulfillment of prophecy, a remnant of God’s people were allowed to return to Jerusalem and rebuild the Temple during the reign of King Cyrus of Persia (Ezra 1:2-4). Ezra the priest recognized this preservation of a remnant as purely an act of God’s grace, an act that could be jeopardized if the people followed their ancestors in disobedience (Ezra 9:5-15).<\/p>\n<p>The notion of the remnant serves as an encouragement to remain faithful to God in the midst of the unfaithfulness of others. In the case of the people of Israel and Judah, such faithfulness would lead to the restoration of their land and to the blessings God had promised his people.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>2 Kgs 19:31; 2 Chr 36:20; Ezra 9:14; Isa 1:8-9; 4:1-3; 6:13; 10:19-22; 11:10-16; 27:12-13; 28:5; 37:31-32; 46:3-4; Jer 6:9; 23:3-4; 31:7-8; Amos 5:15; Mic 2:12; 4:6-7; 5:7-8; 7:18; Zeph 3:11-13<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Remnant<\/h3>\n<p>In the face of foreign invasion and the prospect of exile, the notion of the remnant was a source of hope for God’s people (see Mic 2:12-13; 4:6-8). While the Exile would be the outworking of God’s judgment on his people, God indicated that he would not completely destroy them (see Hos 11:8-11). The fact that a remnant was preserved demonstrated God’s mercy and faithfulness.<\/p>\n<p>The theme of the remnant was integral to Isaiah’s message. In fact, one of his sons was named Shear-jashub, which means “a remnant will return” (Isa 7:3; see 10:21). Isaiah prophesied that when the Lord judged his people with destruction (which occurred at the hands of the Babylonians in 605–586 <span>BC<\/span>), he would save a small community—the remnant—to be the core of a new beginning. Because the population of Judah would be decimated (as the northern kingdom of Israel had been already), this remnant would be a very small beginning. It is depicted as a “branch” (4:2), a “stump” (6:13), a community of the “poor” and “needy” (25:4), and “handpicked grain” (27:12-13). This remnant was to put their trust in the Lord while waiting for him to establish his rule and come to reward them (see 3:10; 40:10). The Lord promised that this small community would swell into a huge multitude that would come out of both Israel and the Gentile nations (27:6; 60:3).<\/p>\n<p>In fulfillment of prophecy, a remnant of God’s people were allowed to return to Jerusalem and rebuild the Temple during the reign of King Cyrus of Persia (Ezra 1:2-4). Ezra the priest recognized this preservation of a remnant as purely an act of God’s grace, an act that could be jeopardized if the people followed their ancestors in disobedience (Ezra 9:5-15).<\/p>\n<p>The notion of the remnant serves as an encouragement to remain faithful to God in the midst of the unfaithfulness of others. In the case of the people of Israel and Judah, such faithfulness would lead to the restoration of their land and to the blessings God had promised his people.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>2 Kgs 19:31; 2 Chr 36:20; Ezra 9:14; Isa 1:8-9; 4:1-3; 6:13; 10:19-22; 11:10-16; 27:12-13; 28:5; 37:31-32; 46:3-4; Jer 6:9; 23:3-4; 31:7-8; Amos 5:15; Mic 2:12; 4:6-7; 5:7-8; 7:18; Zeph 3:11-13<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Remnant In the face of foreign invasion and the prospect of exile, the notion of the remnant was a source of hope for God’s people (see Mic 2:12-13; 4:6-8). While the Exile would be the outworking of God’s judgment on his people, God indicated that he would not completely destroy them (see Hos 11:8-11). The fact that a remnant was preserved demonstrated God’s mercy and faithfulness. The theme of the remnant was integral to Isaiah’s message. In fact, one of his sons was named Shear-jashub,...","summary_en":"The Remnant In the face of foreign invasion and the prospect of exile, the notion of the remnant was a source of hope for God’s people (see Mic 2:12-13; 4:6-8). While the Exile would be the outworking of God’s judgment on his people, God indicated that he would not completely destroy them (see Hos 11:8-11). The fact that a remnant was preserved demonstrated God’s mercy and faithfulness. The theme of the remnant was integral to Isaiah’s message. In fact, one of his sons was named Shear-jashub,...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"22":[{"id":51188,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 10:22","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 10:22","content_ro":"<p><strong>10:22<\/strong> God had similarly promised descendants <em>as numerous as the sand of the seashore<\/em> to Abraham (Gen 22:17). • <em>rightly decided to destroy:<\/em> God’s decision was a just response to the people’s persistent wickedness.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>10:22<\/strong> God had similarly promised descendants <em>as numerous as the sand of the seashore<\/em> to Abraham (Gen 22:17). • <em>rightly decided to destroy:<\/em> God’s decision was a just response to the people’s persistent wickedness.<\/p>","summary_ro":"10:22 God had similarly promised descendants as numerous as the sand of the seashore to Abraham (Gen 22:17). • rightly decided to destroy: God’s decision was a just response to the people’s persistent wickedness.","summary_en":"10:22 God had similarly promised descendants as numerous as the sand of the seashore to Abraham (Gen 22:17). • rightly decided to destroy: God’s decision was a just response to the people’s persistent wickedness.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":78814,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 10:22","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 10:22","content_ro":"<p><strong>10:22<\/strong> God had similarly promised descendants <em>as numerous as the sand of the seashore<\/em> to Abraham (Gen 22:17). • <em>rightly decided to destroy:<\/em> God’s decision was a just response to the people’s persistent wickedness.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>10:22<\/strong> God had similarly promised descendants <em>as numerous as the sand of the seashore<\/em> to Abraham (Gen 22:17). • <em>rightly decided to destroy:<\/em> God’s decision was a just response to the people’s persistent wickedness.<\/p>","summary_ro":"10:22 God had similarly promised descendants as numerous as the sand of the seashore to Abraham (Gen 22:17). • rightly decided to destroy: God’s decision was a just response to the people’s persistent wickedness.","summary_en":"10:22 God had similarly promised descendants as numerous as the sand of the seashore to Abraham (Gen 22:17). • rightly decided to destroy: God’s decision was a just response to the people’s persistent wickedness.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":106440,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 10:22","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 10:22","content_ro":"<p><strong>10:22<\/strong> God had similarly promised descendants <em>as numerous as the sand of the seashore<\/em> to Abraham (Gen 22:17). • <em>rightly decided to destroy:<\/em> God’s decision was a just response to the people’s persistent wickedness.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>10:22<\/strong> God had similarly promised descendants <em>as numerous as the sand of the seashore<\/em> to Abraham (Gen 22:17). • <em>rightly decided to destroy:<\/em> God’s decision was a just response to the people’s persistent wickedness.<\/p>","summary_ro":"10:22 God had similarly promised descendants as numerous as the sand of the seashore to Abraham (Gen 22:17). • rightly decided to destroy: God’s decision was a just response to the people’s persistent wickedness.","summary_en":"10:22 God had similarly promised descendants as numerous as the sand of the seashore to Abraham (Gen 22:17). • rightly decided to destroy: God’s decision was a just response to the people’s persistent wickedness.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":134066,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 10:22","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 10:22","content_ro":"<p><strong>10:22<\/strong> God had similarly promised descendants <em>as numerous as the sand of the seashore<\/em> to Abraham (Gen 22:17). • <em>rightly decided to destroy:<\/em> God’s decision was a just response to the people’s persistent wickedness.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>10:22<\/strong> God had similarly promised descendants <em>as numerous as the sand of the seashore<\/em> to Abraham (Gen 22:17). • <em>rightly decided to destroy:<\/em> God’s decision was a just response to the people’s persistent wickedness.<\/p>","summary_ro":"10:22 God had similarly promised descendants as numerous as the sand of the seashore to Abraham (Gen 22:17). • rightly decided to destroy: God’s decision was a just response to the people’s persistent wickedness.","summary_en":"10:22 God had similarly promised descendants as numerous as the sand of the seashore to Abraham (Gen 22:17). • rightly decided to destroy: God’s decision was a just response to the people’s persistent wickedness.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"24":[{"id":51189,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 10:24","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 10:24","content_ro":"<p><strong>10:24-34<\/strong> God assured his people of his presence and purpose.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>10:24-34<\/strong> God assured his people of his presence and purpose.<\/p>","summary_ro":"10:24-34 God assured his people of his presence and purpose.","summary_en":"10:24-34 God assured his people of his presence and purpose.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":51190,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 10:24","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 10:24","content_ro":"<p><strong>10:24<\/strong> <em>as the Egyptians did long ago:<\/em> See Exod 1:8–2:25.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>10:24<\/strong> <em>as the Egyptians did long ago:<\/em> See Exod 1:8–2:25.<\/p>","summary_ro":"10:24 as the Egyptians did long ago: See Exod 1:8–2:25.","summary_en":"10:24 as the Egyptians did long ago: See Exod 1:8–2:25.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":78815,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 10:24","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 10:24","content_ro":"<p><strong>10:24-34<\/strong> God assured his people of his presence and purpose.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>10:24-34<\/strong> God assured his people of his presence and purpose.<\/p>","summary_ro":"10:24-34 God assured his people of his presence and purpose.","summary_en":"10:24-34 God assured his people of his presence and purpose.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":78816,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 10:24","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 10:24","content_ro":"<p><strong>10:24<\/strong> <em>as the Egyptians did long ago:<\/em> See Exod 1:8–2:25.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>10:24<\/strong> <em>as the Egyptians did long ago:<\/em> See Exod 1:8–2:25.<\/p>","summary_ro":"10:24 as the Egyptians did long ago: See Exod 1:8–2:25.","summary_en":"10:24 as the Egyptians did long ago: See Exod 1:8–2:25.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":106441,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 10:24","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 10:24","content_ro":"<p><strong>10:24-34<\/strong> God assured his people of his presence and purpose.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>10:24-34<\/strong> God assured his people of his presence and purpose.<\/p>","summary_ro":"10:24-34 God assured his people of his presence and purpose.","summary_en":"10:24-34 God assured his people of his presence and purpose.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":106442,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 10:24","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 10:24","content_ro":"<p><strong>10:24<\/strong> <em>as the Egyptians did long ago:<\/em> See Exod 1:8–2:25.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>10:24<\/strong> <em>as the Egyptians did long ago:<\/em> See Exod 1:8–2:25.<\/p>","summary_ro":"10:24 as the Egyptians did long ago: See Exod 1:8–2:25.","summary_en":"10:24 as the Egyptians did long ago: See Exod 1:8–2:25.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":134067,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 10:24","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 10:24","content_ro":"<p><strong>10:24-34<\/strong> God assured his people of his presence and purpose.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>10:24-34<\/strong> God assured his people of his presence and purpose.<\/p>","summary_ro":"10:24-34 God assured his people of his presence and purpose.","summary_en":"10:24-34 God assured his people of his presence and purpose.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":134068,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 10:24","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 10:24","content_ro":"<p><strong>10:24<\/strong> <em>as the Egyptians did long ago:<\/em> See Exod 1:8–2:25.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>10:24<\/strong> <em>as the Egyptians did long ago:<\/em> See Exod 1:8–2:25.<\/p>","summary_ro":"10:24 as the Egyptians did long ago: See Exod 1:8–2:25.","summary_en":"10:24 as the Egyptians did long ago: See Exod 1:8–2:25.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":62945,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Zion","title_en":"Zion","content_ro":"<h3>Zion<\/h3>\n<p>Zion is the Hebrew name for the mountain in Jerusalem where the Temple was located (2 Sam 5:7; see also 2 Chr 3:1). Zion is used as a synonym for Jerusalem, and the NLT often translates <em>Zion<\/em> as “Jerusalem” (e.g., Pss 69:35; 87:2; 97:8; 132:13). Thus Zion can refer to the actual, physical city of Jerusalem that was destroyed in 586 <span>BC<\/span> (see 102:13; 126:1; 137:1) and again in <span>AD<\/span> 70.<\/p>\n<p>Zion also signifies the city of God that transcends geographical location. Zion is God’s universal kingdom, the city in which he dwells (74:2; 76:2; 84:7; 135:21; see Isa 26). This city embodies trust, justice, righteousness, and commitment, for the Lord does not tolerate impurity, uncleanness, idolatry, injustice, or unrighteousness (Isa 1:21-28). The prophets and poets of Israel speak of the city of God as being more extensive than the physical city. The citizens of this city come from Judah, Israel, and the nations (see Ps 87:5-6; Heb 12:22-24). Zion is on a high mountain (Ps 48:2) at the center of God’s kingdom on earth (99:2; 132:13), and God’s throne is there (9:11). Therefore, godly prayers and praise focus on Zion (53:6; 65:1; 147:12; 149:2), and redemption is sought there (14:7; 20:2; 50:2; 53:6). David’s descendants are the legitimate heirs who rule over Zion to establish God’s universal kingdom (2:6; 110:2).<\/p>\n<p>Zion is symbolic of God’s protection and blessings (Pss 46:4-11; 48:1-14; 51:18; 128:5; 134:3). Anyone who trusts in the Lord is as secure as Mount Zion (125:1), but those who reject the Lord also reject the security of Zion and have no future (129:5-8).<\/p>\n<p>The New Testament speaks of Mount Zion as a heavenly Jerusalem, the spiritual home of those from all nations who have been reborn through faith in Jesus Christ (Heb 12:22-24; see also Gal 4:24-26; Rev 3:12; 21:2-4). Abraham looked forward in faith to “a city with eternal foundations” (Heb 11:10), a city in which all men and women of faith are citizens (Heb 12:22-24). Because the Lord knows no geographical limitations (1 Kgs 8:27), the true Zion he inhabits is the hearts of all who worship him.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>2 Sam 5:7; 1 Kgs 8:1; Pss 14:7; 48:1-14; 50:2; 51:18; 68:16; 78:68; 87:2, 5; 125:1; 128:5; 132:13; 133:3; 135:21; 147:12; Isa 1:27; 2:3; 3:16-17, 26; 4:3-5; 8:18; 10:12, 24, 32; 16:1; 24:23; 29:8; 30:19; 31:4, 9; 33:20; 37:22, 32; 40:9; 41:27; 52:1-2; 60:14; 62:1; 64:10; Jer 26:18; 51:35; Lam 2:13; Joel 2:32; 3:16-17; Amos 1:2; Obad 1:21; Mic 3:12; 4:2; Zeph 3:14, 16; Zech 1:14, 17; 2:7; 8:2-3; 9:9; Heb 12:22; Rev 14:1<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Zion<\/h3>\n<p>Zion is the Hebrew name for the mountain in Jerusalem where the Temple was located (2 Sam 5:7; see also 2 Chr 3:1). Zion is used as a synonym for Jerusalem, and the NLT often translates <em>Zion<\/em> as “Jerusalem” (e.g., Pss 69:35; 87:2; 97:8; 132:13). Thus Zion can refer to the actual, physical city of Jerusalem that was destroyed in 586 <span>BC<\/span> (see 102:13; 126:1; 137:1) and again in <span>AD<\/span> 70.<\/p>\n<p>Zion also signifies the city of God that transcends geographical location. Zion is God’s universal kingdom, the city in which he dwells (74:2; 76:2; 84:7; 135:21; see Isa 26). This city embodies trust, justice, righteousness, and commitment, for the Lord does not tolerate impurity, uncleanness, idolatry, injustice, or unrighteousness (Isa 1:21-28). The prophets and poets of Israel speak of the city of God as being more extensive than the physical city. The citizens of this city come from Judah, Israel, and the nations (see Ps 87:5-6; Heb 12:22-24). Zion is on a high mountain (Ps 48:2) at the center of God’s kingdom on earth (99:2; 132:13), and God’s throne is there (9:11). Therefore, godly prayers and praise focus on Zion (53:6; 65:1; 147:12; 149:2), and redemption is sought there (14:7; 20:2; 50:2; 53:6). David’s descendants are the legitimate heirs who rule over Zion to establish God’s universal kingdom (2:6; 110:2).<\/p>\n<p>Zion is symbolic of God’s protection and blessings (Pss 46:4-11; 48:1-14; 51:18; 128:5; 134:3). Anyone who trusts in the Lord is as secure as Mount Zion (125:1), but those who reject the Lord also reject the security of Zion and have no future (129:5-8).<\/p>\n<p>The New Testament speaks of Mount Zion as a heavenly Jerusalem, the spiritual home of those from all nations who have been reborn through faith in Jesus Christ (Heb 12:22-24; see also Gal 4:24-26; Rev 3:12; 21:2-4). Abraham looked forward in faith to “a city with eternal foundations” (Heb 11:10), a city in which all men and women of faith are citizens (Heb 12:22-24). Because the Lord knows no geographical limitations (1 Kgs 8:27), the true Zion he inhabits is the hearts of all who worship him.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>2 Sam 5:7; 1 Kgs 8:1; Pss 14:7; 48:1-14; 50:2; 51:18; 68:16; 78:68; 87:2, 5; 125:1; 128:5; 132:13; 133:3; 135:21; 147:12; Isa 1:27; 2:3; 3:16-17, 26; 4:3-5; 8:18; 10:12, 24, 32; 16:1; 24:23; 29:8; 30:19; 31:4, 9; 33:20; 37:22, 32; 40:9; 41:27; 52:1-2; 60:14; 62:1; 64:10; Jer 26:18; 51:35; Lam 2:13; Joel 2:32; 3:16-17; Amos 1:2; Obad 1:21; Mic 3:12; 4:2; Zeph 3:14, 16; Zech 1:14, 17; 2:7; 8:2-3; 9:9; Heb 12:22; Rev 14:1<\/p>","summary_ro":"Zion Zion is the Hebrew name for the mountain in Jerusalem where the Temple was located (2 Sam 5:7; see also 2 Chr 3:1). Zion is used as a synonym for Jerusalem, and the NLT often translates Zion as “Jerusalem” (e.g., Pss 69:35; 87:2; 97:8; 132:13). Thus Zion can refer to the actual, physical city of Jerusalem that was destroyed in 586 BC (see 102:13; 126:1; 137:1) and again in AD 70. Zion also signifies the city of God that transcends geographical location. Zion is God’s universal kingdom, t...","summary_en":"Zion Zion is the Hebrew name for the mountain in Jerusalem where the Temple was located (2 Sam 5:7; see also 2 Chr 3:1). Zion is used as a synonym for Jerusalem, and the NLT often translates Zion as “Jerusalem” (e.g., Pss 69:35; 87:2; 97:8; 132:13). Thus Zion can refer to the actual, physical city of Jerusalem that was destroyed in 586 BC (see 102:13; 126:1; 137:1) and again in AD 70. Zion also signifies the city of God that transcends geographical location. Zion is God’s universal kingdom, t...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":64055,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Salvation in Isaiah","title_en":"Salvation in Isaiah","content_ro":"<h3>Salvation in Isaiah<\/h3>\n<p>Isaiah’s name means <em>Yahweh is salvation<\/em>. He calls on people to turn away from their many false saviors to the only true Savior and protector. Salvation involves all aspects of existence (physical, spiritual, etc.). For example, the word <em>salvation<\/em> sometimes occurs in the book of Isaiah together with <em>righteousness<\/em> to signify a harmonious order where injustice, disgrace, and mourning are absent (45:8; 51:8).<\/p>\n<p>Isaiah repeatedly relays the good news that the Lord is coming to restore his people (e.g., 4:2-6; 10:24-34; 40:9-11). Even though punishment and exile were coming because of the people’s wickedness, the Lord would not abandon his people. Rather, he would deliver them: Babylon would fall, and the anguish and humiliation of the Exile would end. Chapters 1–39 anticipate this message, while chapters 40–66 describe it clearly.<\/p>\n<p>Isaiah also points to the salvation that God would bring through Jesus Christ. He prophesies about a “Branch” that would come from the line of David who would have the Spirit and would bring justice and righteousness (11:1-5). He also speaks of God’s servant, who would suffer for the sins of the people (52:13–53:12). Jesus fulfilled these prophecies of Isaiah and brought deliverance from sin and death.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Ps 27:1; Isa 49:8; 59:15-21; 61:1-3; Luke 4:18-21; John 3:16-17; 12:47; Rom 10:9-13; 2 Cor 5:18-21; Titus 2:11-13; Heb 9:27-28; 1 Pet 3:18-21; Rev 7:9-10<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Salvation in Isaiah<\/h3>\n<p>Isaiah’s name means <em>Yahweh is salvation<\/em>. He calls on people to turn away from their many false saviors to the only true Savior and protector. Salvation involves all aspects of existence (physical, spiritual, etc.). For example, the word <em>salvation<\/em> sometimes occurs in the book of Isaiah together with <em>righteousness<\/em> to signify a harmonious order where injustice, disgrace, and mourning are absent (45:8; 51:8).<\/p>\n<p>Isaiah repeatedly relays the good news that the Lord is coming to restore his people (e.g., 4:2-6; 10:24-34; 40:9-11). Even though punishment and exile were coming because of the people’s wickedness, the Lord would not abandon his people. Rather, he would deliver them: Babylon would fall, and the anguish and humiliation of the Exile would end. Chapters 1–39 anticipate this message, while chapters 40–66 describe it clearly.<\/p>\n<p>Isaiah also points to the salvation that God would bring through Jesus Christ. He prophesies about a “Branch” that would come from the line of David who would have the Spirit and would bring justice and righteousness (11:1-5). He also speaks of God’s servant, who would suffer for the sins of the people (52:13–53:12). Jesus fulfilled these prophecies of Isaiah and brought deliverance from sin and death.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Ps 27:1; Isa 49:8; 59:15-21; 61:1-3; Luke 4:18-21; John 3:16-17; 12:47; Rom 10:9-13; 2 Cor 5:18-21; Titus 2:11-13; Heb 9:27-28; 1 Pet 3:18-21; Rev 7:9-10<\/p>","summary_ro":"Salvation in Isaiah Isaiah’s name means Yahweh is salvation. He calls on people to turn away from their many false saviors to the only true Savior and protector. Salvation involves all aspects of existence (physical, spiritual, etc.). For example, the word salvation sometimes occurs in the book of Isaiah together with righteousness to signify a harmonious order where injustice, disgrace, and mourning are absent (45:8; 51:8). Isaiah repeatedly relays the good news that the Lord is coming to re...","summary_en":"Salvation in Isaiah Isaiah’s name means Yahweh is salvation. He calls on people to turn away from their many false saviors to the only true Savior and protector. Salvation involves all aspects of existence (physical, spiritual, etc.). For example, the word salvation sometimes occurs in the book of Isaiah together with righteousness to signify a harmonious order where injustice, disgrace, and mourning are absent (45:8; 51:8). Isaiah repeatedly relays the good news that the Lord is coming to re...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":90571,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Zion","title_en":"Zion","content_ro":"<h3>Zion<\/h3>\n<p>Zion is the Hebrew name for the mountain in Jerusalem where the Temple was located (2 Sam 5:7; see also 2 Chr 3:1). Zion is used as a synonym for Jerusalem, and the NLT often translates <em>Zion<\/em> as “Jerusalem” (e.g., Pss 69:35; 87:2; 97:8; 132:13). Thus Zion can refer to the actual, physical city of Jerusalem that was destroyed in 586 <span>BC<\/span> (see 102:13; 126:1; 137:1) and again in <span>AD<\/span> 70.<\/p>\n<p>Zion also signifies the city of God that transcends geographical location. Zion is God’s universal kingdom, the city in which he dwells (74:2; 76:2; 84:7; 135:21; see Isa 26). This city embodies trust, justice, righteousness, and commitment, for the Lord does not tolerate impurity, uncleanness, idolatry, injustice, or unrighteousness (Isa 1:21-28). The prophets and poets of Israel speak of the city of God as being more extensive than the physical city. The citizens of this city come from Judah, Israel, and the nations (see Ps 87:5-6; Heb 12:22-24). Zion is on a high mountain (Ps 48:2) at the center of God’s kingdom on earth (99:2; 132:13), and God’s throne is there (9:11). Therefore, godly prayers and praise focus on Zion (53:6; 65:1; 147:12; 149:2), and redemption is sought there (14:7; 20:2; 50:2; 53:6). David’s descendants are the legitimate heirs who rule over Zion to establish God’s universal kingdom (2:6; 110:2).<\/p>\n<p>Zion is symbolic of God’s protection and blessings (Pss 46:4-11; 48:1-14; 51:18; 128:5; 134:3). Anyone who trusts in the Lord is as secure as Mount Zion (125:1), but those who reject the Lord also reject the security of Zion and have no future (129:5-8).<\/p>\n<p>The New Testament speaks of Mount Zion as a heavenly Jerusalem, the spiritual home of those from all nations who have been reborn through faith in Jesus Christ (Heb 12:22-24; see also Gal 4:24-26; Rev 3:12; 21:2-4). Abraham looked forward in faith to “a city with eternal foundations” (Heb 11:10), a city in which all men and women of faith are citizens (Heb 12:22-24). Because the Lord knows no geographical limitations (1 Kgs 8:27), the true Zion he inhabits is the hearts of all who worship him.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>2 Sam 5:7; 1 Kgs 8:1; Pss 14:7; 48:1-14; 50:2; 51:18; 68:16; 78:68; 87:2, 5; 125:1; 128:5; 132:13; 133:3; 135:21; 147:12; Isa 1:27; 2:3; 3:16-17, 26; 4:3-5; 8:18; 10:12, 24, 32; 16:1; 24:23; 29:8; 30:19; 31:4, 9; 33:20; 37:22, 32; 40:9; 41:27; 52:1-2; 60:14; 62:1; 64:10; Jer 26:18; 51:35; Lam 2:13; Joel 2:32; 3:16-17; Amos 1:2; Obad 1:21; Mic 3:12; 4:2; Zeph 3:14, 16; Zech 1:14, 17; 2:7; 8:2-3; 9:9; Heb 12:22; Rev 14:1<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Zion<\/h3>\n<p>Zion is the Hebrew name for the mountain in Jerusalem where the Temple was located (2 Sam 5:7; see also 2 Chr 3:1). Zion is used as a synonym for Jerusalem, and the NLT often translates <em>Zion<\/em> as “Jerusalem” (e.g., Pss 69:35; 87:2; 97:8; 132:13). Thus Zion can refer to the actual, physical city of Jerusalem that was destroyed in 586 <span>BC<\/span> (see 102:13; 126:1; 137:1) and again in <span>AD<\/span> 70.<\/p>\n<p>Zion also signifies the city of God that transcends geographical location. Zion is God’s universal kingdom, the city in which he dwells (74:2; 76:2; 84:7; 135:21; see Isa 26). This city embodies trust, justice, righteousness, and commitment, for the Lord does not tolerate impurity, uncleanness, idolatry, injustice, or unrighteousness (Isa 1:21-28). The prophets and poets of Israel speak of the city of God as being more extensive than the physical city. The citizens of this city come from Judah, Israel, and the nations (see Ps 87:5-6; Heb 12:22-24). Zion is on a high mountain (Ps 48:2) at the center of God’s kingdom on earth (99:2; 132:13), and God’s throne is there (9:11). Therefore, godly prayers and praise focus on Zion (53:6; 65:1; 147:12; 149:2), and redemption is sought there (14:7; 20:2; 50:2; 53:6). David’s descendants are the legitimate heirs who rule over Zion to establish God’s universal kingdom (2:6; 110:2).<\/p>\n<p>Zion is symbolic of God’s protection and blessings (Pss 46:4-11; 48:1-14; 51:18; 128:5; 134:3). Anyone who trusts in the Lord is as secure as Mount Zion (125:1), but those who reject the Lord also reject the security of Zion and have no future (129:5-8).<\/p>\n<p>The New Testament speaks of Mount Zion as a heavenly Jerusalem, the spiritual home of those from all nations who have been reborn through faith in Jesus Christ (Heb 12:22-24; see also Gal 4:24-26; Rev 3:12; 21:2-4). Abraham looked forward in faith to “a city with eternal foundations” (Heb 11:10), a city in which all men and women of faith are citizens (Heb 12:22-24). Because the Lord knows no geographical limitations (1 Kgs 8:27), the true Zion he inhabits is the hearts of all who worship him.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>2 Sam 5:7; 1 Kgs 8:1; Pss 14:7; 48:1-14; 50:2; 51:18; 68:16; 78:68; 87:2, 5; 125:1; 128:5; 132:13; 133:3; 135:21; 147:12; Isa 1:27; 2:3; 3:16-17, 26; 4:3-5; 8:18; 10:12, 24, 32; 16:1; 24:23; 29:8; 30:19; 31:4, 9; 33:20; 37:22, 32; 40:9; 41:27; 52:1-2; 60:14; 62:1; 64:10; Jer 26:18; 51:35; Lam 2:13; Joel 2:32; 3:16-17; Amos 1:2; Obad 1:21; Mic 3:12; 4:2; Zeph 3:14, 16; Zech 1:14, 17; 2:7; 8:2-3; 9:9; Heb 12:22; Rev 14:1<\/p>","summary_ro":"Zion Zion is the Hebrew name for the mountain in Jerusalem where the Temple was located (2 Sam 5:7; see also 2 Chr 3:1). Zion is used as a synonym for Jerusalem, and the NLT often translates Zion as “Jerusalem” (e.g., Pss 69:35; 87:2; 97:8; 132:13). Thus Zion can refer to the actual, physical city of Jerusalem that was destroyed in 586 BC (see 102:13; 126:1; 137:1) and again in AD 70. Zion also signifies the city of God that transcends geographical location. Zion is God’s universal kingdom, t...","summary_en":"Zion Zion is the Hebrew name for the mountain in Jerusalem where the Temple was located (2 Sam 5:7; see also 2 Chr 3:1). Zion is used as a synonym for Jerusalem, and the NLT often translates Zion as “Jerusalem” (e.g., Pss 69:35; 87:2; 97:8; 132:13). Thus Zion can refer to the actual, physical city of Jerusalem that was destroyed in 586 BC (see 102:13; 126:1; 137:1) and again in AD 70. Zion also signifies the city of God that transcends geographical location. Zion is God’s universal kingdom, t...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":91681,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Salvation in Isaiah","title_en":"Salvation in Isaiah","content_ro":"<h3>Salvation in Isaiah<\/h3>\n<p>Isaiah’s name means <em>Yahweh is salvation<\/em>. He calls on people to turn away from their many false saviors to the only true Savior and protector. Salvation involves all aspects of existence (physical, spiritual, etc.). For example, the word <em>salvation<\/em> sometimes occurs in the book of Isaiah together with <em>righteousness<\/em> to signify a harmonious order where injustice, disgrace, and mourning are absent (45:8; 51:8).<\/p>\n<p>Isaiah repeatedly relays the good news that the Lord is coming to restore his people (e.g., 4:2-6; 10:24-34; 40:9-11). Even though punishment and exile were coming because of the people’s wickedness, the Lord would not abandon his people. Rather, he would deliver them: Babylon would fall, and the anguish and humiliation of the Exile would end. Chapters 1–39 anticipate this message, while chapters 40–66 describe it clearly.<\/p>\n<p>Isaiah also points to the salvation that God would bring through Jesus Christ. He prophesies about a “Branch” that would come from the line of David who would have the Spirit and would bring justice and righteousness (11:1-5). He also speaks of God’s servant, who would suffer for the sins of the people (52:13–53:12). Jesus fulfilled these prophecies of Isaiah and brought deliverance from sin and death.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Ps 27:1; Isa 49:8; 59:15-21; 61:1-3; Luke 4:18-21; John 3:16-17; 12:47; Rom 10:9-13; 2 Cor 5:18-21; Titus 2:11-13; Heb 9:27-28; 1 Pet 3:18-21; Rev 7:9-10<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Salvation in Isaiah<\/h3>\n<p>Isaiah’s name means <em>Yahweh is salvation<\/em>. He calls on people to turn away from their many false saviors to the only true Savior and protector. Salvation involves all aspects of existence (physical, spiritual, etc.). For example, the word <em>salvation<\/em> sometimes occurs in the book of Isaiah together with <em>righteousness<\/em> to signify a harmonious order where injustice, disgrace, and mourning are absent (45:8; 51:8).<\/p>\n<p>Isaiah repeatedly relays the good news that the Lord is coming to restore his people (e.g., 4:2-6; 10:24-34; 40:9-11). Even though punishment and exile were coming because of the people’s wickedness, the Lord would not abandon his people. Rather, he would deliver them: Babylon would fall, and the anguish and humiliation of the Exile would end. Chapters 1–39 anticipate this message, while chapters 40–66 describe it clearly.<\/p>\n<p>Isaiah also points to the salvation that God would bring through Jesus Christ. He prophesies about a “Branch” that would come from the line of David who would have the Spirit and would bring justice and righteousness (11:1-5). He also speaks of God’s servant, who would suffer for the sins of the people (52:13–53:12). Jesus fulfilled these prophecies of Isaiah and brought deliverance from sin and death.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Ps 27:1; Isa 49:8; 59:15-21; 61:1-3; Luke 4:18-21; John 3:16-17; 12:47; Rom 10:9-13; 2 Cor 5:18-21; Titus 2:11-13; Heb 9:27-28; 1 Pet 3:18-21; Rev 7:9-10<\/p>","summary_ro":"Salvation in Isaiah Isaiah’s name means Yahweh is salvation. He calls on people to turn away from their many false saviors to the only true Savior and protector. Salvation involves all aspects of existence (physical, spiritual, etc.). For example, the word salvation sometimes occurs in the book of Isaiah together with righteousness to signify a harmonious order where injustice, disgrace, and mourning are absent (45:8; 51:8). Isaiah repeatedly relays the good news that the Lord is coming to re...","summary_en":"Salvation in Isaiah Isaiah’s name means Yahweh is salvation. He calls on people to turn away from their many false saviors to the only true Savior and protector. Salvation involves all aspects of existence (physical, spiritual, etc.). For example, the word salvation sometimes occurs in the book of Isaiah together with righteousness to signify a harmonious order where injustice, disgrace, and mourning are absent (45:8; 51:8). Isaiah repeatedly relays the good news that the Lord is coming to re...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":118197,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Zion","title_en":"Zion","content_ro":"<h3>Zion<\/h3>\n<p>Zion is the Hebrew name for the mountain in Jerusalem where the Temple was located (2 Sam 5:7; see also 2 Chr 3:1). Zion is used as a synonym for Jerusalem, and the NLT often translates <em>Zion<\/em> as “Jerusalem” (e.g., Pss 69:35; 87:2; 97:8; 132:13). Thus Zion can refer to the actual, physical city of Jerusalem that was destroyed in 586 <span>BC<\/span> (see 102:13; 126:1; 137:1) and again in <span>AD<\/span> 70.<\/p>\n<p>Zion also signifies the city of God that transcends geographical location. Zion is God’s universal kingdom, the city in which he dwells (74:2; 76:2; 84:7; 135:21; see Isa 26). This city embodies trust, justice, righteousness, and commitment, for the Lord does not tolerate impurity, uncleanness, idolatry, injustice, or unrighteousness (Isa 1:21-28). The prophets and poets of Israel speak of the city of God as being more extensive than the physical city. The citizens of this city come from Judah, Israel, and the nations (see Ps 87:5-6; Heb 12:22-24). Zion is on a high mountain (Ps 48:2) at the center of God’s kingdom on earth (99:2; 132:13), and God’s throne is there (9:11). Therefore, godly prayers and praise focus on Zion (53:6; 65:1; 147:12; 149:2), and redemption is sought there (14:7; 20:2; 50:2; 53:6). David’s descendants are the legitimate heirs who rule over Zion to establish God’s universal kingdom (2:6; 110:2).<\/p>\n<p>Zion is symbolic of God’s protection and blessings (Pss 46:4-11; 48:1-14; 51:18; 128:5; 134:3). Anyone who trusts in the Lord is as secure as Mount Zion (125:1), but those who reject the Lord also reject the security of Zion and have no future (129:5-8).<\/p>\n<p>The New Testament speaks of Mount Zion as a heavenly Jerusalem, the spiritual home of those from all nations who have been reborn through faith in Jesus Christ (Heb 12:22-24; see also Gal 4:24-26; Rev 3:12; 21:2-4). Abraham looked forward in faith to “a city with eternal foundations” (Heb 11:10), a city in which all men and women of faith are citizens (Heb 12:22-24). Because the Lord knows no geographical limitations (1 Kgs 8:27), the true Zion he inhabits is the hearts of all who worship him.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>2 Sam 5:7; 1 Kgs 8:1; Pss 14:7; 48:1-14; 50:2; 51:18; 68:16; 78:68; 87:2, 5; 125:1; 128:5; 132:13; 133:3; 135:21; 147:12; Isa 1:27; 2:3; 3:16-17, 26; 4:3-5; 8:18; 10:12, 24, 32; 16:1; 24:23; 29:8; 30:19; 31:4, 9; 33:20; 37:22, 32; 40:9; 41:27; 52:1-2; 60:14; 62:1; 64:10; Jer 26:18; 51:35; Lam 2:13; Joel 2:32; 3:16-17; Amos 1:2; Obad 1:21; Mic 3:12; 4:2; Zeph 3:14, 16; Zech 1:14, 17; 2:7; 8:2-3; 9:9; Heb 12:22; Rev 14:1<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Zion<\/h3>\n<p>Zion is the Hebrew name for the mountain in Jerusalem where the Temple was located (2 Sam 5:7; see also 2 Chr 3:1). Zion is used as a synonym for Jerusalem, and the NLT often translates <em>Zion<\/em> as “Jerusalem” (e.g., Pss 69:35; 87:2; 97:8; 132:13). Thus Zion can refer to the actual, physical city of Jerusalem that was destroyed in 586 <span>BC<\/span> (see 102:13; 126:1; 137:1) and again in <span>AD<\/span> 70.<\/p>\n<p>Zion also signifies the city of God that transcends geographical location. Zion is God’s universal kingdom, the city in which he dwells (74:2; 76:2; 84:7; 135:21; see Isa 26). This city embodies trust, justice, righteousness, and commitment, for the Lord does not tolerate impurity, uncleanness, idolatry, injustice, or unrighteousness (Isa 1:21-28). The prophets and poets of Israel speak of the city of God as being more extensive than the physical city. The citizens of this city come from Judah, Israel, and the nations (see Ps 87:5-6; Heb 12:22-24). Zion is on a high mountain (Ps 48:2) at the center of God’s kingdom on earth (99:2; 132:13), and God’s throne is there (9:11). Therefore, godly prayers and praise focus on Zion (53:6; 65:1; 147:12; 149:2), and redemption is sought there (14:7; 20:2; 50:2; 53:6). David’s descendants are the legitimate heirs who rule over Zion to establish God’s universal kingdom (2:6; 110:2).<\/p>\n<p>Zion is symbolic of God’s protection and blessings (Pss 46:4-11; 48:1-14; 51:18; 128:5; 134:3). Anyone who trusts in the Lord is as secure as Mount Zion (125:1), but those who reject the Lord also reject the security of Zion and have no future (129:5-8).<\/p>\n<p>The New Testament speaks of Mount Zion as a heavenly Jerusalem, the spiritual home of those from all nations who have been reborn through faith in Jesus Christ (Heb 12:22-24; see also Gal 4:24-26; Rev 3:12; 21:2-4). Abraham looked forward in faith to “a city with eternal foundations” (Heb 11:10), a city in which all men and women of faith are citizens (Heb 12:22-24). Because the Lord knows no geographical limitations (1 Kgs 8:27), the true Zion he inhabits is the hearts of all who worship him.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>2 Sam 5:7; 1 Kgs 8:1; Pss 14:7; 48:1-14; 50:2; 51:18; 68:16; 78:68; 87:2, 5; 125:1; 128:5; 132:13; 133:3; 135:21; 147:12; Isa 1:27; 2:3; 3:16-17, 26; 4:3-5; 8:18; 10:12, 24, 32; 16:1; 24:23; 29:8; 30:19; 31:4, 9; 33:20; 37:22, 32; 40:9; 41:27; 52:1-2; 60:14; 62:1; 64:10; Jer 26:18; 51:35; Lam 2:13; Joel 2:32; 3:16-17; Amos 1:2; Obad 1:21; Mic 3:12; 4:2; Zeph 3:14, 16; Zech 1:14, 17; 2:7; 8:2-3; 9:9; Heb 12:22; Rev 14:1<\/p>","summary_ro":"Zion Zion is the Hebrew name for the mountain in Jerusalem where the Temple was located (2 Sam 5:7; see also 2 Chr 3:1). Zion is used as a synonym for Jerusalem, and the NLT often translates Zion as “Jerusalem” (e.g., Pss 69:35; 87:2; 97:8; 132:13). Thus Zion can refer to the actual, physical city of Jerusalem that was destroyed in 586 BC (see 102:13; 126:1; 137:1) and again in AD 70. Zion also signifies the city of God that transcends geographical location. Zion is God’s universal kingdom, t...","summary_en":"Zion Zion is the Hebrew name for the mountain in Jerusalem where the Temple was located (2 Sam 5:7; see also 2 Chr 3:1). Zion is used as a synonym for Jerusalem, and the NLT often translates Zion as “Jerusalem” (e.g., Pss 69:35; 87:2; 97:8; 132:13). Thus Zion can refer to the actual, physical city of Jerusalem that was destroyed in 586 BC (see 102:13; 126:1; 137:1) and again in AD 70. Zion also signifies the city of God that transcends geographical location. Zion is God’s universal kingdom, t...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":119307,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Salvation in Isaiah","title_en":"Salvation in Isaiah","content_ro":"<h3>Salvation in Isaiah<\/h3>\n<p>Isaiah’s name means <em>Yahweh is salvation<\/em>. He calls on people to turn away from their many false saviors to the only true Savior and protector. Salvation involves all aspects of existence (physical, spiritual, etc.). For example, the word <em>salvation<\/em> sometimes occurs in the book of Isaiah together with <em>righteousness<\/em> to signify a harmonious order where injustice, disgrace, and mourning are absent (45:8; 51:8).<\/p>\n<p>Isaiah repeatedly relays the good news that the Lord is coming to restore his people (e.g., 4:2-6; 10:24-34; 40:9-11). Even though punishment and exile were coming because of the people’s wickedness, the Lord would not abandon his people. Rather, he would deliver them: Babylon would fall, and the anguish and humiliation of the Exile would end. Chapters 1–39 anticipate this message, while chapters 40–66 describe it clearly.<\/p>\n<p>Isaiah also points to the salvation that God would bring through Jesus Christ. He prophesies about a “Branch” that would come from the line of David who would have the Spirit and would bring justice and righteousness (11:1-5). He also speaks of God’s servant, who would suffer for the sins of the people (52:13–53:12). Jesus fulfilled these prophecies of Isaiah and brought deliverance from sin and death.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Ps 27:1; Isa 49:8; 59:15-21; 61:1-3; Luke 4:18-21; John 3:16-17; 12:47; Rom 10:9-13; 2 Cor 5:18-21; Titus 2:11-13; Heb 9:27-28; 1 Pet 3:18-21; Rev 7:9-10<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Salvation in Isaiah<\/h3>\n<p>Isaiah’s name means <em>Yahweh is salvation<\/em>. He calls on people to turn away from their many false saviors to the only true Savior and protector. Salvation involves all aspects of existence (physical, spiritual, etc.). For example, the word <em>salvation<\/em> sometimes occurs in the book of Isaiah together with <em>righteousness<\/em> to signify a harmonious order where injustice, disgrace, and mourning are absent (45:8; 51:8).<\/p>\n<p>Isaiah repeatedly relays the good news that the Lord is coming to restore his people (e.g., 4:2-6; 10:24-34; 40:9-11). Even though punishment and exile were coming because of the people’s wickedness, the Lord would not abandon his people. Rather, he would deliver them: Babylon would fall, and the anguish and humiliation of the Exile would end. Chapters 1–39 anticipate this message, while chapters 40–66 describe it clearly.<\/p>\n<p>Isaiah also points to the salvation that God would bring through Jesus Christ. He prophesies about a “Branch” that would come from the line of David who would have the Spirit and would bring justice and righteousness (11:1-5). He also speaks of God’s servant, who would suffer for the sins of the people (52:13–53:12). Jesus fulfilled these prophecies of Isaiah and brought deliverance from sin and death.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Ps 27:1; Isa 49:8; 59:15-21; 61:1-3; Luke 4:18-21; John 3:16-17; 12:47; Rom 10:9-13; 2 Cor 5:18-21; Titus 2:11-13; Heb 9:27-28; 1 Pet 3:18-21; Rev 7:9-10<\/p>","summary_ro":"Salvation in Isaiah Isaiah’s name means Yahweh is salvation. He calls on people to turn away from their many false saviors to the only true Savior and protector. Salvation involves all aspects of existence (physical, spiritual, etc.). For example, the word salvation sometimes occurs in the book of Isaiah together with righteousness to signify a harmonious order where injustice, disgrace, and mourning are absent (45:8; 51:8). Isaiah repeatedly relays the good news that the Lord is coming to re...","summary_en":"Salvation in Isaiah Isaiah’s name means Yahweh is salvation. He calls on people to turn away from their many false saviors to the only true Savior and protector. Salvation involves all aspects of existence (physical, spiritual, etc.). For example, the word salvation sometimes occurs in the book of Isaiah together with righteousness to signify a harmonious order where injustice, disgrace, and mourning are absent (45:8; 51:8). Isaiah repeatedly relays the good news that the Lord is coming to re...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":145823,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Zion","title_en":"Zion","content_ro":"<h3>Zion<\/h3>\n<p>Zion is the Hebrew name for the mountain in Jerusalem where the Temple was located (2 Sam 5:7; see also 2 Chr 3:1). Zion is used as a synonym for Jerusalem, and the NLT often translates <em>Zion<\/em> as “Jerusalem” (e.g., Pss 69:35; 87:2; 97:8; 132:13). Thus Zion can refer to the actual, physical city of Jerusalem that was destroyed in 586 <span>BC<\/span> (see 102:13; 126:1; 137:1) and again in <span>AD<\/span> 70.<\/p>\n<p>Zion also signifies the city of God that transcends geographical location. Zion is God’s universal kingdom, the city in which he dwells (74:2; 76:2; 84:7; 135:21; see Isa 26). This city embodies trust, justice, righteousness, and commitment, for the Lord does not tolerate impurity, uncleanness, idolatry, injustice, or unrighteousness (Isa 1:21-28). The prophets and poets of Israel speak of the city of God as being more extensive than the physical city. The citizens of this city come from Judah, Israel, and the nations (see Ps 87:5-6; Heb 12:22-24). Zion is on a high mountain (Ps 48:2) at the center of God’s kingdom on earth (99:2; 132:13), and God’s throne is there (9:11). Therefore, godly prayers and praise focus on Zion (53:6; 65:1; 147:12; 149:2), and redemption is sought there (14:7; 20:2; 50:2; 53:6). David’s descendants are the legitimate heirs who rule over Zion to establish God’s universal kingdom (2:6; 110:2).<\/p>\n<p>Zion is symbolic of God’s protection and blessings (Pss 46:4-11; 48:1-14; 51:18; 128:5; 134:3). Anyone who trusts in the Lord is as secure as Mount Zion (125:1), but those who reject the Lord also reject the security of Zion and have no future (129:5-8).<\/p>\n<p>The New Testament speaks of Mount Zion as a heavenly Jerusalem, the spiritual home of those from all nations who have been reborn through faith in Jesus Christ (Heb 12:22-24; see also Gal 4:24-26; Rev 3:12; 21:2-4). Abraham looked forward in faith to “a city with eternal foundations” (Heb 11:10), a city in which all men and women of faith are citizens (Heb 12:22-24). Because the Lord knows no geographical limitations (1 Kgs 8:27), the true Zion he inhabits is the hearts of all who worship him.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>2 Sam 5:7; 1 Kgs 8:1; Pss 14:7; 48:1-14; 50:2; 51:18; 68:16; 78:68; 87:2, 5; 125:1; 128:5; 132:13; 133:3; 135:21; 147:12; Isa 1:27; 2:3; 3:16-17, 26; 4:3-5; 8:18; 10:12, 24, 32; 16:1; 24:23; 29:8; 30:19; 31:4, 9; 33:20; 37:22, 32; 40:9; 41:27; 52:1-2; 60:14; 62:1; 64:10; Jer 26:18; 51:35; Lam 2:13; Joel 2:32; 3:16-17; Amos 1:2; Obad 1:21; Mic 3:12; 4:2; Zeph 3:14, 16; Zech 1:14, 17; 2:7; 8:2-3; 9:9; Heb 12:22; Rev 14:1<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Zion<\/h3>\n<p>Zion is the Hebrew name for the mountain in Jerusalem where the Temple was located (2 Sam 5:7; see also 2 Chr 3:1). Zion is used as a synonym for Jerusalem, and the NLT often translates <em>Zion<\/em> as “Jerusalem” (e.g., Pss 69:35; 87:2; 97:8; 132:13). Thus Zion can refer to the actual, physical city of Jerusalem that was destroyed in 586 <span>BC<\/span> (see 102:13; 126:1; 137:1) and again in <span>AD<\/span> 70.<\/p>\n<p>Zion also signifies the city of God that transcends geographical location. Zion is God’s universal kingdom, the city in which he dwells (74:2; 76:2; 84:7; 135:21; see Isa 26). This city embodies trust, justice, righteousness, and commitment, for the Lord does not tolerate impurity, uncleanness, idolatry, injustice, or unrighteousness (Isa 1:21-28). The prophets and poets of Israel speak of the city of God as being more extensive than the physical city. The citizens of this city come from Judah, Israel, and the nations (see Ps 87:5-6; Heb 12:22-24). Zion is on a high mountain (Ps 48:2) at the center of God’s kingdom on earth (99:2; 132:13), and God’s throne is there (9:11). Therefore, godly prayers and praise focus on Zion (53:6; 65:1; 147:12; 149:2), and redemption is sought there (14:7; 20:2; 50:2; 53:6). David’s descendants are the legitimate heirs who rule over Zion to establish God’s universal kingdom (2:6; 110:2).<\/p>\n<p>Zion is symbolic of God’s protection and blessings (Pss 46:4-11; 48:1-14; 51:18; 128:5; 134:3). Anyone who trusts in the Lord is as secure as Mount Zion (125:1), but those who reject the Lord also reject the security of Zion and have no future (129:5-8).<\/p>\n<p>The New Testament speaks of Mount Zion as a heavenly Jerusalem, the spiritual home of those from all nations who have been reborn through faith in Jesus Christ (Heb 12:22-24; see also Gal 4:24-26; Rev 3:12; 21:2-4). Abraham looked forward in faith to “a city with eternal foundations” (Heb 11:10), a city in which all men and women of faith are citizens (Heb 12:22-24). Because the Lord knows no geographical limitations (1 Kgs 8:27), the true Zion he inhabits is the hearts of all who worship him.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>2 Sam 5:7; 1 Kgs 8:1; Pss 14:7; 48:1-14; 50:2; 51:18; 68:16; 78:68; 87:2, 5; 125:1; 128:5; 132:13; 133:3; 135:21; 147:12; Isa 1:27; 2:3; 3:16-17, 26; 4:3-5; 8:18; 10:12, 24, 32; 16:1; 24:23; 29:8; 30:19; 31:4, 9; 33:20; 37:22, 32; 40:9; 41:27; 52:1-2; 60:14; 62:1; 64:10; Jer 26:18; 51:35; Lam 2:13; Joel 2:32; 3:16-17; Amos 1:2; Obad 1:21; Mic 3:12; 4:2; Zeph 3:14, 16; Zech 1:14, 17; 2:7; 8:2-3; 9:9; Heb 12:22; Rev 14:1<\/p>","summary_ro":"Zion Zion is the Hebrew name for the mountain in Jerusalem where the Temple was located (2 Sam 5:7; see also 2 Chr 3:1). Zion is used as a synonym for Jerusalem, and the NLT often translates Zion as “Jerusalem” (e.g., Pss 69:35; 87:2; 97:8; 132:13). Thus Zion can refer to the actual, physical city of Jerusalem that was destroyed in 586 BC (see 102:13; 126:1; 137:1) and again in AD 70. Zion also signifies the city of God that transcends geographical location. Zion is God’s universal kingdom, t...","summary_en":"Zion Zion is the Hebrew name for the mountain in Jerusalem where the Temple was located (2 Sam 5:7; see also 2 Chr 3:1). Zion is used as a synonym for Jerusalem, and the NLT often translates Zion as “Jerusalem” (e.g., Pss 69:35; 87:2; 97:8; 132:13). Thus Zion can refer to the actual, physical city of Jerusalem that was destroyed in 586 BC (see 102:13; 126:1; 137:1) and again in AD 70. Zion also signifies the city of God that transcends geographical location. Zion is God’s universal kingdom, t...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":146933,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Salvation in Isaiah","title_en":"Salvation in Isaiah","content_ro":"<h3>Salvation in Isaiah<\/h3>\n<p>Isaiah’s name means <em>Yahweh is salvation<\/em>. He calls on people to turn away from their many false saviors to the only true Savior and protector. Salvation involves all aspects of existence (physical, spiritual, etc.). For example, the word <em>salvation<\/em> sometimes occurs in the book of Isaiah together with <em>righteousness<\/em> to signify a harmonious order where injustice, disgrace, and mourning are absent (45:8; 51:8).<\/p>\n<p>Isaiah repeatedly relays the good news that the Lord is coming to restore his people (e.g., 4:2-6; 10:24-34; 40:9-11). Even though punishment and exile were coming because of the people’s wickedness, the Lord would not abandon his people. Rather, he would deliver them: Babylon would fall, and the anguish and humiliation of the Exile would end. Chapters 1–39 anticipate this message, while chapters 40–66 describe it clearly.<\/p>\n<p>Isaiah also points to the salvation that God would bring through Jesus Christ. He prophesies about a “Branch” that would come from the line of David who would have the Spirit and would bring justice and righteousness (11:1-5). He also speaks of God’s servant, who would suffer for the sins of the people (52:13–53:12). Jesus fulfilled these prophecies of Isaiah and brought deliverance from sin and death.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Ps 27:1; Isa 49:8; 59:15-21; 61:1-3; Luke 4:18-21; John 3:16-17; 12:47; Rom 10:9-13; 2 Cor 5:18-21; Titus 2:11-13; Heb 9:27-28; 1 Pet 3:18-21; Rev 7:9-10<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Salvation in Isaiah<\/h3>\n<p>Isaiah’s name means <em>Yahweh is salvation<\/em>. He calls on people to turn away from their many false saviors to the only true Savior and protector. Salvation involves all aspects of existence (physical, spiritual, etc.). For example, the word <em>salvation<\/em> sometimes occurs in the book of Isaiah together with <em>righteousness<\/em> to signify a harmonious order where injustice, disgrace, and mourning are absent (45:8; 51:8).<\/p>\n<p>Isaiah repeatedly relays the good news that the Lord is coming to restore his people (e.g., 4:2-6; 10:24-34; 40:9-11). Even though punishment and exile were coming because of the people’s wickedness, the Lord would not abandon his people. Rather, he would deliver them: Babylon would fall, and the anguish and humiliation of the Exile would end. Chapters 1–39 anticipate this message, while chapters 40–66 describe it clearly.<\/p>\n<p>Isaiah also points to the salvation that God would bring through Jesus Christ. He prophesies about a “Branch” that would come from the line of David who would have the Spirit and would bring justice and righteousness (11:1-5). He also speaks of God’s servant, who would suffer for the sins of the people (52:13–53:12). Jesus fulfilled these prophecies of Isaiah and brought deliverance from sin and death.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Ps 27:1; Isa 49:8; 59:15-21; 61:1-3; Luke 4:18-21; John 3:16-17; 12:47; Rom 10:9-13; 2 Cor 5:18-21; Titus 2:11-13; Heb 9:27-28; 1 Pet 3:18-21; Rev 7:9-10<\/p>","summary_ro":"Salvation in Isaiah Isaiah’s name means Yahweh is salvation. He calls on people to turn away from their many false saviors to the only true Savior and protector. Salvation involves all aspects of existence (physical, spiritual, etc.). For example, the word salvation sometimes occurs in the book of Isaiah together with righteousness to signify a harmonious order where injustice, disgrace, and mourning are absent (45:8; 51:8). Isaiah repeatedly relays the good news that the Lord is coming to re...","summary_en":"Salvation in Isaiah Isaiah’s name means Yahweh is salvation. He calls on people to turn away from their many false saviors to the only true Savior and protector. Salvation involves all aspects of existence (physical, spiritual, etc.). For example, the word salvation sometimes occurs in the book of Isaiah together with righteousness to signify a harmonious order where injustice, disgrace, and mourning are absent (45:8; 51:8). Isaiah repeatedly relays the good news that the Lord is coming to re...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"26":[{"id":41170,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Gideon","title_en":"Gideon","content_ro":"<h3>Gideon<\/h3>\n<p>Gideon, an Israelite judge, was the son of Joash, from the tribe of Manasseh. Gideon described his clan as the least powerful in Manasseh and himself as the least important in the clan. His story tells how God can take a weak person and use them for great purposes.<\/p>\n<p>At the time, Israel was being oppressed by Midian and had cried out to God for relief (Judg 6:6). In response, God sent a prophet to chastise them for neglecting him and worshiping other gods. He also sent his angel to call Gideon to rescue Israel.<\/p>\n<p>Gideon’s first appearance is not promising. He was threshing wheat in the bottom of a winepress because he did not want the Midianites to know what he was doing. When the angel of the Lord appeared to Gideon in the winepress, Gideon questioned why God had not rescued his people as at the Exodus. God said that Gideon was chosen to be Israel’s deliverer, and that God himself would be with him. Gideon was slow to believe, and he requested a sign. He brought an offering, and when the angel touched the sacrifice, fire came from the rock beneath it.<\/p>\n<p>This sign gave Gideon enough faith to act locally. God told him to knock down his father’s altar to Baal, cut down the Asherah pole, and build an altar to the Lord instead. Gideon did what God had commanded, becoming a warrior for God against false gods.<\/p>\n<p>Then the Spirit of God came on Gideon, and he raised an army to fight the Midianites and their allies. Gideon was still cautious, and he asked God to give him another sign to confirm his calling. He put out a fleece on two separate nights and asked God to reveal his power by having the dew settle on the fleece and\/or the ground in miraculous ways. God did so and Gideon was now prepared to follow God’s plan.<\/p>\n<p>Gideon had great success as an army recruiter as 32,000 men responded to his call. Yet God directed him to pare down the numbers to 300 men. Gideon led these 300 men against an overwhelming force and defeated them.<\/p>\n<p>Gideon rightly resisted the people’s call to be their ruler, but then he made an ephod from the earrings of the defeated soldiers, and the ephod became an idol (8:22-27). Gideon, weak in faith and dependent on visible signs, eventually turned away from worshiping the invisible God and worshiped idols. Israel enjoyed peace during his time, but his lack of faith bore bitter fruit after his death (8:33–9:57).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Judg 6:1–8:35; 1 Sam 12:11; Isa 10:26; Heb 11:32<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Gideon<\/h3>\n<p>Gideon, an Israelite judge, was the son of Joash, from the tribe of Manasseh. Gideon described his clan as the least powerful in Manasseh and himself as the least important in the clan. His story tells how God can take a weak person and use them for great purposes.<\/p>\n<p>At the time, Israel was being oppressed by Midian and had cried out to God for relief (Judg 6:6). In response, God sent a prophet to chastise them for neglecting him and worshiping other gods. He also sent his angel to call Gideon to rescue Israel.<\/p>\n<p>Gideon’s first appearance is not promising. He was threshing wheat in the bottom of a winepress because he did not want the Midianites to know what he was doing. When the angel of the Lord appeared to Gideon in the winepress, Gideon questioned why God had not rescued his people as at the Exodus. God said that Gideon was chosen to be Israel’s deliverer, and that God himself would be with him. Gideon was slow to believe, and he requested a sign. He brought an offering, and when the angel touched the sacrifice, fire came from the rock beneath it.<\/p>\n<p>This sign gave Gideon enough faith to act locally. God told him to knock down his father’s altar to Baal, cut down the Asherah pole, and build an altar to the Lord instead. Gideon did what God had commanded, becoming a warrior for God against false gods.<\/p>\n<p>Then the Spirit of God came on Gideon, and he raised an army to fight the Midianites and their allies. Gideon was still cautious, and he asked God to give him another sign to confirm his calling. He put out a fleece on two separate nights and asked God to reveal his power by having the dew settle on the fleece and\/or the ground in miraculous ways. God did so and Gideon was now prepared to follow God’s plan.<\/p>\n<p>Gideon had great success as an army recruiter as 32,000 men responded to his call. Yet God directed him to pare down the numbers to 300 men. Gideon led these 300 men against an overwhelming force and defeated them.<\/p>\n<p>Gideon rightly resisted the people’s call to be their ruler, but then he made an ephod from the earrings of the defeated soldiers, and the ephod became an idol (8:22-27). Gideon, weak in faith and dependent on visible signs, eventually turned away from worshiping the invisible God and worshiped idols. Israel enjoyed peace during his time, but his lack of faith bore bitter fruit after his death (8:33–9:57).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Judg 6:1–8:35; 1 Sam 12:11; Isa 10:26; Heb 11:32<\/p>","summary_ro":"Gideon Gideon, an Israelite judge, was the son of Joash, from the tribe of Manasseh. Gideon described his clan as the least powerful in Manasseh and himself as the least important in the clan. His story tells how God can take a weak person and use them for great purposes. At the time, Israel was being oppressed by Midian and had cried out to God for relief (Judg 6:6). In response, God sent a prophet to chastise them for neglecting him and worshiping other gods. He also sent his angel to call ...","summary_en":"Gideon Gideon, an Israelite judge, was the son of Joash, from the tribe of Manasseh. Gideon described his clan as the least powerful in Manasseh and himself as the least important in the clan. His story tells how God can take a weak person and use them for great purposes. At the time, Israel was being oppressed by Midian and had cried out to God for relief (Judg 6:6). In response, God sent a prophet to chastise them for neglecting him and worshiping other gods. He also sent his angel to call ...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":68796,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Gideon","title_en":"Gideon","content_ro":"<h3>Gideon<\/h3>\n<p>Gideon, an Israelite judge, was the son of Joash, from the tribe of Manasseh. Gideon described his clan as the least powerful in Manasseh and himself as the least important in the clan. His story tells how God can take a weak person and use them for great purposes.<\/p>\n<p>At the time, Israel was being oppressed by Midian and had cried out to God for relief (Judg 6:6). In response, God sent a prophet to chastise them for neglecting him and worshiping other gods. He also sent his angel to call Gideon to rescue Israel.<\/p>\n<p>Gideon’s first appearance is not promising. He was threshing wheat in the bottom of a winepress because he did not want the Midianites to know what he was doing. When the angel of the Lord appeared to Gideon in the winepress, Gideon questioned why God had not rescued his people as at the Exodus. God said that Gideon was chosen to be Israel’s deliverer, and that God himself would be with him. Gideon was slow to believe, and he requested a sign. He brought an offering, and when the angel touched the sacrifice, fire came from the rock beneath it.<\/p>\n<p>This sign gave Gideon enough faith to act locally. God told him to knock down his father’s altar to Baal, cut down the Asherah pole, and build an altar to the Lord instead. Gideon did what God had commanded, becoming a warrior for God against false gods.<\/p>\n<p>Then the Spirit of God came on Gideon, and he raised an army to fight the Midianites and their allies. Gideon was still cautious, and he asked God to give him another sign to confirm his calling. He put out a fleece on two separate nights and asked God to reveal his power by having the dew settle on the fleece and\/or the ground in miraculous ways. God did so and Gideon was now prepared to follow God’s plan.<\/p>\n<p>Gideon had great success as an army recruiter as 32,000 men responded to his call. Yet God directed him to pare down the numbers to 300 men. Gideon led these 300 men against an overwhelming force and defeated them.<\/p>\n<p>Gideon rightly resisted the people’s call to be their ruler, but then he made an ephod from the earrings of the defeated soldiers, and the ephod became an idol (8:22-27). Gideon, weak in faith and dependent on visible signs, eventually turned away from worshiping the invisible God and worshiped idols. Israel enjoyed peace during his time, but his lack of faith bore bitter fruit after his death (8:33–9:57).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Judg 6:1–8:35; 1 Sam 12:11; Isa 10:26; Heb 11:32<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Gideon<\/h3>\n<p>Gideon, an Israelite judge, was the son of Joash, from the tribe of Manasseh. Gideon described his clan as the least powerful in Manasseh and himself as the least important in the clan. His story tells how God can take a weak person and use them for great purposes.<\/p>\n<p>At the time, Israel was being oppressed by Midian and had cried out to God for relief (Judg 6:6). In response, God sent a prophet to chastise them for neglecting him and worshiping other gods. He also sent his angel to call Gideon to rescue Israel.<\/p>\n<p>Gideon’s first appearance is not promising. He was threshing wheat in the bottom of a winepress because he did not want the Midianites to know what he was doing. When the angel of the Lord appeared to Gideon in the winepress, Gideon questioned why God had not rescued his people as at the Exodus. God said that Gideon was chosen to be Israel’s deliverer, and that God himself would be with him. Gideon was slow to believe, and he requested a sign. He brought an offering, and when the angel touched the sacrifice, fire came from the rock beneath it.<\/p>\n<p>This sign gave Gideon enough faith to act locally. God told him to knock down his father’s altar to Baal, cut down the Asherah pole, and build an altar to the Lord instead. Gideon did what God had commanded, becoming a warrior for God against false gods.<\/p>\n<p>Then the Spirit of God came on Gideon, and he raised an army to fight the Midianites and their allies. Gideon was still cautious, and he asked God to give him another sign to confirm his calling. He put out a fleece on two separate nights and asked God to reveal his power by having the dew settle on the fleece and\/or the ground in miraculous ways. God did so and Gideon was now prepared to follow God’s plan.<\/p>\n<p>Gideon had great success as an army recruiter as 32,000 men responded to his call. Yet God directed him to pare down the numbers to 300 men. Gideon led these 300 men against an overwhelming force and defeated them.<\/p>\n<p>Gideon rightly resisted the people’s call to be their ruler, but then he made an ephod from the earrings of the defeated soldiers, and the ephod became an idol (8:22-27). Gideon, weak in faith and dependent on visible signs, eventually turned away from worshiping the invisible God and worshiped idols. Israel enjoyed peace during his time, but his lack of faith bore bitter fruit after his death (8:33–9:57).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Judg 6:1–8:35; 1 Sam 12:11; Isa 10:26; Heb 11:32<\/p>","summary_ro":"Gideon Gideon, an Israelite judge, was the son of Joash, from the tribe of Manasseh. Gideon described his clan as the least powerful in Manasseh and himself as the least important in the clan. His story tells how God can take a weak person and use them for great purposes. At the time, Israel was being oppressed by Midian and had cried out to God for relief (Judg 6:6). In response, God sent a prophet to chastise them for neglecting him and worshiping other gods. He also sent his angel to call ...","summary_en":"Gideon Gideon, an Israelite judge, was the son of Joash, from the tribe of Manasseh. Gideon described his clan as the least powerful in Manasseh and himself as the least important in the clan. His story tells how God can take a weak person and use them for great purposes. At the time, Israel was being oppressed by Midian and had cried out to God for relief (Judg 6:6). In response, God sent a prophet to chastise them for neglecting him and worshiping other gods. He also sent his angel to call ...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":96422,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Gideon","title_en":"Gideon","content_ro":"<h3>Gideon<\/h3>\n<p>Gideon, an Israelite judge, was the son of Joash, from the tribe of Manasseh. Gideon described his clan as the least powerful in Manasseh and himself as the least important in the clan. His story tells how God can take a weak person and use them for great purposes.<\/p>\n<p>At the time, Israel was being oppressed by Midian and had cried out to God for relief (Judg 6:6). In response, God sent a prophet to chastise them for neglecting him and worshiping other gods. He also sent his angel to call Gideon to rescue Israel.<\/p>\n<p>Gideon’s first appearance is not promising. He was threshing wheat in the bottom of a winepress because he did not want the Midianites to know what he was doing. When the angel of the Lord appeared to Gideon in the winepress, Gideon questioned why God had not rescued his people as at the Exodus. God said that Gideon was chosen to be Israel’s deliverer, and that God himself would be with him. Gideon was slow to believe, and he requested a sign. He brought an offering, and when the angel touched the sacrifice, fire came from the rock beneath it.<\/p>\n<p>This sign gave Gideon enough faith to act locally. God told him to knock down his father’s altar to Baal, cut down the Asherah pole, and build an altar to the Lord instead. Gideon did what God had commanded, becoming a warrior for God against false gods.<\/p>\n<p>Then the Spirit of God came on Gideon, and he raised an army to fight the Midianites and their allies. Gideon was still cautious, and he asked God to give him another sign to confirm his calling. He put out a fleece on two separate nights and asked God to reveal his power by having the dew settle on the fleece and\/or the ground in miraculous ways. God did so and Gideon was now prepared to follow God’s plan.<\/p>\n<p>Gideon had great success as an army recruiter as 32,000 men responded to his call. Yet God directed him to pare down the numbers to 300 men. Gideon led these 300 men against an overwhelming force and defeated them.<\/p>\n<p>Gideon rightly resisted the people’s call to be their ruler, but then he made an ephod from the earrings of the defeated soldiers, and the ephod became an idol (8:22-27). Gideon, weak in faith and dependent on visible signs, eventually turned away from worshiping the invisible God and worshiped idols. Israel enjoyed peace during his time, but his lack of faith bore bitter fruit after his death (8:33–9:57).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Judg 6:1–8:35; 1 Sam 12:11; Isa 10:26; Heb 11:32<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Gideon<\/h3>\n<p>Gideon, an Israelite judge, was the son of Joash, from the tribe of Manasseh. Gideon described his clan as the least powerful in Manasseh and himself as the least important in the clan. His story tells how God can take a weak person and use them for great purposes.<\/p>\n<p>At the time, Israel was being oppressed by Midian and had cried out to God for relief (Judg 6:6). In response, God sent a prophet to chastise them for neglecting him and worshiping other gods. He also sent his angel to call Gideon to rescue Israel.<\/p>\n<p>Gideon’s first appearance is not promising. He was threshing wheat in the bottom of a winepress because he did not want the Midianites to know what he was doing. When the angel of the Lord appeared to Gideon in the winepress, Gideon questioned why God had not rescued his people as at the Exodus. God said that Gideon was chosen to be Israel’s deliverer, and that God himself would be with him. Gideon was slow to believe, and he requested a sign. He brought an offering, and when the angel touched the sacrifice, fire came from the rock beneath it.<\/p>\n<p>This sign gave Gideon enough faith to act locally. God told him to knock down his father’s altar to Baal, cut down the Asherah pole, and build an altar to the Lord instead. Gideon did what God had commanded, becoming a warrior for God against false gods.<\/p>\n<p>Then the Spirit of God came on Gideon, and he raised an army to fight the Midianites and their allies. Gideon was still cautious, and he asked God to give him another sign to confirm his calling. He put out a fleece on two separate nights and asked God to reveal his power by having the dew settle on the fleece and\/or the ground in miraculous ways. God did so and Gideon was now prepared to follow God’s plan.<\/p>\n<p>Gideon had great success as an army recruiter as 32,000 men responded to his call. Yet God directed him to pare down the numbers to 300 men. Gideon led these 300 men against an overwhelming force and defeated them.<\/p>\n<p>Gideon rightly resisted the people’s call to be their ruler, but then he made an ephod from the earrings of the defeated soldiers, and the ephod became an idol (8:22-27). Gideon, weak in faith and dependent on visible signs, eventually turned away from worshiping the invisible God and worshiped idols. Israel enjoyed peace during his time, but his lack of faith bore bitter fruit after his death (8:33–9:57).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Judg 6:1–8:35; 1 Sam 12:11; Isa 10:26; Heb 11:32<\/p>","summary_ro":"Gideon Gideon, an Israelite judge, was the son of Joash, from the tribe of Manasseh. Gideon described his clan as the least powerful in Manasseh and himself as the least important in the clan. His story tells how God can take a weak person and use them for great purposes. At the time, Israel was being oppressed by Midian and had cried out to God for relief (Judg 6:6). In response, God sent a prophet to chastise them for neglecting him and worshiping other gods. He also sent his angel to call ...","summary_en":"Gideon Gideon, an Israelite judge, was the son of Joash, from the tribe of Manasseh. Gideon described his clan as the least powerful in Manasseh and himself as the least important in the clan. His story tells how God can take a weak person and use them for great purposes. At the time, Israel was being oppressed by Midian and had cried out to God for relief (Judg 6:6). In response, God sent a prophet to chastise them for neglecting him and worshiping other gods. He also sent his angel to call ...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":124048,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Gideon","title_en":"Gideon","content_ro":"<h3>Gideon<\/h3>\n<p>Gideon, an Israelite judge, was the son of Joash, from the tribe of Manasseh. Gideon described his clan as the least powerful in Manasseh and himself as the least important in the clan. His story tells how God can take a weak person and use them for great purposes.<\/p>\n<p>At the time, Israel was being oppressed by Midian and had cried out to God for relief (Judg 6:6). In response, God sent a prophet to chastise them for neglecting him and worshiping other gods. He also sent his angel to call Gideon to rescue Israel.<\/p>\n<p>Gideon’s first appearance is not promising. He was threshing wheat in the bottom of a winepress because he did not want the Midianites to know what he was doing. When the angel of the Lord appeared to Gideon in the winepress, Gideon questioned why God had not rescued his people as at the Exodus. God said that Gideon was chosen to be Israel’s deliverer, and that God himself would be with him. Gideon was slow to believe, and he requested a sign. He brought an offering, and when the angel touched the sacrifice, fire came from the rock beneath it.<\/p>\n<p>This sign gave Gideon enough faith to act locally. God told him to knock down his father’s altar to Baal, cut down the Asherah pole, and build an altar to the Lord instead. Gideon did what God had commanded, becoming a warrior for God against false gods.<\/p>\n<p>Then the Spirit of God came on Gideon, and he raised an army to fight the Midianites and their allies. Gideon was still cautious, and he asked God to give him another sign to confirm his calling. He put out a fleece on two separate nights and asked God to reveal his power by having the dew settle on the fleece and\/or the ground in miraculous ways. God did so and Gideon was now prepared to follow God’s plan.<\/p>\n<p>Gideon had great success as an army recruiter as 32,000 men responded to his call. Yet God directed him to pare down the numbers to 300 men. Gideon led these 300 men against an overwhelming force and defeated them.<\/p>\n<p>Gideon rightly resisted the people’s call to be their ruler, but then he made an ephod from the earrings of the defeated soldiers, and the ephod became an idol (8:22-27). Gideon, weak in faith and dependent on visible signs, eventually turned away from worshiping the invisible God and worshiped idols. Israel enjoyed peace during his time, but his lack of faith bore bitter fruit after his death (8:33–9:57).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Judg 6:1–8:35; 1 Sam 12:11; Isa 10:26; Heb 11:32<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Gideon<\/h3>\n<p>Gideon, an Israelite judge, was the son of Joash, from the tribe of Manasseh. Gideon described his clan as the least powerful in Manasseh and himself as the least important in the clan. His story tells how God can take a weak person and use them for great purposes.<\/p>\n<p>At the time, Israel was being oppressed by Midian and had cried out to God for relief (Judg 6:6). In response, God sent a prophet to chastise them for neglecting him and worshiping other gods. He also sent his angel to call Gideon to rescue Israel.<\/p>\n<p>Gideon’s first appearance is not promising. He was threshing wheat in the bottom of a winepress because he did not want the Midianites to know what he was doing. When the angel of the Lord appeared to Gideon in the winepress, Gideon questioned why God had not rescued his people as at the Exodus. God said that Gideon was chosen to be Israel’s deliverer, and that God himself would be with him. Gideon was slow to believe, and he requested a sign. He brought an offering, and when the angel touched the sacrifice, fire came from the rock beneath it.<\/p>\n<p>This sign gave Gideon enough faith to act locally. God told him to knock down his father’s altar to Baal, cut down the Asherah pole, and build an altar to the Lord instead. Gideon did what God had commanded, becoming a warrior for God against false gods.<\/p>\n<p>Then the Spirit of God came on Gideon, and he raised an army to fight the Midianites and their allies. Gideon was still cautious, and he asked God to give him another sign to confirm his calling. He put out a fleece on two separate nights and asked God to reveal his power by having the dew settle on the fleece and\/or the ground in miraculous ways. God did so and Gideon was now prepared to follow God’s plan.<\/p>\n<p>Gideon had great success as an army recruiter as 32,000 men responded to his call. Yet God directed him to pare down the numbers to 300 men. Gideon led these 300 men against an overwhelming force and defeated them.<\/p>\n<p>Gideon rightly resisted the people’s call to be their ruler, but then he made an ephod from the earrings of the defeated soldiers, and the ephod became an idol (8:22-27). Gideon, weak in faith and dependent on visible signs, eventually turned away from worshiping the invisible God and worshiped idols. Israel enjoyed peace during his time, but his lack of faith bore bitter fruit after his death (8:33–9:57).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Judg 6:1–8:35; 1 Sam 12:11; Isa 10:26; Heb 11:32<\/p>","summary_ro":"Gideon Gideon, an Israelite judge, was the son of Joash, from the tribe of Manasseh. Gideon described his clan as the least powerful in Manasseh and himself as the least important in the clan. His story tells how God can take a weak person and use them for great purposes. At the time, Israel was being oppressed by Midian and had cried out to God for relief (Judg 6:6). In response, God sent a prophet to chastise them for neglecting him and worshiping other gods. He also sent his angel to call ...","summary_en":"Gideon Gideon, an Israelite judge, was the son of Joash, from the tribe of Manasseh. Gideon described his clan as the least powerful in Manasseh and himself as the least important in the clan. His story tells how God can take a weak person and use them for great purposes. At the time, Israel was being oppressed by Midian and had cried out to God for relief (Judg 6:6). In response, God sent a prophet to chastise them for neglecting him and worshiping other gods. He also sent his angel to call ...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":17804,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Book of Isaiah","title_en":"Book of Isaiah","content_ro":"<h3>ISAIAH, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Literary Unity<\/p>\n<p>• Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>The prophet Isaiah, whose name means “the Lord saves,” lived and ministered in Jerusalem. Because of his repeated contact with the kings of Judah, some scholars believed that Isaiah was related to the royal family, but this is not certain. According to chapters 7 and 8, Isaiah was married and had at least two sons, Shear-jashub and Maher-shalal-hash-baz, whose symbolic names illustrated God’s dealings with the nation as a whole. The “disciples” mentioned in 8:16 probably assisted Isaiah in his ministry and may have helped him record the book that bears his name.<\/p>\n<p>When Isaiah saw the Lord in the famous temple vision described in chapter 6, he was willing to go wherever God sent him, even though he would face strong opposition (6:9-10). King Ahaz proved to be particularly resistant to Isaiah’s advice (7:4-17), and the people in general ridiculed his preaching (5:10-12; 28:9-10). During the reign of the godly Hezekiah, however, Isaiah’s ministry was much appreciated, and the king consulted him eagerly during times of crisis (37:1-7, 21-35).<\/p>\n<p>Isaiah is usually regarded as the greatest of the writing prophets. Some of the chapters in his book display an unparalleled literary beauty and make use of poetic devices and a rich variety of symbols. Chapters 40–66 contain many powerful passages that underscore the grandeur of the book. It is ironic, then, that many scholars attribute these chapters to a “second” or “third” Isaiah, unknown authors who wrote much later than Isaiah in connection with the Babylonian exile. Yet elsewhere in the OT, the names of all who wrote the prophetic books are preserved, and it would be most unusual for the Jews not to know who wrote such magnificent prophecy as chapters 40–66.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Date\">Date<\/p>\n<p>Since many of the events recorded in chapters 1–39 took place during the ministry of Isaiah, most of these chapters were probably written by about 700 <span>BC<\/span> or shortly thereafter. The destruction of the Assyrian army in 701 <span>BC<\/span> represents the climax of the first half of the book, fulfilling the prophecy of 10:16, 24-34 and 30:31-33. In 37:38 Isaiah refers to the death of King Sennacherib, which did not occur until 681 <span>BC<\/span>. This means that some of the earlier chapters, along with 40–66, were probably written later, during Isaiah’s retirement years. A gap of several decades could help account for the change in subject matter that is found in the last half of the book. In these chapters Isaiah projects into the future as he addresses the Jews who would be in exile in Babylon about 550 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>Isaiah’s public ministry occurred primarily from 740–700 <span>BC<\/span>, a period marked by the rapid expansion of the nation of Assyria. Under King Tiglath-pileser III (745–727 <span>BC<\/span>), the Assyrians moved to the west and south, and by 738 <span>BC<\/span> the Assyrian monarch was demanding tribute from Damascus and Israel. About 734 <span>BC<\/span> Rezin of Damascus (Syria) and Pekah of Israel organized a coalition to rebel against Assyria, and they tried to enlist the support of King Ahaz of Judah. But Ahaz refused to join, and when the kings of Damascus and Israel invaded Judah (see 7:1), Ahaz appealed directly to Tiglath-pileser for help (cf. 2 Kgs 16:7-9). With little hesitation the Assyrians returned to capture Damascus and to turn the northern kingdom of Israel into an Assyrian province.<\/p>\n<p>The puppet king Hoshea ruled over Israel from 732–723 BC but was imprisoned when he joined a revolt against Shalmaneser V, the new Assyrian king. Shalmaneser besieged the capital city of Samaria, which finally fell in 722 <span>BC<\/span>, spelling the end of the northern kingdom. Sargon succeeded Shalmaneser in 722 and had to quell a number of revolts. In 711 <span>BC<\/span> Sargon captured the Philistine city of Ashdod in a campaign that became the occasion of Isaiah’s prophecy of chapter 20.<\/p>\n\n<p>Even more important was the widespread rebellion that broke out with the accession of Sennacherib in 705 <span>BC<\/span>. King Hezekiah of Judah withheld his normal tribute payment, and by 701 <span>BC<\/span> Sennacherib had invaded Palestine to punish the rebels. The details of this campaign are given in Isaiah 36–37 and tell how city after city was captured by the Assyrians before the invaders stood at the gates of Jerusalem and demanded total surrender. With almost no hope of survival, Hezekiah nevertheless was encouraged by Isaiah to trust God, and in one night the angel of the Lord struck down 185,000 Assyrian soldiers, virtually wiping out Sennacherib’s army (Is 37:36-37).<\/p>\n<p>In an effort to befriend the enemies of Assyria, Hezekiah showed his treasures to envoys of the king of Babylon (39:1-4). Isaiah warned that someday the Babylonian armies would conquer Jerusalem and carry off those very treasures, along with the residents of the city (vv 5-7). Not only did Isaiah predict the Babylonian captivity of 586–539 <span>BC<\/span> (cf. 6:11-12), but he also foretold that Israel would be released from Babylon (48:20). The Chaldean kingdom led by Nebuchadnezzar would be God’s instrument of judgment upon Judah, but they too would suffer defeat. One of Isaiah’s most remarkable prophecies was the naming of Cyrus, king of Persia, the ruler who would conquer the Babylonians in 539 <span>BC<\/span> and release Israel from exile (cf. 44:28). Along with the Medes (cf. 13:17), Cyrus won several important victories before sending his troops against Babylon. Isaiah hailed him as one anointed by the Lord to bring deliverance for Israel (45:1-5).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LiteraryUnity\">Literary Unity<\/p>\n<p>Largely because of the references to the later kingdoms of Babylon and Persia, the unity of Isaiah has been called into question. Chapters 40–66 move abruptly into the exilic period of 550 <span>BC<\/span>, almost 150 years after Isaiah lived. Moreover, the Servant of the Lord plays a prominent role in these chapters and the messianic king fades into the background. Brilliant poetic passages are found in chapters 40, 53, 55, and 60, demonstrating remarkable depth and power.<\/p>\n<p>Although these factors are sometimes cited as a sign of disunity, there are actually strong indications for unity in the book. For example, the historical interlude (chs 36–39) forms a hinge or bridge that links chapters 1–35 and 40–66. Chapters 36–37 complete the Assyrian section, and chapters 38–39 introduce the Babylonian material. Most of the linking chapters are written in prose, while the others (in some translations) are largely poetry. From the standpoint of verbal or stylistic unity, one can point to Isaiah’s favorite title for God, “the Holy One of Israel.” This title appears 12 times in chapters 1–39, and 14 times in chapters 40–66, but only seven times in the rest of the OT. A study of the famous Servant Songs of 52:13–53:12 reveals several ties with earlier passages, especially in chapters 1–6. The servant who is smitten and wounded (53:4-5) receives the same punishment as the beaten and injured nation of 1:5-6 (also cf. 52:13 with 2:12 and 6:1).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheologicalTeaching\">Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>Isaiah is to the OT as the book of Romans is to the NT—a book filled with rich theological truth. Like Romans, Isaiah unveils the sinfulness of God’s rebellious people and his gracious provision of salvation. Because God is the Holy One of Israel (1:4; 6:3), he cannot ignore sin but must punish those who are guilty. Both Israel (5:30; 42:25) and the other nations (2:11, 17, 20) experience a time of judgment known as the Day of the Lord. In anger God raises his hand against his people (cf. 5:25), but ultimately his wrath is poured out upon Babylon and the nations (cf. 13:3-5; 34:2).<\/p>\n<p>With the fall of Assyria and Babylon, the Day of the Lord becomes a day of joyous victory (10:27; 61:2). According to Isaiah 63:4, it is the year of the Lord’s redemption. Earlier, Israel had been redeemed from slavery in Egypt; now the return from the Babylonian captivity brings equal joy (52:9; 61:1). The ultimate redemption is to be accomplished through the death of Christ, and Isaiah 53 describes our Lord’s suffering and death in graphic terms. His ministry as the Suffering Servant is also introduced in 49:4 and 50:6-7; meanwhile, 49:6 states that the servant will be “a light for the Gentiles.” Looking ahead to the Second Coming, Isaiah predicts a messianic age of peace and righteousness. Nations will “beat their swords into plowshares” (2:4) and the “Prince of Peace” will rule forever (9:6-7).<\/p>\n<p>Throughout the book God is pictured as the all-powerful Creator (48:13)—the sovereign One seated on a throne, high and exalted; the King, the Lord Almighty (6:1, 5). He controls the armies of the earth (13:4) and removes rulers as he wills (40:23-24). Before him, nations “are but a drop in the bucket” (40:15, <span>nlt<\/span>), and compared with him all idols are worthless and without power (41:29; 44:6). This is the God who shows his fury to his foes and his love to his servants (66:14).<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Messages of Judgment and Hope (1–12)<\/h5>\n<p>In the opening chapter Isaiah characterizes Israel (including Judah) as “a sinful nation” that has rebelled against God. Although the people regularly bring offerings to him, their worship is hypocritical, an attempt to mask their oppression of the poor and helpless. The Lord encourages the nation to repent of their sin or face the fires of judgment. After this introduction, Isaiah turns to describe the peace of the messianic age in 2:1-4. The day will come when all nations will obey God’s word and live at peace. “The mountain of the <span>Lord<\/span>”—Jerusalem—will be raised up “and all the nations shall flow to it” (2:2-3, <span>rsv<\/span>). In the meantime, however, both Israel and the nations have exalted themselves against the Lord, and he will judge them in an awesome display of power. For Israel, God’s judgment will bring great upheaval, including the loss of its leaders. Defiant and ruthless, the rulers will face either death or deportation. Chapter 3 ends by denouncing the pride and vanity of the women of Zion; they, too, will suffer disgrace. After Jerusalem is cleansed of its sin, the remnant will enjoy the rule of “the branch of the <span>Lord<\/span>,” who will protect and shield his people (4:2-6).<\/p>\n<p>In 5:1-7 Isaiah presents a short song about Israel as God’s vineyard. The Lord did everything possible to ensure a yield of good grapes, but the vineyard produced nothing but bad fruit and had to be destroyed. Isaiah then pronounces six woes against Israel, and announces that the Assyrian army will invade the land. Against the backdrop of Israel’s sin, Isaiah (ch 6) gives an account of the vision through which he was called as a prophet. Overwhelmed by the holiness of God and by his own sinfulness, Isaiah thought he was ruined, but when he was assured that his sins were forgiven, he responded positively to God’s call in spite of the stubbornness of the nation to which he was sent.<\/p>\n<p>One of the most stubborn individuals in all the nation was King Ahaz of Judah, and chapter 7 describes Isaiah’s encounter with this godless ruler. When Ahaz was threatened by Damascus and the northern kingdom, he refused to believe Isaiah’s promise that God would protect him. This was the occasion on which Isaiah gave Ahaz the sign of Immanuel (7:14). The “virgin” refers ultimately to Mary and “Immanuel” to Christ (Mt 1:23), but in the near fulfillment the child could be Isaiah’s own son Maher-shalal-hash-baz (Is 8:3). (<em>See<\/em> four interpretations of this passage in Virgin Birth of Jesus.) This name (meaning “swift to plunder and quick to spoil,” v 1, <span>nlt<\/span> mg) would be a sign that soon Judah’s enemies would fall; “Immanuel” signified that God would be with Judah (v 10, <span>nlt<\/span> mg). However, if Ahaz appealed for help to the king of Assyria, Isaiah warned him, Assyria’s powerful armies would one day invade Judah also (cf. 7:17-25; 8:6-8). The destruction brought by Assyria would plunge Judah into a time of famine and distress (8:21-22).<\/p>\n<p>Nevertheless, the gloom and darkness associated with the Assyrian invasion would not last indefinitely, and 9:1-5 speaks of a time of peace and joy. Verses 6-7 introduce a child who would become a righteous King and would rule forever. This “Prince of Peace” is the Messiah, the “Mighty God” whose kingdom is described in 2:2-4.<\/p>\n<p>For the immediate future, however, both Israel and Judah will suffer the agony of war as punishment for their sins. God is angry with his people because they are proud and arrogant, and their leaders disregard the pleas of the poor and needy. Civil war and foreign invasion will crush the hapless nation (9:8–10:4). But once Israel has been judged, God will turn his hand against Assyria, the instrument he has used to judge other nations. Because of her string of victories, Assyria is filled with pride and is eager for more triumph. Yet even at the moment when Jerusalem is about to succumb, God will cut down the Assyrian army like a cedar in Lebanon and spare his people (10:26-34).<\/p>\n<p>After Assyria’s defeat, Isaiah describes the restoration of Israel and the powerful rule of the Messiah (ch 11). Both Jews and Gentiles will be attracted to Jerusalem to enjoy an era of peace and justice. Like David, the Messiah will have the Spirit of God resting upon him as he judges the wicked and protects the needy. To conclude these opening messages, Isaiah offers two short songs of praise that celebrate God’s past deliverance and his promise of future blessing (ch 12).<\/p>\n<h5>Oracles against the Nations (13–23)<\/h5>\n<p>Although Babylon is not the major power of the day, Isaiah begins his announcements of judgment with two chapters about the destruction of Assyria’s neighbor to the south. Babylon will eventually conquer Jerusalem (between 605 and 586 <span>BC<\/span>), but the Medes (13:17) along with the Elamites will capture Babylon (539 <span>BC<\/span>). In spite of the glory to be achieved by future kings of Babylon, God will bring their pomp down to the grave (14:9-10). The chapter ends with short prophecies against Assyria and the Philistines.<\/p>\n<p>One of Israel’s oldest enemies was the nation of Moab, situated east of the Dead Sea. Even though it was a small country, Isaiah devotes two chapters to these descendants of Lot. Chapter 15 describes the extensive mourning that will overwhelm their cities. After a brief interlude urging the Moabites to submit to Israel and to her God (16:1-5), Isaiah notes that pride will lead to Moab’s downfall. Sounds of weeping fill the land as the vines and fields wither and are trampled.<\/p>\n<p>In chapter 17 the fourth oracle is directed against Damascus and Ephraim (the northern kingdom of Israel), probably reflecting their alliance against Judah about 734 <span>BC<\/span>. Both nations will face ruin, and Ephraim is condemned for abandoning the Lord, her “Savior” and “Rock” (17:10).<\/p>\n<p>In chapters 18 and 19 Isaiah turns to the south and addresses Ethiopia and Egypt, countries that had strong links from 715–633 <span>BC<\/span>, when an Ethiopian named Shabako became pharaoh in Egypt. But Egypt is plagued with disunity and suffers greatly at the hands of Assyrian kings. In spite of the supposed wisdom of her leaders, Egypt faces economic and political ruin (19:5-15). Yet the time is coming when the Egyptians will be restored and will worship the God of Israel. Along with Assyria and Israel, Egypt will become a blessing (19:24). Some interpreters think this is a prophecy of the salvation of Gentiles during the church age, but others relate this day to the peace of the millennial age (cf. 2:2-4; 11:6-9). For the immediate future, however, Isaiah announces that Assyria will take many Egyptians and Ethiopians into captivity (ch 20).<\/p>\n<p>A second oracle about Babylon (cf. 13:1–14:23) is contained in chapter 21, and Isaiah is staggered as he considers the impact of Babylon’s fall (21:3-4). When Babylon collapses, the world will know that her gods were powerless (21:9; cf. Rv 14:8; 18:2).<\/p>\n<p>Although it seems out of place among these oracles against the nations, chapter 22 condemns the city of Jerusalem. Like the nations, Jerusalem is full of revelry (22:2) but will soon experience the terrors of a siege. Since the people no longer rely on the Lord (v 11), he will hand them over to the enemy. Jerusalem’s unfaithfulness is exemplified by Shebna, a high official guilty of pride and materialism whose position will be taken by the godly Eliakim (vv 15-23).<\/p>\n<p>The last oracle (ch 23) is directed against the city of Tyre, which resisted capture until Alexander the Great conquered the island fortress in 332 <span>BC<\/span>. When Tyre fell, the economy of the entire Mediterranean world was shaken, for her ships had carried the goods of the nations far and wide.<\/p>\n<h5>Final Judgment and Blessing (24–27)<\/h5>\n<p>This section functions as a grand finale to chapters 13–23 in that it anticipates God’s judgment upon the nations and the inauguration of the kingdom of God. A defiled earth must bear its punishment (24:5-6) and even the forces of Satan face judgment (vv 21-22).<\/p>\n<p>In chapter 25 Isaiah rejoices over God’s great triumph and looks ahead to a day when death will be swallowed up and tears will be wiped from all faces (25:8). Israel’s longtime enemies, symbolized by Moab, will be laid low (vv 10-12), but Jerusalem will be a stronghold for the righteous (26:1-3). In 26:7-19 the nation prays that these promises will become a reality. Verses 20-21 indicate that the Lord will indeed respond, pouring out his wrath upon a sin-cursed earth and upon Satan himself (27:1). When that takes place, Israel will be a fruitful vineyard, a blessing to the whole world (27:2-6; contrast 5:1-7). First, however, Israel will have to endure war and exile, and then the remnant will return to Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<h5>A Series of Woes (28–33)<\/h5>\n<p>Returning to his own historical period, Isaiah pronounces a series of woes upon both the northern and southern kingdoms, as well as one upon Assyria (ch 33). Chapter 28 begins with a description of the fading power of Samaria, the capital of the northern kingdom. Verses 7-10 portray the leaders of Judah in the same light; they have disregarded Isaiah’s message and are out of touch with God. Judgment is on the way, and their false preparation (vv 15, 18) will be of no avail. God will fight against Israel (vv 21-22), and even Jerusalem will be put under siege until God in his mercy intervenes (29:1-8). Because of their hypocritical worship, the people deserve to be punished, but in the future Israel will again acknowledge the Lord and be made physically and spiritually whole (29:17-24).<\/p>\n<p>Chapters 30 and 31 denounce Judah’s proposed alliance with Egypt in the effort to thwart Assyria. God wants his people to trust him, not their unreliable neighbors to the south. The Lord promises to protect Jerusalem (30:18; 31:5) and defeat the invading Assyrian army (30:31-33; 31:8-9). None can stand before his mighty sword.<\/p>\n<p>Continuing on this positive note, Isaiah goes on to emphasize the righteous rule of the messianic king in chapters 32 and 33. Zion will enjoy peace and security at last (32:2, 17-18; 33:6), a great change from Isaiah’s own time. In eighth-century <span>BC<\/span> Judah the women might feel secure (32:9), but the Assyrian troops will devastate the crops and precipitate widespread mourning. However, the lamenting will soon end, as the prophet pronounces woe upon Assyria in 33:1. After Isaiah prays for the destruction of Assyria (33:2-9), God promises to take action (vv 10-12). Gone will be the enemy soldiers and officials, for the Lord will save his people and bring them justice and security.<\/p>\n<h5>More Judgment and Blessing (34–35)<\/h5>\n<p>This section forms a climax to chapters 28–33. Once more, cataclysmic judgment precedes a time of blessing and restoration. In chapter 34 Isaiah depicts a judgment of cosmic dimensions as he moves to a consideration of the last days. Heaven and earth endure the wrath of God that is poured out upon the nations, and verse 4 provides the basis for John’s description of the great tribulation in Revelation 6:13-14. Edom (like Moab; see Is 25:10-12) represents a world judged by the sword of the Lord in his day of vengeance.<\/p>\n<p>Chapter 35, on the other hand, speaks of joy and restoration in a passage that pulsates with life. A blooming desert corresponds to the physical and spiritual age when God will come to redeem his people. Both the return of the Israelites from the Babylonian captivity and the second coming of Christ fit this glorious scene.<\/p>\n<h5>Historical Interlude (36–39)<\/h5>\n<p>These chapters form the hinge that connects the two halves of the book. Chapters 36 and 37 contain the fulfillment of Isaiah’s prophecies about Assyria’s collapse, and chapters 38 and 39 introduce the Babylonian captivity that forms the backdrop for chapters 40–66. In 701 <span>BC<\/span> King Sennacherib of Assyria demands the unconditional surrender of Jerusalem. He sends his field commander to address the people and try to gain their submission. With persuasive words, the commander tries to convince the city that surrender is the best policy. Amazingly the people do not panic, and King Hezekiah asks Isaiah to pray for the beleaguered city. The prophet does so and announces that the proud Assyrians will not triumph. Instead, they suffer a terrible disaster as the angel of the Lord strikes down 185,000 men.<\/p>\n<p>Chapters 38 and 39 relate another crisis in Hezekiah’s life when he becomes desperately ill. Miraculously, God heals him, and Hezekiah praises the Lord for his gracious intervention. When the king of Babylon sends envoys to congratulate Hezekiah on his recovery, Hezekiah foolishly shows these messengers his royal treasures. Isaiah solemnly announces that someday the armies of Babylon will capture Jerusalem, plunder the land, and take away these treasures.<\/p>\n<h5>The Return from Babylon (40–48)<\/h5>\n<p>The Babylonian captivity eventually comes, but Isaiah promises that it will end. God, the incomparably powerful Creator, is far greater than any king, nation, or god, and he will bring his people back to Jerusalem. To accomplish this return from exile, God raises up Cyrus, the king of Persia (41:2, 25). The Lord does not forget his people, and he encourages them to take heart and to rejoice.<\/p>\n<p>In chapter 42 we are introduced to a person even more significant than Cyrus the Persian. Verses 1-7 (the first of four Servant Songs) describe the servant of the Lord, who will bring justice to the nations and will be “a light for the Gentiles” (42:6). This is the Messiah, and the redemption he will accomplish on Calvary (cf. ch 53) is greater than the release from Babylon. In light of the good news associated with the servant, Isaiah praises the Lord for punishing the wicked and rescuing his wayward people. Chapter 43 declares that nothing will stand in the way of Israel’s return, and the Lord will remember their sins no more. In fact, he will pour out his Spirit on their descendants (44:3).<\/p>\n<p>A God so great is far more powerful than any idol. In 44:6-20 Isaiah makes use of satire to show the worthlessness of man-made images. God alone has the power to create and to restore, and he will bring Cyrus on the scene to effect the release of the exiles and to begin the rebuilding of Jerusalem. Chapters 46 and 47 contrast the God of Israel and the idols of Babylon. When God raises up Cyrus, Babylon’s idols will be unable to save their nation, and the queen of kingdoms (47:5) will collapse along with her sorcerers and astrologers. The final chapter in this section (ch 48) restates God’s purpose of gaining release of the Israelites from Babylon through his chosen ally, Cyrus of Persia.<\/p>\n<h5>Salvation through the Servant of the Lord (49–57)<\/h5>\n<p>Chapters 49–53 contain the final three Servant Songs (cf. also 42:1-7), culminating in the death of the servant for the sins of the world (52:13–53:12). In the second Servant Song (49:1-7), Isaiah describes the call and ministry of the servant, noting that he will face strong opposition as he accomplishes salvation for Israel and the nations. The rest of chapter 49 deals primarily with the way God will bring Israel back from exile. Soon the land will be filled with a mighty throng (vv 19-21), and the Gentiles will acknowledge Israel and her God (vv 22-23).<\/p>\n<p>Although Israel has fully deserved the exile because of her sins (50:1-3), the suffering endured by the servant (vv 4-11; the third Servant Song) is wholly undeserved. The beating and mocking of verse 6 are prophetic of Christ’s experience (cf. Mt 27:26, 30; Mk 15:19). In verses 10-11 of Isaiah 50 the whole nation is challenged to trust in the Lord, as the servant did. There is, in fact, a believing remnant who obey the Lord (51:1-8), and the Lord promises that he will restore them to their homeland. Israel has drunk the cup of God’s wrath (vv 17, 22), but the good news of release from exile causes even the ruins of Jerusalem to burst into songs of joy (52:7-10).<\/p>\n<p>Yet the best news of all is salvation from sin; the final Servant Song (52:13–53:12) tells how Christ wins freedom for those held in bondage to sin. In this brief passage we learn how Christ suffers rejection (53:3) and even disfigurement (52:14). Led like a lamb to the slaughter (53:7), he carries our sins in his body as he dies in ignominy. The people think he is suffering for his own sins (v 4), but he is “pierced” and “crushed for our iniquities” (v 5). The first and last paragraphs of this section (52:13-15; 53:10-12) state that through his suffering the servant is highly exalted. What seems like a terrible defeat is actually victory over death and Satan and brings salvation for many.<\/p>\n<p>As a direct result of the servant’s death, great joy comes to all people. In chapter 54 this joy is reflected in Jerusalem’s new status as the Lord’s wife. Her descendants will be numerous and eager to learn from the Lord. For the first time the plural “servants of the <span>Lord<\/span>” appears (54:17), apparently including all believers, whether Jew or Gentile (cf. 65:8-9, 13-15). Joy and prosperity also characterize chapter 55, an invitation to a great spiritual banquet. All people are urged to turn to the Lord who keeps his promises to Israel. In 56:1-8, foreigners are invited to come to God’s “holy mountain” in Jerusalem, for the temple will be a house of prayer for all the nations (56:7; cf. Mt 21:13).<\/p>\n<p>Believing Gentiles are contrasted sharply with unbelieving Jews, and in 56:9–57:13 Isaiah returns again to the theme of judgment. Israel suffers because her leaders are wicked and because the people are guilty of idolatry. Spiritual healing is available, but unless individuals repent, they cannot be part of the remnant who will return from exile and enjoy peace in the Promised Land.<\/p>\n<h5>Ultimate Blessing and Final Judgment (58–66)<\/h5>\n<p>The last nine chapters of Isaiah emphasize redemption and glory, but the reality of judgment is also very much in evidence. In fact, chapters 58 and 59 bemoan the sins of Israel. The people are hypocritical in their worship; they are selfish and fail to keep the Sabbath. Lying, oppression, and murder separate the people from God. When Isaiah openly confesses these sins (59:12-13), the Lord suddenly takes action on behalf of his people. Like a mighty warrior, he rescues the believing remnant from Babylon and brings them back to Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p>In chapter 60 the glory and wealth of Jerusalem reach new heights. Both the city and the sanctuary are adorned with splendor, matching the prosperity of Solomon’s reign. Just as the nations treated Solomon with honor, so earth’s leaders will assist and strengthen the returning exiles. While it is true that the Persian government did help the Jews repeatedly, the conditions described here will have their ultimate fulfillment during the Millennium and in connection with the new Jerusalem (cf. Rv 21:23; 22:5). The ancient ruins will be rebuilt (Is 61:4), and the Lord will fulfill the covenant made with Abraham and David (Is 61:8; cf. Gn 12:1-3; Is 55:3). Jerusalem will be the city of the holy people, the redeemed of the Lord (Is 62:12), and the Lord will take delight in her (v 4).<\/p>\n<p>In order to accomplish salvation for his people, God will have to judge the ungodly first. The great trampling of the winepress (63:2-3) graphically portrays the judgment process and is linked with the Day of the Lord (cf. 13:3; 34:2). Since God has promised to intervene on behalf of his people, Isaiah prays for the realization of that promise (63:7–64:12). He recalls God’s faithfulness in the past and pleads that he will again have mercy upon his suffering people.<\/p>\n<p>The answer to Isaiah’s prayer is found in chapter 65. God does promise to give the Holy Land back to his servants, to those who worship him and obey him. But for that segment of the nation that continues in its obstinacy, God promises anguish and destruction. The ultimate joy of God’s servants is contained in a description of new heavens and a new earth (65:17-25). Peace, long life, and prosperity will be among the blessings enjoyed in an era that seems to combine features of the Millennium and the eternal state (cf. ch 60).<\/p>\n<p>In a fitting summary, chapter 66 ties together the themes of salvation and judgment. God will comfort Jerusalem and abundantly bless her, but sinners are the objects of his wrath. Those who honor him will endure forever, but those who rebel will suffer everlasting rejection.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Isaiah (Person); Israel, History of; Messiah; Prophecy; Prophet, Prophetess; Servant of the Lord; Virgin Birth of Jesus.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ISAIAH, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Literary Unity<\/p>\n<p>• Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>The prophet Isaiah, whose name means “the Lord saves,” lived and ministered in Jerusalem. Because of his repeated contact with the kings of Judah, some scholars believed that Isaiah was related to the royal family, but this is not certain. According to chapters 7 and 8, Isaiah was married and had at least two sons, Shear-jashub and Maher-shalal-hash-baz, whose symbolic names illustrated God’s dealings with the nation as a whole. The “disciples” mentioned in 8:16 probably assisted Isaiah in his ministry and may have helped him record the book that bears his name.<\/p>\n<p>When Isaiah saw the Lord in the famous temple vision described in chapter 6, he was willing to go wherever God sent him, even though he would face strong opposition (6:9-10). King Ahaz proved to be particularly resistant to Isaiah’s advice (7:4-17), and the people in general ridiculed his preaching (5:10-12; 28:9-10). During the reign of the godly Hezekiah, however, Isaiah’s ministry was much appreciated, and the king consulted him eagerly during times of crisis (37:1-7, 21-35).<\/p>\n<p>Isaiah is usually regarded as the greatest of the writing prophets. Some of the chapters in his book display an unparalleled literary beauty and make use of poetic devices and a rich variety of symbols. Chapters 40–66 contain many powerful passages that underscore the grandeur of the book. It is ironic, then, that many scholars attribute these chapters to a “second” or “third” Isaiah, unknown authors who wrote much later than Isaiah in connection with the Babylonian exile. Yet elsewhere in the OT, the names of all who wrote the prophetic books are preserved, and it would be most unusual for the Jews not to know who wrote such magnificent prophecy as chapters 40–66.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Date\">Date<\/p>\n<p>Since many of the events recorded in chapters 1–39 took place during the ministry of Isaiah, most of these chapters were probably written by about 700 <span>BC<\/span> or shortly thereafter. The destruction of the Assyrian army in 701 <span>BC<\/span> represents the climax of the first half of the book, fulfilling the prophecy of 10:16, 24-34 and 30:31-33. In 37:38 Isaiah refers to the death of King Sennacherib, which did not occur until 681 <span>BC<\/span>. This means that some of the earlier chapters, along with 40–66, were probably written later, during Isaiah’s retirement years. A gap of several decades could help account for the change in subject matter that is found in the last half of the book. In these chapters Isaiah projects into the future as he addresses the Jews who would be in exile in Babylon about 550 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>Isaiah’s public ministry occurred primarily from 740–700 <span>BC<\/span>, a period marked by the rapid expansion of the nation of Assyria. Under King Tiglath-pileser III (745–727 <span>BC<\/span>), the Assyrians moved to the west and south, and by 738 <span>BC<\/span> the Assyrian monarch was demanding tribute from Damascus and Israel. About 734 <span>BC<\/span> Rezin of Damascus (Syria) and Pekah of Israel organized a coalition to rebel against Assyria, and they tried to enlist the support of King Ahaz of Judah. But Ahaz refused to join, and when the kings of Damascus and Israel invaded Judah (see 7:1), Ahaz appealed directly to Tiglath-pileser for help (cf. 2 Kgs 16:7-9). With little hesitation the Assyrians returned to capture Damascus and to turn the northern kingdom of Israel into an Assyrian province.<\/p>\n<p>The puppet king Hoshea ruled over Israel from 732–723 BC but was imprisoned when he joined a revolt against Shalmaneser V, the new Assyrian king. Shalmaneser besieged the capital city of Samaria, which finally fell in 722 <span>BC<\/span>, spelling the end of the northern kingdom. Sargon succeeded Shalmaneser in 722 and had to quell a number of revolts. In 711 <span>BC<\/span> Sargon captured the Philistine city of Ashdod in a campaign that became the occasion of Isaiah’s prophecy of chapter 20.<\/p>\n\n<p>Even more important was the widespread rebellion that broke out with the accession of Sennacherib in 705 <span>BC<\/span>. King Hezekiah of Judah withheld his normal tribute payment, and by 701 <span>BC<\/span> Sennacherib had invaded Palestine to punish the rebels. The details of this campaign are given in Isaiah 36–37 and tell how city after city was captured by the Assyrians before the invaders stood at the gates of Jerusalem and demanded total surrender. With almost no hope of survival, Hezekiah nevertheless was encouraged by Isaiah to trust God, and in one night the angel of the Lord struck down 185,000 Assyrian soldiers, virtually wiping out Sennacherib’s army (Is 37:36-37).<\/p>\n<p>In an effort to befriend the enemies of Assyria, Hezekiah showed his treasures to envoys of the king of Babylon (39:1-4). Isaiah warned that someday the Babylonian armies would conquer Jerusalem and carry off those very treasures, along with the residents of the city (vv 5-7). Not only did Isaiah predict the Babylonian captivity of 586–539 <span>BC<\/span> (cf. 6:11-12), but he also foretold that Israel would be released from Babylon (48:20). The Chaldean kingdom led by Nebuchadnezzar would be God’s instrument of judgment upon Judah, but they too would suffer defeat. One of Isaiah’s most remarkable prophecies was the naming of Cyrus, king of Persia, the ruler who would conquer the Babylonians in 539 <span>BC<\/span> and release Israel from exile (cf. 44:28). Along with the Medes (cf. 13:17), Cyrus won several important victories before sending his troops against Babylon. Isaiah hailed him as one anointed by the Lord to bring deliverance for Israel (45:1-5).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LiteraryUnity\">Literary Unity<\/p>\n<p>Largely because of the references to the later kingdoms of Babylon and Persia, the unity of Isaiah has been called into question. Chapters 40–66 move abruptly into the exilic period of 550 <span>BC<\/span>, almost 150 years after Isaiah lived. Moreover, the Servant of the Lord plays a prominent role in these chapters and the messianic king fades into the background. Brilliant poetic passages are found in chapters 40, 53, 55, and 60, demonstrating remarkable depth and power.<\/p>\n<p>Although these factors are sometimes cited as a sign of disunity, there are actually strong indications for unity in the book. For example, the historical interlude (chs 36–39) forms a hinge or bridge that links chapters 1–35 and 40–66. Chapters 36–37 complete the Assyrian section, and chapters 38–39 introduce the Babylonian material. Most of the linking chapters are written in prose, while the others (in some translations) are largely poetry. From the standpoint of verbal or stylistic unity, one can point to Isaiah’s favorite title for God, “the Holy One of Israel.” This title appears 12 times in chapters 1–39, and 14 times in chapters 40–66, but only seven times in the rest of the OT. A study of the famous Servant Songs of 52:13–53:12 reveals several ties with earlier passages, especially in chapters 1–6. The servant who is smitten and wounded (53:4-5) receives the same punishment as the beaten and injured nation of 1:5-6 (also cf. 52:13 with 2:12 and 6:1).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheologicalTeaching\">Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>Isaiah is to the OT as the book of Romans is to the NT—a book filled with rich theological truth. Like Romans, Isaiah unveils the sinfulness of God’s rebellious people and his gracious provision of salvation. Because God is the Holy One of Israel (1:4; 6:3), he cannot ignore sin but must punish those who are guilty. Both Israel (5:30; 42:25) and the other nations (2:11, 17, 20) experience a time of judgment known as the Day of the Lord. In anger God raises his hand against his people (cf. 5:25), but ultimately his wrath is poured out upon Babylon and the nations (cf. 13:3-5; 34:2).<\/p>\n<p>With the fall of Assyria and Babylon, the Day of the Lord becomes a day of joyous victory (10:27; 61:2). According to Isaiah 63:4, it is the year of the Lord’s redemption. Earlier, Israel had been redeemed from slavery in Egypt; now the return from the Babylonian captivity brings equal joy (52:9; 61:1). The ultimate redemption is to be accomplished through the death of Christ, and Isaiah 53 describes our Lord’s suffering and death in graphic terms. His ministry as the Suffering Servant is also introduced in 49:4 and 50:6-7; meanwhile, 49:6 states that the servant will be “a light for the Gentiles.” Looking ahead to the Second Coming, Isaiah predicts a messianic age of peace and righteousness. Nations will “beat their swords into plowshares” (2:4) and the “Prince of Peace” will rule forever (9:6-7).<\/p>\n<p>Throughout the book God is pictured as the all-powerful Creator (48:13)—the sovereign One seated on a throne, high and exalted; the King, the Lord Almighty (6:1, 5). He controls the armies of the earth (13:4) and removes rulers as he wills (40:23-24). Before him, nations “are but a drop in the bucket” (40:15, <span>nlt<\/span>), and compared with him all idols are worthless and without power (41:29; 44:6). This is the God who shows his fury to his foes and his love to his servants (66:14).<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Messages of Judgment and Hope (1–12)<\/h5>\n<p>In the opening chapter Isaiah characterizes Israel (including Judah) as “a sinful nation” that has rebelled against God. Although the people regularly bring offerings to him, their worship is hypocritical, an attempt to mask their oppression of the poor and helpless. The Lord encourages the nation to repent of their sin or face the fires of judgment. After this introduction, Isaiah turns to describe the peace of the messianic age in 2:1-4. The day will come when all nations will obey God’s word and live at peace. “The mountain of the <span>Lord<\/span>”—Jerusalem—will be raised up “and all the nations shall flow to it” (2:2-3, <span>rsv<\/span>). In the meantime, however, both Israel and the nations have exalted themselves against the Lord, and he will judge them in an awesome display of power. For Israel, God’s judgment will bring great upheaval, including the loss of its leaders. Defiant and ruthless, the rulers will face either death or deportation. Chapter 3 ends by denouncing the pride and vanity of the women of Zion; they, too, will suffer disgrace. After Jerusalem is cleansed of its sin, the remnant will enjoy the rule of “the branch of the <span>Lord<\/span>,” who will protect and shield his people (4:2-6).<\/p>\n<p>In 5:1-7 Isaiah presents a short song about Israel as God’s vineyard. The Lord did everything possible to ensure a yield of good grapes, but the vineyard produced nothing but bad fruit and had to be destroyed. Isaiah then pronounces six woes against Israel, and announces that the Assyrian army will invade the land. Against the backdrop of Israel’s sin, Isaiah (ch 6) gives an account of the vision through which he was called as a prophet. Overwhelmed by the holiness of God and by his own sinfulness, Isaiah thought he was ruined, but when he was assured that his sins were forgiven, he responded positively to God’s call in spite of the stubbornness of the nation to which he was sent.<\/p>\n<p>One of the most stubborn individuals in all the nation was King Ahaz of Judah, and chapter 7 describes Isaiah’s encounter with this godless ruler. When Ahaz was threatened by Damascus and the northern kingdom, he refused to believe Isaiah’s promise that God would protect him. This was the occasion on which Isaiah gave Ahaz the sign of Immanuel (7:14). The “virgin” refers ultimately to Mary and “Immanuel” to Christ (Mt 1:23), but in the near fulfillment the child could be Isaiah’s own son Maher-shalal-hash-baz (Is 8:3). (<em>See<\/em> four interpretations of this passage in Virgin Birth of Jesus.) This name (meaning “swift to plunder and quick to spoil,” v 1, <span>nlt<\/span> mg) would be a sign that soon Judah’s enemies would fall; “Immanuel” signified that God would be with Judah (v 10, <span>nlt<\/span> mg). However, if Ahaz appealed for help to the king of Assyria, Isaiah warned him, Assyria’s powerful armies would one day invade Judah also (cf. 7:17-25; 8:6-8). The destruction brought by Assyria would plunge Judah into a time of famine and distress (8:21-22).<\/p>\n<p>Nevertheless, the gloom and darkness associated with the Assyrian invasion would not last indefinitely, and 9:1-5 speaks of a time of peace and joy. Verses 6-7 introduce a child who would become a righteous King and would rule forever. This “Prince of Peace” is the Messiah, the “Mighty God” whose kingdom is described in 2:2-4.<\/p>\n<p>For the immediate future, however, both Israel and Judah will suffer the agony of war as punishment for their sins. God is angry with his people because they are proud and arrogant, and their leaders disregard the pleas of the poor and needy. Civil war and foreign invasion will crush the hapless nation (9:8–10:4). But once Israel has been judged, God will turn his hand against Assyria, the instrument he has used to judge other nations. Because of her string of victories, Assyria is filled with pride and is eager for more triumph. Yet even at the moment when Jerusalem is about to succumb, God will cut down the Assyrian army like a cedar in Lebanon and spare his people (10:26-34).<\/p>\n<p>After Assyria’s defeat, Isaiah describes the restoration of Israel and the powerful rule of the Messiah (ch 11). Both Jews and Gentiles will be attracted to Jerusalem to enjoy an era of peace and justice. Like David, the Messiah will have the Spirit of God resting upon him as he judges the wicked and protects the needy. To conclude these opening messages, Isaiah offers two short songs of praise that celebrate God’s past deliverance and his promise of future blessing (ch 12).<\/p>\n<h5>Oracles against the Nations (13–23)<\/h5>\n<p>Although Babylon is not the major power of the day, Isaiah begins his announcements of judgment with two chapters about the destruction of Assyria’s neighbor to the south. Babylon will eventually conquer Jerusalem (between 605 and 586 <span>BC<\/span>), but the Medes (13:17) along with the Elamites will capture Babylon (539 <span>BC<\/span>). In spite of the glory to be achieved by future kings of Babylon, God will bring their pomp down to the grave (14:9-10). The chapter ends with short prophecies against Assyria and the Philistines.<\/p>\n<p>One of Israel’s oldest enemies was the nation of Moab, situated east of the Dead Sea. Even though it was a small country, Isaiah devotes two chapters to these descendants of Lot. Chapter 15 describes the extensive mourning that will overwhelm their cities. After a brief interlude urging the Moabites to submit to Israel and to her God (16:1-5), Isaiah notes that pride will lead to Moab’s downfall. Sounds of weeping fill the land as the vines and fields wither and are trampled.<\/p>\n<p>In chapter 17 the fourth oracle is directed against Damascus and Ephraim (the northern kingdom of Israel), probably reflecting their alliance against Judah about 734 <span>BC<\/span>. Both nations will face ruin, and Ephraim is condemned for abandoning the Lord, her “Savior” and “Rock” (17:10).<\/p>\n<p>In chapters 18 and 19 Isaiah turns to the south and addresses Ethiopia and Egypt, countries that had strong links from 715–633 <span>BC<\/span>, when an Ethiopian named Shabako became pharaoh in Egypt. But Egypt is plagued with disunity and suffers greatly at the hands of Assyrian kings. In spite of the supposed wisdom of her leaders, Egypt faces economic and political ruin (19:5-15). Yet the time is coming when the Egyptians will be restored and will worship the God of Israel. Along with Assyria and Israel, Egypt will become a blessing (19:24). Some interpreters think this is a prophecy of the salvation of Gentiles during the church age, but others relate this day to the peace of the millennial age (cf. 2:2-4; 11:6-9). For the immediate future, however, Isaiah announces that Assyria will take many Egyptians and Ethiopians into captivity (ch 20).<\/p>\n<p>A second oracle about Babylon (cf. 13:1–14:23) is contained in chapter 21, and Isaiah is staggered as he considers the impact of Babylon’s fall (21:3-4). When Babylon collapses, the world will know that her gods were powerless (21:9; cf. Rv 14:8; 18:2).<\/p>\n<p>Although it seems out of place among these oracles against the nations, chapter 22 condemns the city of Jerusalem. Like the nations, Jerusalem is full of revelry (22:2) but will soon experience the terrors of a siege. Since the people no longer rely on the Lord (v 11), he will hand them over to the enemy. Jerusalem’s unfaithfulness is exemplified by Shebna, a high official guilty of pride and materialism whose position will be taken by the godly Eliakim (vv 15-23).<\/p>\n<p>The last oracle (ch 23) is directed against the city of Tyre, which resisted capture until Alexander the Great conquered the island fortress in 332 <span>BC<\/span>. When Tyre fell, the economy of the entire Mediterranean world was shaken, for her ships had carried the goods of the nations far and wide.<\/p>\n<h5>Final Judgment and Blessing (24–27)<\/h5>\n<p>This section functions as a grand finale to chapters 13–23 in that it anticipates God’s judgment upon the nations and the inauguration of the kingdom of God. A defiled earth must bear its punishment (24:5-6) and even the forces of Satan face judgment (vv 21-22).<\/p>\n<p>In chapter 25 Isaiah rejoices over God’s great triumph and looks ahead to a day when death will be swallowed up and tears will be wiped from all faces (25:8). Israel’s longtime enemies, symbolized by Moab, will be laid low (vv 10-12), but Jerusalem will be a stronghold for the righteous (26:1-3). In 26:7-19 the nation prays that these promises will become a reality. Verses 20-21 indicate that the Lord will indeed respond, pouring out his wrath upon a sin-cursed earth and upon Satan himself (27:1). When that takes place, Israel will be a fruitful vineyard, a blessing to the whole world (27:2-6; contrast 5:1-7). First, however, Israel will have to endure war and exile, and then the remnant will return to Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<h5>A Series of Woes (28–33)<\/h5>\n<p>Returning to his own historical period, Isaiah pronounces a series of woes upon both the northern and southern kingdoms, as well as one upon Assyria (ch 33). Chapter 28 begins with a description of the fading power of Samaria, the capital of the northern kingdom. Verses 7-10 portray the leaders of Judah in the same light; they have disregarded Isaiah’s message and are out of touch with God. Judgment is on the way, and their false preparation (vv 15, 18) will be of no avail. God will fight against Israel (vv 21-22), and even Jerusalem will be put under siege until God in his mercy intervenes (29:1-8). Because of their hypocritical worship, the people deserve to be punished, but in the future Israel will again acknowledge the Lord and be made physically and spiritually whole (29:17-24).<\/p>\n<p>Chapters 30 and 31 denounce Judah’s proposed alliance with Egypt in the effort to thwart Assyria. God wants his people to trust him, not their unreliable neighbors to the south. The Lord promises to protect Jerusalem (30:18; 31:5) and defeat the invading Assyrian army (30:31-33; 31:8-9). None can stand before his mighty sword.<\/p>\n<p>Continuing on this positive note, Isaiah goes on to emphasize the righteous rule of the messianic king in chapters 32 and 33. Zion will enjoy peace and security at last (32:2, 17-18; 33:6), a great change from Isaiah’s own time. In eighth-century <span>BC<\/span> Judah the women might feel secure (32:9), but the Assyrian troops will devastate the crops and precipitate widespread mourning. However, the lamenting will soon end, as the prophet pronounces woe upon Assyria in 33:1. After Isaiah prays for the destruction of Assyria (33:2-9), God promises to take action (vv 10-12). Gone will be the enemy soldiers and officials, for the Lord will save his people and bring them justice and security.<\/p>\n<h5>More Judgment and Blessing (34–35)<\/h5>\n<p>This section forms a climax to chapters 28–33. Once more, cataclysmic judgment precedes a time of blessing and restoration. In chapter 34 Isaiah depicts a judgment of cosmic dimensions as he moves to a consideration of the last days. Heaven and earth endure the wrath of God that is poured out upon the nations, and verse 4 provides the basis for John’s description of the great tribulation in Revelation 6:13-14. Edom (like Moab; see Is 25:10-12) represents a world judged by the sword of the Lord in his day of vengeance.<\/p>\n<p>Chapter 35, on the other hand, speaks of joy and restoration in a passage that pulsates with life. A blooming desert corresponds to the physical and spiritual age when God will come to redeem his people. Both the return of the Israelites from the Babylonian captivity and the second coming of Christ fit this glorious scene.<\/p>\n<h5>Historical Interlude (36–39)<\/h5>\n<p>These chapters form the hinge that connects the two halves of the book. Chapters 36 and 37 contain the fulfillment of Isaiah’s prophecies about Assyria’s collapse, and chapters 38 and 39 introduce the Babylonian captivity that forms the backdrop for chapters 40–66. In 701 <span>BC<\/span> King Sennacherib of Assyria demands the unconditional surrender of Jerusalem. He sends his field commander to address the people and try to gain their submission. With persuasive words, the commander tries to convince the city that surrender is the best policy. Amazingly the people do not panic, and King Hezekiah asks Isaiah to pray for the beleaguered city. The prophet does so and announces that the proud Assyrians will not triumph. Instead, they suffer a terrible disaster as the angel of the Lord strikes down 185,000 men.<\/p>\n<p>Chapters 38 and 39 relate another crisis in Hezekiah’s life when he becomes desperately ill. Miraculously, God heals him, and Hezekiah praises the Lord for his gracious intervention. When the king of Babylon sends envoys to congratulate Hezekiah on his recovery, Hezekiah foolishly shows these messengers his royal treasures. Isaiah solemnly announces that someday the armies of Babylon will capture Jerusalem, plunder the land, and take away these treasures.<\/p>\n<h5>The Return from Babylon (40–48)<\/h5>\n<p>The Babylonian captivity eventually comes, but Isaiah promises that it will end. God, the incomparably powerful Creator, is far greater than any king, nation, or god, and he will bring his people back to Jerusalem. To accomplish this return from exile, God raises up Cyrus, the king of Persia (41:2, 25). The Lord does not forget his people, and he encourages them to take heart and to rejoice.<\/p>\n<p>In chapter 42 we are introduced to a person even more significant than Cyrus the Persian. Verses 1-7 (the first of four Servant Songs) describe the servant of the Lord, who will bring justice to the nations and will be “a light for the Gentiles” (42:6). This is the Messiah, and the redemption he will accomplish on Calvary (cf. ch 53) is greater than the release from Babylon. In light of the good news associated with the servant, Isaiah praises the Lord for punishing the wicked and rescuing his wayward people. Chapter 43 declares that nothing will stand in the way of Israel’s return, and the Lord will remember their sins no more. In fact, he will pour out his Spirit on their descendants (44:3).<\/p>\n<p>A God so great is far more powerful than any idol. In 44:6-20 Isaiah makes use of satire to show the worthlessness of man-made images. God alone has the power to create and to restore, and he will bring Cyrus on the scene to effect the release of the exiles and to begin the rebuilding of Jerusalem. Chapters 46 and 47 contrast the God of Israel and the idols of Babylon. When God raises up Cyrus, Babylon’s idols will be unable to save their nation, and the queen of kingdoms (47:5) will collapse along with her sorcerers and astrologers. The final chapter in this section (ch 48) restates God’s purpose of gaining release of the Israelites from Babylon through his chosen ally, Cyrus of Persia.<\/p>\n<h5>Salvation through the Servant of the Lord (49–57)<\/h5>\n<p>Chapters 49–53 contain the final three Servant Songs (cf. also 42:1-7), culminating in the death of the servant for the sins of the world (52:13–53:12). In the second Servant Song (49:1-7), Isaiah describes the call and ministry of the servant, noting that he will face strong opposition as he accomplishes salvation for Israel and the nations. The rest of chapter 49 deals primarily with the way God will bring Israel back from exile. Soon the land will be filled with a mighty throng (vv 19-21), and the Gentiles will acknowledge Israel and her God (vv 22-23).<\/p>\n<p>Although Israel has fully deserved the exile because of her sins (50:1-3), the suffering endured by the servant (vv 4-11; the third Servant Song) is wholly undeserved. The beating and mocking of verse 6 are prophetic of Christ’s experience (cf. Mt 27:26, 30; Mk 15:19). In verses 10-11 of Isaiah 50 the whole nation is challenged to trust in the Lord, as the servant did. There is, in fact, a believing remnant who obey the Lord (51:1-8), and the Lord promises that he will restore them to their homeland. Israel has drunk the cup of God’s wrath (vv 17, 22), but the good news of release from exile causes even the ruins of Jerusalem to burst into songs of joy (52:7-10).<\/p>\n<p>Yet the best news of all is salvation from sin; the final Servant Song (52:13–53:12) tells how Christ wins freedom for those held in bondage to sin. In this brief passage we learn how Christ suffers rejection (53:3) and even disfigurement (52:14). Led like a lamb to the slaughter (53:7), he carries our sins in his body as he dies in ignominy. The people think he is suffering for his own sins (v 4), but he is “pierced” and “crushed for our iniquities” (v 5). The first and last paragraphs of this section (52:13-15; 53:10-12) state that through his suffering the servant is highly exalted. What seems like a terrible defeat is actually victory over death and Satan and brings salvation for many.<\/p>\n<p>As a direct result of the servant’s death, great joy comes to all people. In chapter 54 this joy is reflected in Jerusalem’s new status as the Lord’s wife. Her descendants will be numerous and eager to learn from the Lord. For the first time the plural “servants of the <span>Lord<\/span>” appears (54:17), apparently including all believers, whether Jew or Gentile (cf. 65:8-9, 13-15). Joy and prosperity also characterize chapter 55, an invitation to a great spiritual banquet. All people are urged to turn to the Lord who keeps his promises to Israel. In 56:1-8, foreigners are invited to come to God’s “holy mountain” in Jerusalem, for the temple will be a house of prayer for all the nations (56:7; cf. Mt 21:13).<\/p>\n<p>Believing Gentiles are contrasted sharply with unbelieving Jews, and in 56:9–57:13 Isaiah returns again to the theme of judgment. Israel suffers because her leaders are wicked and because the people are guilty of idolatry. Spiritual healing is available, but unless individuals repent, they cannot be part of the remnant who will return from exile and enjoy peace in the Promised Land.<\/p>\n<h5>Ultimate Blessing and Final Judgment (58–66)<\/h5>\n<p>The last nine chapters of Isaiah emphasize redemption and glory, but the reality of judgment is also very much in evidence. In fact, chapters 58 and 59 bemoan the sins of Israel. The people are hypocritical in their worship; they are selfish and fail to keep the Sabbath. Lying, oppression, and murder separate the people from God. When Isaiah openly confesses these sins (59:12-13), the Lord suddenly takes action on behalf of his people. Like a mighty warrior, he rescues the believing remnant from Babylon and brings them back to Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p>In chapter 60 the glory and wealth of Jerusalem reach new heights. Both the city and the sanctuary are adorned with splendor, matching the prosperity of Solomon’s reign. Just as the nations treated Solomon with honor, so earth’s leaders will assist and strengthen the returning exiles. While it is true that the Persian government did help the Jews repeatedly, the conditions described here will have their ultimate fulfillment during the Millennium and in connection with the new Jerusalem (cf. Rv 21:23; 22:5). The ancient ruins will be rebuilt (Is 61:4), and the Lord will fulfill the covenant made with Abraham and David (Is 61:8; cf. Gn 12:1-3; Is 55:3). Jerusalem will be the city of the holy people, the redeemed of the Lord (Is 62:12), and the Lord will take delight in her (v 4).<\/p>\n<p>In order to accomplish salvation for his people, God will have to judge the ungodly first. The great trampling of the winepress (63:2-3) graphically portrays the judgment process and is linked with the Day of the Lord (cf. 13:3; 34:2). Since God has promised to intervene on behalf of his people, Isaiah prays for the realization of that promise (63:7–64:12). He recalls God’s faithfulness in the past and pleads that he will again have mercy upon his suffering people.<\/p>\n<p>The answer to Isaiah’s prayer is found in chapter 65. God does promise to give the Holy Land back to his servants, to those who worship him and obey him. But for that segment of the nation that continues in its obstinacy, God promises anguish and destruction. The ultimate joy of God’s servants is contained in a description of new heavens and a new earth (65:17-25). Peace, long life, and prosperity will be among the blessings enjoyed in an era that seems to combine features of the Millennium and the eternal state (cf. ch 60).<\/p>\n<p>In a fitting summary, chapter 66 ties together the themes of salvation and judgment. God will comfort Jerusalem and abundantly bless her, but sinners are the objects of his wrath. Those who honor him will endure forever, but those who rebel will suffer everlasting rejection.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Isaiah (Person); Israel, History of; Messiah; Prophecy; Prophet, Prophetess; Servant of the Lord; Virgin Birth of Jesus.<\/p>","summary_ro":"ISAIAH, Book of Preview • Author • Date • Background • Literary Unity • Theological Teaching • Content Author The prophet Isaiah, whose name means “the Lord saves,” lived and ministered in Jerusalem. Because of his repeated contact with the kings of Judah, some scholars believed that Isaiah was related to the royal family, but this is not certain. According to chapters 7 and 8, Isaiah was married and had at least two sons, Shear-jashub and Maher-shalal-hash-baz, whose symbolic names illustrat...","summary_en":"ISAIAH, Book of Preview • Author • Date • Background • Literary Unity • Theological Teaching • Content Author The prophet Isaiah, whose name means “the Lord saves,” lived and ministered in Jerusalem. Because of his repeated contact with the kings of Judah, some scholars believed that Isaiah was related to the royal family, but this is not certain. According to chapters 7 and 8, Isaiah was married and had at least two sons, Shear-jashub and Maher-shalal-hash-baz, whose symbolic names illustrat...","source":"Articles\/I.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":28594,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Oreb","title_en":"Oreb","content_ro":"<h3>OREB<\/h3>\n<p>One of two Midianite chieftains (the other being Zeeb) put to death by men from Ephraim’s tribe (Jgs 7:25). The occasion for this execution was Gideon’s surprise attack on the Midianite encampment at the hill of Moreh in the valley of Jezreel. The Midianites’ line of retreat eastward required them to recross the Jordan River. Gideon sent word to the Ephraimites to seize the fording places on the river to prevent the Midianites from escaping. The Ephraimites, following the orders, intercepted a contingent of fleeing Midianites, including the prominent leaders Oreb and Zeeb. They beheaded these two leaders and sent their heads as a war prize to Gideon, who was then pursuing the Midianites on the east side of the Jordan (8:3).<\/p>\n<p>During Israel’s later history, the deaths of Oreb and Zeeb were recognized as a great triumph of God over the enemies of his people. The psalmist implores God to overthrow the nobles among Israel’s current enemies just as he did the Midianite chieftains (Ps 83:11). The Lord, speaking through his prophet Isaiah, pledged that the Assyrians would be overthrown like the slaughter of Midian at the rock of Oreb (Is 9:4; 10:26), implying that the earlier victory amounted to more than the capture of two leaders; it was an important and strategic defeat of the Midianite invasion force.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>OREB<\/h3>\n<p>One of two Midianite chieftains (the other being Zeeb) put to death by men from Ephraim’s tribe (Jgs 7:25). The occasion for this execution was Gideon’s surprise attack on the Midianite encampment at the hill of Moreh in the valley of Jezreel. The Midianites’ line of retreat eastward required them to recross the Jordan River. Gideon sent word to the Ephraimites to seize the fording places on the river to prevent the Midianites from escaping. The Ephraimites, following the orders, intercepted a contingent of fleeing Midianites, including the prominent leaders Oreb and Zeeb. They beheaded these two leaders and sent their heads as a war prize to Gideon, who was then pursuing the Midianites on the east side of the Jordan (8:3).<\/p>\n<p>During Israel’s later history, the deaths of Oreb and Zeeb were recognized as a great triumph of God over the enemies of his people. The psalmist implores God to overthrow the nobles among Israel’s current enemies just as he did the Midianite chieftains (Ps 83:11). The Lord, speaking through his prophet Isaiah, pledged that the Assyrians would be overthrown like the slaughter of Midian at the rock of Oreb (Is 9:4; 10:26), implying that the earlier victory amounted to more than the capture of two leaders; it was an important and strategic defeat of the Midianite invasion force.<\/p>","summary_ro":"OREB One of two Midianite chieftains (the other being Zeeb) put to death by men from Ephraim’s tribe (Jgs 7:25). The occasion for this execution was Gideon’s surprise attack on the Midianite encampment at the hill of Moreh in the valley of Jezreel. The Midianites’ line of retreat eastward required them to recross the Jordan River. Gideon sent word to the Ephraimites to seize the fording places on the river to prevent the Midianites from escaping. The Ephraimites, following the orders, interce...","summary_en":"OREB One of two Midianite chieftains (the other being Zeeb) put to death by men from Ephraim’s tribe (Jgs 7:25). The occasion for this execution was Gideon’s surprise attack on the Midianite encampment at the hill of Moreh in the valley of Jezreel. The Midianites’ line of retreat eastward required them to recross the Jordan River. Gideon sent word to the Ephraimites to seize the fording places on the river to prevent the Midianites from escaping. The Ephraimites, following the orders, interce...","source":"Articles\/O.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":28596,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Rock of Oreb","title_en":"Rock of Oreb","content_ro":"<h3>OREB, Rock of<\/h3>\n<p>Place where the Ephraimites killed the Midianite chieftain Oreb (Jgs 7:25; Is 10:26). <em>See<\/em> Oreb.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>OREB, Rock of<\/h3>\n<p>Place where the Ephraimites killed the Midianite chieftain Oreb (Jgs 7:25; Is 10:26). <em>See<\/em> Oreb.<\/p>","summary_ro":"OREB, Rock of Place where the Ephraimites killed the Midianite chieftain Oreb (Jgs 7:25; Is 10:26). See Oreb.","summary_en":"OREB, Rock of Place where the Ephraimites killed the Midianite chieftain Oreb (Jgs 7:25; Is 10:26). See Oreb.","source":"Articles\/O.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":51191,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 10:26","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 10:26","content_ro":"<p><strong>10:26<\/strong> <em>Gideon triumphed over the Midianites:<\/em> See Judg 7:25.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>10:26<\/strong> <em>Gideon triumphed over the Midianites:<\/em> See Judg 7:25.<\/p>","summary_ro":"10:26 Gideon triumphed over the Midianites: See Judg 7:25.","summary_en":"10:26 Gideon triumphed over the Midianites: See Judg 7:25.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":78817,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 10:26","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 10:26","content_ro":"<p><strong>10:26<\/strong> <em>Gideon triumphed over the Midianites:<\/em> See Judg 7:25.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>10:26<\/strong> <em>Gideon triumphed over the Midianites:<\/em> See Judg 7:25.<\/p>","summary_ro":"10:26 Gideon triumphed over the Midianites: See Judg 7:25.","summary_en":"10:26 Gideon triumphed over the Midianites: See Judg 7:25.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":106443,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 10:26","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 10:26","content_ro":"<p><strong>10:26<\/strong> <em>Gideon triumphed over the Midianites:<\/em> See Judg 7:25.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>10:26<\/strong> <em>Gideon triumphed over the Midianites:<\/em> See Judg 7:25.<\/p>","summary_ro":"10:26 Gideon triumphed over the Midianites: See Judg 7:25.","summary_en":"10:26 Gideon triumphed over the Midianites: See Judg 7:25.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":134069,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 10:26","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 10:26","content_ro":"<p><strong>10:26<\/strong> <em>Gideon triumphed over the Midianites:<\/em> See Judg 7:25.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>10:26<\/strong> <em>Gideon triumphed over the Midianites:<\/em> See Judg 7:25.<\/p>","summary_ro":"10:26 Gideon triumphed over the Midianites: See Judg 7:25.","summary_en":"10:26 Gideon triumphed over the Midianites: See Judg 7:25.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"27":[{"id":17773,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Book of Isaiah","title_en":"Book of Isaiah","content_ro":"<h3>ISAIAH, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Literary Unity<\/p>\n<p>• Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>The prophet Isaiah, whose name means “the Lord saves,” lived and ministered in Jerusalem. Because of his repeated contact with the kings of Judah, some scholars believed that Isaiah was related to the royal family, but this is not certain. According to chapters 7 and 8, Isaiah was married and had at least two sons, Shear-jashub and Maher-shalal-hash-baz, whose symbolic names illustrated God’s dealings with the nation as a whole. The “disciples” mentioned in 8:16 probably assisted Isaiah in his ministry and may have helped him record the book that bears his name.<\/p>\n<p>When Isaiah saw the Lord in the famous temple vision described in chapter 6, he was willing to go wherever God sent him, even though he would face strong opposition (6:9-10). King Ahaz proved to be particularly resistant to Isaiah’s advice (7:4-17), and the people in general ridiculed his preaching (5:10-12; 28:9-10). During the reign of the godly Hezekiah, however, Isaiah’s ministry was much appreciated, and the king consulted him eagerly during times of crisis (37:1-7, 21-35).<\/p>\n<p>Isaiah is usually regarded as the greatest of the writing prophets. Some of the chapters in his book display an unparalleled literary beauty and make use of poetic devices and a rich variety of symbols. Chapters 40–66 contain many powerful passages that underscore the grandeur of the book. It is ironic, then, that many scholars attribute these chapters to a “second” or “third” Isaiah, unknown authors who wrote much later than Isaiah in connection with the Babylonian exile. Yet elsewhere in the OT, the names of all who wrote the prophetic books are preserved, and it would be most unusual for the Jews not to know who wrote such magnificent prophecy as chapters 40–66.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Date\">Date<\/p>\n<p>Since many of the events recorded in chapters 1–39 took place during the ministry of Isaiah, most of these chapters were probably written by about 700 <span>BC<\/span> or shortly thereafter. The destruction of the Assyrian army in 701 <span>BC<\/span> represents the climax of the first half of the book, fulfilling the prophecy of 10:16, 24-34 and 30:31-33. In 37:38 Isaiah refers to the death of King Sennacherib, which did not occur until 681 <span>BC<\/span>. This means that some of the earlier chapters, along with 40–66, were probably written later, during Isaiah’s retirement years. A gap of several decades could help account for the change in subject matter that is found in the last half of the book. In these chapters Isaiah projects into the future as he addresses the Jews who would be in exile in Babylon about 550 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>Isaiah’s public ministry occurred primarily from 740–700 <span>BC<\/span>, a period marked by the rapid expansion of the nation of Assyria. Under King Tiglath-pileser III (745–727 <span>BC<\/span>), the Assyrians moved to the west and south, and by 738 <span>BC<\/span> the Assyrian monarch was demanding tribute from Damascus and Israel. About 734 <span>BC<\/span> Rezin of Damascus (Syria) and Pekah of Israel organized a coalition to rebel against Assyria, and they tried to enlist the support of King Ahaz of Judah. But Ahaz refused to join, and when the kings of Damascus and Israel invaded Judah (see 7:1), Ahaz appealed directly to Tiglath-pileser for help (cf. 2 Kgs 16:7-9). With little hesitation the Assyrians returned to capture Damascus and to turn the northern kingdom of Israel into an Assyrian province.<\/p>\n<p>The puppet king Hoshea ruled over Israel from 732–723 BC but was imprisoned when he joined a revolt against Shalmaneser V, the new Assyrian king. Shalmaneser besieged the capital city of Samaria, which finally fell in 722 <span>BC<\/span>, spelling the end of the northern kingdom. Sargon succeeded Shalmaneser in 722 and had to quell a number of revolts. In 711 <span>BC<\/span> Sargon captured the Philistine city of Ashdod in a campaign that became the occasion of Isaiah’s prophecy of chapter 20.<\/p>\n\n<p>Even more important was the widespread rebellion that broke out with the accession of Sennacherib in 705 <span>BC<\/span>. King Hezekiah of Judah withheld his normal tribute payment, and by 701 <span>BC<\/span> Sennacherib had invaded Palestine to punish the rebels. The details of this campaign are given in Isaiah 36–37 and tell how city after city was captured by the Assyrians before the invaders stood at the gates of Jerusalem and demanded total surrender. With almost no hope of survival, Hezekiah nevertheless was encouraged by Isaiah to trust God, and in one night the angel of the Lord struck down 185,000 Assyrian soldiers, virtually wiping out Sennacherib’s army (Is 37:36-37).<\/p>\n<p>In an effort to befriend the enemies of Assyria, Hezekiah showed his treasures to envoys of the king of Babylon (39:1-4). Isaiah warned that someday the Babylonian armies would conquer Jerusalem and carry off those very treasures, along with the residents of the city (vv 5-7). Not only did Isaiah predict the Babylonian captivity of 586–539 <span>BC<\/span> (cf. 6:11-12), but he also foretold that Israel would be released from Babylon (48:20). The Chaldean kingdom led by Nebuchadnezzar would be God’s instrument of judgment upon Judah, but they too would suffer defeat. One of Isaiah’s most remarkable prophecies was the naming of Cyrus, king of Persia, the ruler who would conquer the Babylonians in 539 <span>BC<\/span> and release Israel from exile (cf. 44:28). Along with the Medes (cf. 13:17), Cyrus won several important victories before sending his troops against Babylon. Isaiah hailed him as one anointed by the Lord to bring deliverance for Israel (45:1-5).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LiteraryUnity\">Literary Unity<\/p>\n<p>Largely because of the references to the later kingdoms of Babylon and Persia, the unity of Isaiah has been called into question. Chapters 40–66 move abruptly into the exilic period of 550 <span>BC<\/span>, almost 150 years after Isaiah lived. Moreover, the Servant of the Lord plays a prominent role in these chapters and the messianic king fades into the background. Brilliant poetic passages are found in chapters 40, 53, 55, and 60, demonstrating remarkable depth and power.<\/p>\n<p>Although these factors are sometimes cited as a sign of disunity, there are actually strong indications for unity in the book. For example, the historical interlude (chs 36–39) forms a hinge or bridge that links chapters 1–35 and 40–66. Chapters 36–37 complete the Assyrian section, and chapters 38–39 introduce the Babylonian material. Most of the linking chapters are written in prose, while the others (in some translations) are largely poetry. From the standpoint of verbal or stylistic unity, one can point to Isaiah’s favorite title for God, “the Holy One of Israel.” This title appears 12 times in chapters 1–39, and 14 times in chapters 40–66, but only seven times in the rest of the OT. A study of the famous Servant Songs of 52:13–53:12 reveals several ties with earlier passages, especially in chapters 1–6. The servant who is smitten and wounded (53:4-5) receives the same punishment as the beaten and injured nation of 1:5-6 (also cf. 52:13 with 2:12 and 6:1).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheologicalTeaching\">Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>Isaiah is to the OT as the book of Romans is to the NT—a book filled with rich theological truth. Like Romans, Isaiah unveils the sinfulness of God’s rebellious people and his gracious provision of salvation. Because God is the Holy One of Israel (1:4; 6:3), he cannot ignore sin but must punish those who are guilty. Both Israel (5:30; 42:25) and the other nations (2:11, 17, 20) experience a time of judgment known as the Day of the Lord. In anger God raises his hand against his people (cf. 5:25), but ultimately his wrath is poured out upon Babylon and the nations (cf. 13:3-5; 34:2).<\/p>\n<p>With the fall of Assyria and Babylon, the Day of the Lord becomes a day of joyous victory (10:27; 61:2). According to Isaiah 63:4, it is the year of the Lord’s redemption. Earlier, Israel had been redeemed from slavery in Egypt; now the return from the Babylonian captivity brings equal joy (52:9; 61:1). The ultimate redemption is to be accomplished through the death of Christ, and Isaiah 53 describes our Lord’s suffering and death in graphic terms. His ministry as the Suffering Servant is also introduced in 49:4 and 50:6-7; meanwhile, 49:6 states that the servant will be “a light for the Gentiles.” Looking ahead to the Second Coming, Isaiah predicts a messianic age of peace and righteousness. Nations will “beat their swords into plowshares” (2:4) and the “Prince of Peace” will rule forever (9:6-7).<\/p>\n<p>Throughout the book God is pictured as the all-powerful Creator (48:13)—the sovereign One seated on a throne, high and exalted; the King, the Lord Almighty (6:1, 5). He controls the armies of the earth (13:4) and removes rulers as he wills (40:23-24). Before him, nations “are but a drop in the bucket” (40:15, <span>nlt<\/span>), and compared with him all idols are worthless and without power (41:29; 44:6). This is the God who shows his fury to his foes and his love to his servants (66:14).<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Messages of Judgment and Hope (1–12)<\/h5>\n<p>In the opening chapter Isaiah characterizes Israel (including Judah) as “a sinful nation” that has rebelled against God. Although the people regularly bring offerings to him, their worship is hypocritical, an attempt to mask their oppression of the poor and helpless. The Lord encourages the nation to repent of their sin or face the fires of judgment. After this introduction, Isaiah turns to describe the peace of the messianic age in 2:1-4. The day will come when all nations will obey God’s word and live at peace. “The mountain of the <span>Lord<\/span>”—Jerusalem—will be raised up “and all the nations shall flow to it” (2:2-3, <span>rsv<\/span>). In the meantime, however, both Israel and the nations have exalted themselves against the Lord, and he will judge them in an awesome display of power. For Israel, God’s judgment will bring great upheaval, including the loss of its leaders. Defiant and ruthless, the rulers will face either death or deportation. Chapter 3 ends by denouncing the pride and vanity of the women of Zion; they, too, will suffer disgrace. After Jerusalem is cleansed of its sin, the remnant will enjoy the rule of “the branch of the <span>Lord<\/span>,” who will protect and shield his people (4:2-6).<\/p>\n<p>In 5:1-7 Isaiah presents a short song about Israel as God’s vineyard. The Lord did everything possible to ensure a yield of good grapes, but the vineyard produced nothing but bad fruit and had to be destroyed. Isaiah then pronounces six woes against Israel, and announces that the Assyrian army will invade the land. Against the backdrop of Israel’s sin, Isaiah (ch 6) gives an account of the vision through which he was called as a prophet. Overwhelmed by the holiness of God and by his own sinfulness, Isaiah thought he was ruined, but when he was assured that his sins were forgiven, he responded positively to God’s call in spite of the stubbornness of the nation to which he was sent.<\/p>\n<p>One of the most stubborn individuals in all the nation was King Ahaz of Judah, and chapter 7 describes Isaiah’s encounter with this godless ruler. When Ahaz was threatened by Damascus and the northern kingdom, he refused to believe Isaiah’s promise that God would protect him. This was the occasion on which Isaiah gave Ahaz the sign of Immanuel (7:14). The “virgin” refers ultimately to Mary and “Immanuel” to Christ (Mt 1:23), but in the near fulfillment the child could be Isaiah’s own son Maher-shalal-hash-baz (Is 8:3). (<em>See<\/em> four interpretations of this passage in Virgin Birth of Jesus.) This name (meaning “swift to plunder and quick to spoil,” v 1, <span>nlt<\/span> mg) would be a sign that soon Judah’s enemies would fall; “Immanuel” signified that God would be with Judah (v 10, <span>nlt<\/span> mg). However, if Ahaz appealed for help to the king of Assyria, Isaiah warned him, Assyria’s powerful armies would one day invade Judah also (cf. 7:17-25; 8:6-8). The destruction brought by Assyria would plunge Judah into a time of famine and distress (8:21-22).<\/p>\n<p>Nevertheless, the gloom and darkness associated with the Assyrian invasion would not last indefinitely, and 9:1-5 speaks of a time of peace and joy. Verses 6-7 introduce a child who would become a righteous King and would rule forever. This “Prince of Peace” is the Messiah, the “Mighty God” whose kingdom is described in 2:2-4.<\/p>\n<p>For the immediate future, however, both Israel and Judah will suffer the agony of war as punishment for their sins. God is angry with his people because they are proud and arrogant, and their leaders disregard the pleas of the poor and needy. Civil war and foreign invasion will crush the hapless nation (9:8–10:4). But once Israel has been judged, God will turn his hand against Assyria, the instrument he has used to judge other nations. Because of her string of victories, Assyria is filled with pride and is eager for more triumph. Yet even at the moment when Jerusalem is about to succumb, God will cut down the Assyrian army like a cedar in Lebanon and spare his people (10:26-34).<\/p>\n<p>After Assyria’s defeat, Isaiah describes the restoration of Israel and the powerful rule of the Messiah (ch 11). Both Jews and Gentiles will be attracted to Jerusalem to enjoy an era of peace and justice. Like David, the Messiah will have the Spirit of God resting upon him as he judges the wicked and protects the needy. To conclude these opening messages, Isaiah offers two short songs of praise that celebrate God’s past deliverance and his promise of future blessing (ch 12).<\/p>\n<h5>Oracles against the Nations (13–23)<\/h5>\n<p>Although Babylon is not the major power of the day, Isaiah begins his announcements of judgment with two chapters about the destruction of Assyria’s neighbor to the south. Babylon will eventually conquer Jerusalem (between 605 and 586 <span>BC<\/span>), but the Medes (13:17) along with the Elamites will capture Babylon (539 <span>BC<\/span>). In spite of the glory to be achieved by future kings of Babylon, God will bring their pomp down to the grave (14:9-10). The chapter ends with short prophecies against Assyria and the Philistines.<\/p>\n<p>One of Israel’s oldest enemies was the nation of Moab, situated east of the Dead Sea. Even though it was a small country, Isaiah devotes two chapters to these descendants of Lot. Chapter 15 describes the extensive mourning that will overwhelm their cities. After a brief interlude urging the Moabites to submit to Israel and to her God (16:1-5), Isaiah notes that pride will lead to Moab’s downfall. Sounds of weeping fill the land as the vines and fields wither and are trampled.<\/p>\n<p>In chapter 17 the fourth oracle is directed against Damascus and Ephraim (the northern kingdom of Israel), probably reflecting their alliance against Judah about 734 <span>BC<\/span>. Both nations will face ruin, and Ephraim is condemned for abandoning the Lord, her “Savior” and “Rock” (17:10).<\/p>\n<p>In chapters 18 and 19 Isaiah turns to the south and addresses Ethiopia and Egypt, countries that had strong links from 715–633 <span>BC<\/span>, when an Ethiopian named Shabako became pharaoh in Egypt. But Egypt is plagued with disunity and suffers greatly at the hands of Assyrian kings. In spite of the supposed wisdom of her leaders, Egypt faces economic and political ruin (19:5-15). Yet the time is coming when the Egyptians will be restored and will worship the God of Israel. Along with Assyria and Israel, Egypt will become a blessing (19:24). Some interpreters think this is a prophecy of the salvation of Gentiles during the church age, but others relate this day to the peace of the millennial age (cf. 2:2-4; 11:6-9). For the immediate future, however, Isaiah announces that Assyria will take many Egyptians and Ethiopians into captivity (ch 20).<\/p>\n<p>A second oracle about Babylon (cf. 13:1–14:23) is contained in chapter 21, and Isaiah is staggered as he considers the impact of Babylon’s fall (21:3-4). When Babylon collapses, the world will know that her gods were powerless (21:9; cf. Rv 14:8; 18:2).<\/p>\n<p>Although it seems out of place among these oracles against the nations, chapter 22 condemns the city of Jerusalem. Like the nations, Jerusalem is full of revelry (22:2) but will soon experience the terrors of a siege. Since the people no longer rely on the Lord (v 11), he will hand them over to the enemy. Jerusalem’s unfaithfulness is exemplified by Shebna, a high official guilty of pride and materialism whose position will be taken by the godly Eliakim (vv 15-23).<\/p>\n<p>The last oracle (ch 23) is directed against the city of Tyre, which resisted capture until Alexander the Great conquered the island fortress in 332 <span>BC<\/span>. When Tyre fell, the economy of the entire Mediterranean world was shaken, for her ships had carried the goods of the nations far and wide.<\/p>\n<h5>Final Judgment and Blessing (24–27)<\/h5>\n<p>This section functions as a grand finale to chapters 13–23 in that it anticipates God’s judgment upon the nations and the inauguration of the kingdom of God. A defiled earth must bear its punishment (24:5-6) and even the forces of Satan face judgment (vv 21-22).<\/p>\n<p>In chapter 25 Isaiah rejoices over God’s great triumph and looks ahead to a day when death will be swallowed up and tears will be wiped from all faces (25:8). Israel’s longtime enemies, symbolized by Moab, will be laid low (vv 10-12), but Jerusalem will be a stronghold for the righteous (26:1-3). In 26:7-19 the nation prays that these promises will become a reality. Verses 20-21 indicate that the Lord will indeed respond, pouring out his wrath upon a sin-cursed earth and upon Satan himself (27:1). When that takes place, Israel will be a fruitful vineyard, a blessing to the whole world (27:2-6; contrast 5:1-7). First, however, Israel will have to endure war and exile, and then the remnant will return to Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<h5>A Series of Woes (28–33)<\/h5>\n<p>Returning to his own historical period, Isaiah pronounces a series of woes upon both the northern and southern kingdoms, as well as one upon Assyria (ch 33). Chapter 28 begins with a description of the fading power of Samaria, the capital of the northern kingdom. Verses 7-10 portray the leaders of Judah in the same light; they have disregarded Isaiah’s message and are out of touch with God. Judgment is on the way, and their false preparation (vv 15, 18) will be of no avail. God will fight against Israel (vv 21-22), and even Jerusalem will be put under siege until God in his mercy intervenes (29:1-8). Because of their hypocritical worship, the people deserve to be punished, but in the future Israel will again acknowledge the Lord and be made physically and spiritually whole (29:17-24).<\/p>\n<p>Chapters 30 and 31 denounce Judah’s proposed alliance with Egypt in the effort to thwart Assyria. God wants his people to trust him, not their unreliable neighbors to the south. The Lord promises to protect Jerusalem (30:18; 31:5) and defeat the invading Assyrian army (30:31-33; 31:8-9). None can stand before his mighty sword.<\/p>\n<p>Continuing on this positive note, Isaiah goes on to emphasize the righteous rule of the messianic king in chapters 32 and 33. Zion will enjoy peace and security at last (32:2, 17-18; 33:6), a great change from Isaiah’s own time. In eighth-century <span>BC<\/span> Judah the women might feel secure (32:9), but the Assyrian troops will devastate the crops and precipitate widespread mourning. However, the lamenting will soon end, as the prophet pronounces woe upon Assyria in 33:1. After Isaiah prays for the destruction of Assyria (33:2-9), God promises to take action (vv 10-12). Gone will be the enemy soldiers and officials, for the Lord will save his people and bring them justice and security.<\/p>\n<h5>More Judgment and Blessing (34–35)<\/h5>\n<p>This section forms a climax to chapters 28–33. Once more, cataclysmic judgment precedes a time of blessing and restoration. In chapter 34 Isaiah depicts a judgment of cosmic dimensions as he moves to a consideration of the last days. Heaven and earth endure the wrath of God that is poured out upon the nations, and verse 4 provides the basis for John’s description of the great tribulation in Revelation 6:13-14. Edom (like Moab; see Is 25:10-12) represents a world judged by the sword of the Lord in his day of vengeance.<\/p>\n<p>Chapter 35, on the other hand, speaks of joy and restoration in a passage that pulsates with life. A blooming desert corresponds to the physical and spiritual age when God will come to redeem his people. Both the return of the Israelites from the Babylonian captivity and the second coming of Christ fit this glorious scene.<\/p>\n<h5>Historical Interlude (36–39)<\/h5>\n<p>These chapters form the hinge that connects the two halves of the book. Chapters 36 and 37 contain the fulfillment of Isaiah’s prophecies about Assyria’s collapse, and chapters 38 and 39 introduce the Babylonian captivity that forms the backdrop for chapters 40–66. In 701 <span>BC<\/span> King Sennacherib of Assyria demands the unconditional surrender of Jerusalem. He sends his field commander to address the people and try to gain their submission. With persuasive words, the commander tries to convince the city that surrender is the best policy. Amazingly the people do not panic, and King Hezekiah asks Isaiah to pray for the beleaguered city. The prophet does so and announces that the proud Assyrians will not triumph. Instead, they suffer a terrible disaster as the angel of the Lord strikes down 185,000 men.<\/p>\n<p>Chapters 38 and 39 relate another crisis in Hezekiah’s life when he becomes desperately ill. Miraculously, God heals him, and Hezekiah praises the Lord for his gracious intervention. When the king of Babylon sends envoys to congratulate Hezekiah on his recovery, Hezekiah foolishly shows these messengers his royal treasures. Isaiah solemnly announces that someday the armies of Babylon will capture Jerusalem, plunder the land, and take away these treasures.<\/p>\n<h5>The Return from Babylon (40–48)<\/h5>\n<p>The Babylonian captivity eventually comes, but Isaiah promises that it will end. God, the incomparably powerful Creator, is far greater than any king, nation, or god, and he will bring his people back to Jerusalem. To accomplish this return from exile, God raises up Cyrus, the king of Persia (41:2, 25). The Lord does not forget his people, and he encourages them to take heart and to rejoice.<\/p>\n<p>In chapter 42 we are introduced to a person even more significant than Cyrus the Persian. Verses 1-7 (the first of four Servant Songs) describe the servant of the Lord, who will bring justice to the nations and will be “a light for the Gentiles” (42:6). This is the Messiah, and the redemption he will accomplish on Calvary (cf. ch 53) is greater than the release from Babylon. In light of the good news associated with the servant, Isaiah praises the Lord for punishing the wicked and rescuing his wayward people. Chapter 43 declares that nothing will stand in the way of Israel’s return, and the Lord will remember their sins no more. In fact, he will pour out his Spirit on their descendants (44:3).<\/p>\n<p>A God so great is far more powerful than any idol. In 44:6-20 Isaiah makes use of satire to show the worthlessness of man-made images. God alone has the power to create and to restore, and he will bring Cyrus on the scene to effect the release of the exiles and to begin the rebuilding of Jerusalem. Chapters 46 and 47 contrast the God of Israel and the idols of Babylon. When God raises up Cyrus, Babylon’s idols will be unable to save their nation, and the queen of kingdoms (47:5) will collapse along with her sorcerers and astrologers. The final chapter in this section (ch 48) restates God’s purpose of gaining release of the Israelites from Babylon through his chosen ally, Cyrus of Persia.<\/p>\n<h5>Salvation through the Servant of the Lord (49–57)<\/h5>\n<p>Chapters 49–53 contain the final three Servant Songs (cf. also 42:1-7), culminating in the death of the servant for the sins of the world (52:13–53:12). In the second Servant Song (49:1-7), Isaiah describes the call and ministry of the servant, noting that he will face strong opposition as he accomplishes salvation for Israel and the nations. The rest of chapter 49 deals primarily with the way God will bring Israel back from exile. Soon the land will be filled with a mighty throng (vv 19-21), and the Gentiles will acknowledge Israel and her God (vv 22-23).<\/p>\n<p>Although Israel has fully deserved the exile because of her sins (50:1-3), the suffering endured by the servant (vv 4-11; the third Servant Song) is wholly undeserved. The beating and mocking of verse 6 are prophetic of Christ’s experience (cf. Mt 27:26, 30; Mk 15:19). In verses 10-11 of Isaiah 50 the whole nation is challenged to trust in the Lord, as the servant did. There is, in fact, a believing remnant who obey the Lord (51:1-8), and the Lord promises that he will restore them to their homeland. Israel has drunk the cup of God’s wrath (vv 17, 22), but the good news of release from exile causes even the ruins of Jerusalem to burst into songs of joy (52:7-10).<\/p>\n<p>Yet the best news of all is salvation from sin; the final Servant Song (52:13–53:12) tells how Christ wins freedom for those held in bondage to sin. In this brief passage we learn how Christ suffers rejection (53:3) and even disfigurement (52:14). Led like a lamb to the slaughter (53:7), he carries our sins in his body as he dies in ignominy. The people think he is suffering for his own sins (v 4), but he is “pierced” and “crushed for our iniquities” (v 5). The first and last paragraphs of this section (52:13-15; 53:10-12) state that through his suffering the servant is highly exalted. What seems like a terrible defeat is actually victory over death and Satan and brings salvation for many.<\/p>\n<p>As a direct result of the servant’s death, great joy comes to all people. In chapter 54 this joy is reflected in Jerusalem’s new status as the Lord’s wife. Her descendants will be numerous and eager to learn from the Lord. For the first time the plural “servants of the <span>Lord<\/span>” appears (54:17), apparently including all believers, whether Jew or Gentile (cf. 65:8-9, 13-15). Joy and prosperity also characterize chapter 55, an invitation to a great spiritual banquet. All people are urged to turn to the Lord who keeps his promises to Israel. In 56:1-8, foreigners are invited to come to God’s “holy mountain” in Jerusalem, for the temple will be a house of prayer for all the nations (56:7; cf. Mt 21:13).<\/p>\n<p>Believing Gentiles are contrasted sharply with unbelieving Jews, and in 56:9–57:13 Isaiah returns again to the theme of judgment. Israel suffers because her leaders are wicked and because the people are guilty of idolatry. Spiritual healing is available, but unless individuals repent, they cannot be part of the remnant who will return from exile and enjoy peace in the Promised Land.<\/p>\n<h5>Ultimate Blessing and Final Judgment (58–66)<\/h5>\n<p>The last nine chapters of Isaiah emphasize redemption and glory, but the reality of judgment is also very much in evidence. In fact, chapters 58 and 59 bemoan the sins of Israel. The people are hypocritical in their worship; they are selfish and fail to keep the Sabbath. Lying, oppression, and murder separate the people from God. When Isaiah openly confesses these sins (59:12-13), the Lord suddenly takes action on behalf of his people. Like a mighty warrior, he rescues the believing remnant from Babylon and brings them back to Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p>In chapter 60 the glory and wealth of Jerusalem reach new heights. Both the city and the sanctuary are adorned with splendor, matching the prosperity of Solomon’s reign. Just as the nations treated Solomon with honor, so earth’s leaders will assist and strengthen the returning exiles. While it is true that the Persian government did help the Jews repeatedly, the conditions described here will have their ultimate fulfillment during the Millennium and in connection with the new Jerusalem (cf. Rv 21:23; 22:5). The ancient ruins will be rebuilt (Is 61:4), and the Lord will fulfill the covenant made with Abraham and David (Is 61:8; cf. Gn 12:1-3; Is 55:3). Jerusalem will be the city of the holy people, the redeemed of the Lord (Is 62:12), and the Lord will take delight in her (v 4).<\/p>\n<p>In order to accomplish salvation for his people, God will have to judge the ungodly first. The great trampling of the winepress (63:2-3) graphically portrays the judgment process and is linked with the Day of the Lord (cf. 13:3; 34:2). Since God has promised to intervene on behalf of his people, Isaiah prays for the realization of that promise (63:7–64:12). He recalls God’s faithfulness in the past and pleads that he will again have mercy upon his suffering people.<\/p>\n<p>The answer to Isaiah’s prayer is found in chapter 65. God does promise to give the Holy Land back to his servants, to those who worship him and obey him. But for that segment of the nation that continues in its obstinacy, God promises anguish and destruction. The ultimate joy of God’s servants is contained in a description of new heavens and a new earth (65:17-25). Peace, long life, and prosperity will be among the blessings enjoyed in an era that seems to combine features of the Millennium and the eternal state (cf. ch 60).<\/p>\n<p>In a fitting summary, chapter 66 ties together the themes of salvation and judgment. God will comfort Jerusalem and abundantly bless her, but sinners are the objects of his wrath. Those who honor him will endure forever, but those who rebel will suffer everlasting rejection.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Isaiah (Person); Israel, History of; Messiah; Prophecy; Prophet, Prophetess; Servant of the Lord; Virgin Birth of Jesus.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ISAIAH, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Literary Unity<\/p>\n<p>• Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>The prophet Isaiah, whose name means “the Lord saves,” lived and ministered in Jerusalem. Because of his repeated contact with the kings of Judah, some scholars believed that Isaiah was related to the royal family, but this is not certain. According to chapters 7 and 8, Isaiah was married and had at least two sons, Shear-jashub and Maher-shalal-hash-baz, whose symbolic names illustrated God’s dealings with the nation as a whole. The “disciples” mentioned in 8:16 probably assisted Isaiah in his ministry and may have helped him record the book that bears his name.<\/p>\n<p>When Isaiah saw the Lord in the famous temple vision described in chapter 6, he was willing to go wherever God sent him, even though he would face strong opposition (6:9-10). King Ahaz proved to be particularly resistant to Isaiah’s advice (7:4-17), and the people in general ridiculed his preaching (5:10-12; 28:9-10). During the reign of the godly Hezekiah, however, Isaiah’s ministry was much appreciated, and the king consulted him eagerly during times of crisis (37:1-7, 21-35).<\/p>\n<p>Isaiah is usually regarded as the greatest of the writing prophets. Some of the chapters in his book display an unparalleled literary beauty and make use of poetic devices and a rich variety of symbols. Chapters 40–66 contain many powerful passages that underscore the grandeur of the book. It is ironic, then, that many scholars attribute these chapters to a “second” or “third” Isaiah, unknown authors who wrote much later than Isaiah in connection with the Babylonian exile. Yet elsewhere in the OT, the names of all who wrote the prophetic books are preserved, and it would be most unusual for the Jews not to know who wrote such magnificent prophecy as chapters 40–66.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Date\">Date<\/p>\n<p>Since many of the events recorded in chapters 1–39 took place during the ministry of Isaiah, most of these chapters were probably written by about 700 <span>BC<\/span> or shortly thereafter. The destruction of the Assyrian army in 701 <span>BC<\/span> represents the climax of the first half of the book, fulfilling the prophecy of 10:16, 24-34 and 30:31-33. In 37:38 Isaiah refers to the death of King Sennacherib, which did not occur until 681 <span>BC<\/span>. This means that some of the earlier chapters, along with 40–66, were probably written later, during Isaiah’s retirement years. A gap of several decades could help account for the change in subject matter that is found in the last half of the book. In these chapters Isaiah projects into the future as he addresses the Jews who would be in exile in Babylon about 550 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>Isaiah’s public ministry occurred primarily from 740–700 <span>BC<\/span>, a period marked by the rapid expansion of the nation of Assyria. Under King Tiglath-pileser III (745–727 <span>BC<\/span>), the Assyrians moved to the west and south, and by 738 <span>BC<\/span> the Assyrian monarch was demanding tribute from Damascus and Israel. About 734 <span>BC<\/span> Rezin of Damascus (Syria) and Pekah of Israel organized a coalition to rebel against Assyria, and they tried to enlist the support of King Ahaz of Judah. But Ahaz refused to join, and when the kings of Damascus and Israel invaded Judah (see 7:1), Ahaz appealed directly to Tiglath-pileser for help (cf. 2 Kgs 16:7-9). With little hesitation the Assyrians returned to capture Damascus and to turn the northern kingdom of Israel into an Assyrian province.<\/p>\n<p>The puppet king Hoshea ruled over Israel from 732–723 BC but was imprisoned when he joined a revolt against Shalmaneser V, the new Assyrian king. Shalmaneser besieged the capital city of Samaria, which finally fell in 722 <span>BC<\/span>, spelling the end of the northern kingdom. Sargon succeeded Shalmaneser in 722 and had to quell a number of revolts. In 711 <span>BC<\/span> Sargon captured the Philistine city of Ashdod in a campaign that became the occasion of Isaiah’s prophecy of chapter 20.<\/p>\n\n<p>Even more important was the widespread rebellion that broke out with the accession of Sennacherib in 705 <span>BC<\/span>. King Hezekiah of Judah withheld his normal tribute payment, and by 701 <span>BC<\/span> Sennacherib had invaded Palestine to punish the rebels. The details of this campaign are given in Isaiah 36–37 and tell how city after city was captured by the Assyrians before the invaders stood at the gates of Jerusalem and demanded total surrender. With almost no hope of survival, Hezekiah nevertheless was encouraged by Isaiah to trust God, and in one night the angel of the Lord struck down 185,000 Assyrian soldiers, virtually wiping out Sennacherib’s army (Is 37:36-37).<\/p>\n<p>In an effort to befriend the enemies of Assyria, Hezekiah showed his treasures to envoys of the king of Babylon (39:1-4). Isaiah warned that someday the Babylonian armies would conquer Jerusalem and carry off those very treasures, along with the residents of the city (vv 5-7). Not only did Isaiah predict the Babylonian captivity of 586–539 <span>BC<\/span> (cf. 6:11-12), but he also foretold that Israel would be released from Babylon (48:20). The Chaldean kingdom led by Nebuchadnezzar would be God’s instrument of judgment upon Judah, but they too would suffer defeat. One of Isaiah’s most remarkable prophecies was the naming of Cyrus, king of Persia, the ruler who would conquer the Babylonians in 539 <span>BC<\/span> and release Israel from exile (cf. 44:28). Along with the Medes (cf. 13:17), Cyrus won several important victories before sending his troops against Babylon. Isaiah hailed him as one anointed by the Lord to bring deliverance for Israel (45:1-5).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LiteraryUnity\">Literary Unity<\/p>\n<p>Largely because of the references to the later kingdoms of Babylon and Persia, the unity of Isaiah has been called into question. Chapters 40–66 move abruptly into the exilic period of 550 <span>BC<\/span>, almost 150 years after Isaiah lived. Moreover, the Servant of the Lord plays a prominent role in these chapters and the messianic king fades into the background. Brilliant poetic passages are found in chapters 40, 53, 55, and 60, demonstrating remarkable depth and power.<\/p>\n<p>Although these factors are sometimes cited as a sign of disunity, there are actually strong indications for unity in the book. For example, the historical interlude (chs 36–39) forms a hinge or bridge that links chapters 1–35 and 40–66. Chapters 36–37 complete the Assyrian section, and chapters 38–39 introduce the Babylonian material. Most of the linking chapters are written in prose, while the others (in some translations) are largely poetry. From the standpoint of verbal or stylistic unity, one can point to Isaiah’s favorite title for God, “the Holy One of Israel.” This title appears 12 times in chapters 1–39, and 14 times in chapters 40–66, but only seven times in the rest of the OT. A study of the famous Servant Songs of 52:13–53:12 reveals several ties with earlier passages, especially in chapters 1–6. The servant who is smitten and wounded (53:4-5) receives the same punishment as the beaten and injured nation of 1:5-6 (also cf. 52:13 with 2:12 and 6:1).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheologicalTeaching\">Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>Isaiah is to the OT as the book of Romans is to the NT—a book filled with rich theological truth. Like Romans, Isaiah unveils the sinfulness of God’s rebellious people and his gracious provision of salvation. Because God is the Holy One of Israel (1:4; 6:3), he cannot ignore sin but must punish those who are guilty. Both Israel (5:30; 42:25) and the other nations (2:11, 17, 20) experience a time of judgment known as the Day of the Lord. In anger God raises his hand against his people (cf. 5:25), but ultimately his wrath is poured out upon Babylon and the nations (cf. 13:3-5; 34:2).<\/p>\n<p>With the fall of Assyria and Babylon, the Day of the Lord becomes a day of joyous victory (10:27; 61:2). According to Isaiah 63:4, it is the year of the Lord’s redemption. Earlier, Israel had been redeemed from slavery in Egypt; now the return from the Babylonian captivity brings equal joy (52:9; 61:1). The ultimate redemption is to be accomplished through the death of Christ, and Isaiah 53 describes our Lord’s suffering and death in graphic terms. His ministry as the Suffering Servant is also introduced in 49:4 and 50:6-7; meanwhile, 49:6 states that the servant will be “a light for the Gentiles.” Looking ahead to the Second Coming, Isaiah predicts a messianic age of peace and righteousness. Nations will “beat their swords into plowshares” (2:4) and the “Prince of Peace” will rule forever (9:6-7).<\/p>\n<p>Throughout the book God is pictured as the all-powerful Creator (48:13)—the sovereign One seated on a throne, high and exalted; the King, the Lord Almighty (6:1, 5). He controls the armies of the earth (13:4) and removes rulers as he wills (40:23-24). Before him, nations “are but a drop in the bucket” (40:15, <span>nlt<\/span>), and compared with him all idols are worthless and without power (41:29; 44:6). This is the God who shows his fury to his foes and his love to his servants (66:14).<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Messages of Judgment and Hope (1–12)<\/h5>\n<p>In the opening chapter Isaiah characterizes Israel (including Judah) as “a sinful nation” that has rebelled against God. Although the people regularly bring offerings to him, their worship is hypocritical, an attempt to mask their oppression of the poor and helpless. The Lord encourages the nation to repent of their sin or face the fires of judgment. After this introduction, Isaiah turns to describe the peace of the messianic age in 2:1-4. The day will come when all nations will obey God’s word and live at peace. “The mountain of the <span>Lord<\/span>”—Jerusalem—will be raised up “and all the nations shall flow to it” (2:2-3, <span>rsv<\/span>). In the meantime, however, both Israel and the nations have exalted themselves against the Lord, and he will judge them in an awesome display of power. For Israel, God’s judgment will bring great upheaval, including the loss of its leaders. Defiant and ruthless, the rulers will face either death or deportation. Chapter 3 ends by denouncing the pride and vanity of the women of Zion; they, too, will suffer disgrace. After Jerusalem is cleansed of its sin, the remnant will enjoy the rule of “the branch of the <span>Lord<\/span>,” who will protect and shield his people (4:2-6).<\/p>\n<p>In 5:1-7 Isaiah presents a short song about Israel as God’s vineyard. The Lord did everything possible to ensure a yield of good grapes, but the vineyard produced nothing but bad fruit and had to be destroyed. Isaiah then pronounces six woes against Israel, and announces that the Assyrian army will invade the land. Against the backdrop of Israel’s sin, Isaiah (ch 6) gives an account of the vision through which he was called as a prophet. Overwhelmed by the holiness of God and by his own sinfulness, Isaiah thought he was ruined, but when he was assured that his sins were forgiven, he responded positively to God’s call in spite of the stubbornness of the nation to which he was sent.<\/p>\n<p>One of the most stubborn individuals in all the nation was King Ahaz of Judah, and chapter 7 describes Isaiah’s encounter with this godless ruler. When Ahaz was threatened by Damascus and the northern kingdom, he refused to believe Isaiah’s promise that God would protect him. This was the occasion on which Isaiah gave Ahaz the sign of Immanuel (7:14). The “virgin” refers ultimately to Mary and “Immanuel” to Christ (Mt 1:23), but in the near fulfillment the child could be Isaiah’s own son Maher-shalal-hash-baz (Is 8:3). (<em>See<\/em> four interpretations of this passage in Virgin Birth of Jesus.) This name (meaning “swift to plunder and quick to spoil,” v 1, <span>nlt<\/span> mg) would be a sign that soon Judah’s enemies would fall; “Immanuel” signified that God would be with Judah (v 10, <span>nlt<\/span> mg). However, if Ahaz appealed for help to the king of Assyria, Isaiah warned him, Assyria’s powerful armies would one day invade Judah also (cf. 7:17-25; 8:6-8). The destruction brought by Assyria would plunge Judah into a time of famine and distress (8:21-22).<\/p>\n<p>Nevertheless, the gloom and darkness associated with the Assyrian invasion would not last indefinitely, and 9:1-5 speaks of a time of peace and joy. Verses 6-7 introduce a child who would become a righteous King and would rule forever. This “Prince of Peace” is the Messiah, the “Mighty God” whose kingdom is described in 2:2-4.<\/p>\n<p>For the immediate future, however, both Israel and Judah will suffer the agony of war as punishment for their sins. God is angry with his people because they are proud and arrogant, and their leaders disregard the pleas of the poor and needy. Civil war and foreign invasion will crush the hapless nation (9:8–10:4). But once Israel has been judged, God will turn his hand against Assyria, the instrument he has used to judge other nations. Because of her string of victories, Assyria is filled with pride and is eager for more triumph. Yet even at the moment when Jerusalem is about to succumb, God will cut down the Assyrian army like a cedar in Lebanon and spare his people (10:26-34).<\/p>\n<p>After Assyria’s defeat, Isaiah describes the restoration of Israel and the powerful rule of the Messiah (ch 11). Both Jews and Gentiles will be attracted to Jerusalem to enjoy an era of peace and justice. Like David, the Messiah will have the Spirit of God resting upon him as he judges the wicked and protects the needy. To conclude these opening messages, Isaiah offers two short songs of praise that celebrate God’s past deliverance and his promise of future blessing (ch 12).<\/p>\n<h5>Oracles against the Nations (13–23)<\/h5>\n<p>Although Babylon is not the major power of the day, Isaiah begins his announcements of judgment with two chapters about the destruction of Assyria’s neighbor to the south. Babylon will eventually conquer Jerusalem (between 605 and 586 <span>BC<\/span>), but the Medes (13:17) along with the Elamites will capture Babylon (539 <span>BC<\/span>). In spite of the glory to be achieved by future kings of Babylon, God will bring their pomp down to the grave (14:9-10). The chapter ends with short prophecies against Assyria and the Philistines.<\/p>\n<p>One of Israel’s oldest enemies was the nation of Moab, situated east of the Dead Sea. Even though it was a small country, Isaiah devotes two chapters to these descendants of Lot. Chapter 15 describes the extensive mourning that will overwhelm their cities. After a brief interlude urging the Moabites to submit to Israel and to her God (16:1-5), Isaiah notes that pride will lead to Moab’s downfall. Sounds of weeping fill the land as the vines and fields wither and are trampled.<\/p>\n<p>In chapter 17 the fourth oracle is directed against Damascus and Ephraim (the northern kingdom of Israel), probably reflecting their alliance against Judah about 734 <span>BC<\/span>. Both nations will face ruin, and Ephraim is condemned for abandoning the Lord, her “Savior” and “Rock” (17:10).<\/p>\n<p>In chapters 18 and 19 Isaiah turns to the south and addresses Ethiopia and Egypt, countries that had strong links from 715–633 <span>BC<\/span>, when an Ethiopian named Shabako became pharaoh in Egypt. But Egypt is plagued with disunity and suffers greatly at the hands of Assyrian kings. In spite of the supposed wisdom of her leaders, Egypt faces economic and political ruin (19:5-15). Yet the time is coming when the Egyptians will be restored and will worship the God of Israel. Along with Assyria and Israel, Egypt will become a blessing (19:24). Some interpreters think this is a prophecy of the salvation of Gentiles during the church age, but others relate this day to the peace of the millennial age (cf. 2:2-4; 11:6-9). For the immediate future, however, Isaiah announces that Assyria will take many Egyptians and Ethiopians into captivity (ch 20).<\/p>\n<p>A second oracle about Babylon (cf. 13:1–14:23) is contained in chapter 21, and Isaiah is staggered as he considers the impact of Babylon’s fall (21:3-4). When Babylon collapses, the world will know that her gods were powerless (21:9; cf. Rv 14:8; 18:2).<\/p>\n<p>Although it seems out of place among these oracles against the nations, chapter 22 condemns the city of Jerusalem. Like the nations, Jerusalem is full of revelry (22:2) but will soon experience the terrors of a siege. Since the people no longer rely on the Lord (v 11), he will hand them over to the enemy. Jerusalem’s unfaithfulness is exemplified by Shebna, a high official guilty of pride and materialism whose position will be taken by the godly Eliakim (vv 15-23).<\/p>\n<p>The last oracle (ch 23) is directed against the city of Tyre, which resisted capture until Alexander the Great conquered the island fortress in 332 <span>BC<\/span>. When Tyre fell, the economy of the entire Mediterranean world was shaken, for her ships had carried the goods of the nations far and wide.<\/p>\n<h5>Final Judgment and Blessing (24–27)<\/h5>\n<p>This section functions as a grand finale to chapters 13–23 in that it anticipates God’s judgment upon the nations and the inauguration of the kingdom of God. A defiled earth must bear its punishment (24:5-6) and even the forces of Satan face judgment (vv 21-22).<\/p>\n<p>In chapter 25 Isaiah rejoices over God’s great triumph and looks ahead to a day when death will be swallowed up and tears will be wiped from all faces (25:8). Israel’s longtime enemies, symbolized by Moab, will be laid low (vv 10-12), but Jerusalem will be a stronghold for the righteous (26:1-3). In 26:7-19 the nation prays that these promises will become a reality. Verses 20-21 indicate that the Lord will indeed respond, pouring out his wrath upon a sin-cursed earth and upon Satan himself (27:1). When that takes place, Israel will be a fruitful vineyard, a blessing to the whole world (27:2-6; contrast 5:1-7). First, however, Israel will have to endure war and exile, and then the remnant will return to Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<h5>A Series of Woes (28–33)<\/h5>\n<p>Returning to his own historical period, Isaiah pronounces a series of woes upon both the northern and southern kingdoms, as well as one upon Assyria (ch 33). Chapter 28 begins with a description of the fading power of Samaria, the capital of the northern kingdom. Verses 7-10 portray the leaders of Judah in the same light; they have disregarded Isaiah’s message and are out of touch with God. Judgment is on the way, and their false preparation (vv 15, 18) will be of no avail. God will fight against Israel (vv 21-22), and even Jerusalem will be put under siege until God in his mercy intervenes (29:1-8). Because of their hypocritical worship, the people deserve to be punished, but in the future Israel will again acknowledge the Lord and be made physically and spiritually whole (29:17-24).<\/p>\n<p>Chapters 30 and 31 denounce Judah’s proposed alliance with Egypt in the effort to thwart Assyria. God wants his people to trust him, not their unreliable neighbors to the south. The Lord promises to protect Jerusalem (30:18; 31:5) and defeat the invading Assyrian army (30:31-33; 31:8-9). None can stand before his mighty sword.<\/p>\n<p>Continuing on this positive note, Isaiah goes on to emphasize the righteous rule of the messianic king in chapters 32 and 33. Zion will enjoy peace and security at last (32:2, 17-18; 33:6), a great change from Isaiah’s own time. In eighth-century <span>BC<\/span> Judah the women might feel secure (32:9), but the Assyrian troops will devastate the crops and precipitate widespread mourning. However, the lamenting will soon end, as the prophet pronounces woe upon Assyria in 33:1. After Isaiah prays for the destruction of Assyria (33:2-9), God promises to take action (vv 10-12). Gone will be the enemy soldiers and officials, for the Lord will save his people and bring them justice and security.<\/p>\n<h5>More Judgment and Blessing (34–35)<\/h5>\n<p>This section forms a climax to chapters 28–33. Once more, cataclysmic judgment precedes a time of blessing and restoration. In chapter 34 Isaiah depicts a judgment of cosmic dimensions as he moves to a consideration of the last days. Heaven and earth endure the wrath of God that is poured out upon the nations, and verse 4 provides the basis for John’s description of the great tribulation in Revelation 6:13-14. Edom (like Moab; see Is 25:10-12) represents a world judged by the sword of the Lord in his day of vengeance.<\/p>\n<p>Chapter 35, on the other hand, speaks of joy and restoration in a passage that pulsates with life. A blooming desert corresponds to the physical and spiritual age when God will come to redeem his people. Both the return of the Israelites from the Babylonian captivity and the second coming of Christ fit this glorious scene.<\/p>\n<h5>Historical Interlude (36–39)<\/h5>\n<p>These chapters form the hinge that connects the two halves of the book. Chapters 36 and 37 contain the fulfillment of Isaiah’s prophecies about Assyria’s collapse, and chapters 38 and 39 introduce the Babylonian captivity that forms the backdrop for chapters 40–66. In 701 <span>BC<\/span> King Sennacherib of Assyria demands the unconditional surrender of Jerusalem. He sends his field commander to address the people and try to gain their submission. With persuasive words, the commander tries to convince the city that surrender is the best policy. Amazingly the people do not panic, and King Hezekiah asks Isaiah to pray for the beleaguered city. The prophet does so and announces that the proud Assyrians will not triumph. Instead, they suffer a terrible disaster as the angel of the Lord strikes down 185,000 men.<\/p>\n<p>Chapters 38 and 39 relate another crisis in Hezekiah’s life when he becomes desperately ill. Miraculously, God heals him, and Hezekiah praises the Lord for his gracious intervention. When the king of Babylon sends envoys to congratulate Hezekiah on his recovery, Hezekiah foolishly shows these messengers his royal treasures. Isaiah solemnly announces that someday the armies of Babylon will capture Jerusalem, plunder the land, and take away these treasures.<\/p>\n<h5>The Return from Babylon (40–48)<\/h5>\n<p>The Babylonian captivity eventually comes, but Isaiah promises that it will end. God, the incomparably powerful Creator, is far greater than any king, nation, or god, and he will bring his people back to Jerusalem. To accomplish this return from exile, God raises up Cyrus, the king of Persia (41:2, 25). The Lord does not forget his people, and he encourages them to take heart and to rejoice.<\/p>\n<p>In chapter 42 we are introduced to a person even more significant than Cyrus the Persian. Verses 1-7 (the first of four Servant Songs) describe the servant of the Lord, who will bring justice to the nations and will be “a light for the Gentiles” (42:6). This is the Messiah, and the redemption he will accomplish on Calvary (cf. ch 53) is greater than the release from Babylon. In light of the good news associated with the servant, Isaiah praises the Lord for punishing the wicked and rescuing his wayward people. Chapter 43 declares that nothing will stand in the way of Israel’s return, and the Lord will remember their sins no more. In fact, he will pour out his Spirit on their descendants (44:3).<\/p>\n<p>A God so great is far more powerful than any idol. In 44:6-20 Isaiah makes use of satire to show the worthlessness of man-made images. God alone has the power to create and to restore, and he will bring Cyrus on the scene to effect the release of the exiles and to begin the rebuilding of Jerusalem. Chapters 46 and 47 contrast the God of Israel and the idols of Babylon. When God raises up Cyrus, Babylon’s idols will be unable to save their nation, and the queen of kingdoms (47:5) will collapse along with her sorcerers and astrologers. The final chapter in this section (ch 48) restates God’s purpose of gaining release of the Israelites from Babylon through his chosen ally, Cyrus of Persia.<\/p>\n<h5>Salvation through the Servant of the Lord (49–57)<\/h5>\n<p>Chapters 49–53 contain the final three Servant Songs (cf. also 42:1-7), culminating in the death of the servant for the sins of the world (52:13–53:12). In the second Servant Song (49:1-7), Isaiah describes the call and ministry of the servant, noting that he will face strong opposition as he accomplishes salvation for Israel and the nations. The rest of chapter 49 deals primarily with the way God will bring Israel back from exile. Soon the land will be filled with a mighty throng (vv 19-21), and the Gentiles will acknowledge Israel and her God (vv 22-23).<\/p>\n<p>Although Israel has fully deserved the exile because of her sins (50:1-3), the suffering endured by the servant (vv 4-11; the third Servant Song) is wholly undeserved. The beating and mocking of verse 6 are prophetic of Christ’s experience (cf. Mt 27:26, 30; Mk 15:19). In verses 10-11 of Isaiah 50 the whole nation is challenged to trust in the Lord, as the servant did. There is, in fact, a believing remnant who obey the Lord (51:1-8), and the Lord promises that he will restore them to their homeland. Israel has drunk the cup of God’s wrath (vv 17, 22), but the good news of release from exile causes even the ruins of Jerusalem to burst into songs of joy (52:7-10).<\/p>\n<p>Yet the best news of all is salvation from sin; the final Servant Song (52:13–53:12) tells how Christ wins freedom for those held in bondage to sin. In this brief passage we learn how Christ suffers rejection (53:3) and even disfigurement (52:14). Led like a lamb to the slaughter (53:7), he carries our sins in his body as he dies in ignominy. The people think he is suffering for his own sins (v 4), but he is “pierced” and “crushed for our iniquities” (v 5). The first and last paragraphs of this section (52:13-15; 53:10-12) state that through his suffering the servant is highly exalted. What seems like a terrible defeat is actually victory over death and Satan and brings salvation for many.<\/p>\n<p>As a direct result of the servant’s death, great joy comes to all people. In chapter 54 this joy is reflected in Jerusalem’s new status as the Lord’s wife. Her descendants will be numerous and eager to learn from the Lord. For the first time the plural “servants of the <span>Lord<\/span>” appears (54:17), apparently including all believers, whether Jew or Gentile (cf. 65:8-9, 13-15). Joy and prosperity also characterize chapter 55, an invitation to a great spiritual banquet. All people are urged to turn to the Lord who keeps his promises to Israel. In 56:1-8, foreigners are invited to come to God’s “holy mountain” in Jerusalem, for the temple will be a house of prayer for all the nations (56:7; cf. Mt 21:13).<\/p>\n<p>Believing Gentiles are contrasted sharply with unbelieving Jews, and in 56:9–57:13 Isaiah returns again to the theme of judgment. Israel suffers because her leaders are wicked and because the people are guilty of idolatry. Spiritual healing is available, but unless individuals repent, they cannot be part of the remnant who will return from exile and enjoy peace in the Promised Land.<\/p>\n<h5>Ultimate Blessing and Final Judgment (58–66)<\/h5>\n<p>The last nine chapters of Isaiah emphasize redemption and glory, but the reality of judgment is also very much in evidence. In fact, chapters 58 and 59 bemoan the sins of Israel. The people are hypocritical in their worship; they are selfish and fail to keep the Sabbath. Lying, oppression, and murder separate the people from God. When Isaiah openly confesses these sins (59:12-13), the Lord suddenly takes action on behalf of his people. Like a mighty warrior, he rescues the believing remnant from Babylon and brings them back to Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p>In chapter 60 the glory and wealth of Jerusalem reach new heights. Both the city and the sanctuary are adorned with splendor, matching the prosperity of Solomon’s reign. Just as the nations treated Solomon with honor, so earth’s leaders will assist and strengthen the returning exiles. While it is true that the Persian government did help the Jews repeatedly, the conditions described here will have their ultimate fulfillment during the Millennium and in connection with the new Jerusalem (cf. Rv 21:23; 22:5). The ancient ruins will be rebuilt (Is 61:4), and the Lord will fulfill the covenant made with Abraham and David (Is 61:8; cf. Gn 12:1-3; Is 55:3). Jerusalem will be the city of the holy people, the redeemed of the Lord (Is 62:12), and the Lord will take delight in her (v 4).<\/p>\n<p>In order to accomplish salvation for his people, God will have to judge the ungodly first. The great trampling of the winepress (63:2-3) graphically portrays the judgment process and is linked with the Day of the Lord (cf. 13:3; 34:2). Since God has promised to intervene on behalf of his people, Isaiah prays for the realization of that promise (63:7–64:12). He recalls God’s faithfulness in the past and pleads that he will again have mercy upon his suffering people.<\/p>\n<p>The answer to Isaiah’s prayer is found in chapter 65. God does promise to give the Holy Land back to his servants, to those who worship him and obey him. But for that segment of the nation that continues in its obstinacy, God promises anguish and destruction. The ultimate joy of God’s servants is contained in a description of new heavens and a new earth (65:17-25). Peace, long life, and prosperity will be among the blessings enjoyed in an era that seems to combine features of the Millennium and the eternal state (cf. ch 60).<\/p>\n<p>In a fitting summary, chapter 66 ties together the themes of salvation and judgment. God will comfort Jerusalem and abundantly bless her, but sinners are the objects of his wrath. Those who honor him will endure forever, but those who rebel will suffer everlasting rejection.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Isaiah (Person); Israel, History of; Messiah; Prophecy; Prophet, Prophetess; Servant of the Lord; Virgin Birth of Jesus.<\/p>","summary_ro":"ISAIAH, Book of Preview • Author • Date • Background • Literary Unity • Theological Teaching • Content Author The prophet Isaiah, whose name means “the Lord saves,” lived and ministered in Jerusalem. Because of his repeated contact with the kings of Judah, some scholars believed that Isaiah was related to the royal family, but this is not certain. According to chapters 7 and 8, Isaiah was married and had at least two sons, Shear-jashub and Maher-shalal-hash-baz, whose symbolic names illustrat...","summary_en":"ISAIAH, Book of Preview • Author • Date • Background • Literary Unity • Theological Teaching • Content Author The prophet Isaiah, whose name means “the Lord saves,” lived and ministered in Jerusalem. Because of his repeated contact with the kings of Judah, some scholars believed that Isaiah was related to the royal family, but this is not certain. According to chapters 7 and 8, Isaiah was married and had at least two sons, Shear-jashub and Maher-shalal-hash-baz, whose symbolic names illustrat...","source":"Articles\/I.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":39562,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Yoke","title_en":"Yoke","content_ro":"<h3>YOKE<\/h3>\n<p>The wooden bar that allowed two (or more) draft animals to be coupled (yoked) so that they might effectively work together (Nm 19:2; 1 Kgs 19:19; Jb 1:3). In addition to this literal usage, the Bible frequently uses the term metaphorically to refer to work or bondage (Lv 26:13). The yoke of bondage was applied not only by foreign oppressors but often by Israel’s own kings as well (1 Kgs 12:4-14; 2 Chr 10:4-14). In prophetic writings, the yoke of bondage was generally associated with divine judgment (Lam 1:14), so that deliverance was represented as God breaking the yoke that had enslaved Israel (Is 9:4; 10:27; 14:25; 58:6; Jer 2:20; 5:5). The yoke of bondage figured prominently in Jeremiah’s dispute with Hananiah’s prophecy concerning Judah’s imminent release from Babylonian captivity (Jer 27:8-11; 28:1-17). In the NT, Jesus transforms “yoke” into a positive term by calling on people to take up his yoke, which is not burdensome, and he will give them rest for their souls (Mt 11:29-30).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>YOKE<\/h3>\n<p>The wooden bar that allowed two (or more) draft animals to be coupled (yoked) so that they might effectively work together (Nm 19:2; 1 Kgs 19:19; Jb 1:3). In addition to this literal usage, the Bible frequently uses the term metaphorically to refer to work or bondage (Lv 26:13). The yoke of bondage was applied not only by foreign oppressors but often by Israel’s own kings as well (1 Kgs 12:4-14; 2 Chr 10:4-14). In prophetic writings, the yoke of bondage was generally associated with divine judgment (Lam 1:14), so that deliverance was represented as God breaking the yoke that had enslaved Israel (Is 9:4; 10:27; 14:25; 58:6; Jer 2:20; 5:5). The yoke of bondage figured prominently in Jeremiah’s dispute with Hananiah’s prophecy concerning Judah’s imminent release from Babylonian captivity (Jer 27:8-11; 28:1-17). In the NT, Jesus transforms “yoke” into a positive term by calling on people to take up his yoke, which is not burdensome, and he will give them rest for their souls (Mt 11:29-30).<\/p>","summary_ro":"YOKE The wooden bar that allowed two (or more) draft animals to be coupled (yoked) so that they might effectively work together (Nm 19:2; 1 Kgs 19:19; Jb 1:3). In addition to this literal usage, the Bible frequently uses the term metaphorically to refer to work or bondage (Lv 26:13). The yoke of bondage was applied not only by foreign oppressors but often by Israel’s own kings as well (1 Kgs 12:4-14; 2 Chr 10:4-14). In prophetic writings, the yoke of bondage was generally associated with divi...","summary_en":"YOKE The wooden bar that allowed two (or more) draft animals to be coupled (yoked) so that they might effectively work together (Nm 19:2; 1 Kgs 19:19; Jb 1:3). In addition to this literal usage, the Bible frequently uses the term metaphorically to refer to work or bondage (Lv 26:13). The yoke of bondage was applied not only by foreign oppressors but often by Israel’s own kings as well (1 Kgs 12:4-14; 2 Chr 10:4-14). In prophetic writings, the yoke of bondage was generally associated with divi...","source":"Articles\/XY.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":51192,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 10:27","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 10:27","content_ro":"<p><strong>10:27<\/strong> Israel’s <em>bondage<\/em> ended in 539 <span>BC<\/span> with a new exodus from exile.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>10:27<\/strong> Israel’s <em>bondage<\/em> ended in 539 <span>BC<\/span> with a new exodus from exile.<\/p>","summary_ro":"10:27 Israel’s bondage ended in 539 BC with a new exodus from exile.","summary_en":"10:27 Israel’s bondage ended in 539 BC with a new exodus from exile.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":78818,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 10:27","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 10:27","content_ro":"<p><strong>10:27<\/strong> Israel’s <em>bondage<\/em> ended in 539 <span>BC<\/span> with a new exodus from exile.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>10:27<\/strong> Israel’s <em>bondage<\/em> ended in 539 <span>BC<\/span> with a new exodus from exile.<\/p>","summary_ro":"10:27 Israel’s bondage ended in 539 BC with a new exodus from exile.","summary_en":"10:27 Israel’s bondage ended in 539 BC with a new exodus from exile.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":106444,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 10:27","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 10:27","content_ro":"<p><strong>10:27<\/strong> Israel’s <em>bondage<\/em> ended in 539 <span>BC<\/span> with a new exodus from exile.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>10:27<\/strong> Israel’s <em>bondage<\/em> ended in 539 <span>BC<\/span> with a new exodus from exile.<\/p>","summary_ro":"10:27 Israel’s bondage ended in 539 BC with a new exodus from exile.","summary_en":"10:27 Israel’s bondage ended in 539 BC with a new exodus from exile.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":134070,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 10:27","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 10:27","content_ro":"<p><strong>10:27<\/strong> Israel’s <em>bondage<\/em> ended in 539 <span>BC<\/span> with a new exodus from exile.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>10:27<\/strong> Israel’s <em>bondage<\/em> ended in 539 <span>BC<\/span> with a new exodus from exile.<\/p>","summary_ro":"10:27 Israel’s bondage ended in 539 BC with a new exodus from exile.","summary_en":"10:27 Israel’s bondage ended in 539 BC with a new exodus from exile.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"28":[{"id":986,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Ai","title_en":"Ai","content_ro":"<h3>AI<\/h3>\n<p>Canaanite city that was settled before the time of Abraham (Gn 12:8; 13:3). The name suggests a “ruin” of special significance or striking appearance. The inhabitants of Ai, as well as those of other Canaanite cities (Shechem, Bethel, Jerusalem), did not hinder Abraham in his meanderings in the hill country throughout the land. Abraham may have met with representatives of those cities and convinced their kings of his peaceful intentions. Or he may have presented such a strong front with his sizable entourage that he forestalled any Canaanite move against him.<\/p>\n<p>The people of Israel, led by Joshua, entered Canaan, the Promised Land, with the intention of ridding it of its former occupants and claiming it as their inheritance. Ai, the second city to face them, withstood the first Israelite attack against it. After dealing with Achan, a disobedient soldier whose taking of booty from Jericho had caused their defeat, the Israelites attacked Ai a second time and defeated it (Jos 7:1–8:29). Joshua captured the king, executed him, and burned the city, leaving it a heap of ruins (Jos 10:1).<\/p>\n<p>Ai, rebuilt and reoccupied during the monarchy (under Saul, David, and Solomon), seems to have been known under several names. It was evidently called Ayyah, one of the villages of Ephraim (1 Chr 7:28); Aiath, a village through which Assyrian armies marched toward Jerusalem (Is 10:28); and Aija, a village occupied by Benjamin’s descendants during the exilic period (Neh 11:31).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Conquest and Allotment of the Land; Joshua, Book of.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>AI<\/h3>\n<p>Canaanite city that was settled before the time of Abraham (Gn 12:8; 13:3). The name suggests a “ruin” of special significance or striking appearance. The inhabitants of Ai, as well as those of other Canaanite cities (Shechem, Bethel, Jerusalem), did not hinder Abraham in his meanderings in the hill country throughout the land. Abraham may have met with representatives of those cities and convinced their kings of his peaceful intentions. Or he may have presented such a strong front with his sizable entourage that he forestalled any Canaanite move against him.<\/p>\n<p>The people of Israel, led by Joshua, entered Canaan, the Promised Land, with the intention of ridding it of its former occupants and claiming it as their inheritance. Ai, the second city to face them, withstood the first Israelite attack against it. After dealing with Achan, a disobedient soldier whose taking of booty from Jericho had caused their defeat, the Israelites attacked Ai a second time and defeated it (Jos 7:1–8:29). Joshua captured the king, executed him, and burned the city, leaving it a heap of ruins (Jos 10:1).<\/p>\n<p>Ai, rebuilt and reoccupied during the monarchy (under Saul, David, and Solomon), seems to have been known under several names. It was evidently called Ayyah, one of the villages of Ephraim (1 Chr 7:28); Aiath, a village through which Assyrian armies marched toward Jerusalem (Is 10:28); and Aija, a village occupied by Benjamin’s descendants during the exilic period (Neh 11:31).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Conquest and Allotment of the Land; Joshua, Book of.<\/p>","summary_ro":"AI Canaanite city that was settled before the time of Abraham (Gn 12:8; 13:3). The name suggests a “ruin” of special significance or striking appearance. The inhabitants of Ai, as well as those of other Canaanite cities (Shechem, Bethel, Jerusalem), did not hinder Abraham in his meanderings in the hill country throughout the land. Abraham may have met with representatives of those cities and convinced their kings of his peaceful intentions. Or he may have presented such a strong front with hi...","summary_en":"AI Canaanite city that was settled before the time of Abraham (Gn 12:8; 13:3). The name suggests a “ruin” of special significance or striking appearance. The inhabitants of Ai, as well as those of other Canaanite cities (Shechem, Bethel, Jerusalem), did not hinder Abraham in his meanderings in the hill country throughout the land. Abraham may have met with representatives of those cities and convinced their kings of his peaceful intentions. Or he may have presented such a strong front with hi...","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":992,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Aiath","title_en":"Aiath","content_ro":"<h3>AIATH<\/h3>\n<p>Alternate name for Ai, the Canaanite city, in Isaiah 10:28. <em>See<\/em> Ai.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>AIATH<\/h3>\n<p>Alternate name for Ai, the Canaanite city, in Isaiah 10:28. <em>See<\/em> Ai.<\/p>","summary_ro":"AIATH Alternate name for Ai, the Canaanite city, in Isaiah 10:28. See Ai.","summary_en":"AIATH Alternate name for Ai, the Canaanite city, in Isaiah 10:28. See Ai.","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":3249,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Ayyah","title_en":"Ayyah","content_ro":"<h3>AYYAH<\/h3>\n<p>Town belonging to Ephraim’s tribe (1 Chr 7:28), Gaza, but different from the Philistine Gaza. Some scholars think that Aija (Neh 11:31) refers to Ayyah or to Ai, possibly a neighboring town. Many identify Aiath (Is 10:28) with Ayyah and the town with the modern Khirbet Haiyan.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>AYYAH<\/h3>\n<p>Town belonging to Ephraim’s tribe (1 Chr 7:28), Gaza, but different from the Philistine Gaza. Some scholars think that Aija (Neh 11:31) refers to Ayyah or to Ai, possibly a neighboring town. Many identify Aiath (Is 10:28) with Ayyah and the town with the modern Khirbet Haiyan.<\/p>","summary_ro":"AYYAH Town belonging to Ephraim’s tribe (1 Chr 7:28), Gaza, but different from the Philistine Gaza. Some scholars think that Aija (Neh 11:31) refers to Ayyah or to Ai, possibly a neighboring town. Many identify Aiath (Is 10:28) with Ayyah and the town with the modern Khirbet Haiyan.","summary_en":"AYYAH Town belonging to Ephraim’s tribe (1 Chr 7:28), Gaza, but different from the Philistine Gaza. Some scholars think that Aija (Neh 11:31) refers to Ayyah or to Ai, possibly a neighboring town. Many identify Aiath (Is 10:28) with Ayyah and the town with the modern Khirbet Haiyan.","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":25710,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Migron","title_en":"Migron","content_ro":"<h3>MIGRON<\/h3>\n<p>Site where Saul rested under a pomegranate tree, near Gibeah (1 Sm 14:2); also mentioned as part of the line of march of the Assyrians (Is 10:28). The first reference is to a site south of Michmash, the second is probably north of Michmash. Some scholars, however, try to identify both with the site south of Michmash, though this is doubtful.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>MIGRON<\/h3>\n<p>Site where Saul rested under a pomegranate tree, near Gibeah (1 Sm 14:2); also mentioned as part of the line of march of the Assyrians (Is 10:28). The first reference is to a site south of Michmash, the second is probably north of Michmash. Some scholars, however, try to identify both with the site south of Michmash, though this is doubtful.<\/p>","summary_ro":"MIGRON Site where Saul rested under a pomegranate tree, near Gibeah (1 Sm 14:2); also mentioned as part of the line of march of the Assyrians (Is 10:28). The first reference is to a site south of Michmash, the second is probably north of Michmash. Some scholars, however, try to identify both with the site south of Michmash, though this is doubtful.","summary_en":"MIGRON Site where Saul rested under a pomegranate tree, near Gibeah (1 Sm 14:2); also mentioned as part of the line of march of the Assyrians (Is 10:28). The first reference is to a site south of Michmash, the second is probably north of Michmash. Some scholars, however, try to identify both with the site south of Michmash, though this is doubtful.","source":"Articles\/M.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":51193,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 10:28","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 10:28","content_ro":"<p><strong>10:28-34<\/strong> <em>Look, the Assyrians are now at Aiath:<\/em> The march described in 10:29-32 is a poetic account of Assyria’s defeat. The places follow a route from the north down to Jerusalem. Upon arriving at Jerusalem, the Assyrians were forced to retreat. God was with Jerusalem, and eventually Assyria would be utterly destroyed. This passage might foretell Sennacherib’s invasion in 701 <span>BC<\/span> (see chs 36–37), but it could just as well describe an earlier or later invasion.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>10:28-34<\/strong> <em>Look, the Assyrians are now at Aiath:<\/em> The march described in 10:29-32 is a poetic account of Assyria’s defeat. The places follow a route from the north down to Jerusalem. Upon arriving at Jerusalem, the Assyrians were forced to retreat. God was with Jerusalem, and eventually Assyria would be utterly destroyed. This passage might foretell Sennacherib’s invasion in 701 <span>BC<\/span> (see chs 36–37), but it could just as well describe an earlier or later invasion.<\/p>","summary_ro":"10:28-34 Look, the Assyrians are now at Aiath: The march described in 10:29-32 is a poetic account of Assyria’s defeat. The places follow a route from the north down to Jerusalem. Upon arriving at Jerusalem, the Assyrians were forced to retreat. God was with Jerusalem, and eventually Assyria would be utterly destroyed. This passage might foretell Sennacherib’s invasion in 701 BC (see chs 36–37), but it could just as well describe an earlier or later invasion.","summary_en":"10:28-34 Look, the Assyrians are now at Aiath: The march described in 10:29-32 is a poetic account of Assyria’s defeat. The places follow a route from the north down to Jerusalem. Upon arriving at Jerusalem, the Assyrians were forced to retreat. God was with Jerusalem, and eventually Assyria would be utterly destroyed. This passage might foretell Sennacherib’s invasion in 701 BC (see chs 36–37), but it could just as well describe an earlier or later invasion.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":78819,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 10:28","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 10:28","content_ro":"<p><strong>10:28-34<\/strong> <em>Look, the Assyrians are now at Aiath:<\/em> The march described in 10:29-32 is a poetic account of Assyria’s defeat. The places follow a route from the north down to Jerusalem. Upon arriving at Jerusalem, the Assyrians were forced to retreat. God was with Jerusalem, and eventually Assyria would be utterly destroyed. This passage might foretell Sennacherib’s invasion in 701 <span>BC<\/span> (see chs 36–37), but it could just as well describe an earlier or later invasion.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>10:28-34<\/strong> <em>Look, the Assyrians are now at Aiath:<\/em> The march described in 10:29-32 is a poetic account of Assyria’s defeat. The places follow a route from the north down to Jerusalem. Upon arriving at Jerusalem, the Assyrians were forced to retreat. God was with Jerusalem, and eventually Assyria would be utterly destroyed. This passage might foretell Sennacherib’s invasion in 701 <span>BC<\/span> (see chs 36–37), but it could just as well describe an earlier or later invasion.<\/p>","summary_ro":"10:28-34 Look, the Assyrians are now at Aiath: The march described in 10:29-32 is a poetic account of Assyria’s defeat. The places follow a route from the north down to Jerusalem. Upon arriving at Jerusalem, the Assyrians were forced to retreat. God was with Jerusalem, and eventually Assyria would be utterly destroyed. This passage might foretell Sennacherib’s invasion in 701 BC (see chs 36–37), but it could just as well describe an earlier or later invasion.","summary_en":"10:28-34 Look, the Assyrians are now at Aiath: The march described in 10:29-32 is a poetic account of Assyria’s defeat. The places follow a route from the north down to Jerusalem. Upon arriving at Jerusalem, the Assyrians were forced to retreat. God was with Jerusalem, and eventually Assyria would be utterly destroyed. This passage might foretell Sennacherib’s invasion in 701 BC (see chs 36–37), but it could just as well describe an earlier or later invasion.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":106445,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 10:28","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 10:28","content_ro":"<p><strong>10:28-34<\/strong> <em>Look, the Assyrians are now at Aiath:<\/em> The march described in 10:29-32 is a poetic account of Assyria’s defeat. The places follow a route from the north down to Jerusalem. Upon arriving at Jerusalem, the Assyrians were forced to retreat. God was with Jerusalem, and eventually Assyria would be utterly destroyed. This passage might foretell Sennacherib’s invasion in 701 <span>BC<\/span> (see chs 36–37), but it could just as well describe an earlier or later invasion.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>10:28-34<\/strong> <em>Look, the Assyrians are now at Aiath:<\/em> The march described in 10:29-32 is a poetic account of Assyria’s defeat. The places follow a route from the north down to Jerusalem. Upon arriving at Jerusalem, the Assyrians were forced to retreat. God was with Jerusalem, and eventually Assyria would be utterly destroyed. This passage might foretell Sennacherib’s invasion in 701 <span>BC<\/span> (see chs 36–37), but it could just as well describe an earlier or later invasion.<\/p>","summary_ro":"10:28-34 Look, the Assyrians are now at Aiath: The march described in 10:29-32 is a poetic account of Assyria’s defeat. The places follow a route from the north down to Jerusalem. Upon arriving at Jerusalem, the Assyrians were forced to retreat. God was with Jerusalem, and eventually Assyria would be utterly destroyed. This passage might foretell Sennacherib’s invasion in 701 BC (see chs 36–37), but it could just as well describe an earlier or later invasion.","summary_en":"10:28-34 Look, the Assyrians are now at Aiath: The march described in 10:29-32 is a poetic account of Assyria’s defeat. The places follow a route from the north down to Jerusalem. Upon arriving at Jerusalem, the Assyrians were forced to retreat. God was with Jerusalem, and eventually Assyria would be utterly destroyed. This passage might foretell Sennacherib’s invasion in 701 BC (see chs 36–37), but it could just as well describe an earlier or later invasion.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":134071,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 10:28","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 10:28","content_ro":"<p><strong>10:28-34<\/strong> <em>Look, the Assyrians are now at Aiath:<\/em> The march described in 10:29-32 is a poetic account of Assyria’s defeat. The places follow a route from the north down to Jerusalem. Upon arriving at Jerusalem, the Assyrians were forced to retreat. God was with Jerusalem, and eventually Assyria would be utterly destroyed. This passage might foretell Sennacherib’s invasion in 701 <span>BC<\/span> (see chs 36–37), but it could just as well describe an earlier or later invasion.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>10:28-34<\/strong> <em>Look, the Assyrians are now at Aiath:<\/em> The march described in 10:29-32 is a poetic account of Assyria’s defeat. The places follow a route from the north down to Jerusalem. Upon arriving at Jerusalem, the Assyrians were forced to retreat. God was with Jerusalem, and eventually Assyria would be utterly destroyed. This passage might foretell Sennacherib’s invasion in 701 <span>BC<\/span> (see chs 36–37), but it could just as well describe an earlier or later invasion.<\/p>","summary_ro":"10:28-34 Look, the Assyrians are now at Aiath: The march described in 10:29-32 is a poetic account of Assyria’s defeat. The places follow a route from the north down to Jerusalem. Upon arriving at Jerusalem, the Assyrians were forced to retreat. God was with Jerusalem, and eventually Assyria would be utterly destroyed. This passage might foretell Sennacherib’s invasion in 701 BC (see chs 36–37), but it could just as well describe an earlier or later invasion.","summary_en":"10:28-34 Look, the Assyrians are now at Aiath: The march described in 10:29-32 is a poetic account of Assyria’s defeat. The places follow a route from the north down to Jerusalem. Upon arriving at Jerusalem, the Assyrians were forced to retreat. God was with Jerusalem, and eventually Assyria would be utterly destroyed. This passage might foretell Sennacherib’s invasion in 701 BC (see chs 36–37), but it could just as well describe an earlier or later invasion.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"29":[{"id":13296,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Geba","title_en":"Geba","content_ro":"<h3>GEBA<\/h3>\n<p>Levitical city in the territory of Benjamin (Jos 18:24; 21:17), about seven miles (11.3 kilometers) northeast of Jerusalem and south of Michmash (1 Sm 14:5; Is 10:29). It is easily confused with Gibeah, the hometown of Saul, which is also in Benjamin, to the southwest of Geba. Both names mean “hill.” The phrase “from Geba to Beersheba” indicated the northern and southern extremities of Judah’s tribe (2 Kgs 23:8).<\/p>\n<p>In the time of Saul the Philistines had a garrison at Geba (1 Sm 10:5; 13:3). Jonathan defeated this outpost and stirred up the Philistines, who swarmed into Israel with an army vastly outnumbering the forces of Saul. Saul and his men were at Geba (13:16) and later approached Gibeah (14:2). The Philistines had set up a garrison at Michmash, just opposite Geba. Jonathan proposed to his armor bearer that they go over to this outpost and suggested that if the Philistines called to them to come over, that would be a sign that the Lord had given their enemy into their hand. The Philistines did just that, so the two Israelites approached and killed some 20 of the Philistines, putting the garrison and the entire army to rout. During the reign of David, another horde of Philistine invaders was struck down by him “from Geba to Gezer” (2 Sm 5:25).<\/p>\n<p>Men from Geba are mentioned among the Jews who returned from the Babylonian exile (Ezr 2:26, <span>kjv<\/span> “Gaba”; Neh 11:31). At the dedication of the rebuilt Jerusalem wall, singers from the area of Geba participated (Neh 12:29).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>GEBA<\/h3>\n<p>Levitical city in the territory of Benjamin (Jos 18:24; 21:17), about seven miles (11.3 kilometers) northeast of Jerusalem and south of Michmash (1 Sm 14:5; Is 10:29). It is easily confused with Gibeah, the hometown of Saul, which is also in Benjamin, to the southwest of Geba. Both names mean “hill.” The phrase “from Geba to Beersheba” indicated the northern and southern extremities of Judah’s tribe (2 Kgs 23:8).<\/p>\n<p>In the time of Saul the Philistines had a garrison at Geba (1 Sm 10:5; 13:3). Jonathan defeated this outpost and stirred up the Philistines, who swarmed into Israel with an army vastly outnumbering the forces of Saul. Saul and his men were at Geba (13:16) and later approached Gibeah (14:2). The Philistines had set up a garrison at Michmash, just opposite Geba. Jonathan proposed to his armor bearer that they go over to this outpost and suggested that if the Philistines called to them to come over, that would be a sign that the Lord had given their enemy into their hand. The Philistines did just that, so the two Israelites approached and killed some 20 of the Philistines, putting the garrison and the entire army to rout. During the reign of David, another horde of Philistine invaders was struck down by him “from Geba to Gezer” (2 Sm 5:25).<\/p>\n<p>Men from Geba are mentioned among the Jews who returned from the Babylonian exile (Ezr 2:26, <span>kjv<\/span> “Gaba”; Neh 11:31). At the dedication of the rebuilt Jerusalem wall, singers from the area of Geba participated (Neh 12:29).<\/p>","summary_ro":"GEBA Levitical city in the territory of Benjamin (Jos 18:24; 21:17), about seven miles (11.3 kilometers) northeast of Jerusalem and south of Michmash (1 Sm 14:5; Is 10:29). It is easily confused with Gibeah, the hometown of Saul, which is also in Benjamin, to the southwest of Geba. Both names mean “hill.” The phrase “from Geba to Beersheba” indicated the northern and southern extremities of Judah’s tribe (2 Kgs 23:8). In the time of Saul the Philistines had a garrison at Geba (1 Sm 10:5; 13:3...","summary_en":"GEBA Levitical city in the territory of Benjamin (Jos 18:24; 21:17), about seven miles (11.3 kilometers) northeast of Jerusalem and south of Michmash (1 Sm 14:5; Is 10:29). It is easily confused with Gibeah, the hometown of Saul, which is also in Benjamin, to the southwest of Geba. Both names mean “hill.” The phrase “from Geba to Beersheba” indicated the northern and southern extremities of Judah’s tribe (2 Kgs 23:8). In the time of Saul the Philistines had a garrison at Geba (1 Sm 10:5; 13:3...","source":"Articles\/G.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":13761,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Gibeah","title_en":"Gibeah","content_ro":"<h3>GIBEAH<\/h3>\n<li>1. Town in the hill country of Judah (Jos 15:57). Its exact location is uncertain. Gibeah is listed as being among other towns located in the section of Judah southeast of Hebron and probably was in the fertile plateau containing Maon, Ziph, and Carmel.<\/li>\n<li>2. Town in the province of Benjamin, also called “Gibeah of Saul” (1 Sm 11:4; 15:34; Is 10:29), and its inhabitants are called Gibeathites (1 Chr 12:3). It is first mentioned in the description of the territory assigned to Benjamin (Jos 18:28, <span>kjv<\/span> “Gibeath”) and comes to prominence in the biblical narrative as a result of the atrocity recounted in Judges 19–21 of the Levite and his concubine.<\/li>\n<p>Gibeah was also noted as the home of Saul (1 Sm 10:26). After his anointing as king of Israel, Saul returned to Gibeah, which probably remained his home and his capital (10:26; 22:6; 23:19).<\/p>\n<p>The site of ancient Gibeah has been generally identified as the modern Tell el-Ful. The OT references place Gibeah north of Jerusalem, between Jerusalem and Ramah, and situated near the primary south-north road through the hill country (Jgs 19:11-19). Tell el-Ful is about three and a half miles (5.6 kilometers) north of Jerusalem and is situated on one of the highest areas in that mountain range. Excavations reveal that an early Israelite village was there about the 12th century <span>BC<\/span> and was destroyed by fire. Probably during the 11th century a stone fortress was built, and its corner tower is still evident. It probably was the citadel of Saul and his royal residence. A second fortress was built about 1000 <span>BC<\/span> but fell into disuse when David established the Israelite capital at Jerusalem. It then served as an outpost for the capital city. The tower was alternately destroyed and rebuilt through the centuries until its final destruction in the war between Antiochus III and Ptolemy V. Josephus wrote that a village existed at the site of Gibeah during the Roman period, but it finally ceased to exist with the Roman destruction of Jerusalem (<span>AD<\/span> 70).<\/p>\n<li>3. Town in the hills of Ephraim that was given to Phinehas, son of Eleazar. It was the burial site of Eleazar (Jos 24:33). An addition to the Septuagint indicates that Phinehas was also buried here. Its exact location is unknown, and several sites have been suggested: Nibi Saleh, about six miles (9.7 kilometers) northwest of Jifna; Jibia, four miles (6.5 kilometers) northwest of Jifna; et-Tell, northeast of Jifna and south of Sinjil; and Awertah, near Shechem.<\/li>\n<li>4. Gibeath-elohim (1 Sm 10:5, <span>rsv<\/span>; <span>kjv<\/span> “hill of God”; <span>nlt<\/span> “Gibeah of God”). At this site Samuel, following Saul’s anointing as king, predicted that Saul would meet a company of prophets and would prophesy with them. This was to be a sign of God’s selection of Saul as Israel’s king. Some have suggested that this is the same place as Gibeah of Benjamin, the home of Saul, but the context suggests that Saul reached this place before he arrived at his home.<\/li>\n<li>5. Hill near Kiriath-jearim, where the ark of the covenant was housed by Abinadab after its return from the Philistines and until it was moved by David to the house of Obed-edom (2 Sm 6:1-4).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>GIBEAH<\/h3>\n<li>1. Town in the hill country of Judah (Jos 15:57). Its exact location is uncertain. Gibeah is listed as being among other towns located in the section of Judah southeast of Hebron and probably was in the fertile plateau containing Maon, Ziph, and Carmel.<\/li>\n<li>2. Town in the province of Benjamin, also called “Gibeah of Saul” (1 Sm 11:4; 15:34; Is 10:29), and its inhabitants are called Gibeathites (1 Chr 12:3). It is first mentioned in the description of the territory assigned to Benjamin (Jos 18:28, <span>kjv<\/span> “Gibeath”) and comes to prominence in the biblical narrative as a result of the atrocity recounted in Judges 19–21 of the Levite and his concubine.<\/li>\n<p>Gibeah was also noted as the home of Saul (1 Sm 10:26). After his anointing as king of Israel, Saul returned to Gibeah, which probably remained his home and his capital (10:26; 22:6; 23:19).<\/p>\n<p>The site of ancient Gibeah has been generally identified as the modern Tell el-Ful. The OT references place Gibeah north of Jerusalem, between Jerusalem and Ramah, and situated near the primary south-north road through the hill country (Jgs 19:11-19). Tell el-Ful is about three and a half miles (5.6 kilometers) north of Jerusalem and is situated on one of the highest areas in that mountain range. Excavations reveal that an early Israelite village was there about the 12th century <span>BC<\/span> and was destroyed by fire. Probably during the 11th century a stone fortress was built, and its corner tower is still evident. It probably was the citadel of Saul and his royal residence. A second fortress was built about 1000 <span>BC<\/span> but fell into disuse when David established the Israelite capital at Jerusalem. It then served as an outpost for the capital city. The tower was alternately destroyed and rebuilt through the centuries until its final destruction in the war between Antiochus III and Ptolemy V. Josephus wrote that a village existed at the site of Gibeah during the Roman period, but it finally ceased to exist with the Roman destruction of Jerusalem (<span>AD<\/span> 70).<\/p>\n<li>3. Town in the hills of Ephraim that was given to Phinehas, son of Eleazar. It was the burial site of Eleazar (Jos 24:33). An addition to the Septuagint indicates that Phinehas was also buried here. Its exact location is unknown, and several sites have been suggested: Nibi Saleh, about six miles (9.7 kilometers) northwest of Jifna; Jibia, four miles (6.5 kilometers) northwest of Jifna; et-Tell, northeast of Jifna and south of Sinjil; and Awertah, near Shechem.<\/li>\n<li>4. Gibeath-elohim (1 Sm 10:5, <span>rsv<\/span>; <span>kjv<\/span> “hill of God”; <span>nlt<\/span> “Gibeah of God”). At this site Samuel, following Saul’s anointing as king, predicted that Saul would meet a company of prophets and would prophesy with them. This was to be a sign of God’s selection of Saul as Israel’s king. Some have suggested that this is the same place as Gibeah of Benjamin, the home of Saul, but the context suggests that Saul reached this place before he arrived at his home.<\/li>\n<li>5. Hill near Kiriath-jearim, where the ark of the covenant was housed by Abinadab after its return from the Philistines and until it was moved by David to the house of Obed-edom (2 Sm 6:1-4).<\/li>","summary_ro":"GIBEAH 1. Town in the hill country of Judah (Jos 15:57). Its exact location is uncertain. Gibeah is listed as being among other towns located in the section of Judah southeast of Hebron and probably was in the fertile plateau containing Maon, Ziph, and Carmel. 2. Town in the province of Benjamin, also called “Gibeah of Saul” (1 Sm 11:4; 15:34; Is 10:29), and its inhabitants are called Gibeathites (1 Chr 12:3). It is first mentioned in the description of the territory assigned to Benjamin (Jos...","summary_en":"GIBEAH 1. Town in the hill country of Judah (Jos 15:57). Its exact location is uncertain. Gibeah is listed as being among other towns located in the section of Judah southeast of Hebron and probably was in the fertile plateau containing Maon, Ziph, and Carmel. 2. Town in the province of Benjamin, also called “Gibeah of Saul” (1 Sm 11:4; 15:34; Is 10:29), and its inhabitants are called Gibeathites (1 Chr 12:3). It is first mentioned in the description of the territory assigned to Benjamin (Jos...","source":"Articles\/G.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":32361,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Ramah","title_en":"Ramah","content_ro":"<h3>RAMAH<\/h3>\n<li>1. One of the cities located in the territory allotted to Benjamin’s tribe for an inheritance, listed between Gibeon and Beeroth (Jos 18:25). In the proximity of this town, Rachel, Jacob’s wife, was buried (Mt 2:18; cf. Gn 35:16-21; Jer 31:15). Ramah, positioned near Bethel, was the place where Deborah judged Israel (Jgs 4:5). This city was a temporary resting place for a Levite and his concubine traveling north from Bethlehem (19:13).<\/li>\n<p>During the period of the divided kingdom (930– 722 <span>BC<\/span>), King Baasha of Israel (908–886 <span>BC<\/span>) fortified Ramah. From Ramah, Baasha was able to prevent an invasion of King Asa’s (910–869 <span>BC<\/span>) Judean army. Baasha later abandoned the city and hurried his army north to repulse a Syrian offensive led by King Ben-hadad I (c. 885 <span>BC<\/span>). Asa dismantled Ramah’s military fortifications, using the material to build the towns of Geba and Mizpah (1 Kgs 15:17-22; 2 Chr 16:1-6).<\/p>\n<p>The cities of Geba, Ramah, and Gibeah formed the route taken by the Assyrian army during Sennacherib’s military incursion into Judah (c. 701 <span>BC<\/span>) against King Hezekiah and Jerusalem (Is 10:29). Later King Nebuchadnezzar used Ramah as a place of detainment for the Jews being deported to Babylon. Here Nebuzaradan, the captain of the guard, released Jeremiah from among the captives (Jer 40:1).<\/p>\n<p>Following the Babylonian captivity, inhabitants of Ramah returned with Zerubbabel to Palestine and rebuilt this city (Ezr 2:26; Neh 7:30). Some suggest that the postexilic town of Ramah was another Benjaminite town located farther west near the coastal plain (Neh 11:33). The site of Ramah is identified with the modern village of er-Ram, five miles (8 kilometers) north of Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<li>2. City in the Negev marking the southern extremity of the territory allotted to the tribe of Simeon within Judah’s inheritance (Jos 19:8); also called Ramoth of the Negev (1 Sm 30:27) and Baalath-beer (Jos 19:8; cf. 1 Chr 4:33). <em>See<\/em> Baalath-beer.<\/li>\n<li>3. Town defining the boundary of the territory assigned to Asher’s tribe for an inheritance, mentioned between Sidon and Tyre (Jos 19:29).<\/li>\n<li>4. One of 19 fortified cities given to Naphtali’s tribe for a possession, mentioned between Adamah and Hazor (Jos 19:36). Its location is identifiable with the modern town of er-Rameh, about 11 miles (17.7 kilometers) northwest of the Sea of Galilee.<\/li>\n<li>5. Home of Samuel’s parents, Elkanah and Hannah; the birthplace of Samuel (1 Sm 1:19; 2:11); and later his home (7:17; 16:13). Samuel judged Israel from Ramah, Bethel, Gilgal, and Mizpah (7:17). Saul first met Samuel at this city (9:6-10). Here the elders of Israel petitioned Samuel to appoint a king for them (8:4), and later this city provided David a place of refuge from King Saul (19:18–20:1). Samuel was buried at Ramah (25:1; 28:3). Ramah is alternately called Ramathaim-zophim in 1 Samuel 1:1.<\/li>\n<li>6. Abbreviated name for Ramoth-gilead (2 Kgs 8:29; 2 Chr 22:6). <em>See<\/em> Ramoth-gilead.<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>RAMAH<\/h3>\n<li>1. One of the cities located in the territory allotted to Benjamin’s tribe for an inheritance, listed between Gibeon and Beeroth (Jos 18:25). In the proximity of this town, Rachel, Jacob’s wife, was buried (Mt 2:18; cf. Gn 35:16-21; Jer 31:15). Ramah, positioned near Bethel, was the place where Deborah judged Israel (Jgs 4:5). This city was a temporary resting place for a Levite and his concubine traveling north from Bethlehem (19:13).<\/li>\n<p>During the period of the divided kingdom (930– 722 <span>BC<\/span>), King Baasha of Israel (908–886 <span>BC<\/span>) fortified Ramah. From Ramah, Baasha was able to prevent an invasion of King Asa’s (910–869 <span>BC<\/span>) Judean army. Baasha later abandoned the city and hurried his army north to repulse a Syrian offensive led by King Ben-hadad I (c. 885 <span>BC<\/span>). Asa dismantled Ramah’s military fortifications, using the material to build the towns of Geba and Mizpah (1 Kgs 15:17-22; 2 Chr 16:1-6).<\/p>\n<p>The cities of Geba, Ramah, and Gibeah formed the route taken by the Assyrian army during Sennacherib’s military incursion into Judah (c. 701 <span>BC<\/span>) against King Hezekiah and Jerusalem (Is 10:29). Later King Nebuchadnezzar used Ramah as a place of detainment for the Jews being deported to Babylon. Here Nebuzaradan, the captain of the guard, released Jeremiah from among the captives (Jer 40:1).<\/p>\n<p>Following the Babylonian captivity, inhabitants of Ramah returned with Zerubbabel to Palestine and rebuilt this city (Ezr 2:26; Neh 7:30). Some suggest that the postexilic town of Ramah was another Benjaminite town located farther west near the coastal plain (Neh 11:33). The site of Ramah is identified with the modern village of er-Ram, five miles (8 kilometers) north of Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<li>2. City in the Negev marking the southern extremity of the territory allotted to the tribe of Simeon within Judah’s inheritance (Jos 19:8); also called Ramoth of the Negev (1 Sm 30:27) and Baalath-beer (Jos 19:8; cf. 1 Chr 4:33). <em>See<\/em> Baalath-beer.<\/li>\n<li>3. Town defining the boundary of the territory assigned to Asher’s tribe for an inheritance, mentioned between Sidon and Tyre (Jos 19:29).<\/li>\n<li>4. One of 19 fortified cities given to Naphtali’s tribe for a possession, mentioned between Adamah and Hazor (Jos 19:36). Its location is identifiable with the modern town of er-Rameh, about 11 miles (17.7 kilometers) northwest of the Sea of Galilee.<\/li>\n<li>5. Home of Samuel’s parents, Elkanah and Hannah; the birthplace of Samuel (1 Sm 1:19; 2:11); and later his home (7:17; 16:13). Samuel judged Israel from Ramah, Bethel, Gilgal, and Mizpah (7:17). Saul first met Samuel at this city (9:6-10). Here the elders of Israel petitioned Samuel to appoint a king for them (8:4), and later this city provided David a place of refuge from King Saul (19:18–20:1). Samuel was buried at Ramah (25:1; 28:3). Ramah is alternately called Ramathaim-zophim in 1 Samuel 1:1.<\/li>\n<li>6. Abbreviated name for Ramoth-gilead (2 Kgs 8:29; 2 Chr 22:6). <em>See<\/em> Ramoth-gilead.<\/li>","summary_ro":"RAMAH 1. One of the cities located in the territory allotted to Benjamin’s tribe for an inheritance, listed between Gibeon and Beeroth (Jos 18:25). In the proximity of this town, Rachel, Jacob’s wife, was buried (Mt 2:18; cf. Gn 35:16-21; Jer 31:15). Ramah, positioned near Bethel, was the place where Deborah judged Israel (Jgs 4:5). This city was a temporary resting place for a Levite and his concubine traveling north from Bethlehem (19:13). During the period of the divided kingdom (930– 722 ...","summary_en":"RAMAH 1. One of the cities located in the territory allotted to Benjamin’s tribe for an inheritance, listed between Gibeon and Beeroth (Jos 18:25). In the proximity of this town, Rachel, Jacob’s wife, was buried (Mt 2:18; cf. Gn 35:16-21; Jer 31:15). Ramah, positioned near Bethel, was the place where Deborah judged Israel (Jgs 4:5). This city was a temporary resting place for a Levite and his concubine traveling north from Bethlehem (19:13). During the period of the divided kingdom (930– 722 ...","source":"Articles\/R.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"30":[{"id":13204,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Gallim","title_en":"Gallim","content_ro":"<h3>GALLIM<\/h3>\n<p>Village near Gibeah of Saul and Anathoth in Benjamin, north of Jerusalem and close to Bahurim (1 Sm 25:44; Is 10:30); probably present-day Khirbet Kakul.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>GALLIM<\/h3>\n<p>Village near Gibeah of Saul and Anathoth in Benjamin, north of Jerusalem and close to Bahurim (1 Sm 25:44; Is 10:30); probably present-day Khirbet Kakul.<\/p>","summary_ro":"GALLIM Village near Gibeah of Saul and Anathoth in Benjamin, north of Jerusalem and close to Bahurim (1 Sm 25:44; Is 10:30); probably present-day Khirbet Kakul.","summary_en":"GALLIM Village near Gibeah of Saul and Anathoth in Benjamin, north of Jerusalem and close to Bahurim (1 Sm 25:44; Is 10:30); probably present-day Khirbet Kakul.","source":"Articles\/G.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":22401,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Laish (Place)","title_en":"Laish (Place)","content_ro":"<h3>LAISH (P<span>lace<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<li>1. Early name for the city of Dan (Jgs 18:7, 14, 27-29). <em>See<\/em> Dan (Place) #1.<\/li>\n<li>2. KJV spelling of Laishah, a Benjamite town, in Isaiah 10:30. <em>See<\/em> Laishah.<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>LAISH (P<span>lace<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<li>1. Early name for the city of Dan (Jgs 18:7, 14, 27-29). <em>See<\/em> Dan (Place) #1.<\/li>\n<li>2. KJV spelling of Laishah, a Benjamite town, in Isaiah 10:30. <em>See<\/em> Laishah.<\/li>","summary_ro":"LAISH (Place) 1. Early name for the city of Dan (Jgs 18:7, 14, 27-29). See Dan (Place) #1. 2. KJV spelling of Laishah, a Benjamite town, in Isaiah 10:30. See Laishah.","summary_en":"LAISH (Place) 1. Early name for the city of Dan (Jgs 18:7, 14, 27-29). See Dan (Place) #1. 2. KJV spelling of Laishah, a Benjamite town, in Isaiah 10:30. See Laishah.","source":"Articles\/L.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":22402,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Laishah","title_en":"Laishah","content_ro":"<h3>LAISHAH<\/h3>\n<p>Town in Benjamin mentioned between Gallim and Anathoth (Is 10:30). Its site is possibly Khirbet el-’Isawiyeh.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>LAISHAH<\/h3>\n<p>Town in Benjamin mentioned between Gallim and Anathoth (Is 10:30). Its site is possibly Khirbet el-’Isawiyeh.<\/p>","summary_ro":"LAISHAH Town in Benjamin mentioned between Gallim and Anathoth (Is 10:30). Its site is possibly Khirbet el-’Isawiyeh.","summary_en":"LAISHAH Town in Benjamin mentioned between Gallim and Anathoth (Is 10:30). Its site is possibly Khirbet el-’Isawiyeh.","source":"Articles\/L.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"31":[{"id":13311,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Gebim","title_en":"Gebim","content_ro":"<h3>GEBIM<\/h3>\n<p>Small town just north of Jerusalem. Isaiah 10:31 prophesied that its inhabitants would flee when the Assyrian army came to invade. Its exact location is unknown.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>GEBIM<\/h3>\n<p>Small town just north of Jerusalem. Isaiah 10:31 prophesied that its inhabitants would flee when the Assyrian army came to invade. Its exact location is unknown.<\/p>","summary_ro":"GEBIM Small town just north of Jerusalem. Isaiah 10:31 prophesied that its inhabitants would flee when the Assyrian army came to invade. Its exact location is unknown.","summary_en":"GEBIM Small town just north of Jerusalem. Isaiah 10:31 prophesied that its inhabitants would flee when the Assyrian army came to invade. Its exact location is unknown.","source":"Articles\/G.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":23870,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Madmenah","title_en":"Madmenah","content_ro":"<h3>MADMENAH<\/h3>\n<p>Benjamite town positioned north of Jerusalem along the route taken by the Assyrian army during Sennacherib’s military incursion into Judah (c. 701 <span>BC<\/span>) against King Hezekiah (715–686 <span>BC<\/span>) and the Holy City (Is 10:31).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>MADMENAH<\/h3>\n<p>Benjamite town positioned north of Jerusalem along the route taken by the Assyrian army during Sennacherib’s military incursion into Judah (c. 701 <span>BC<\/span>) against King Hezekiah (715–686 <span>BC<\/span>) and the Holy City (Is 10:31).<\/p>","summary_ro":"MADMENAH Benjamite town positioned north of Jerusalem along the route taken by the Assyrian army during Sennacherib’s military incursion into Judah (c. 701 BC) against King Hezekiah (715–686 BC) and the Holy City (Is 10:31).","summary_en":"MADMENAH Benjamite town positioned north of Jerusalem along the route taken by the Assyrian army during Sennacherib’s military incursion into Judah (c. 701 BC) against King Hezekiah (715–686 BC) and the Holy City (Is 10:31).","source":"Articles\/M.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"32":[{"id":62946,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Zion","title_en":"Zion","content_ro":"<h3>Zion<\/h3>\n<p>Zion is the Hebrew name for the mountain in Jerusalem where the Temple was located (2 Sam 5:7; see also 2 Chr 3:1). Zion is used as a synonym for Jerusalem, and the NLT often translates <em>Zion<\/em> as “Jerusalem” (e.g., Pss 69:35; 87:2; 97:8; 132:13). Thus Zion can refer to the actual, physical city of Jerusalem that was destroyed in 586 <span>BC<\/span> (see 102:13; 126:1; 137:1) and again in <span>AD<\/span> 70.<\/p>\n<p>Zion also signifies the city of God that transcends geographical location. Zion is God’s universal kingdom, the city in which he dwells (74:2; 76:2; 84:7; 135:21; see Isa 26). This city embodies trust, justice, righteousness, and commitment, for the Lord does not tolerate impurity, uncleanness, idolatry, injustice, or unrighteousness (Isa 1:21-28). The prophets and poets of Israel speak of the city of God as being more extensive than the physical city. The citizens of this city come from Judah, Israel, and the nations (see Ps 87:5-6; Heb 12:22-24). Zion is on a high mountain (Ps 48:2) at the center of God’s kingdom on earth (99:2; 132:13), and God’s throne is there (9:11). Therefore, godly prayers and praise focus on Zion (53:6; 65:1; 147:12; 149:2), and redemption is sought there (14:7; 20:2; 50:2; 53:6). David’s descendants are the legitimate heirs who rule over Zion to establish God’s universal kingdom (2:6; 110:2).<\/p>\n<p>Zion is symbolic of God’s protection and blessings (Pss 46:4-11; 48:1-14; 51:18; 128:5; 134:3). Anyone who trusts in the Lord is as secure as Mount Zion (125:1), but those who reject the Lord also reject the security of Zion and have no future (129:5-8).<\/p>\n<p>The New Testament speaks of Mount Zion as a heavenly Jerusalem, the spiritual home of those from all nations who have been reborn through faith in Jesus Christ (Heb 12:22-24; see also Gal 4:24-26; Rev 3:12; 21:2-4). Abraham looked forward in faith to “a city with eternal foundations” (Heb 11:10), a city in which all men and women of faith are citizens (Heb 12:22-24). Because the Lord knows no geographical limitations (1 Kgs 8:27), the true Zion he inhabits is the hearts of all who worship him.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>2 Sam 5:7; 1 Kgs 8:1; Pss 14:7; 48:1-14; 50:2; 51:18; 68:16; 78:68; 87:2, 5; 125:1; 128:5; 132:13; 133:3; 135:21; 147:12; Isa 1:27; 2:3; 3:16-17, 26; 4:3-5; 8:18; 10:12, 24, 32; 16:1; 24:23; 29:8; 30:19; 31:4, 9; 33:20; 37:22, 32; 40:9; 41:27; 52:1-2; 60:14; 62:1; 64:10; Jer 26:18; 51:35; Lam 2:13; Joel 2:32; 3:16-17; Amos 1:2; Obad 1:21; Mic 3:12; 4:2; Zeph 3:14, 16; Zech 1:14, 17; 2:7; 8:2-3; 9:9; Heb 12:22; Rev 14:1<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Zion<\/h3>\n<p>Zion is the Hebrew name for the mountain in Jerusalem where the Temple was located (2 Sam 5:7; see also 2 Chr 3:1). Zion is used as a synonym for Jerusalem, and the NLT often translates <em>Zion<\/em> as “Jerusalem” (e.g., Pss 69:35; 87:2; 97:8; 132:13). Thus Zion can refer to the actual, physical city of Jerusalem that was destroyed in 586 <span>BC<\/span> (see 102:13; 126:1; 137:1) and again in <span>AD<\/span> 70.<\/p>\n<p>Zion also signifies the city of God that transcends geographical location. Zion is God’s universal kingdom, the city in which he dwells (74:2; 76:2; 84:7; 135:21; see Isa 26). This city embodies trust, justice, righteousness, and commitment, for the Lord does not tolerate impurity, uncleanness, idolatry, injustice, or unrighteousness (Isa 1:21-28). The prophets and poets of Israel speak of the city of God as being more extensive than the physical city. The citizens of this city come from Judah, Israel, and the nations (see Ps 87:5-6; Heb 12:22-24). Zion is on a high mountain (Ps 48:2) at the center of God’s kingdom on earth (99:2; 132:13), and God’s throne is there (9:11). Therefore, godly prayers and praise focus on Zion (53:6; 65:1; 147:12; 149:2), and redemption is sought there (14:7; 20:2; 50:2; 53:6). David’s descendants are the legitimate heirs who rule over Zion to establish God’s universal kingdom (2:6; 110:2).<\/p>\n<p>Zion is symbolic of God’s protection and blessings (Pss 46:4-11; 48:1-14; 51:18; 128:5; 134:3). Anyone who trusts in the Lord is as secure as Mount Zion (125:1), but those who reject the Lord also reject the security of Zion and have no future (129:5-8).<\/p>\n<p>The New Testament speaks of Mount Zion as a heavenly Jerusalem, the spiritual home of those from all nations who have been reborn through faith in Jesus Christ (Heb 12:22-24; see also Gal 4:24-26; Rev 3:12; 21:2-4). Abraham looked forward in faith to “a city with eternal foundations” (Heb 11:10), a city in which all men and women of faith are citizens (Heb 12:22-24). Because the Lord knows no geographical limitations (1 Kgs 8:27), the true Zion he inhabits is the hearts of all who worship him.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>2 Sam 5:7; 1 Kgs 8:1; Pss 14:7; 48:1-14; 50:2; 51:18; 68:16; 78:68; 87:2, 5; 125:1; 128:5; 132:13; 133:3; 135:21; 147:12; Isa 1:27; 2:3; 3:16-17, 26; 4:3-5; 8:18; 10:12, 24, 32; 16:1; 24:23; 29:8; 30:19; 31:4, 9; 33:20; 37:22, 32; 40:9; 41:27; 52:1-2; 60:14; 62:1; 64:10; Jer 26:18; 51:35; Lam 2:13; Joel 2:32; 3:16-17; Amos 1:2; Obad 1:21; Mic 3:12; 4:2; Zeph 3:14, 16; Zech 1:14, 17; 2:7; 8:2-3; 9:9; Heb 12:22; Rev 14:1<\/p>","summary_ro":"Zion Zion is the Hebrew name for the mountain in Jerusalem where the Temple was located (2 Sam 5:7; see also 2 Chr 3:1). Zion is used as a synonym for Jerusalem, and the NLT often translates Zion as “Jerusalem” (e.g., Pss 69:35; 87:2; 97:8; 132:13). Thus Zion can refer to the actual, physical city of Jerusalem that was destroyed in 586 BC (see 102:13; 126:1; 137:1) and again in AD 70. Zion also signifies the city of God that transcends geographical location. Zion is God’s universal kingdom, t...","summary_en":"Zion Zion is the Hebrew name for the mountain in Jerusalem where the Temple was located (2 Sam 5:7; see also 2 Chr 3:1). Zion is used as a synonym for Jerusalem, and the NLT often translates Zion as “Jerusalem” (e.g., Pss 69:35; 87:2; 97:8; 132:13). Thus Zion can refer to the actual, physical city of Jerusalem that was destroyed in 586 BC (see 102:13; 126:1; 137:1) and again in AD 70. Zion also signifies the city of God that transcends geographical location. Zion is God’s universal kingdom, t...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":90572,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Zion","title_en":"Zion","content_ro":"<h3>Zion<\/h3>\n<p>Zion is the Hebrew name for the mountain in Jerusalem where the Temple was located (2 Sam 5:7; see also 2 Chr 3:1). Zion is used as a synonym for Jerusalem, and the NLT often translates <em>Zion<\/em> as “Jerusalem” (e.g., Pss 69:35; 87:2; 97:8; 132:13). Thus Zion can refer to the actual, physical city of Jerusalem that was destroyed in 586 <span>BC<\/span> (see 102:13; 126:1; 137:1) and again in <span>AD<\/span> 70.<\/p>\n<p>Zion also signifies the city of God that transcends geographical location. Zion is God’s universal kingdom, the city in which he dwells (74:2; 76:2; 84:7; 135:21; see Isa 26). This city embodies trust, justice, righteousness, and commitment, for the Lord does not tolerate impurity, uncleanness, idolatry, injustice, or unrighteousness (Isa 1:21-28). The prophets and poets of Israel speak of the city of God as being more extensive than the physical city. The citizens of this city come from Judah, Israel, and the nations (see Ps 87:5-6; Heb 12:22-24). Zion is on a high mountain (Ps 48:2) at the center of God’s kingdom on earth (99:2; 132:13), and God’s throne is there (9:11). Therefore, godly prayers and praise focus on Zion (53:6; 65:1; 147:12; 149:2), and redemption is sought there (14:7; 20:2; 50:2; 53:6). David’s descendants are the legitimate heirs who rule over Zion to establish God’s universal kingdom (2:6; 110:2).<\/p>\n<p>Zion is symbolic of God’s protection and blessings (Pss 46:4-11; 48:1-14; 51:18; 128:5; 134:3). Anyone who trusts in the Lord is as secure as Mount Zion (125:1), but those who reject the Lord also reject the security of Zion and have no future (129:5-8).<\/p>\n<p>The New Testament speaks of Mount Zion as a heavenly Jerusalem, the spiritual home of those from all nations who have been reborn through faith in Jesus Christ (Heb 12:22-24; see also Gal 4:24-26; Rev 3:12; 21:2-4). Abraham looked forward in faith to “a city with eternal foundations” (Heb 11:10), a city in which all men and women of faith are citizens (Heb 12:22-24). Because the Lord knows no geographical limitations (1 Kgs 8:27), the true Zion he inhabits is the hearts of all who worship him.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>2 Sam 5:7; 1 Kgs 8:1; Pss 14:7; 48:1-14; 50:2; 51:18; 68:16; 78:68; 87:2, 5; 125:1; 128:5; 132:13; 133:3; 135:21; 147:12; Isa 1:27; 2:3; 3:16-17, 26; 4:3-5; 8:18; 10:12, 24, 32; 16:1; 24:23; 29:8; 30:19; 31:4, 9; 33:20; 37:22, 32; 40:9; 41:27; 52:1-2; 60:14; 62:1; 64:10; Jer 26:18; 51:35; Lam 2:13; Joel 2:32; 3:16-17; Amos 1:2; Obad 1:21; Mic 3:12; 4:2; Zeph 3:14, 16; Zech 1:14, 17; 2:7; 8:2-3; 9:9; Heb 12:22; Rev 14:1<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Zion<\/h3>\n<p>Zion is the Hebrew name for the mountain in Jerusalem where the Temple was located (2 Sam 5:7; see also 2 Chr 3:1). Zion is used as a synonym for Jerusalem, and the NLT often translates <em>Zion<\/em> as “Jerusalem” (e.g., Pss 69:35; 87:2; 97:8; 132:13). Thus Zion can refer to the actual, physical city of Jerusalem that was destroyed in 586 <span>BC<\/span> (see 102:13; 126:1; 137:1) and again in <span>AD<\/span> 70.<\/p>\n<p>Zion also signifies the city of God that transcends geographical location. Zion is God’s universal kingdom, the city in which he dwells (74:2; 76:2; 84:7; 135:21; see Isa 26). This city embodies trust, justice, righteousness, and commitment, for the Lord does not tolerate impurity, uncleanness, idolatry, injustice, or unrighteousness (Isa 1:21-28). The prophets and poets of Israel speak of the city of God as being more extensive than the physical city. The citizens of this city come from Judah, Israel, and the nations (see Ps 87:5-6; Heb 12:22-24). Zion is on a high mountain (Ps 48:2) at the center of God’s kingdom on earth (99:2; 132:13), and God’s throne is there (9:11). Therefore, godly prayers and praise focus on Zion (53:6; 65:1; 147:12; 149:2), and redemption is sought there (14:7; 20:2; 50:2; 53:6). David’s descendants are the legitimate heirs who rule over Zion to establish God’s universal kingdom (2:6; 110:2).<\/p>\n<p>Zion is symbolic of God’s protection and blessings (Pss 46:4-11; 48:1-14; 51:18; 128:5; 134:3). Anyone who trusts in the Lord is as secure as Mount Zion (125:1), but those who reject the Lord also reject the security of Zion and have no future (129:5-8).<\/p>\n<p>The New Testament speaks of Mount Zion as a heavenly Jerusalem, the spiritual home of those from all nations who have been reborn through faith in Jesus Christ (Heb 12:22-24; see also Gal 4:24-26; Rev 3:12; 21:2-4). Abraham looked forward in faith to “a city with eternal foundations” (Heb 11:10), a city in which all men and women of faith are citizens (Heb 12:22-24). Because the Lord knows no geographical limitations (1 Kgs 8:27), the true Zion he inhabits is the hearts of all who worship him.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>2 Sam 5:7; 1 Kgs 8:1; Pss 14:7; 48:1-14; 50:2; 51:18; 68:16; 78:68; 87:2, 5; 125:1; 128:5; 132:13; 133:3; 135:21; 147:12; Isa 1:27; 2:3; 3:16-17, 26; 4:3-5; 8:18; 10:12, 24, 32; 16:1; 24:23; 29:8; 30:19; 31:4, 9; 33:20; 37:22, 32; 40:9; 41:27; 52:1-2; 60:14; 62:1; 64:10; Jer 26:18; 51:35; Lam 2:13; Joel 2:32; 3:16-17; Amos 1:2; Obad 1:21; Mic 3:12; 4:2; Zeph 3:14, 16; Zech 1:14, 17; 2:7; 8:2-3; 9:9; Heb 12:22; Rev 14:1<\/p>","summary_ro":"Zion Zion is the Hebrew name for the mountain in Jerusalem where the Temple was located (2 Sam 5:7; see also 2 Chr 3:1). Zion is used as a synonym for Jerusalem, and the NLT often translates Zion as “Jerusalem” (e.g., Pss 69:35; 87:2; 97:8; 132:13). Thus Zion can refer to the actual, physical city of Jerusalem that was destroyed in 586 BC (see 102:13; 126:1; 137:1) and again in AD 70. Zion also signifies the city of God that transcends geographical location. Zion is God’s universal kingdom, t...","summary_en":"Zion Zion is the Hebrew name for the mountain in Jerusalem where the Temple was located (2 Sam 5:7; see also 2 Chr 3:1). Zion is used as a synonym for Jerusalem, and the NLT often translates Zion as “Jerusalem” (e.g., Pss 69:35; 87:2; 97:8; 132:13). Thus Zion can refer to the actual, physical city of Jerusalem that was destroyed in 586 BC (see 102:13; 126:1; 137:1) and again in AD 70. Zion also signifies the city of God that transcends geographical location. Zion is God’s universal kingdom, t...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":118198,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Zion","title_en":"Zion","content_ro":"<h3>Zion<\/h3>\n<p>Zion is the Hebrew name for the mountain in Jerusalem where the Temple was located (2 Sam 5:7; see also 2 Chr 3:1). Zion is used as a synonym for Jerusalem, and the NLT often translates <em>Zion<\/em> as “Jerusalem” (e.g., Pss 69:35; 87:2; 97:8; 132:13). Thus Zion can refer to the actual, physical city of Jerusalem that was destroyed in 586 <span>BC<\/span> (see 102:13; 126:1; 137:1) and again in <span>AD<\/span> 70.<\/p>\n<p>Zion also signifies the city of God that transcends geographical location. Zion is God’s universal kingdom, the city in which he dwells (74:2; 76:2; 84:7; 135:21; see Isa 26). This city embodies trust, justice, righteousness, and commitment, for the Lord does not tolerate impurity, uncleanness, idolatry, injustice, or unrighteousness (Isa 1:21-28). The prophets and poets of Israel speak of the city of God as being more extensive than the physical city. The citizens of this city come from Judah, Israel, and the nations (see Ps 87:5-6; Heb 12:22-24). Zion is on a high mountain (Ps 48:2) at the center of God’s kingdom on earth (99:2; 132:13), and God’s throne is there (9:11). Therefore, godly prayers and praise focus on Zion (53:6; 65:1; 147:12; 149:2), and redemption is sought there (14:7; 20:2; 50:2; 53:6). David’s descendants are the legitimate heirs who rule over Zion to establish God’s universal kingdom (2:6; 110:2).<\/p>\n<p>Zion is symbolic of God’s protection and blessings (Pss 46:4-11; 48:1-14; 51:18; 128:5; 134:3). Anyone who trusts in the Lord is as secure as Mount Zion (125:1), but those who reject the Lord also reject the security of Zion and have no future (129:5-8).<\/p>\n<p>The New Testament speaks of Mount Zion as a heavenly Jerusalem, the spiritual home of those from all nations who have been reborn through faith in Jesus Christ (Heb 12:22-24; see also Gal 4:24-26; Rev 3:12; 21:2-4). Abraham looked forward in faith to “a city with eternal foundations” (Heb 11:10), a city in which all men and women of faith are citizens (Heb 12:22-24). Because the Lord knows no geographical limitations (1 Kgs 8:27), the true Zion he inhabits is the hearts of all who worship him.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>2 Sam 5:7; 1 Kgs 8:1; Pss 14:7; 48:1-14; 50:2; 51:18; 68:16; 78:68; 87:2, 5; 125:1; 128:5; 132:13; 133:3; 135:21; 147:12; Isa 1:27; 2:3; 3:16-17, 26; 4:3-5; 8:18; 10:12, 24, 32; 16:1; 24:23; 29:8; 30:19; 31:4, 9; 33:20; 37:22, 32; 40:9; 41:27; 52:1-2; 60:14; 62:1; 64:10; Jer 26:18; 51:35; Lam 2:13; Joel 2:32; 3:16-17; Amos 1:2; Obad 1:21; Mic 3:12; 4:2; Zeph 3:14, 16; Zech 1:14, 17; 2:7; 8:2-3; 9:9; Heb 12:22; Rev 14:1<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Zion<\/h3>\n<p>Zion is the Hebrew name for the mountain in Jerusalem where the Temple was located (2 Sam 5:7; see also 2 Chr 3:1). Zion is used as a synonym for Jerusalem, and the NLT often translates <em>Zion<\/em> as “Jerusalem” (e.g., Pss 69:35; 87:2; 97:8; 132:13). Thus Zion can refer to the actual, physical city of Jerusalem that was destroyed in 586 <span>BC<\/span> (see 102:13; 126:1; 137:1) and again in <span>AD<\/span> 70.<\/p>\n<p>Zion also signifies the city of God that transcends geographical location. Zion is God’s universal kingdom, the city in which he dwells (74:2; 76:2; 84:7; 135:21; see Isa 26). This city embodies trust, justice, righteousness, and commitment, for the Lord does not tolerate impurity, uncleanness, idolatry, injustice, or unrighteousness (Isa 1:21-28). The prophets and poets of Israel speak of the city of God as being more extensive than the physical city. The citizens of this city come from Judah, Israel, and the nations (see Ps 87:5-6; Heb 12:22-24). Zion is on a high mountain (Ps 48:2) at the center of God’s kingdom on earth (99:2; 132:13), and God’s throne is there (9:11). Therefore, godly prayers and praise focus on Zion (53:6; 65:1; 147:12; 149:2), and redemption is sought there (14:7; 20:2; 50:2; 53:6). David’s descendants are the legitimate heirs who rule over Zion to establish God’s universal kingdom (2:6; 110:2).<\/p>\n<p>Zion is symbolic of God’s protection and blessings (Pss 46:4-11; 48:1-14; 51:18; 128:5; 134:3). Anyone who trusts in the Lord is as secure as Mount Zion (125:1), but those who reject the Lord also reject the security of Zion and have no future (129:5-8).<\/p>\n<p>The New Testament speaks of Mount Zion as a heavenly Jerusalem, the spiritual home of those from all nations who have been reborn through faith in Jesus Christ (Heb 12:22-24; see also Gal 4:24-26; Rev 3:12; 21:2-4). Abraham looked forward in faith to “a city with eternal foundations” (Heb 11:10), a city in which all men and women of faith are citizens (Heb 12:22-24). Because the Lord knows no geographical limitations (1 Kgs 8:27), the true Zion he inhabits is the hearts of all who worship him.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>2 Sam 5:7; 1 Kgs 8:1; Pss 14:7; 48:1-14; 50:2; 51:18; 68:16; 78:68; 87:2, 5; 125:1; 128:5; 132:13; 133:3; 135:21; 147:12; Isa 1:27; 2:3; 3:16-17, 26; 4:3-5; 8:18; 10:12, 24, 32; 16:1; 24:23; 29:8; 30:19; 31:4, 9; 33:20; 37:22, 32; 40:9; 41:27; 52:1-2; 60:14; 62:1; 64:10; Jer 26:18; 51:35; Lam 2:13; Joel 2:32; 3:16-17; Amos 1:2; Obad 1:21; Mic 3:12; 4:2; Zeph 3:14, 16; Zech 1:14, 17; 2:7; 8:2-3; 9:9; Heb 12:22; Rev 14:1<\/p>","summary_ro":"Zion Zion is the Hebrew name for the mountain in Jerusalem where the Temple was located (2 Sam 5:7; see also 2 Chr 3:1). Zion is used as a synonym for Jerusalem, and the NLT often translates Zion as “Jerusalem” (e.g., Pss 69:35; 87:2; 97:8; 132:13). Thus Zion can refer to the actual, physical city of Jerusalem that was destroyed in 586 BC (see 102:13; 126:1; 137:1) and again in AD 70. Zion also signifies the city of God that transcends geographical location. Zion is God’s universal kingdom, t...","summary_en":"Zion Zion is the Hebrew name for the mountain in Jerusalem where the Temple was located (2 Sam 5:7; see also 2 Chr 3:1). Zion is used as a synonym for Jerusalem, and the NLT often translates Zion as “Jerusalem” (e.g., Pss 69:35; 87:2; 97:8; 132:13). Thus Zion can refer to the actual, physical city of Jerusalem that was destroyed in 586 BC (see 102:13; 126:1; 137:1) and again in AD 70. Zion also signifies the city of God that transcends geographical location. Zion is God’s universal kingdom, t...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":145824,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Zion","title_en":"Zion","content_ro":"<h3>Zion<\/h3>\n<p>Zion is the Hebrew name for the mountain in Jerusalem where the Temple was located (2 Sam 5:7; see also 2 Chr 3:1). Zion is used as a synonym for Jerusalem, and the NLT often translates <em>Zion<\/em> as “Jerusalem” (e.g., Pss 69:35; 87:2; 97:8; 132:13). Thus Zion can refer to the actual, physical city of Jerusalem that was destroyed in 586 <span>BC<\/span> (see 102:13; 126:1; 137:1) and again in <span>AD<\/span> 70.<\/p>\n<p>Zion also signifies the city of God that transcends geographical location. Zion is God’s universal kingdom, the city in which he dwells (74:2; 76:2; 84:7; 135:21; see Isa 26). This city embodies trust, justice, righteousness, and commitment, for the Lord does not tolerate impurity, uncleanness, idolatry, injustice, or unrighteousness (Isa 1:21-28). The prophets and poets of Israel speak of the city of God as being more extensive than the physical city. The citizens of this city come from Judah, Israel, and the nations (see Ps 87:5-6; Heb 12:22-24). Zion is on a high mountain (Ps 48:2) at the center of God’s kingdom on earth (99:2; 132:13), and God’s throne is there (9:11). Therefore, godly prayers and praise focus on Zion (53:6; 65:1; 147:12; 149:2), and redemption is sought there (14:7; 20:2; 50:2; 53:6). David’s descendants are the legitimate heirs who rule over Zion to establish God’s universal kingdom (2:6; 110:2).<\/p>\n<p>Zion is symbolic of God’s protection and blessings (Pss 46:4-11; 48:1-14; 51:18; 128:5; 134:3). Anyone who trusts in the Lord is as secure as Mount Zion (125:1), but those who reject the Lord also reject the security of Zion and have no future (129:5-8).<\/p>\n<p>The New Testament speaks of Mount Zion as a heavenly Jerusalem, the spiritual home of those from all nations who have been reborn through faith in Jesus Christ (Heb 12:22-24; see also Gal 4:24-26; Rev 3:12; 21:2-4). Abraham looked forward in faith to “a city with eternal foundations” (Heb 11:10), a city in which all men and women of faith are citizens (Heb 12:22-24). Because the Lord knows no geographical limitations (1 Kgs 8:27), the true Zion he inhabits is the hearts of all who worship him.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>2 Sam 5:7; 1 Kgs 8:1; Pss 14:7; 48:1-14; 50:2; 51:18; 68:16; 78:68; 87:2, 5; 125:1; 128:5; 132:13; 133:3; 135:21; 147:12; Isa 1:27; 2:3; 3:16-17, 26; 4:3-5; 8:18; 10:12, 24, 32; 16:1; 24:23; 29:8; 30:19; 31:4, 9; 33:20; 37:22, 32; 40:9; 41:27; 52:1-2; 60:14; 62:1; 64:10; Jer 26:18; 51:35; Lam 2:13; Joel 2:32; 3:16-17; Amos 1:2; Obad 1:21; Mic 3:12; 4:2; Zeph 3:14, 16; Zech 1:14, 17; 2:7; 8:2-3; 9:9; Heb 12:22; Rev 14:1<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Zion<\/h3>\n<p>Zion is the Hebrew name for the mountain in Jerusalem where the Temple was located (2 Sam 5:7; see also 2 Chr 3:1). Zion is used as a synonym for Jerusalem, and the NLT often translates <em>Zion<\/em> as “Jerusalem” (e.g., Pss 69:35; 87:2; 97:8; 132:13). Thus Zion can refer to the actual, physical city of Jerusalem that was destroyed in 586 <span>BC<\/span> (see 102:13; 126:1; 137:1) and again in <span>AD<\/span> 70.<\/p>\n<p>Zion also signifies the city of God that transcends geographical location. Zion is God’s universal kingdom, the city in which he dwells (74:2; 76:2; 84:7; 135:21; see Isa 26). This city embodies trust, justice, righteousness, and commitment, for the Lord does not tolerate impurity, uncleanness, idolatry, injustice, or unrighteousness (Isa 1:21-28). The prophets and poets of Israel speak of the city of God as being more extensive than the physical city. The citizens of this city come from Judah, Israel, and the nations (see Ps 87:5-6; Heb 12:22-24). Zion is on a high mountain (Ps 48:2) at the center of God’s kingdom on earth (99:2; 132:13), and God’s throne is there (9:11). Therefore, godly prayers and praise focus on Zion (53:6; 65:1; 147:12; 149:2), and redemption is sought there (14:7; 20:2; 50:2; 53:6). David’s descendants are the legitimate heirs who rule over Zion to establish God’s universal kingdom (2:6; 110:2).<\/p>\n<p>Zion is symbolic of God’s protection and blessings (Pss 46:4-11; 48:1-14; 51:18; 128:5; 134:3). Anyone who trusts in the Lord is as secure as Mount Zion (125:1), but those who reject the Lord also reject the security of Zion and have no future (129:5-8).<\/p>\n<p>The New Testament speaks of Mount Zion as a heavenly Jerusalem, the spiritual home of those from all nations who have been reborn through faith in Jesus Christ (Heb 12:22-24; see also Gal 4:24-26; Rev 3:12; 21:2-4). Abraham looked forward in faith to “a city with eternal foundations” (Heb 11:10), a city in which all men and women of faith are citizens (Heb 12:22-24). Because the Lord knows no geographical limitations (1 Kgs 8:27), the true Zion he inhabits is the hearts of all who worship him.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>2 Sam 5:7; 1 Kgs 8:1; Pss 14:7; 48:1-14; 50:2; 51:18; 68:16; 78:68; 87:2, 5; 125:1; 128:5; 132:13; 133:3; 135:21; 147:12; Isa 1:27; 2:3; 3:16-17, 26; 4:3-5; 8:18; 10:12, 24, 32; 16:1; 24:23; 29:8; 30:19; 31:4, 9; 33:20; 37:22, 32; 40:9; 41:27; 52:1-2; 60:14; 62:1; 64:10; Jer 26:18; 51:35; Lam 2:13; Joel 2:32; 3:16-17; Amos 1:2; Obad 1:21; Mic 3:12; 4:2; Zeph 3:14, 16; Zech 1:14, 17; 2:7; 8:2-3; 9:9; Heb 12:22; Rev 14:1<\/p>","summary_ro":"Zion Zion is the Hebrew name for the mountain in Jerusalem where the Temple was located (2 Sam 5:7; see also 2 Chr 3:1). Zion is used as a synonym for Jerusalem, and the NLT often translates Zion as “Jerusalem” (e.g., Pss 69:35; 87:2; 97:8; 132:13). Thus Zion can refer to the actual, physical city of Jerusalem that was destroyed in 586 BC (see 102:13; 126:1; 137:1) and again in AD 70. Zion also signifies the city of God that transcends geographical location. Zion is God’s universal kingdom, t...","summary_en":"Zion Zion is the Hebrew name for the mountain in Jerusalem where the Temple was located (2 Sam 5:7; see also 2 Chr 3:1). Zion is used as a synonym for Jerusalem, and the NLT often translates Zion as “Jerusalem” (e.g., Pss 69:35; 87:2; 97:8; 132:13). Thus Zion can refer to the actual, physical city of Jerusalem that was destroyed in 586 BC (see 102:13; 126:1; 137:1) and again in AD 70. Zion also signifies the city of God that transcends geographical location. Zion is God’s universal kingdom, t...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"33":[{"id":19387,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"of Jesse*, Root","title_en":"of Jesse*, Root","content_ro":"<h3>JESSE*, Root of<\/h3>\n<p>Figure of speech used by Isaiah (Is 11:10) to express the hope of a messianic king from the line of David. The “root” of a family is its progenitor. Jesse, David’s father, is listed as an ancestor of the Messiah (Is 11:1, 10; Mt 1:5-6; Lk 3:32; Acts 13:22-23). Isaiah pictures God’s judgment upon Assyria as the cutting down of a forest (Is 10:33-34); Judah likewise will be felled and the proud tree of David’s sovereignty hewn down, but a remnant will remain, described by Isaiah as a shoot from a stump (6:13). The messianic shoot will come forth from the stump of Jesse as a branch from his roots. The Spirit of the Lord will rest upon this one who stands as an ensign to the people, so that the nations will seek him in the glory of his dwelling place (Is 11:1-10; see Is 53:2; Jer 23:5; 33:15; Ez 17:22-23; Zec 3:8; 6:12).<\/p>\n<p>The apostle Paul, quoting Isaiah’s prophecy, identified Jesus as “the root of Jesse” in whom the Gentiles hope (Rom 15:12). Christ is not only “a shoot from the stump of Jesse” (Is 11:1) but is himself the “root of Jesse” (Is 11:10; Rom 15:12; see Rv 5:5; 22:16, “root of David”). This means that Jesus not only came from Jesse’s line but that Jesse (and David) came from Jesus. In other words, the image points to Jesus’ divinity. While Jesus was the son of David, Jesus was also David’s “Lord.” This is the point Jesus made in his debate with the religious leaders of his day who recognized only that the Messiah was a human descendant of David. Matthew 22:42-45 reads: “ ‘What do you think about the Messiah? Whose son is he?’ They replied, ‘He is the son of David.’ Jesus responded, ‘Then why does David, speaking under the inspiration of the Holy Spirit, call him Lord? For David said, “The <span>Lord<\/span> said to my Lord, sit in honor at my right hand until I humble your enemies beneath your feet.” Since David called him Lord, how can he be his son at the same time?’ ”<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Christology; David; Genealogy of Jesus Christ; Jesse (Person); Jesus Christ, Teachings of.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>JESSE*, Root of<\/h3>\n<p>Figure of speech used by Isaiah (Is 11:10) to express the hope of a messianic king from the line of David. The “root” of a family is its progenitor. Jesse, David’s father, is listed as an ancestor of the Messiah (Is 11:1, 10; Mt 1:5-6; Lk 3:32; Acts 13:22-23). Isaiah pictures God’s judgment upon Assyria as the cutting down of a forest (Is 10:33-34); Judah likewise will be felled and the proud tree of David’s sovereignty hewn down, but a remnant will remain, described by Isaiah as a shoot from a stump (6:13). The messianic shoot will come forth from the stump of Jesse as a branch from his roots. The Spirit of the Lord will rest upon this one who stands as an ensign to the people, so that the nations will seek him in the glory of his dwelling place (Is 11:1-10; see Is 53:2; Jer 23:5; 33:15; Ez 17:22-23; Zec 3:8; 6:12).<\/p>\n<p>The apostle Paul, quoting Isaiah’s prophecy, identified Jesus as “the root of Jesse” in whom the Gentiles hope (Rom 15:12). Christ is not only “a shoot from the stump of Jesse” (Is 11:1) but is himself the “root of Jesse” (Is 11:10; Rom 15:12; see Rv 5:5; 22:16, “root of David”). This means that Jesus not only came from Jesse’s line but that Jesse (and David) came from Jesus. In other words, the image points to Jesus’ divinity. While Jesus was the son of David, Jesus was also David’s “Lord.” This is the point Jesus made in his debate with the religious leaders of his day who recognized only that the Messiah was a human descendant of David. Matthew 22:42-45 reads: “ ‘What do you think about the Messiah? Whose son is he?’ They replied, ‘He is the son of David.’ Jesus responded, ‘Then why does David, speaking under the inspiration of the Holy Spirit, call him Lord? For David said, “The <span>Lord<\/span> said to my Lord, sit in honor at my right hand until I humble your enemies beneath your feet.” Since David called him Lord, how can he be his son at the same time?’ ”<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Christology; David; Genealogy of Jesus Christ; Jesse (Person); Jesus Christ, Teachings of.<\/p>","summary_ro":"JESSE*, Root of Figure of speech used by Isaiah (Is 11:10) to express the hope of a messianic king from the line of David. The “root” of a family is its progenitor. Jesse, David’s father, is listed as an ancestor of the Messiah (Is 11:1, 10; Mt 1:5-6; Lk 3:32; Acts 13:22-23). Isaiah pictures God’s judgment upon Assyria as the cutting down of a forest (Is 10:33-34); Judah likewise will be felled and the proud tree of David’s sovereignty hewn down, but a remnant will remain, described by Isaiah...","summary_en":"JESSE*, Root of Figure of speech used by Isaiah (Is 11:10) to express the hope of a messianic king from the line of David. The “root” of a family is its progenitor. Jesse, David’s father, is listed as an ancestor of the Messiah (Is 11:1, 10; Mt 1:5-6; Lk 3:32; Acts 13:22-23). Isaiah pictures God’s judgment upon Assyria as the cutting down of a forest (Is 10:33-34); Judah likewise will be felled and the proud tree of David’s sovereignty hewn down, but a remnant will remain, described by Isaiah...","source":"Articles\/J.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"34":[{"id":22930,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Lebanon","title_en":"Lebanon","content_ro":"<h3>LEBANON<\/h3>\n<p>Region mentioned only in the OT, although its towns, including Tyre and Sidon, are named in the NT. The name Lebanon generally refers to the double range of mountains that commences near Tyre and runs northeast following the Mediterranean coast. The two Lebanon ranges are parallel to one another, Lebanon to the west and Anti-Lebanon to the east. The name Lebanon is derived from the Hebrew root <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">l-b-n<\/span><em>,<\/em> meaning “white,” which may reflect either the white limestone of the mountains or the snow that lay on the mountains for six months of the year (Jer 18:14).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Geography\">Geography<\/p>\n<p>At the southern end the Lebanon ranges are a direct continuation of the hills of northern Galilee, with Mt Hermon (Sirion, Senir) very prominent in the Anti-Lebanon range, rising to 9,230 feet (2,813.3 meters). The two ranges are divided by a broad valley, the valley of Lebanon (Jos 11:17) or “the entrance of Hamath” (Nm 34:8), the modern Beqa’a.<\/p>\n<p>In the south the Lebanon range is separated from the Galilee hills by a deep east-west gorge through which the Litani River flows, entering the Mediterranean just north of Tyre. In its upper courses it follows the Beqa’a Valley in a northeasterly direction almost to Baalbek. The Lebanon ridge, about 100 miles (160.9 kilometers) long, stretches north to the east-west valley of the Nahr el-Kebir and is marked by a series of peaks. In the south are Gebel Rihan, Tomat, and Gebel Niha (ranging from 5,350 feet to nearly 6,230 feet, or 1,636.7 to 1,898.9 meters, high) east of Sidon. In the center lie Gebel Baruk, Gebel Kuneiyiseh, and Gebel Sunnin (7,220 feet, 6,890 feet, and 8,530 feet high, or 2,200.7 meters, 2,100.1 meters, and 2,599.9 meters high, respectively) east of Beirut. Further north, to the east of Tripoli, lies Qurnet es-Sauda, which reaches 9,840 feet (2,999.2 meters), and Qurnet Aruba, about 7,320 feet (2,231.1 meters) high.<\/p>\n<p>These high mountains trap the rain coming from the Mediterranean, providing both the mountain areas and the coastal strip below with good rainfall; beyond the mountains, the rainfall drops. It is along the coastal strip between the mountains and the sea that the Phoenicians flourished and towns like Tyre, Zarephath, Sidon, Berytus (Beirut), Byblos (Gebal), and Tripoli were established. The coastal area has a number of headlands that are extensions of the mountain range. The coastal road had to be cut around or through these spurs. A good example is the headland of Nahr el-Kelb, a little to the north of Beirut.<\/p>\n<p>On the east side of the Lebanon range is the Beqa’a Valley. The Orontes River rises in the north of this valley and flows north to enter the Mediterranean north of ancient Ugarit. This whole valley region was known in classical literature as Coele-syria (Hollow Syria). It was the “breadbasket” of the Romans.<\/p>\n<p>To the east of the Beqa’a Valley is the Anti-Lebanon range, in which the Barada River rises and flows east toward the fertile oasis of Damascus. Mt Hermon, in the southern part of the range, was known as Sirion by the Phoenicians and Senir by the Amorites (Dt 3:9).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Resources\">Resources<\/p>\n<p>Lebanon was famous in antiquity for its rich forests of fir and cedar. The coastal areas, the Beqa’a Valley, and the lower slopes of the mountains were suitable for olive trees, fruit trees, and vineyards, as well as some grain crops. One important product came from the sea: a mollusk of the gastropoda class from which a red or purple dye was obtained. The name “Phoenician” derived from the Greek <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">phoinos<\/span><em>,<\/em> red-purple. Wool dyed purple was available in Ugarit about 1500 <span>BC<\/span>. The Phoenicians had a monopoly on this industry for centuries. The people of Israel, who used a great deal of purple dye in their tabernacle furnishings (Ex 26) and the garments of their priests (Ex 28:4-6; 39:1, 28-29), probably obtained the dye from the Phoenicians.<\/p>\n<p>King Solomon had significant trading relations with Phoenicia. To build the temple in Jerusalem, cedar and fir were obtained from Hiram I of Tyre (1 Kgs 5:6, 9, 14; 7:2; 10:17, 21; 2 Chr 2:8, 16). Solomon paid for this timber in wheat and olive oil (1 Kgs 5:11). The trees were floated down by sea to a point in Solomon’s domain and transported from there to Jerusalem. Cedar and fir trees from Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon provided ships for Tyre (Ez 27:5), sacred barges and furniture for Egypt, and timber for building the second temple in Jerusalem (Ezr 3:7).<\/p>\n<p>From the ports of Lebanon, the Phoenicians traded with many lands. They mastered the art of shipbuilding, and their ships were used in peace and in war. A vivid picture of the trading activities of traders from Tyre, Sidon, Gebal, and Arvad is given in Ezekiel 27, where the extent and nature of their trade is given in considerable detail.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"History\">History<\/p>\n<p>The area became of interest to the Egyptians during the fourth dynasty (c. 2600 <span>BC<\/span>) when Pharaoh Snofru acquired 40 shiploads of cedar from Lebanon. Byblos fell under Egyptian influence during the 12th dynasty (c. 1980–1800 <span>BC<\/span>) and Egyptians gave golden ornaments in exchange for cedar. During the 18th dynasty (c. 1552–1306 <span>BC<\/span>), Egypt conquered Syria, and the records speak regularly of cedar being taken as tribute. Later an envoy of Ramses XI named Wenamon paid dearly for the cedar (c. 1100 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>When Egyptian power waned, the Assyrians controlled the area and took vast quantities of cedar as tribute from the days of Tiglath-pileser I (c. 1100 <span>BC<\/span>) onward. Nebuchadnezzar and the Babylonian nation likewise controlled Lebanon and took away large quantities of cedar to build temples and palaces. The spoiling of Lebanon’s forests was spoken of by Isaiah (Is 14:8) and Habakkuk (Hb 2:17). In later centuries Lebanon passed successively under the domination of Persians, Greeks, and Romans.<\/p>\n<p>In NT times the towns of Tyre and Sidon are generally coupled together (Mt 15:21; Mk 3:8; 7:24, 31; Lk 6:17; 10:13-14; Acts 12:20), though sometimes they are referred to alone (Acts 21:3, 7). A Greek woman who was a Syro-Phoenician is referred to in Mark 7:26. Jesus preached in these areas during his ministry. In biblical poetry the tall cedars of Lebanon were a symbol of majesty and strength (Jgs 9:15; 2 Kgs 14:9; Pss 92:12; 104:16; Is 35:2; 60:13). They were also a symbol of earthly pride that would be broken before the wrath of God one day (Ps 29:5; Is 2:13; 10:34; Jer 22:6; Ez 31:3).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>LEBANON<\/h3>\n<p>Region mentioned only in the OT, although its towns, including Tyre and Sidon, are named in the NT. The name Lebanon generally refers to the double range of mountains that commences near Tyre and runs northeast following the Mediterranean coast. The two Lebanon ranges are parallel to one another, Lebanon to the west and Anti-Lebanon to the east. The name Lebanon is derived from the Hebrew root <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">l-b-n<\/span><em>,<\/em> meaning “white,” which may reflect either the white limestone of the mountains or the snow that lay on the mountains for six months of the year (Jer 18:14).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Geography\">Geography<\/p>\n<p>At the southern end the Lebanon ranges are a direct continuation of the hills of northern Galilee, with Mt Hermon (Sirion, Senir) very prominent in the Anti-Lebanon range, rising to 9,230 feet (2,813.3 meters). The two ranges are divided by a broad valley, the valley of Lebanon (Jos 11:17) or “the entrance of Hamath” (Nm 34:8), the modern Beqa’a.<\/p>\n<p>In the south the Lebanon range is separated from the Galilee hills by a deep east-west gorge through which the Litani River flows, entering the Mediterranean just north of Tyre. In its upper courses it follows the Beqa’a Valley in a northeasterly direction almost to Baalbek. The Lebanon ridge, about 100 miles (160.9 kilometers) long, stretches north to the east-west valley of the Nahr el-Kebir and is marked by a series of peaks. In the south are Gebel Rihan, Tomat, and Gebel Niha (ranging from 5,350 feet to nearly 6,230 feet, or 1,636.7 to 1,898.9 meters, high) east of Sidon. In the center lie Gebel Baruk, Gebel Kuneiyiseh, and Gebel Sunnin (7,220 feet, 6,890 feet, and 8,530 feet high, or 2,200.7 meters, 2,100.1 meters, and 2,599.9 meters high, respectively) east of Beirut. Further north, to the east of Tripoli, lies Qurnet es-Sauda, which reaches 9,840 feet (2,999.2 meters), and Qurnet Aruba, about 7,320 feet (2,231.1 meters) high.<\/p>\n<p>These high mountains trap the rain coming from the Mediterranean, providing both the mountain areas and the coastal strip below with good rainfall; beyond the mountains, the rainfall drops. It is along the coastal strip between the mountains and the sea that the Phoenicians flourished and towns like Tyre, Zarephath, Sidon, Berytus (Beirut), Byblos (Gebal), and Tripoli were established. The coastal area has a number of headlands that are extensions of the mountain range. The coastal road had to be cut around or through these spurs. A good example is the headland of Nahr el-Kelb, a little to the north of Beirut.<\/p>\n<p>On the east side of the Lebanon range is the Beqa’a Valley. The Orontes River rises in the north of this valley and flows north to enter the Mediterranean north of ancient Ugarit. This whole valley region was known in classical literature as Coele-syria (Hollow Syria). It was the “breadbasket” of the Romans.<\/p>\n<p>To the east of the Beqa’a Valley is the Anti-Lebanon range, in which the Barada River rises and flows east toward the fertile oasis of Damascus. Mt Hermon, in the southern part of the range, was known as Sirion by the Phoenicians and Senir by the Amorites (Dt 3:9).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Resources\">Resources<\/p>\n<p>Lebanon was famous in antiquity for its rich forests of fir and cedar. The coastal areas, the Beqa’a Valley, and the lower slopes of the mountains were suitable for olive trees, fruit trees, and vineyards, as well as some grain crops. One important product came from the sea: a mollusk of the gastropoda class from which a red or purple dye was obtained. The name “Phoenician” derived from the Greek <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">phoinos<\/span><em>,<\/em> red-purple. Wool dyed purple was available in Ugarit about 1500 <span>BC<\/span>. The Phoenicians had a monopoly on this industry for centuries. The people of Israel, who used a great deal of purple dye in their tabernacle furnishings (Ex 26) and the garments of their priests (Ex 28:4-6; 39:1, 28-29), probably obtained the dye from the Phoenicians.<\/p>\n<p>King Solomon had significant trading relations with Phoenicia. To build the temple in Jerusalem, cedar and fir were obtained from Hiram I of Tyre (1 Kgs 5:6, 9, 14; 7:2; 10:17, 21; 2 Chr 2:8, 16). Solomon paid for this timber in wheat and olive oil (1 Kgs 5:11). The trees were floated down by sea to a point in Solomon’s domain and transported from there to Jerusalem. Cedar and fir trees from Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon provided ships for Tyre (Ez 27:5), sacred barges and furniture for Egypt, and timber for building the second temple in Jerusalem (Ezr 3:7).<\/p>\n<p>From the ports of Lebanon, the Phoenicians traded with many lands. They mastered the art of shipbuilding, and their ships were used in peace and in war. A vivid picture of the trading activities of traders from Tyre, Sidon, Gebal, and Arvad is given in Ezekiel 27, where the extent and nature of their trade is given in considerable detail.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"History\">History<\/p>\n<p>The area became of interest to the Egyptians during the fourth dynasty (c. 2600 <span>BC<\/span>) when Pharaoh Snofru acquired 40 shiploads of cedar from Lebanon. Byblos fell under Egyptian influence during the 12th dynasty (c. 1980–1800 <span>BC<\/span>) and Egyptians gave golden ornaments in exchange for cedar. During the 18th dynasty (c. 1552–1306 <span>BC<\/span>), Egypt conquered Syria, and the records speak regularly of cedar being taken as tribute. Later an envoy of Ramses XI named Wenamon paid dearly for the cedar (c. 1100 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>When Egyptian power waned, the Assyrians controlled the area and took vast quantities of cedar as tribute from the days of Tiglath-pileser I (c. 1100 <span>BC<\/span>) onward. Nebuchadnezzar and the Babylonian nation likewise controlled Lebanon and took away large quantities of cedar to build temples and palaces. The spoiling of Lebanon’s forests was spoken of by Isaiah (Is 14:8) and Habakkuk (Hb 2:17). In later centuries Lebanon passed successively under the domination of Persians, Greeks, and Romans.<\/p>\n<p>In NT times the towns of Tyre and Sidon are generally coupled together (Mt 15:21; Mk 3:8; 7:24, 31; Lk 6:17; 10:13-14; Acts 12:20), though sometimes they are referred to alone (Acts 21:3, 7). A Greek woman who was a Syro-Phoenician is referred to in Mark 7:26. Jesus preached in these areas during his ministry. In biblical poetry the tall cedars of Lebanon were a symbol of majesty and strength (Jgs 9:15; 2 Kgs 14:9; Pss 92:12; 104:16; Is 35:2; 60:13). They were also a symbol of earthly pride that would be broken before the wrath of God one day (Ps 29:5; Is 2:13; 10:34; Jer 22:6; Ez 31:3).<\/p>","summary_ro":"LEBANON Region mentioned only in the OT, although its towns, including Tyre and Sidon, are named in the NT. The name Lebanon generally refers to the double range of mountains that commences near Tyre and runs northeast following the Mediterranean coast. The two Lebanon ranges are parallel to one another, Lebanon to the west and Anti-Lebanon to the east. The name Lebanon is derived from the Hebrew root l-b-n, meaning “white,” which may reflect either the white limestone of the mountains or the...","summary_en":"LEBANON Region mentioned only in the OT, although its towns, including Tyre and Sidon, are named in the NT. The name Lebanon generally refers to the double range of mountains that commences near Tyre and runs northeast following the Mediterranean coast. The two Lebanon ranges are parallel to one another, Lebanon to the west and Anti-Lebanon to the east. The name Lebanon is derived from the Hebrew root l-b-n, meaning “white,” which may reflect either the white limestone of the mountains or the...","source":"Articles\/L.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":25914,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Minerals* and Metals","title_en":"Minerals* and Metals","content_ro":"<h3>MINERALS* AND METALS<\/h3>\n<p>A “mineral” is a naturally occurring substance, normally an ore that must be mined and treated before the metal can be extracted. A “metal” is a chemical element such as iron or copper, which is free from contamination by other materials. Metals in a pure form generally do not occur in nature, though there are exceptions.<\/p>\n<p>In Palestine, mining and smelting are ancient arts, practiced long before the Israelites arrived. The quarrying of suitable stones, such as flint, for toolmaking goes back to the Stone Age; the quarrying of stone for building is also an ancient craft. In particular, metals, native gold, copper, and meteoric iron were known and used in the Middle East before 4000 <span>BC<\/span>. From 4000 to 3000 <span>BC<\/span>, native silver became known as well as copper and lead ores. The art of smelting was discovered probably almost by accident, resulting in the production of alloys like bronze. Then the reduction of oxidized iron was discovered. From 3000 to 2000 <span>BC<\/span>, important advances were made. Copper sulfides and tin oxides were reduced to metal, and metallic tin and copper became important items of trade.<\/p>\n<p>In the years 2000 to 1000 <span>BC<\/span>, bellows came into use for furnaces, and iron was reduced from its ores and forged. The art of making brass from copper and zinc was discovered about 1500 <span>BC<\/span> but did not become significant till somewhat later. Bronze, known for many centuries, was made sometimes with a high tin content to form speculum for mirrors. By this time the Israelites were settled in the land and the kingdom was established. From 1000 <span>BC<\/span> to the start of the Christian era, the production of metals, especially iron, greatly expanded. A form of steel was made and used for weapons and tools.<\/p>\n<p>By the time of David and Solomon, the Israelites had learned many skills in the preparation and working of metals. Under David, Edom, with its rich copper and iron deposits, was conquered (2 Sm 8:13-14) and there was a lot of activity in the casting of metals in the Jordan Valley (1 Kgs 7:13-14, 45-46). In this activity Solomon had the assistance of Hiram, a Phoenician artisan. Israelite tradition associated the origins of metallurgy with Tubal-cain (Gn 4:22), who is said to have forged all kinds of tools out of bronze and iron. Deuteronomy 8:9 refers to the presence of iron and copper in the land to which Israel was going.<\/p>\n<p>While the Israelites eventually undertook their own metalworking processes, it is evident from 1 Samuel 13:19-22 that on at least one occasion, in the days of Philistine domination, they were obliged to have their agricultural tools made by their enemies. Similarly, the manufacture of cult vessels for Solomon’s temple was supervised by Phoenician artisans (1 Kgs 7:13-50).<\/p>\n<p>Minerals, metals, and precious stones were also important items of trade. Israel was never a land rich in these commodities and was obliged to import a wide variety of them. The visit of the queen of Sheba was partly diplomatic and partly for trade (1 Kgs 10:2, 10-11).<\/p>\n<p>Metals and precious stones featured also among the booty carried off by invaders, notably—but not only—by the Egyptians and Assyrians. These items were in constant demand as they were needed for agriculture and making weapons of war, and for the manufacture of jewelry and items of personal adornment.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Minerals\">Minerals<\/p>\n<p>A mineral is an inorganic substance with a definite chemical composition and structure, sometimes occurring alone or sometimes combined with others. “Ore” refers to any mineral or mineral aggregate containing chemical compounds of metals in sufficient quantity and grade to make the extraction of the metal commercially profitable. The essential element, the metal, occurs in nature as a chemical compound, such as a sulfide, an oxide, a carbonate, or some other compound, though the sulfides and oxides are the most common. Minerals exhibit a variety of properties, such as color, luster, crystal form, cleavage, fracture, hardness, and density, which help in their identification and exercise control on the commercial and industrial uses of the particular mineral.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Metals\">Metals<\/p>\n<p>A metal in its pure form is a chemically pure element with its own fixed physical properties, such as density, tensile strength, crystalline structure, melting point, ductility, conductivity, and the like. Metals form alloys with other metals, but this process destroys their purity. In both the ancient world and the modern world the alloy is extremely important.<\/p>\n<p>In order to obtain a pure metal, the ore in which the metal is contained must be smelted—a process known as metallurgy. In ancient Israel pure metals were widely used—among them were gold, silver, iron, and lead. Yet alloys such as bronze and brass were even more widely used.<\/p>\n<h5>Metallurgy and Metal Extraction<\/h5>\n<p>The method of producing hard wrought iron was discovered by the Hittites of Asia Minor about 1300 <span>BC<\/span>, and was taken up by the Philistines (1 Sm 13:19-20). At first, the iron obtained from simple furnaces was drawn off and hammered to drive out slag (Dt 4:20; 1 Kgs 8:51; Jer 11:4). Later, the addition of carbon produced an early form of steel.<\/p>\n<p>The lead sulfide ore is heated with lime in a flow of air. A slag with rock particles forms. The air is then cut off and the temperature is raised. Finally, the lead flows free.<\/p>\n<p>The OT refers to the mining of silver (Jb 28:1), the refining of the metal (Zec 13:9; Mal 3:3), the melting of scrap metals or jeweler’s remnants (Ez 22:20-22), and of multiple refinings in a crucible (Prv 17:3; 27:21) to produce refined silver (1 Chr 29:4; Ps 12:6; Prv 10:20).<\/p>\n<h5>Specific Metals<\/h5>\n<p>Although several OT passages suggest that the science of metallurgy was known in biblical times, comparatively little archaeological evidence is available. The processing plants were small and were used for the treatment of copper and iron. The archaeological record is far from complete, but the general impression is that metallic ores were comparatively rare in Palestine; imports must have been considerable. However, numerous molds for casting agricultural and military tools have come to light in excavations. Evidently, some refined metal was available locally, but perhaps most of it was imported. The metal was then heated and poured into the appropriate earthenware or pottery mold.<\/p>\n<p>There are many references to metals in the Bible, but especially to gold, silver, iron, and lead. While copper was widely used, it was normally in the form of its alloys, bronze and brass. There are comparatively few references to tin as such, though it was used in manufacturing bronze. Similarly zinc, though used in the manufacture of brass, is not mentioned in the Bible.<\/p>\n<p>Gold is referred to hundreds of times in the OT and NT, more frequently than any other metal. It is often mentioned together with silver, and in the majority of cases silver is mentioned first, reflecting a time when gold was less valued.<\/p>\n<p>Gold was used in the manufacture of ornaments for personal use (Gn 24:53; 41:42; Ex 3:22; 11:2; 12:35). Gold was important in worship both in Israel and among the non-Israelites. References to pagan gods occur in several passages (Ex 20:23; 32:2-4; Ps 115:4; Is 2:20; 30:22; 31:7; 40:19; 46:6; Hos 8:4). It seems that the gold was melted down and later engraved so that the replicas could be called both molten images (Ex 32:24) and graven images. The tabernacle and the temple used a great deal of gold. The wooden ark was covered inside and outside with gold (25:11). Other timber pieces were overlaid with gold (25:11; 1 Kgs 6:20-22, 30).<\/p>\n<p>The vessels and utensils used in the tabernacle and temple were made of “pure gold”: the cherubim (Ex 25:18; 37:7), the mercy seat (25:17; 37:6), the candlestick (Ex 25:31; Zec 4:2), various vessels (Ex 25:38; 2 Kgs 24:13), chains to carry the ephod (Ex 28:14), and the bells on the high priest’s robe. The high priest’s crown, ephod, and breastplate were also of gold (39:2-30). The offerings collected for the manufacture of such articles in the wilderness include golden dishes weighing 120 shekels (Nm 7:86). The more lavishly adorned temple apparently used more gold than the tabernacle (1 Kgs 6:20-28; 1 Chr 29:2-7; 2 Chr 3:4–4:22). The number of specific references to gold in the tabernacle and temple is far too great to mention all of them here. The large amount of gold used in the temple was attractive to invaders, who would strip the temple of its gold and carry it off as booty (1 Kgs 14:26; 2 Kgs 16:8; 18:14; 24:13; 25:15; 2 Chr 12:9).<\/p>\n<p>Gold had commercial value. It was imported in Solomon’s day, and up to 666 talents were brought to Israel annually (1 Kgs 10:14). Hiram of Tyre gave Solomon 120 talents of gold (9:14), possibly as a loan. Certainly Solomon used a lot of gold in the temple (10:16-17). Gold was useful, too, for buying off an enemy (2 Kgs 16:8) or simply as tribute (18:14). Evidence of this comes also from the Assyrian annals, where the tribute taken from various lands often included gold.<\/p>\n<p>The possession of gold was not in itself an evil thing, but preoccupation with its accumulation was condemned (Jb 28:15-17; Prv 3:14; 8:10, 19; 16:16). The possession of wisdom and the knowledge of God was of greater value than the possession of much gold (Pss 19:10; 119:72, 127; Prv 20:15). Job rejected trust in gold (Jb 31:24). Gold would not save a man in the day of judgment (Zep 1:18).<\/p>\n<p>In the NT gold was regarded as perishable (Jas 5:3; 1 Pt 1:18) and as an unnecessary burden to carry (Mt 10:9; Acts 3:6). The wearing of a gold ring was certainly no measure of a man’s worth (Jas 2:2); indeed, both Paul and Peter forbade it (1 Tm 2:9; 1 Pt 3:3).<\/p>\n<p>The use of gold in itself was no measure of piety. The elders of Revelation 4:4 wore golden crowns, but the great harlot was “bedecked with gold” (Rv 17:4), as was the harlot city Babylon (18:16). By contrast, there are some positive statements in the NT about the value of gold (3:18). The wise men brought gold to the infant Jesus as a symbol of his kingly character (Mt 2:11), and the Holy City, the new Jerusalem, was a city of gold, clear as glass (Rv 21:18).<\/p>\n<p>In the OT, silver is mentioned in several connections. Being a precious metal, once considered more precious than gold, it was regularly used in commerce for the payments of debts. Small pieces of silver were weighed into a balance against a standard weight. Abraham bought the cave at Machpelah as a burial place for Sarah for 400 shekels of silver and weighed out the “money” according to the weight’s current value with the merchant (Gn 23:15-16). Joseph’s brothers received 20 pieces of silver in payment for Joseph (37:28), and Benjamin was given a money gift by Joseph in pieces of silver (45:22).<\/p>\n<p>There are other examples of payment in silver for commodities or services (Gn 20:16; Ex 21:32; Lv 27:16; Jos 24:32; Jgs 17:10; 2 Sm 24:24; Neh 7:72; Jb 28:15; Is 7:23; 46:6; Am 2:6; 8:6). Silver was a measure of a man’s wealth (Gn 13:2; 24:35; Ex 25:3; Nm 22:18; Dt 7:25; Zep 1:18; Hg 2:8; Zec 6:11). An unusual comment in 1 Kings 10:21 notes that in Solomon’s day “it was not considered as anything,” apparently because it was so plentiful. It was regularly taken as booty (Jos 6:19; 7:21; 1 Kgs 15:18). Sometimes the drinking cup of an important man was made of silver (Gn 44:2). Sometimes, too, a royal crown was made of gold and silver (Zec 6:11). It was important in the manufacture of personal ornaments (Gn 24:53; Ex 3:22; 12:35), and one example is given of ornaments of gold studded with silver (Sg 1:11).<\/p>\n<p>The process of refining silver was used as a metaphor for the trying of people’s hearts (Ps 66:10; Is 48:10), and the tarnishing and deterioration of silver was a picture of the disintegration of one’s character (Is 1:22; Jer 6:30). God’s Word is pictured as “pure” silver refined and purified in a furnace. Despite silver’s great value, wisdom excels it (Job 28:15; Prv 3:14; 8:19; 10:20; 16:16; 22:1; 25:11).<\/p>\n<p>Native copper is mentioned in Deuteronomy 8:9, though the reference may be to one of its ores. More commonly, biblical references are to brass, the alloy of copper and zinc. However, the chemical analysis of copper-based tools and implements during the middle and late Bronze Ages (c. 2000–1200 <span>BC<\/span>) shows that the material was bronze. References to brass in the <span>kjv<\/span> are therefore to bronze.<\/p>\n<p>By NT times, copper in the form of alloys (bronze and brass) was widely used. Bronze coinage was well known and this may be the sense of Matthew 10:9. The widow’s mite was a tiny bronze coin, the lepton. Bronze utensils and vessels were well known (Rv 9:20; 18:12). The reference to “sounding brass” (<span>kjv<\/span>) in 1 Corinthians 13:1 may actually be to brass, which was a bright, shining alloy, and was used in musical instruments. In the vision of John in Revelation (Rv 1:15; 2:18), the Son of Man had feet of fine brass (<span>nlt<\/span> “bronze”).<\/p>\n<p>The Iron Age began in Palestine about 1200 <span>BC<\/span>, that is, in the days of the judges, though native iron had been known in Egypt in the predynastic period. Archaeological evidence suggests that the smelting of iron ore was discovered by the Hittites about 1400 <span>BC<\/span>. The Philistines seem to have introduced iron to Palestine about 1300 <span>BC<\/span>. In the days of Moses an encounter with the Midianites produced much tribute, among which iron is mentioned (Nm 31:22). When Israel captured Jericho, the spoils included iron (Jos 6:24). Manasseh’s half-tribe also took booty including iron (22:8). In the days of the judges the Canaanites were equipped with chariots of iron (Jos 17:16-18; Jgs 1:19; 4:3).<\/p>\n<p>These early references point to the arrival of iron at the start of the Iron Age. The Philistines enjoyed a local monopoly in its use (1 Sm 13:19-21), and their mighty warrior Goliath was armed with an iron spear (17:7). It was not long, however, before Israel learned the use of iron (2 Sm 12:31; 23:7). Evidently, by Solomon’s time, iron was widely used, because builders of the temple were forbidden to use iron tools (1 Kgs 6:7). The false prophet Zedekiah in Ahab’s day used the horns of iron to thrust toward Syria as he spoke of their defeat (22:11).<\/p>\n<p>The prophet Isaiah in the eighth century <span>BC<\/span> referred to iron (Is 10:34), and Jeremiah later spoke of the metal in several places (Jer 1:18; 6:28; 11:4; 15:12; 17:1; 28:13-14). Ezekiel made use of an iron plate in one of his symbolic actions (Ez 4:3), referred to iron in his description of smelting (22:18, 20), and listed it as a commodity for trade (27:12, 19). The prophet Amos spoke of threshing instruments of iron (Am 1:3). Micah used iron as a symbol for military might (Mi 4:13). The book of Daniel makes several references to it (Dn 2:33-35, 40-45; 4:15, 23; 7:7, 19).<\/p>\n<p>By Roman times, iron weapons were the regular implements of war. Gates of iron were used to close prisons (Acts 12:10), and in a symbolic usage powerful rulers were said to rule with a rod of iron (Rv 2:27; 9:9; 12:5; 19:15). The term “iron” was used also in some metaphorical expressions. The smelting of iron was a symbol of testing and suffering (Dt 4:20; 1 Kgs 8:51; Jer 11:4; Ez 22:18), a pillar of iron was symbolic of strength (Jer 1:18), and an iron rod of harsh rule (Ps 2:9; Rv 2:27; 12:5; 19:15).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Coppersmith; Goldsmith; Ironsmith; Mason, Masonry; Silversmith; Stones, Precious.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>MINERALS* AND METALS<\/h3>\n<p>A “mineral” is a naturally occurring substance, normally an ore that must be mined and treated before the metal can be extracted. A “metal” is a chemical element such as iron or copper, which is free from contamination by other materials. Metals in a pure form generally do not occur in nature, though there are exceptions.<\/p>\n<p>In Palestine, mining and smelting are ancient arts, practiced long before the Israelites arrived. The quarrying of suitable stones, such as flint, for toolmaking goes back to the Stone Age; the quarrying of stone for building is also an ancient craft. In particular, metals, native gold, copper, and meteoric iron were known and used in the Middle East before 4000 <span>BC<\/span>. From 4000 to 3000 <span>BC<\/span>, native silver became known as well as copper and lead ores. The art of smelting was discovered probably almost by accident, resulting in the production of alloys like bronze. Then the reduction of oxidized iron was discovered. From 3000 to 2000 <span>BC<\/span>, important advances were made. Copper sulfides and tin oxides were reduced to metal, and metallic tin and copper became important items of trade.<\/p>\n<p>In the years 2000 to 1000 <span>BC<\/span>, bellows came into use for furnaces, and iron was reduced from its ores and forged. The art of making brass from copper and zinc was discovered about 1500 <span>BC<\/span> but did not become significant till somewhat later. Bronze, known for many centuries, was made sometimes with a high tin content to form speculum for mirrors. By this time the Israelites were settled in the land and the kingdom was established. From 1000 <span>BC<\/span> to the start of the Christian era, the production of metals, especially iron, greatly expanded. A form of steel was made and used for weapons and tools.<\/p>\n<p>By the time of David and Solomon, the Israelites had learned many skills in the preparation and working of metals. Under David, Edom, with its rich copper and iron deposits, was conquered (2 Sm 8:13-14) and there was a lot of activity in the casting of metals in the Jordan Valley (1 Kgs 7:13-14, 45-46). In this activity Solomon had the assistance of Hiram, a Phoenician artisan. Israelite tradition associated the origins of metallurgy with Tubal-cain (Gn 4:22), who is said to have forged all kinds of tools out of bronze and iron. Deuteronomy 8:9 refers to the presence of iron and copper in the land to which Israel was going.<\/p>\n<p>While the Israelites eventually undertook their own metalworking processes, it is evident from 1 Samuel 13:19-22 that on at least one occasion, in the days of Philistine domination, they were obliged to have their agricultural tools made by their enemies. Similarly, the manufacture of cult vessels for Solomon’s temple was supervised by Phoenician artisans (1 Kgs 7:13-50).<\/p>\n<p>Minerals, metals, and precious stones were also important items of trade. Israel was never a land rich in these commodities and was obliged to import a wide variety of them. The visit of the queen of Sheba was partly diplomatic and partly for trade (1 Kgs 10:2, 10-11).<\/p>\n<p>Metals and precious stones featured also among the booty carried off by invaders, notably—but not only—by the Egyptians and Assyrians. These items were in constant demand as they were needed for agriculture and making weapons of war, and for the manufacture of jewelry and items of personal adornment.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Minerals\">Minerals<\/p>\n<p>A mineral is an inorganic substance with a definite chemical composition and structure, sometimes occurring alone or sometimes combined with others. “Ore” refers to any mineral or mineral aggregate containing chemical compounds of metals in sufficient quantity and grade to make the extraction of the metal commercially profitable. The essential element, the metal, occurs in nature as a chemical compound, such as a sulfide, an oxide, a carbonate, or some other compound, though the sulfides and oxides are the most common. Minerals exhibit a variety of properties, such as color, luster, crystal form, cleavage, fracture, hardness, and density, which help in their identification and exercise control on the commercial and industrial uses of the particular mineral.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Metals\">Metals<\/p>\n<p>A metal in its pure form is a chemically pure element with its own fixed physical properties, such as density, tensile strength, crystalline structure, melting point, ductility, conductivity, and the like. Metals form alloys with other metals, but this process destroys their purity. In both the ancient world and the modern world the alloy is extremely important.<\/p>\n<p>In order to obtain a pure metal, the ore in which the metal is contained must be smelted—a process known as metallurgy. In ancient Israel pure metals were widely used—among them were gold, silver, iron, and lead. Yet alloys such as bronze and brass were even more widely used.<\/p>\n<h5>Metallurgy and Metal Extraction<\/h5>\n<p>The method of producing hard wrought iron was discovered by the Hittites of Asia Minor about 1300 <span>BC<\/span>, and was taken up by the Philistines (1 Sm 13:19-20). At first, the iron obtained from simple furnaces was drawn off and hammered to drive out slag (Dt 4:20; 1 Kgs 8:51; Jer 11:4). Later, the addition of carbon produced an early form of steel.<\/p>\n<p>The lead sulfide ore is heated with lime in a flow of air. A slag with rock particles forms. The air is then cut off and the temperature is raised. Finally, the lead flows free.<\/p>\n<p>The OT refers to the mining of silver (Jb 28:1), the refining of the metal (Zec 13:9; Mal 3:3), the melting of scrap metals or jeweler’s remnants (Ez 22:20-22), and of multiple refinings in a crucible (Prv 17:3; 27:21) to produce refined silver (1 Chr 29:4; Ps 12:6; Prv 10:20).<\/p>\n<h5>Specific Metals<\/h5>\n<p>Although several OT passages suggest that the science of metallurgy was known in biblical times, comparatively little archaeological evidence is available. The processing plants were small and were used for the treatment of copper and iron. The archaeological record is far from complete, but the general impression is that metallic ores were comparatively rare in Palestine; imports must have been considerable. However, numerous molds for casting agricultural and military tools have come to light in excavations. Evidently, some refined metal was available locally, but perhaps most of it was imported. The metal was then heated and poured into the appropriate earthenware or pottery mold.<\/p>\n<p>There are many references to metals in the Bible, but especially to gold, silver, iron, and lead. While copper was widely used, it was normally in the form of its alloys, bronze and brass. There are comparatively few references to tin as such, though it was used in manufacturing bronze. Similarly zinc, though used in the manufacture of brass, is not mentioned in the Bible.<\/p>\n<p>Gold is referred to hundreds of times in the OT and NT, more frequently than any other metal. It is often mentioned together with silver, and in the majority of cases silver is mentioned first, reflecting a time when gold was less valued.<\/p>\n<p>Gold was used in the manufacture of ornaments for personal use (Gn 24:53; 41:42; Ex 3:22; 11:2; 12:35). Gold was important in worship both in Israel and among the non-Israelites. References to pagan gods occur in several passages (Ex 20:23; 32:2-4; Ps 115:4; Is 2:20; 30:22; 31:7; 40:19; 46:6; Hos 8:4). It seems that the gold was melted down and later engraved so that the replicas could be called both molten images (Ex 32:24) and graven images. The tabernacle and the temple used a great deal of gold. The wooden ark was covered inside and outside with gold (25:11). Other timber pieces were overlaid with gold (25:11; 1 Kgs 6:20-22, 30).<\/p>\n<p>The vessels and utensils used in the tabernacle and temple were made of “pure gold”: the cherubim (Ex 25:18; 37:7), the mercy seat (25:17; 37:6), the candlestick (Ex 25:31; Zec 4:2), various vessels (Ex 25:38; 2 Kgs 24:13), chains to carry the ephod (Ex 28:14), and the bells on the high priest’s robe. The high priest’s crown, ephod, and breastplate were also of gold (39:2-30). The offerings collected for the manufacture of such articles in the wilderness include golden dishes weighing 120 shekels (Nm 7:86). The more lavishly adorned temple apparently used more gold than the tabernacle (1 Kgs 6:20-28; 1 Chr 29:2-7; 2 Chr 3:4–4:22). The number of specific references to gold in the tabernacle and temple is far too great to mention all of them here. The large amount of gold used in the temple was attractive to invaders, who would strip the temple of its gold and carry it off as booty (1 Kgs 14:26; 2 Kgs 16:8; 18:14; 24:13; 25:15; 2 Chr 12:9).<\/p>\n<p>Gold had commercial value. It was imported in Solomon’s day, and up to 666 talents were brought to Israel annually (1 Kgs 10:14). Hiram of Tyre gave Solomon 120 talents of gold (9:14), possibly as a loan. Certainly Solomon used a lot of gold in the temple (10:16-17). Gold was useful, too, for buying off an enemy (2 Kgs 16:8) or simply as tribute (18:14). Evidence of this comes also from the Assyrian annals, where the tribute taken from various lands often included gold.<\/p>\n<p>The possession of gold was not in itself an evil thing, but preoccupation with its accumulation was condemned (Jb 28:15-17; Prv 3:14; 8:10, 19; 16:16). The possession of wisdom and the knowledge of God was of greater value than the possession of much gold (Pss 19:10; 119:72, 127; Prv 20:15). Job rejected trust in gold (Jb 31:24). Gold would not save a man in the day of judgment (Zep 1:18).<\/p>\n<p>In the NT gold was regarded as perishable (Jas 5:3; 1 Pt 1:18) and as an unnecessary burden to carry (Mt 10:9; Acts 3:6). The wearing of a gold ring was certainly no measure of a man’s worth (Jas 2:2); indeed, both Paul and Peter forbade it (1 Tm 2:9; 1 Pt 3:3).<\/p>\n<p>The use of gold in itself was no measure of piety. The elders of Revelation 4:4 wore golden crowns, but the great harlot was “bedecked with gold” (Rv 17:4), as was the harlot city Babylon (18:16). By contrast, there are some positive statements in the NT about the value of gold (3:18). The wise men brought gold to the infant Jesus as a symbol of his kingly character (Mt 2:11), and the Holy City, the new Jerusalem, was a city of gold, clear as glass (Rv 21:18).<\/p>\n<p>In the OT, silver is mentioned in several connections. Being a precious metal, once considered more precious than gold, it was regularly used in commerce for the payments of debts. Small pieces of silver were weighed into a balance against a standard weight. Abraham bought the cave at Machpelah as a burial place for Sarah for 400 shekels of silver and weighed out the “money” according to the weight’s current value with the merchant (Gn 23:15-16). Joseph’s brothers received 20 pieces of silver in payment for Joseph (37:28), and Benjamin was given a money gift by Joseph in pieces of silver (45:22).<\/p>\n<p>There are other examples of payment in silver for commodities or services (Gn 20:16; Ex 21:32; Lv 27:16; Jos 24:32; Jgs 17:10; 2 Sm 24:24; Neh 7:72; Jb 28:15; Is 7:23; 46:6; Am 2:6; 8:6). Silver was a measure of a man’s wealth (Gn 13:2; 24:35; Ex 25:3; Nm 22:18; Dt 7:25; Zep 1:18; Hg 2:8; Zec 6:11). An unusual comment in 1 Kings 10:21 notes that in Solomon’s day “it was not considered as anything,” apparently because it was so plentiful. It was regularly taken as booty (Jos 6:19; 7:21; 1 Kgs 15:18). Sometimes the drinking cup of an important man was made of silver (Gn 44:2). Sometimes, too, a royal crown was made of gold and silver (Zec 6:11). It was important in the manufacture of personal ornaments (Gn 24:53; Ex 3:22; 12:35), and one example is given of ornaments of gold studded with silver (Sg 1:11).<\/p>\n<p>The process of refining silver was used as a metaphor for the trying of people’s hearts (Ps 66:10; Is 48:10), and the tarnishing and deterioration of silver was a picture of the disintegration of one’s character (Is 1:22; Jer 6:30). God’s Word is pictured as “pure” silver refined and purified in a furnace. Despite silver’s great value, wisdom excels it (Job 28:15; Prv 3:14; 8:19; 10:20; 16:16; 22:1; 25:11).<\/p>\n<p>Native copper is mentioned in Deuteronomy 8:9, though the reference may be to one of its ores. More commonly, biblical references are to brass, the alloy of copper and zinc. However, the chemical analysis of copper-based tools and implements during the middle and late Bronze Ages (c. 2000–1200 <span>BC<\/span>) shows that the material was bronze. References to brass in the <span>kjv<\/span> are therefore to bronze.<\/p>\n<p>By NT times, copper in the form of alloys (bronze and brass) was widely used. Bronze coinage was well known and this may be the sense of Matthew 10:9. The widow’s mite was a tiny bronze coin, the lepton. Bronze utensils and vessels were well known (Rv 9:20; 18:12). The reference to “sounding brass” (<span>kjv<\/span>) in 1 Corinthians 13:1 may actually be to brass, which was a bright, shining alloy, and was used in musical instruments. In the vision of John in Revelation (Rv 1:15; 2:18), the Son of Man had feet of fine brass (<span>nlt<\/span> “bronze”).<\/p>\n<p>The Iron Age began in Palestine about 1200 <span>BC<\/span>, that is, in the days of the judges, though native iron had been known in Egypt in the predynastic period. Archaeological evidence suggests that the smelting of iron ore was discovered by the Hittites about 1400 <span>BC<\/span>. The Philistines seem to have introduced iron to Palestine about 1300 <span>BC<\/span>. In the days of Moses an encounter with the Midianites produced much tribute, among which iron is mentioned (Nm 31:22). When Israel captured Jericho, the spoils included iron (Jos 6:24). Manasseh’s half-tribe also took booty including iron (22:8). In the days of the judges the Canaanites were equipped with chariots of iron (Jos 17:16-18; Jgs 1:19; 4:3).<\/p>\n<p>These early references point to the arrival of iron at the start of the Iron Age. The Philistines enjoyed a local monopoly in its use (1 Sm 13:19-21), and their mighty warrior Goliath was armed with an iron spear (17:7). It was not long, however, before Israel learned the use of iron (2 Sm 12:31; 23:7). Evidently, by Solomon’s time, iron was widely used, because builders of the temple were forbidden to use iron tools (1 Kgs 6:7). The false prophet Zedekiah in Ahab’s day used the horns of iron to thrust toward Syria as he spoke of their defeat (22:11).<\/p>\n<p>The prophet Isaiah in the eighth century <span>BC<\/span> referred to iron (Is 10:34), and Jeremiah later spoke of the metal in several places (Jer 1:18; 6:28; 11:4; 15:12; 17:1; 28:13-14). Ezekiel made use of an iron plate in one of his symbolic actions (Ez 4:3), referred to iron in his description of smelting (22:18, 20), and listed it as a commodity for trade (27:12, 19). The prophet Amos spoke of threshing instruments of iron (Am 1:3). Micah used iron as a symbol for military might (Mi 4:13). The book of Daniel makes several references to it (Dn 2:33-35, 40-45; 4:15, 23; 7:7, 19).<\/p>\n<p>By Roman times, iron weapons were the regular implements of war. Gates of iron were used to close prisons (Acts 12:10), and in a symbolic usage powerful rulers were said to rule with a rod of iron (Rv 2:27; 9:9; 12:5; 19:15). The term “iron” was used also in some metaphorical expressions. The smelting of iron was a symbol of testing and suffering (Dt 4:20; 1 Kgs 8:51; Jer 11:4; Ez 22:18), a pillar of iron was symbolic of strength (Jer 1:18), and an iron rod of harsh rule (Ps 2:9; Rv 2:27; 12:5; 19:15).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Coppersmith; Goldsmith; Ironsmith; Mason, Masonry; Silversmith; Stones, Precious.<\/p>","summary_ro":"MINERALS* AND METALS A “mineral” is a naturally occurring substance, normally an ore that must be mined and treated before the metal can be extracted. A “metal” is a chemical element such as iron or copper, which is free from contamination by other materials. Metals in a pure form generally do not occur in nature, though there are exceptions. In Palestine, mining and smelting are ancient arts, practiced long before the Israelites arrived. The quarrying of suitable stones, such as flint, for t...","summary_en":"MINERALS* AND METALS A “mineral” is a naturally occurring substance, normally an ore that must be mined and treated before the metal can be extracted. A “metal” is a chemical element such as iron or copper, which is free from contamination by other materials. Metals in a pure form generally do not occur in nature, though there are exceptions. In Palestine, mining and smelting are ancient arts, practiced long before the Israelites arrived. The quarrying of suitable stones, such as flint, for t...","source":"Articles\/M.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}]},"labels":{"article":"Articol","map":"Hartă","chart":"Diagramă","textbox":"Notă explicativă","picture":"Imagine","profile":"Profil","study_note":"Notă de studiu","theme_note":"Temă biblică"},"icons":{"article":"📖","map":"🗺️","chart":"📊","textbox":"💡","picture":"🖼️","profile":"👤","study_note":"📝","theme_note":"🎯"},"typeColors":{"article":"#d4af37","map":"#2d7d46","chart":"#3b82f6","textbox":"#8b5cf6","picture":"#ec4899","profile":"#f59e0b","study_note":"#06b6d4","theme_note":"#ef4444"}}
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Isaia 10
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