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Isaia 42

¹ ,,Iată Robul Meu, pe care -L sprijinesc, Alesul Meu, în care Îşi găseşte plăcere sufletul Meu. Am pus Duhul Meu peste El; El va vesti neamurilor judecata.

² El nu va striga, nu-Şi va ridica glasul, şi nu-l va face să se audă pe uliţe.

³ Trestia frântă n-o va zdrobi, şi mucul care mai arde încă, nu-l va stinge. Va vesti judecata după adevăr.

⁴ El nu va slăbi, nici nu se va lăsa, până va aşeza dreptatea pe pământ; şi ostroavele vor nădăjdui în legea Lui.``

⁵ Aşa vorbeşte Domnul Dumnezeu, care a făcut cerurile şi le-a întins, care a întins pământul şi cele de pe el, care a dat suflare celor ce-l locuiesc, şi suflet celor ce merg pe el.

⁶ ,,Eu, Domnul, Te-am chemat ca să dai mântuire, şi Te voi lua de mână, Te voi păzi şi Te voi pune ca legământ al poporului, ca să fii Lumina neamurilor,

⁷ să deschizi ochii orbilor, să scoţi din temniţă pe cei legaţi, şi din prinsoare pe cei ce locuiesc în întunerec.

⁸ Eu sânt Domnul, acesta este Numele Meu; şi slava Mea n-o voi da altuia, nici cinstea mea idolilor.``

⁹ ,,Iată că cele dintâi lucruri s-au împlinit, şi vă vestesc altele noi; vi le spun mai înainte ca să se întâmple.

¹⁰ Cântaţi Domnului o cântare nouă, cântaţi laudele Lui până la marginile pământului, voi cari mergeţi pe mare şi cei ce locuiţi în ea, ostroave şi locuitorii lor!

¹¹ Pustia şi cetăţile ei să înalţe glasul! Satele locuite de Chedar, să-şi înalţe glasul! Locuitorii stâncilor să sară de veselie: să strige de bucurie din vârful munţilor!

¹² Să dea slavă Domnului, şi să vestească laudele Lui în ostroave!``

¹³ Domnul înaintează ca un viteaz, Îşi stârneşte râvna ca un om de război; înalţă glasul, strigă, Îşi arată puterea împotriva vrăjmaşilor Săi. -

¹⁴ ,,Am tăcut multă vreme-,zice Domnul, -am tăcut, şi M-am ţinut. Dar acum voi striga ca o femeie în durerile naşterii, voi gâfăi şi voi răsufla.

¹⁵ Voi pustii munţi şi dealuri, le voi usca toată verdeaţa; voi preface râurile în ostroave, şi iazurile le voi usca.

¹⁶ Voi duce pe orbi pe un drum necunoscut de ei, îi voi povăţui pe cărări neştiute de ei; voi preface întunerecul în lumină, înaintea lor, şi locurile strâmbe în locuri netede: iată ce voi face, şi nu-i voi părăsi.

¹⁷ Vor da înapoi, vor fi acoperiţi de ruşine cei ce se încred în idoli ciopliţi şi zic idolilor turnaţi: ,Voi sânteţi dumnezeii noştri!`

¹⁸ ,Ascultaţi, surzilor, priviţi şi vedeţi, orbilor!`

¹⁹ Cine este orb, dacă nu robul Meu şi surd ca solul Meu, pe care îl trimet? Cine este orb ca prietenul lui Dumnezeu, şi orb ca robul Domnului?

²⁰ Ai văzut multe, dar n-ai luat seama la ele; ai deschis urechile, dar n-ai auzit:

²¹ Domnul a voit, pentru dreptatea Lui, să vestească o lege mare şi minunată.

²² Şi totuş poporul acesta este un popor prădat şi jăfuit! Toţi zac înlănţuiţi în peşteri, şi înfundaţi în temniţe. Sânt lăsaţi de pradă, şi nimeni nu-i scapă! Jăfuiţi, şi nimeni nu zice: ,Dă înapoi!`

²³ Cine dintre voi, însă, pleacă urechea la aceste lucruri? Cine vrea să ia aminte la ele şi să asculte pe viitor?

²⁴ Cine a dat pe Iacov pradă jafului, şi pe Israel în mânile jăfuitorilor? Oare nu Domnul, împotriva căruia am păcătuit? Ei n-au voit să umble pe căile Lui, şi n-au ascultat Legea Lui.

²⁵ De aceea a vărsat El peste Israel văpaia mâniei Lui, şi grozăviile războiului: războiul l-a aprins din toate părţile şi n-a înţeles; l-a ars, şi n-a luat seama.``

{"verseMap":{"1":[{"id":3680,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Baptism","title_en":"Baptism","content_ro":"<h3>BAPTISM<\/h3>\nTerm generally meaning “to dip” or “immerse,” but representing a group of words employed to signify a religious rite for ritual cleansing. In the NT it became the rite of initiation into the Christian community, and it was interpreted theologically as a dying and rising with Christ.<\/p>\nPreview<\/p>\n• The Baptism of John<\/p>\n• The Baptism of Jesus<\/p>\n• Jesus’ Resurrection Command to Baptize<\/p>\n• Baptism in the Early Church<\/p>\n• The Theology of Baptism in Paul’s and Peter’s Epistles<\/p>\nThe Baptism of John<\/p>\nJohn preached a “baptism of repentance for the forgiveness of sins” (Lk 3:3). The origins of his rite are difficult to trace. Some have claimed that his baptism modeled that practiced by those at Qumran; others have urged that his baptism modeled that practiced by Jews when initiating proselytes to Judaism. The members of the Qumran community viewed themselves as the covenant community of the last days and so dwelt in the desert, living an ascetic life and immersing themselves daily in acts of ceremonial cleansing. At the same time they taught that internal repentance must accompany the external act (1 QS 2:3). Its sacramental nature is seen in the fact that only a full member of the community could practice it, and then only after two probationary years (1 QS 5:6). Converts from pagan religions were admitted to Judaism only after fulfilling certain obligations, which included the study of the Torah, circumcision, and a ritual bath to wash away the impurities of the Gentile background.<\/p>\nJohn’s baptism both parallels and differs with these forms of baptism. The genesis of his baptism may be found in the prophetic acted-out parable, which not only symbolized God’s message but also intended to bring it about. John’s practice had several theological ramifications: (1) It was intimately connected with radical repentance, not only of the Gentile but astoundingly (to his contemporaries) also of the Jew. (2) It was eschatological at the core, preparing for the Messiah, who would baptize with the Holy Spirit and with fire (Mt 3:11), and therefore looked to the final separation between God’s people and the wicked at the eschaton (i.e., “the End,” cf. Mt 3:12). (3) It symbolized moral purification and so prepared the people for the coming kingdom (Mt 3:2; Lk 3:7-14). In spite of the obvious connection between John’s ceremony and the early church, we cannot posit absolute dependence. In fact, it disappeared from Jesus’ ministry. At first, Jesus allowed his disciples to continue the rite (Jn 3:22), but later he seemingly discontinued the practice (Jn 4:1-3), probably for the following reasons: (1) John’s message was functional, while Jesus’ was personal\/ontological. (2) John’s was forward-looking, expecting the coming kingdom, while Jesus’ was backward-looking, celebrating that event. (3) John’s was an interim practice, while Jesus’ was sacramental. Jesus’ ministry fulfilled John’s, so he severed himself from the latter’s modus operandi.<\/p>\nThe Baptism of Jesus<\/p>\nThis event has its genesis in a complex interplay of motives, divine and human, within the messianic consciousness of Jesus (see Mk 1:9-11 and parallels). For John it was Jesus’ stamp of approval upon his message and ministry. Jesus was in continuity with John’s kingdom proclamation. For Jesus, it was also an anointing that signified the inauguration of his messianic ministry. As seen in God’s “heavenly voice” of Mark 1:11 and parallels, this has two aspects: (1) The voice alludes to Psalm 2:7, establishing Jesus’ unique sonship. (2) It alludes to Isaiah 42:1, establishing him as the messianic “servant of Yahweh.” (This is discussed at greater length in the article below.)<\/p>\nJesus’ Resurrection Command to Baptize<\/p>\nHere we find the true basis of the church’s practice (Mt 28:19). As already stated, the disciples stopped employing it, so it is here that we see the institution reconstituted as an ordinance based on the death and resurrection of Christ. It was no longer a forward-looking phenomenon but had now become a realized activity centering on the gospel message, certified by the risen Christ who is exalted to universal lordship. It also is an essential aspect of the discipling activity, as seen in the use of the participle “baptizing” after the main verb “make disciples.” Finally we might note that the act signifies the entrance of the believer “into” union with (literally “into the name of”) the triune Godhead.<\/p>\nBaptism in the Early Church<\/p>\nActs 2:38 shows that baptism was a sacral institution from the very beginning. This takes it back to the earliest days of the church. In the primitive church it was an important part of the salvation process (Acts 2:38, “repent and be baptized”) and was accomplished via confession and prayer “in the name of Jesus Christ” (Acts 2:38; 8:16; 10:48; 19:5). Probably there was a question-and-answer period in which the believer confessed his faith and dedicated himself to Christ. The result was reception into and identification with the messianic community of the new covenant, signifying both forgiveness of sins (Acts 2:38; 5:31; 10:43; 13:38; 26:18) and the reception of the Holy Spirit (Lk 3:16; Acts 2:38, 41; 9:17; 10:47-48; 11:16-17; 19:5-7). See<\/em> Baptism of Fire; Baptism of Jesus; Baptism of the Spirit.<\/p>\n\nThe Theology of Baptism in Paul’s and Peter’s Epistles<\/p>\nPaul’s basic statement is found in Galatians 3:27, “baptized into Christ.” The rite of baptism is christological at the heart, signifying union with Christ. This is clarified further by Romans 6:3-8, which equates baptism with dying and rising (cf. Col 2:12-13). At the same time baptism is related to the Spirit; 1 Corinthians 12:13 connects “baptism by the one Spirit” with being “given that same Spirit.” Many see baptism as the outward confirmation of the inward “seal” by the Spirit (2 Cor 1:21-22; Eph 1:13; 4:30). This leads us to the eschatological dimension of baptism. In its relation to the present work of Christ and the Spirit, it externalizes the outpouring of salvation in the age of fulfillment, because it is the initiatory rite signifying the believer’s entrance into the blessings of the new age (Ti 3:5).<\/p>\nThere is also a definite link between baptism and the OT covenants. The major connection is with the Abrahamic, especially with the circumcision that characterized it. Paul in Colossians 2:11-12 combines Jewish circumcision with Christian baptism as pictures of the redemptive work of Christ. The debate today centers on the degree of continuity between them—does baptism perform the same function in the New Covenant, i.e., forensic and imputative? Whatever the theological ramifications, Paul at least cannot be made to say this. Rather, he borrows here the Judeo-Christian imagery of the “circumcision of the heart” (Dt 10:16; 30:6; Jer 4:4; Rom 2:28-29; Phil 3:3). Christians experience the fulfillment of that which circumcision merely prefigured, a spiritual, totally efficacious reality.<\/p>\nBaptism is also related to the Noahic covenant in 1 Peter 3:19-21. There Noah’s deliverance through the waters is considered a picture of the effects of baptism. The debate centers on the meaning of “baptism now saves you.” The answer is connected with the thrust of the ensuing clarification, “an appeal to God for a clear conscience” (rsv<\/span>, lit. “of a good conscience”). While the developed dialogue between the sacramental and baptist views is considered below, we will simply comment here that the interpretation “appeal by<\/em> a good conscience” best fits the emphatic position of this phrase and the picture in this verse of a pledging convert. Baptism is the seal of the salvation covenant, which itself has been accomplished beforehand by the act of Christ and the faith decision of the individual.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>BAPTISM<\/h3>\nTerm generally meaning “to dip” or “immerse,” but representing a group of words employed to signify a religious rite for ritual cleansing. In the NT it became the rite of initiation into the Christian community, and it was interpreted theologically as a dying and rising with Christ.<\/p>\nPreview<\/p>\n• The Baptism of John<\/p>\n• The Baptism of Jesus<\/p>\n• Jesus’ Resurrection Command to Baptize<\/p>\n• Baptism in the Early Church<\/p>\n• The Theology of Baptism in Paul’s and Peter’s Epistles<\/p>\nThe Baptism of John<\/p>\nJohn preached a “baptism of repentance for the forgiveness of sins” (Lk 3:3). The origins of his rite are difficult to trace. Some have claimed that his baptism modeled that practiced by those at Qumran; others have urged that his baptism modeled that practiced by Jews when initiating proselytes to Judaism. The members of the Qumran community viewed themselves as the covenant community of the last days and so dwelt in the desert, living an ascetic life and immersing themselves daily in acts of ceremonial cleansing. At the same time they taught that internal repentance must accompany the external act (1 QS 2:3). Its sacramental nature is seen in the fact that only a full member of the community could practice it, and then only after two probationary years (1 QS 5:6). Converts from pagan religions were admitted to Judaism only after fulfilling certain obligations, which included the study of the Torah, circumcision, and a ritual bath to wash away the impurities of the Gentile background.<\/p>\nJohn’s baptism both parallels and differs with these forms of baptism. The genesis of his baptism may be found in the prophetic acted-out parable, which not only symbolized God’s message but also intended to bring it about. John’s practice had several theological ramifications: (1) It was intimately connected with radical repentance, not only of the Gentile but astoundingly (to his contemporaries) also of the Jew. (2) It was eschatological at the core, preparing for the Messiah, who would baptize with the Holy Spirit and with fire (Mt 3:11), and therefore looked to the final separation between God’s people and the wicked at the eschaton (i.e., “the End,” cf. Mt 3:12). (3) It symbolized moral purification and so prepared the people for the coming kingdom (Mt 3:2; Lk 3:7-14). In spite of the obvious connection between John’s ceremony and the early church, we cannot posit absolute dependence. In fact, it disappeared from Jesus’ ministry. At first, Jesus allowed his disciples to continue the rite (Jn 3:22), but later he seemingly discontinued the practice (Jn 4:1-3), probably for the following reasons: (1) John’s message was functional, while Jesus’ was personal\/ontological. (2) John’s was forward-looking, expecting the coming kingdom, while Jesus’ was backward-looking, celebrating that event. (3) John’s was an interim practice, while Jesus’ was sacramental. Jesus’ ministry fulfilled John’s, so he severed himself from the latter’s modus operandi.<\/p>\nThe Baptism of Jesus<\/p>\nThis event has its genesis in a complex interplay of motives, divine and human, within the messianic consciousness of Jesus (see Mk 1:9-11 and parallels). For John it was Jesus’ stamp of approval upon his message and ministry. Jesus was in continuity with John’s kingdom proclamation. For Jesus, it was also an anointing that signified the inauguration of his messianic ministry. As seen in God’s “heavenly voice” of Mark 1:11 and parallels, this has two aspects: (1) The voice alludes to Psalm 2:7, establishing Jesus’ unique sonship. (2) It alludes to Isaiah 42:1, establishing him as the messianic “servant of Yahweh.” (This is discussed at greater length in the article below.)<\/p>\nJesus’ Resurrection Command to Baptize<\/p>\nHere we find the true basis of the church’s practice (Mt 28:19). As already stated, the disciples stopped employing it, so it is here that we see the institution reconstituted as an ordinance based on the death and resurrection of Christ. It was no longer a forward-looking phenomenon but had now become a realized activity centering on the gospel message, certified by the risen Christ who is exalted to universal lordship. It also is an essential aspect of the discipling activity, as seen in the use of the participle “baptizing” after the main verb “make disciples.” Finally we might note that the act signifies the entrance of the believer “into” union with (literally “into the name of”) the triune Godhead.<\/p>\nBaptism in the Early Church<\/p>\nActs 2:38 shows that baptism was a sacral institution from the very beginning. This takes it back to the earliest days of the church. In the primitive church it was an important part of the salvation process (Acts 2:38, “repent and be baptized”) and was accomplished via confession and prayer “in the name of Jesus Christ” (Acts 2:38; 8:16; 10:48; 19:5). Probably there was a question-and-answer period in which the believer confessed his faith and dedicated himself to Christ. The result was reception into and identification with the messianic community of the new covenant, signifying both forgiveness of sins (Acts 2:38; 5:31; 10:43; 13:38; 26:18) and the reception of the Holy Spirit (Lk 3:16; Acts 2:38, 41; 9:17; 10:47-48; 11:16-17; 19:5-7). See<\/em> Baptism of Fire; Baptism of Jesus; Baptism of the Spirit.<\/p>\n\nThe Theology of Baptism in Paul’s and Peter’s Epistles<\/p>\nPaul’s basic statement is found in Galatians 3:27, “baptized into Christ.” The rite of baptism is christological at the heart, signifying union with Christ. This is clarified further by Romans 6:3-8, which equates baptism with dying and rising (cf. Col 2:12-13). At the same time baptism is related to the Spirit; 1 Corinthians 12:13 connects “baptism by the one Spirit” with being “given that same Spirit.” Many see baptism as the outward confirmation of the inward “seal” by the Spirit (2 Cor 1:21-22; Eph 1:13; 4:30). This leads us to the eschatological dimension of baptism. In its relation to the present work of Christ and the Spirit, it externalizes the outpouring of salvation in the age of fulfillment, because it is the initiatory rite signifying the believer’s entrance into the blessings of the new age (Ti 3:5).<\/p>\nThere is also a definite link between baptism and the OT covenants. The major connection is with the Abrahamic, especially with the circumcision that characterized it. Paul in Colossians 2:11-12 combines Jewish circumcision with Christian baptism as pictures of the redemptive work of Christ. The debate today centers on the degree of continuity between them—does baptism perform the same function in the New Covenant, i.e., forensic and imputative? Whatever the theological ramifications, Paul at least cannot be made to say this. Rather, he borrows here the Judeo-Christian imagery of the “circumcision of the heart” (Dt 10:16; 30:6; Jer 4:4; Rom 2:28-29; Phil 3:3). Christians experience the fulfillment of that which circumcision merely prefigured, a spiritual, totally efficacious reality.<\/p>\nBaptism is also related to the Noahic covenant in 1 Peter 3:19-21. There Noah’s deliverance through the waters is considered a picture of the effects of baptism. The debate centers on the meaning of “baptism now saves you.” The answer is connected with the thrust of the ensuing clarification, “an appeal to God for a clear conscience” (rsv<\/span>, lit. “of a good conscience”). While the developed dialogue between the sacramental and baptist views is considered below, we will simply comment here that the interpretation “appeal by<\/em> a good conscience” best fits the emphatic position of this phrase and the picture in this verse of a pledging convert. Baptism is the seal of the salvation covenant, which itself has been accomplished beforehand by the act of Christ and the faith decision of the individual.<\/p>","summary_ro":"BAPTISM Term generally meaning “to dip” or “immerse,” but representing a group of words employed to signify a religious rite for ritual cleansing. In the NT it became the rite of initiation into the Christian community, and it was interpreted theologically as a dying and rising with Christ. Preview • The Baptism of John • The Baptism of Jesus • Jesus’ Resurrection Command to Baptize • Baptism in the Early Church • The Theology of Baptism in Paul’s and Peter’s Epistles The Baptism of John John...","summary_en":"BAPTISM Term generally meaning “to dip” or “immerse,” but representing a group of words employed to signify a religious rite for ritual cleansing. In the NT it became the rite of initiation into the Christian community, and it was interpreted theologically as a dying and rising with Christ. Preview • The Baptism of John • The Baptism of Jesus • Jesus’ Resurrection Command to Baptize • Baptism in the Early Church • The Theology of Baptism in Paul’s and Peter’s Epistles The Baptism of John John...","source":"Articles\/B.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":3737,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"of Jesus*, Baptism","title_en":"of Jesus*, Baptism","content_ro":"<h3>BAPTISM OF JESUS*<\/h3>\nMajor event in Jesus’ life, which marked the beginning of his ministry. The fact that John the Baptist baptized Jesus is disputed by very few scholars today, but the purpose and significance of Jesus’ baptism remain controversial.<\/p>\nThe Gospel accounts agree that John’s baptism was a baptism of repentance (Mt 3:6-10; Mk 1:4-5; Lk 3:3-14). He proclaimed that the kingdom of heaven was at hand and that God’s people should prepare for the Lord’s coming by a renewal of faith toward God. For John, that meant repentance, confession of sins, and practicing righteousness. That being so, why was Jesus baptized? If Jesus was sinless, as the NT proclaims (2 Cor 5:21; Heb 4:15; 1 Pt 2:22), why did he submit to a baptism of repentance for the forgiveness of sins? The Gospels provide the answers.<\/p>\nThe Gospel of Mark<\/p>\nMark presents the baptism of Jesus as a necessary preparation for his period of temptation and ministry. At his baptism Jesus received the Father’s approval and the bestowal of the Holy Spirit (1:9-11). Mark’s focus on Jesus’ special relation to the Father, “You are my beloved Son, and I am fully pleased with you” (1:11, nlt<\/span>), brings together two important OT references. Jesus’ messiahship is presented in a radically new way, in which the ruling Messiah (Ps 2:7) is also the Suffering Servant of the Lord (Is 42:1). Popular Jewish belief expected a ruling Messiah who would establish the kingdom of God, not a Messiah who would suffer for the people. Mark intended to show that in Jesus alone had God’s appointed time for the fulfillment of his purpose come.<\/p>\nThe statement that the heavens opened at the baptism of Jesus (Mk 1:10) may proclaim the arrival of the “end times” (the time of fulfillment and the establishment of God’s kingdom). A then-current Jewish interpretation of Isaiah 64:1 held that in the last days God would open the heavens and come down to his people. In Jewish thought the rending of the heavens was also associated with hearing God’s voice and the bestowal of God’s Spirit.<\/p>\nThe Gospel of Matthew<\/p>\nMatthew’s account of Jesus’ baptism has more detail than Mark’s. It begins by noting John’s reluctance to baptize Jesus (3:14). John was persuaded only after Jesus explained to him that the act was “fitting for us to fulfil all righteousness” (3:15, rsv<\/span>). Although the full meaning of those words is uncertain, they at least suggest that Jesus’ baptism was necessary to accomplish God’s will. In both the Old and New Testaments (Ps 98:2-3; Rom 1:17) God’s righteousness is seen in his salvation for his people. That is why the Messiah can be called “The Lord<\/span> Is Our Righteousness” (Jer 23:6; cf. Is 11:1-5). Jesus told John that his baptism was necessary to do God’s will in bringing about salvation for his people. Thus the Father’s declaration at Jesus’ baptism is presented in the form of a public announcement, emphasizing that Jesus was God’s anointed Servant about to begin his ministry as the bringer of the Lord’s salvation.<\/p>\nThe Gospel of Luke<\/p>\nLuke passes over Jesus’ baptism quickly, placing it alongside the baptism of others who came to John (3:21-22). The context in Luke also sheds some light on the purpose of Jesus’ baptism. Luke, unlike Matthew, places the genealogy of Jesus after his baptism and just before his ministry begins. The parallel to Moses, whose genealogy occurs just before his primary work begins (Ex 6:14-25), seems more than coincidental. It is probably intended to illustrate Jesus’ role in bringing deliverance (salvation) to God’s people just as Moses did in the OT. At his baptism, by the descent of the Holy Spirit upon him, Jesus was equipped to do the mission God had called him to do. Following his temptation (Lk 4:1-13), Jesus entered the synagogue and declared to the people that he had been anointed by the Spirit to proclaim good news (4:16-21). That anointing came at Jesus’ baptism (cf. Acts 10:37-38).<\/p>\nIn his Gospel account, Luke tried to identify Jesus with the common people—for example, in the birth story (with Jesus born in a stable and visited by lowly shepherds, Lk 2:8-20) and through placing the genealogy (stressing Jesus’ relation to all of humanity, 3:38) right after the baptism. Thus, Luke saw the baptism as Jesus’ first step in identifying himself with those he had come to save.<\/p>\nIn the OT the Messiah was always inseparable from the people he represented (see especially Jer 30:21 and Ez 45–46). Although the “servant” in Isaiah is sometimes viewed corporately (Is 44:1) and sometimes individually (53:3), he is always viewed as the representative of the people<\/em> to the Lord (49:5-26), as well as the servant of the Lord.<\/em><\/p>\nEvidently Luke, along with Mark and Matthew, was trying to show that Jesus, as the divine representative of the people, had identified himself with them in his baptism.<\/p>\nThe Gospel of John<\/p>\nThe fourth Gospel does not say that Jesus was baptized but does say that John the Baptist saw the Spirit descend upon Jesus (Jn 1:32-34). The account emphasizes that Jesus went to John during John’s preaching and baptizing ministry; John recognized that Jesus was the Christ, that God’s Spirit was upon him, and that he was the Son of God. John also recognized that Jesus, unlike himself, baptized with the Holy Spirit (1:29-36).<\/p>\nJohn the Baptist described Jesus as the “Lamb of God who takes away the sin of the world” (1:29, nlt<\/span>). The closest OT parallel to that statement comes from a “servant of the Lord” passage (Is 53:6-7). It is possible that “Lamb of God” could be an alternate translation of the Aramaic term “servant of God.”<\/p>\nThe sense of Jesus as the one who bears the sins of the people is obviously in view in the fourth Gospel. That Jesus was the promised representative and deliverer of the people was understood by John the Baptist and conveyed by the Gospel writer.<\/p>\nConclusion<\/p>\nIn the four Gospels it is clear that the Holy Spirit came upon Jesus at his baptism to enable him to do the work of God. All four Gospel writers saw that Jesus had been anointed by God to accomplish his mission of bringing salvation to the people. Those ideas provide a key to understanding why Jesus was baptized. On that occasion at the beginning of his ministry, God anointed Jesus with the Holy Spirit to do his mediating work between God and the people. At his baptism Jesus was identified as the one who would bear the people’s sins; Jesus was baptized to identify himself with sinful people.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Jesus Christ.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>BAPTISM OF JESUS*<\/h3>\nMajor event in Jesus’ life, which marked the beginning of his ministry. The fact that John the Baptist baptized Jesus is disputed by very few scholars today, but the purpose and significance of Jesus’ baptism remain controversial.<\/p>\nThe Gospel accounts agree that John’s baptism was a baptism of repentance (Mt 3:6-10; Mk 1:4-5; Lk 3:3-14). He proclaimed that the kingdom of heaven was at hand and that God’s people should prepare for the Lord’s coming by a renewal of faith toward God. For John, that meant repentance, confession of sins, and practicing righteousness. That being so, why was Jesus baptized? If Jesus was sinless, as the NT proclaims (2 Cor 5:21; Heb 4:15; 1 Pt 2:22), why did he submit to a baptism of repentance for the forgiveness of sins? The Gospels provide the answers.<\/p>\nThe Gospel of Mark<\/p>\nMark presents the baptism of Jesus as a necessary preparation for his period of temptation and ministry. At his baptism Jesus received the Father’s approval and the bestowal of the Holy Spirit (1:9-11). Mark’s focus on Jesus’ special relation to the Father, “You are my beloved Son, and I am fully pleased with you” (1:11, nlt<\/span>), brings together two important OT references. Jesus’ messiahship is presented in a radically new way, in which the ruling Messiah (Ps 2:7) is also the Suffering Servant of the Lord (Is 42:1). Popular Jewish belief expected a ruling Messiah who would establish the kingdom of God, not a Messiah who would suffer for the people. Mark intended to show that in Jesus alone had God’s appointed time for the fulfillment of his purpose come.<\/p>\nThe statement that the heavens opened at the baptism of Jesus (Mk 1:10) may proclaim the arrival of the “end times” (the time of fulfillment and the establishment of God’s kingdom). A then-current Jewish interpretation of Isaiah 64:1 held that in the last days God would open the heavens and come down to his people. In Jewish thought the rending of the heavens was also associated with hearing God’s voice and the bestowal of God’s Spirit.<\/p>\nThe Gospel of Matthew<\/p>\nMatthew’s account of Jesus’ baptism has more detail than Mark’s. It begins by noting John’s reluctance to baptize Jesus (3:14). John was persuaded only after Jesus explained to him that the act was “fitting for us to fulfil all righteousness” (3:15, rsv<\/span>). Although the full meaning of those words is uncertain, they at least suggest that Jesus’ baptism was necessary to accomplish God’s will. In both the Old and New Testaments (Ps 98:2-3; Rom 1:17) God’s righteousness is seen in his salvation for his people. That is why the Messiah can be called “The Lord<\/span> Is Our Righteousness” (Jer 23:6; cf. Is 11:1-5). Jesus told John that his baptism was necessary to do God’s will in bringing about salvation for his people. Thus the Father’s declaration at Jesus’ baptism is presented in the form of a public announcement, emphasizing that Jesus was God’s anointed Servant about to begin his ministry as the bringer of the Lord’s salvation.<\/p>\nThe Gospel of Luke<\/p>\nLuke passes over Jesus’ baptism quickly, placing it alongside the baptism of others who came to John (3:21-22). The context in Luke also sheds some light on the purpose of Jesus’ baptism. Luke, unlike Matthew, places the genealogy of Jesus after his baptism and just before his ministry begins. The parallel to Moses, whose genealogy occurs just before his primary work begins (Ex 6:14-25), seems more than coincidental. It is probably intended to illustrate Jesus’ role in bringing deliverance (salvation) to God’s people just as Moses did in the OT. At his baptism, by the descent of the Holy Spirit upon him, Jesus was equipped to do the mission God had called him to do. Following his temptation (Lk 4:1-13), Jesus entered the synagogue and declared to the people that he had been anointed by the Spirit to proclaim good news (4:16-21). That anointing came at Jesus’ baptism (cf. Acts 10:37-38).<\/p>\nIn his Gospel account, Luke tried to identify Jesus with the common people—for example, in the birth story (with Jesus born in a stable and visited by lowly shepherds, Lk 2:8-20) and through placing the genealogy (stressing Jesus’ relation to all of humanity, 3:38) right after the baptism. Thus, Luke saw the baptism as Jesus’ first step in identifying himself with those he had come to save.<\/p>\nIn the OT the Messiah was always inseparable from the people he represented (see especially Jer 30:21 and Ez 45–46). Although the “servant” in Isaiah is sometimes viewed corporately (Is 44:1) and sometimes individually (53:3), he is always viewed as the representative of the people<\/em> to the Lord (49:5-26), as well as the servant of the Lord.<\/em><\/p>\nEvidently Luke, along with Mark and Matthew, was trying to show that Jesus, as the divine representative of the people, had identified himself with them in his baptism.<\/p>\nThe Gospel of John<\/p>\nThe fourth Gospel does not say that Jesus was baptized but does say that John the Baptist saw the Spirit descend upon Jesus (Jn 1:32-34). The account emphasizes that Jesus went to John during John’s preaching and baptizing ministry; John recognized that Jesus was the Christ, that God’s Spirit was upon him, and that he was the Son of God. John also recognized that Jesus, unlike himself, baptized with the Holy Spirit (1:29-36).<\/p>\nJohn the Baptist described Jesus as the “Lamb of God who takes away the sin of the world” (1:29, nlt<\/span>). The closest OT parallel to that statement comes from a “servant of the Lord” passage (Is 53:6-7). It is possible that “Lamb of God” could be an alternate translation of the Aramaic term “servant of God.”<\/p>\nThe sense of Jesus as the one who bears the sins of the people is obviously in view in the fourth Gospel. That Jesus was the promised representative and deliverer of the people was understood by John the Baptist and conveyed by the Gospel writer.<\/p>\nConclusion<\/p>\nIn the four Gospels it is clear that the Holy Spirit came upon Jesus at his baptism to enable him to do the work of God. All four Gospel writers saw that Jesus had been anointed by God to accomplish his mission of bringing salvation to the people. Those ideas provide a key to understanding why Jesus was baptized. On that occasion at the beginning of his ministry, God anointed Jesus with the Holy Spirit to do his mediating work between God and the people. At his baptism Jesus was identified as the one who would bear the people’s sins; Jesus was baptized to identify himself with sinful people.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Jesus Christ.<\/p>","summary_ro":"BAPTISM OF JESUS* Major event in Jesus’ life, which marked the beginning of his ministry. The fact that John the Baptist baptized Jesus is disputed by very few scholars today, but the purpose and significance of Jesus’ baptism remain controversial. The Gospel accounts agree that John’s baptism was a baptism of repentance (Mt 3:6-10; Mk 1:4-5; Lk 3:3-14). He proclaimed that the kingdom of heaven was at hand and that God’s people should prepare for the Lord’s coming by a renewal of faith toward...","summary_en":"BAPTISM OF JESUS* Major event in Jesus’ life, which marked the beginning of his ministry. The fact that John the Baptist baptized Jesus is disputed by very few scholars today, but the purpose and significance of Jesus’ baptism remain controversial. The Gospel accounts agree that John’s baptism was a baptism of repentance (Mt 3:6-10; Mk 1:4-5; Lk 3:3-14). He proclaimed that the kingdom of heaven was at hand and that God’s people should prepare for the Lord’s coming by a renewal of faith toward...","source":"Articles\/B.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":6587,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Church","title_en":"Church","content_ro":"<h3>CHURCH<\/h3>\nA group or assembly of persons called together for a particular purpose. The term appears in only two verses in the Gospels (Mt 16:18; 18:17) but frequently in the book of Acts, most of the letters of Paul, as well as most of the remaining NT writings, especially the Revelation of John.<\/p>\nOne way of referring to the body of Israel in the OT was simply “the congregation.” Groups claiming to be the true Israel spiritually rather then naturally called themselves “the congregation.” The term was used by the writers of the Dead Sea Scrolls as well as by early Christians; it is the actual meaning of the word “church.” Christians often referred to themselves simply as the church or the congregation (with “of God” being understood). The term could be applied either to all believers in the world or to any local group of them. It meant the total presence of God’s people in a given location. That is why the NT often uses the singular “church” even when many groups of believers are included together (Acts 9:31; 2 Cor 1:1); the term “churches” is rarely found (Acts 15:41; 16:5). Each group or the whole group was the place where God was present (Mt 16:18; 18:17); God had purchased the congregation with the blood of his Son (Acts 20:28). The use of the word “church” in the NT is also somewhat dependent upon the Greek world. In the Greek world the word translated “church” designated an assembly<\/em> of people, a meeting, such as a regularly summoned political body, or simply a gathering<\/em> of people. The word is used in such a secular way in Acts 19:32, 39, 41.<\/p>\nThe specifically Christian usages of this concept vary considerably in the NT. (1) In analogy to the OT, it sometimes refers to a church meeting, as when Paul says to the Christians in Corinth: “When you meet as a church . . .” (1 Cor 11:18). This means that Christians are the people of God especially when they are gathered for worship. (2) In texts such as Matthew 18:17, Acts 5:11, 1 Corinthians 4:17, and Philippians 4:15, “church” refers to the entire group of Christians living in one place. Often, the local character of a Christian congregation is emphasized, as in the phrases, “the church in Jerusalem” (Acts 8:1), “in Corinth” (1 Cor 1:2), “in Thessalonica” (1 Thes 1:1). (3) In other texts, house assemblies of Christians are called churches, such as those who met in the house of Priscilla and Aquila (Rom 16:5; 1 Cor 16:19). (4) Throughout the NT, “the church” designates the universal church, to which all believers belong (see Acts 9:31; 1 Cor 6:4; Eph 1:22; Col 1:18). Jesus’ first word about the founding of the Christian movement in Matthew 16:18 has this larger meaning: “I will build my church, and the powers of death shall not prevail against it” (rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\nThe church, both as a universal reality and in its local, concrete expression, is more specifically designated in Paul’s writings as “the church of God” (e.g., 1 Cor 1:2; 10:32) or “the churches of Christ” (Rom 16:16). In this way a common, secular Greek term receives its distinctive Christian meaning and sets the Christian assembly\/ gathering\/community apart from all other secular or religious groups.<\/p>\nIt is clear from the NT as a whole that the Christian community understood itself as the community of the end time, as the community called into being by God’s end-time act of revelation and divine presence in Jesus of Nazareth. So Paul tells the Christians in Corinth that they are those “upon whom the end of the ages has come” (1 Cor 10:11, rsv<\/span>). That is, God had visited his creation, had called out of both Judaism and the gentile world a new people, empowered by his Spirit to be present in the world, sharing the Good News (gospel) of his radical, unconditional love for his creation (Eph 2:11-22). The Gospels tell us that Jesus chose 12 disciples who became the foundation of this new people. The correspondence to the 12 tribes of Israel is clear, and it shows that the church was understood both as grounded in Judaism and as the fulfillment of God’s intention in calling Israel to become “a light to the nations, that my salvation may reach to the end of the earth” (Is 49:6, rsv<\/span>; Rom 11:1-5). It is this recognition that allows Paul to call this new Gentile-Jewish community, this new creation, “the Israel of God” (Gal 6:15-16). In this new community the traditional barriers of race, social standing, and sex—barriers that divided people from one another and categorized them into inferior and superior classes—are seen to be shattered: “There is neither Jew nor Greek, slave nor free, male nor female, for you are all one in Christ Jesus” (Gal 3:28, niv<\/span>). This one entity is called “the body of Christ.”<\/p>\nPaul is alone among NT writers in speaking of the church as Christ’s body (Rom 12:5; 1 Cor 12:27; Eph 1:22-23; 4:12; see also 1 Cor 10:16-17; 12:12-13), or as “the body” of which Christ is the “head” (Eph 4:15; Col 1:18). The origin of this way of speaking about the church is not clear. Among a number of suggestions, two are particularly revealing about Paul’s thought: (1) The Damascus road experience. According to the accounts in Acts (9:3-7; 22:6-11; 26:12-18), Jesus identifies himself with his persecuted disciples. By persecuting these early Christians, Paul was actually fighting against Christ himself. It is possible that later reflection on this experience led Paul to the conviction that the living Christ was so identified with his community that it could be spoken of as his “body,” that is, the concrete expression of his real presence. (2) The Hebrew concept of corporate solidarity. Paul was a Hebrew of the Hebrews (Phil 3:5), and his thinking was thoroughly Jewish. In that context, the individual is largely thought of as intimately tied into the nation as a whole; the individual does not have real existence apart from the whole people. At the same time, the entire people can be seen as represented by one individual. Thus, “Israel” is both the name of one individual and the name of a whole people. The “servant” of Isaiah 42–53 can be both an individual (Is 42:1-4) and the nation of Israel (49:1-6). This idea of corporate solidarity (or personality) is the background for the intimate connection Paul makes between “the first Adam” and sinful humanity as well as between “the last (or second) Adam” (Christ) and renewed humanity (1 Cor 15:45-49; see also Rom 5:12-21).<\/p>\nThe reality of the intimate relation between Christ and his church is thus expressed by Paul as the organic unity and integration of the physical body (Rom 12:4-8; 1 Cor 12:12-27). For Paul, the Lord’s Supper is a specific manifestation of this reality: “The bread which we break, is it not a participation in the body of Christ? Because there is one bread, we who are many are one body, for we all partake of the one bread” (1 Cor 10:16b-17, rsv<\/span>). Since this is the case, Paul goes on to argue, all the functions of the body have their legitimate and rightful place. Division within the body (i.e., the church) reveals that there is something unhealthy within. It is this image of the church as the “body of Christ” that lies behind Paul’s repeated call for and insistence upon unity within the Christian community.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>CHURCH<\/h3>\nA group or assembly of persons called together for a particular purpose. The term appears in only two verses in the Gospels (Mt 16:18; 18:17) but frequently in the book of Acts, most of the letters of Paul, as well as most of the remaining NT writings, especially the Revelation of John.<\/p>\nOne way of referring to the body of Israel in the OT was simply “the congregation.” Groups claiming to be the true Israel spiritually rather then naturally called themselves “the congregation.” The term was used by the writers of the Dead Sea Scrolls as well as by early Christians; it is the actual meaning of the word “church.” Christians often referred to themselves simply as the church or the congregation (with “of God” being understood). The term could be applied either to all believers in the world or to any local group of them. It meant the total presence of God’s people in a given location. That is why the NT often uses the singular “church” even when many groups of believers are included together (Acts 9:31; 2 Cor 1:1); the term “churches” is rarely found (Acts 15:41; 16:5). Each group or the whole group was the place where God was present (Mt 16:18; 18:17); God had purchased the congregation with the blood of his Son (Acts 20:28). The use of the word “church” in the NT is also somewhat dependent upon the Greek world. In the Greek world the word translated “church” designated an assembly<\/em> of people, a meeting, such as a regularly summoned political body, or simply a gathering<\/em> of people. The word is used in such a secular way in Acts 19:32, 39, 41.<\/p>\nThe specifically Christian usages of this concept vary considerably in the NT. (1) In analogy to the OT, it sometimes refers to a church meeting, as when Paul says to the Christians in Corinth: “When you meet as a church . . .” (1 Cor 11:18). This means that Christians are the people of God especially when they are gathered for worship. (2) In texts such as Matthew 18:17, Acts 5:11, 1 Corinthians 4:17, and Philippians 4:15, “church” refers to the entire group of Christians living in one place. Often, the local character of a Christian congregation is emphasized, as in the phrases, “the church in Jerusalem” (Acts 8:1), “in Corinth” (1 Cor 1:2), “in Thessalonica” (1 Thes 1:1). (3) In other texts, house assemblies of Christians are called churches, such as those who met in the house of Priscilla and Aquila (Rom 16:5; 1 Cor 16:19). (4) Throughout the NT, “the church” designates the universal church, to which all believers belong (see Acts 9:31; 1 Cor 6:4; Eph 1:22; Col 1:18). Jesus’ first word about the founding of the Christian movement in Matthew 16:18 has this larger meaning: “I will build my church, and the powers of death shall not prevail against it” (rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\nThe church, both as a universal reality and in its local, concrete expression, is more specifically designated in Paul’s writings as “the church of God” (e.g., 1 Cor 1:2; 10:32) or “the churches of Christ” (Rom 16:16). In this way a common, secular Greek term receives its distinctive Christian meaning and sets the Christian assembly\/ gathering\/community apart from all other secular or religious groups.<\/p>\nIt is clear from the NT as a whole that the Christian community understood itself as the community of the end time, as the community called into being by God’s end-time act of revelation and divine presence in Jesus of Nazareth. So Paul tells the Christians in Corinth that they are those “upon whom the end of the ages has come” (1 Cor 10:11, rsv<\/span>). That is, God had visited his creation, had called out of both Judaism and the gentile world a new people, empowered by his Spirit to be present in the world, sharing the Good News (gospel) of his radical, unconditional love for his creation (Eph 2:11-22). The Gospels tell us that Jesus chose 12 disciples who became the foundation of this new people. The correspondence to the 12 tribes of Israel is clear, and it shows that the church was understood both as grounded in Judaism and as the fulfillment of God’s intention in calling Israel to become “a light to the nations, that my salvation may reach to the end of the earth” (Is 49:6, rsv<\/span>; Rom 11:1-5). It is this recognition that allows Paul to call this new Gentile-Jewish community, this new creation, “the Israel of God” (Gal 6:15-16). In this new community the traditional barriers of race, social standing, and sex—barriers that divided people from one another and categorized them into inferior and superior classes—are seen to be shattered: “There is neither Jew nor Greek, slave nor free, male nor female, for you are all one in Christ Jesus” (Gal 3:28, niv<\/span>). This one entity is called “the body of Christ.”<\/p>\nPaul is alone among NT writers in speaking of the church as Christ’s body (Rom 12:5; 1 Cor 12:27; Eph 1:22-23; 4:12; see also 1 Cor 10:16-17; 12:12-13), or as “the body” of which Christ is the “head” (Eph 4:15; Col 1:18). The origin of this way of speaking about the church is not clear. Among a number of suggestions, two are particularly revealing about Paul’s thought: (1) The Damascus road experience. According to the accounts in Acts (9:3-7; 22:6-11; 26:12-18), Jesus identifies himself with his persecuted disciples. By persecuting these early Christians, Paul was actually fighting against Christ himself. It is possible that later reflection on this experience led Paul to the conviction that the living Christ was so identified with his community that it could be spoken of as his “body,” that is, the concrete expression of his real presence. (2) The Hebrew concept of corporate solidarity. Paul was a Hebrew of the Hebrews (Phil 3:5), and his thinking was thoroughly Jewish. In that context, the individual is largely thought of as intimately tied into the nation as a whole; the individual does not have real existence apart from the whole people. At the same time, the entire people can be seen as represented by one individual. Thus, “Israel” is both the name of one individual and the name of a whole people. The “servant” of Isaiah 42–53 can be both an individual (Is 42:1-4) and the nation of Israel (49:1-6). This idea of corporate solidarity (or personality) is the background for the intimate connection Paul makes between “the first Adam” and sinful humanity as well as between “the last (or second) Adam” (Christ) and renewed humanity (1 Cor 15:45-49; see also Rom 5:12-21).<\/p>\nThe reality of the intimate relation between Christ and his church is thus expressed by Paul as the organic unity and integration of the physical body (Rom 12:4-8; 1 Cor 12:12-27). For Paul, the Lord’s Supper is a specific manifestation of this reality: “The bread which we break, is it not a participation in the body of Christ? Because there is one bread, we who are many are one body, for we all partake of the one bread” (1 Cor 10:16b-17, rsv<\/span>). Since this is the case, Paul goes on to argue, all the functions of the body have their legitimate and rightful place. Division within the body (i.e., the church) reveals that there is something unhealthy within. It is this image of the church as the “body of Christ” that lies behind Paul’s repeated call for and insistence upon unity within the Christian community.<\/p>","summary_ro":"CHURCH A group or assembly of persons called together for a particular purpose. The term appears in only two verses in the Gospels (Mt 16:18; 18:17) but frequently in the book of Acts, most of the letters of Paul, as well as most of the remaining NT writings, especially the Revelation of John. One way of referring to the body of Israel in the OT was simply “the congregation.” Groups claiming to be the true Israel spiritually rather then naturally called themselves “the congregation.” The term...","summary_en":"CHURCH A group or assembly of persons called together for a particular purpose. The term appears in only two verses in the Gospels (Mt 16:18; 18:17) but frequently in the book of Acts, most of the letters of Paul, as well as most of the remaining NT writings, especially the Revelation of John. One way of referring to the body of Israel in the OT was simply “the congregation.” Groups claiming to be the true Israel spiritually rather then naturally called themselves “the congregation.” The term...","source":"Articles\/C.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":7434,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Congregation","title_en":"Congregation","content_ro":"<h3>CONGREGATION<\/h3>\nAssembly of people, particularly for religious purposes. The Bible describes Israel as the congregation of the Lord because it was a covenant nation. The whole nation was considered to be the people of God (Ex 3:6-8, 15-16; 12:6; Is 1:2-4; 14:1).<\/p>\nAs a chosen nation, Israel was to display God’s greatness in the midst of other nations (Dt 4:6-14; Is 42:1; 45:4; 65:9, 22). Because of this, the whole nation was called “the assembly of the congregation of the people of Israel” (Nm 14:5, rsv<\/span>; see also Lv 4:13; Nm 16:3).<\/p>\nThe church of the NT owes much to the spiritual heritage transmitted by the OT congregation of God’s people. This relationship of the church to the OT people of God is highlighted in several places (Heb 2:10-13; 1 Pt 2:9-10; see also Rom 9:1-8; Gal 6:16).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Church.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>CONGREGATION<\/h3>\nAssembly of people, particularly for religious purposes. The Bible describes Israel as the congregation of the Lord because it was a covenant nation. The whole nation was considered to be the people of God (Ex 3:6-8, 15-16; 12:6; Is 1:2-4; 14:1).<\/p>\nAs a chosen nation, Israel was to display God’s greatness in the midst of other nations (Dt 4:6-14; Is 42:1; 45:4; 65:9, 22). Because of this, the whole nation was called “the assembly of the congregation of the people of Israel” (Nm 14:5, rsv<\/span>; see also Lv 4:13; Nm 16:3).<\/p>\nThe church of the NT owes much to the spiritual heritage transmitted by the OT congregation of God’s people. This relationship of the church to the OT people of God is highlighted in several places (Heb 2:10-13; 1 Pt 2:9-10; see also Rom 9:1-8; Gal 6:16).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Church.<\/p>","summary_ro":"CONGREGATION Assembly of people, particularly for religious purposes. The Bible describes Israel as the congregation of the Lord because it was a covenant nation. The whole nation was considered to be the people of God (Ex 3:6-8, 15-16; 12:6; Is 1:2-4; 14:1). As a chosen nation, Israel was to display God’s greatness in the midst of other nations (Dt 4:6-14; Is 42:1; 45:4; 65:9, 22). Because of this, the whole nation was called “the assembly of the congregation of the people of Israel” (Nm 14:...","summary_en":"CONGREGATION Assembly of people, particularly for religious purposes. The Bible describes Israel as the congregation of the Lord because it was a covenant nation. The whole nation was considered to be the people of God (Ex 3:6-8, 15-16; 12:6; Is 1:2-4; 14:1). As a chosen nation, Israel was to display God’s greatness in the midst of other nations (Dt 4:6-14; Is 42:1; 45:4; 65:9, 22). Because of this, the whole nation was called “the assembly of the congregation of the people of Israel” (Nm 14:...","source":"Articles\/C.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":15635,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Healing Heal","title_en":"Healing Heal","content_ro":"<h3>HEAL, HEALING<\/h3>\nTo make well. The OT provides the proper background for a Christian understanding of the concept of healing. In the OT the basic point is made that God is the healer of his people. In Exodus 15:22-26, after God has delivered his people from Egypt, led them through the sea, and sweetened the water at Marah, he speaks of himself as their “healer.” This refers primarily to physical sustenance, but it points to the more encompassing concept of God sustaining his people in an eternal relationship with himself. In a similar manner, Deuteronomy 32:39 speaks of God as the one who heals. The context in Deuteronomy implies that this healing power derives from the fact that God is God. This concept of God as the healer is echoed throughout the OT by the psalmists (Pss 6:2; 41:4; 103:3) and prophets (Is 19:22; Jer 17:14; Hos 7:1; Zec 11:16).<\/p>\nJesus the Healer: Accounts in the Gospels<\/p>\nThe NT significantly emphasizes Jesus as the healer. Mark portrays him as a teacher and healer in his opening account of Jesus’ ministry in Capernaum with the healing of the demoniac, Peter’s mother-in-law, the sick brought to him in the evening, and the leper (Mk 1:21-45). Indeed, healing sickness and casting out demons characterize Jesus’ ministry. Mark presents in rapid succession Jesus’ healing of the paralytic (2:1-12), the man with the withered hand (3:1-6), the multitudes by the sea (vv 7-12), the Gerasene demoniac (5:1-20), the woman with a hemorrhage, and Jairus’s daughter (vv 21-43). Jesus then commissioned the Twelve to proclaim repentance, to cast out demons, and to heal the sick (6:7-13). He himself continued with healings at Gennesaret (vv 53-56), casting out the unclean spirit from the daughter of the Syrophoenician woman (7:24-30), healing the deaf and mute man (vv 31-37), the blind man of Bethsaida (8:22-26), the boy possessed with an evil spirit (9:14-20), and blind Bartimaeus (10:46-52).<\/p>\nCertainly healing is an important aspect of Jesus’ ministry. The healings expressed not only his compassion for those suffering but also constituted a revelation of his person. This is brought out by the climactic statement of Jesus in healing the paralytic: “that you may know that the Son of man has authority on earth to forgive sins” (Mk 2:10, rsv<\/span>). It also seems that Mark intended his readers to understand that the healing of the deaf and mute man (7:31-37) and the blind man of Bethsaida (8:22-26) symbolize the awakening of spiritual understanding in the disciples of who Jesus is. It is also significant that Mark has placed the healing of Bartimaeus (10:46-52) immediately after Jesus’ third announcement of his own coming death (vv 32-34) and the disciples’ third failure to understand that his being the Messiah entailed the necessity of suffering (vv 35-45).<\/p>\nMatthew also portrays Jesus as teaching, preaching, and healing (Mt 4:23-25), and parallels the accounts in Mark, except for the healing of the demoniac in the synagogue (Mk 1:23-28) and the blind man of Bethsaida (8:22-26). However, according to his special purpose and structure, Matthew has placed many of Jesus’ healings together in a “mighty works” section (Mt 8–9), complementing the “great words” (“sermon”) section (chs 5–7). Matthew views Jesus’ healings as directly fulfilling the OT, as he states in 8:17. The unique way in which the healings of 8:16 are spoken of as fulfilling Isaiah 53:4 seems to indicate that Jesus’ power over sickness derives in some way from his death for sin, which was to be accomplished at the end of his ministry.<\/p>\nIt is also interesting that Matthew, in relating Jesus’ healing of the multitudes by the sea (Mt 12:15-21; cf. Mk 3:7-12), cites Isaiah 42:1-4. This OT passage speaks of God’s servant anointed with the Spirit to proclaim justice to the nations. As used by Matthew, the quotation explains why Jesus commanded those healed not to make him known. Jesus did not want too much publicity about himself to thwart God’s plan for him as the Suffering Servant who was to bring salvation to the nations. This action demonstrates that Jesus’ healings are revelations of his person. Again another quotation from Isaiah (6:9-10) in Matthew 13:14-15 brings out the fact that healing is understood primarily in the spiritual sense of hearing Jesus’ proclamation of the kingdom of God.<\/p>\nLuke, like Matthew and Mark, portrays Jesus preaching and healing. After the account of the birth of John and Jesus and the ministry of John the Baptist, Luke presents Jesus preaching in Nazareth (Lk 4:16-30). Here, in the synagogue of his hometown, Jesus himself, using a quotation from Isaiah 61:1-2, affirms that the Spirit has anointed him to proclaim good news and to announce release for the captives and a recovery of sight for the blind (Lk 4:18). The healing aspect of Jesus’ ministry occupies an important place in the rest of the book of Luke. Indeed, Luke has all the healing incidents noted by Mark, except for those in Mark 6:45–8:26. However, Luke’s opening scene in Nazareth seems to underscore that Jesus’ healing is to be understood, not as merely expressing Jesus’ compassion for the needy, but primarily as a sign of the arrival of the kingdom of God as promised in the Scriptures.<\/p>\nThis emphasis may be seen in the distinctively Lukan account of the commissioning of the 72 disciples (Lk 10:1-12), where Jesus instructs them to heal the sick in any city they enter and announce to the people there that the kingdom of God has come near to them (vv 8-9).<\/p>\nThe first three Gospels take up the OT understanding of God as the healer of his people and see this as fulfilled in Jesus. This fulfillment signifies the presence of God’s reign in the ministry of Jesus and points to him as the one through whom God is at work in the midst of his people.<\/p>\nJohn’s Gospel has only four healing incidents: the official’s son (Jn 4:46-54), the man ill for 38 years (5:1-18), the man born blind (ch 9), and the climactic raising of Lazarus (11:1-44). The special purpose and structure of this Gospel indicate that these incidents are carefully related to the accompanying discourses and are clearly intended as signs revealing the person of Jesus. The heightened emphasis on healings as revelatory signs in this Gospel confirms the similar intention in the first three Gospels.<\/p>\nHealings Done by the Apostles<\/p>\nThe Acts of the Apostles tells of the continuation of Jesus’ ministry through the Spirit at work in his disciples. The primary focus in Acts is on proclamation, as 1:8 indicates. However, the healing of the lame beggar in Jerusalem indicates that the disciples were able to exercise the power of healing in the name of Jesus (3:1-16; 4:8-16). The healing is clearly intended to point to and glorify the person of Jesus and lead to faith in him (3:12-26). The balanced, twofold ministry of the disciples may be seen in the prayer of 4:29-30: “O Lord, hear their threats, and give your servants great boldness in their preaching. Send your healing power; may miraculous signs and wonders be done through the name of your holy servant Jesus” (nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nThe ministry of Philip in Samaria was devoted to proclaiming Christ (Acts 8:5) and healing the sick and those with unclean spirits (v 7). Peter heals Aeneas and raises Tabitha (9:34, 40), and in each case the effects are that many believe in the Lord (vv 35, 42). Paul is also described as preaching the gospel (17:2-3), healing (14:8-11; 28:8), casting out spirits (16:18), and raising a dead man (20:9-10).<\/p>\nHealings in the Church Age<\/p>\nThe letters of the NT say little about healing. First Corinthians speaks of the gifts of healing (1 Cor 12:9, 28). The implication is that such gifts are intended to be part of the ministry of the church, but the context indicates that not all are given such gifts (v 30) and that it is God who sovereignly distributes gifts for the good of the body. James indicates that a believer who is ill should request the church to pray for his healing (Jas 5:14-16; cf. Heb 12:13). The clear implication is that God is willing and able to minister to his people for healing today.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>HEAL, HEALING<\/h3>\nTo make well. The OT provides the proper background for a Christian understanding of the concept of healing. In the OT the basic point is made that God is the healer of his people. In Exodus 15:22-26, after God has delivered his people from Egypt, led them through the sea, and sweetened the water at Marah, he speaks of himself as their “healer.” This refers primarily to physical sustenance, but it points to the more encompassing concept of God sustaining his people in an eternal relationship with himself. In a similar manner, Deuteronomy 32:39 speaks of God as the one who heals. The context in Deuteronomy implies that this healing power derives from the fact that God is God. This concept of God as the healer is echoed throughout the OT by the psalmists (Pss 6:2; 41:4; 103:3) and prophets (Is 19:22; Jer 17:14; Hos 7:1; Zec 11:16).<\/p>\nJesus the Healer: Accounts in the Gospels<\/p>\nThe NT significantly emphasizes Jesus as the healer. Mark portrays him as a teacher and healer in his opening account of Jesus’ ministry in Capernaum with the healing of the demoniac, Peter’s mother-in-law, the sick brought to him in the evening, and the leper (Mk 1:21-45). Indeed, healing sickness and casting out demons characterize Jesus’ ministry. Mark presents in rapid succession Jesus’ healing of the paralytic (2:1-12), the man with the withered hand (3:1-6), the multitudes by the sea (vv 7-12), the Gerasene demoniac (5:1-20), the woman with a hemorrhage, and Jairus’s daughter (vv 21-43). Jesus then commissioned the Twelve to proclaim repentance, to cast out demons, and to heal the sick (6:7-13). He himself continued with healings at Gennesaret (vv 53-56), casting out the unclean spirit from the daughter of the Syrophoenician woman (7:24-30), healing the deaf and mute man (vv 31-37), the blind man of Bethsaida (8:22-26), the boy possessed with an evil spirit (9:14-20), and blind Bartimaeus (10:46-52).<\/p>\nCertainly healing is an important aspect of Jesus’ ministry. The healings expressed not only his compassion for those suffering but also constituted a revelation of his person. This is brought out by the climactic statement of Jesus in healing the paralytic: “that you may know that the Son of man has authority on earth to forgive sins” (Mk 2:10, rsv<\/span>). It also seems that Mark intended his readers to understand that the healing of the deaf and mute man (7:31-37) and the blind man of Bethsaida (8:22-26) symbolize the awakening of spiritual understanding in the disciples of who Jesus is. It is also significant that Mark has placed the healing of Bartimaeus (10:46-52) immediately after Jesus’ third announcement of his own coming death (vv 32-34) and the disciples’ third failure to understand that his being the Messiah entailed the necessity of suffering (vv 35-45).<\/p>\nMatthew also portrays Jesus as teaching, preaching, and healing (Mt 4:23-25), and parallels the accounts in Mark, except for the healing of the demoniac in the synagogue (Mk 1:23-28) and the blind man of Bethsaida (8:22-26). However, according to his special purpose and structure, Matthew has placed many of Jesus’ healings together in a “mighty works” section (Mt 8–9), complementing the “great words” (“sermon”) section (chs 5–7). Matthew views Jesus’ healings as directly fulfilling the OT, as he states in 8:17. The unique way in which the healings of 8:16 are spoken of as fulfilling Isaiah 53:4 seems to indicate that Jesus’ power over sickness derives in some way from his death for sin, which was to be accomplished at the end of his ministry.<\/p>\nIt is also interesting that Matthew, in relating Jesus’ healing of the multitudes by the sea (Mt 12:15-21; cf. Mk 3:7-12), cites Isaiah 42:1-4. This OT passage speaks of God’s servant anointed with the Spirit to proclaim justice to the nations. As used by Matthew, the quotation explains why Jesus commanded those healed not to make him known. Jesus did not want too much publicity about himself to thwart God’s plan for him as the Suffering Servant who was to bring salvation to the nations. This action demonstrates that Jesus’ healings are revelations of his person. Again another quotation from Isaiah (6:9-10) in Matthew 13:14-15 brings out the fact that healing is understood primarily in the spiritual sense of hearing Jesus’ proclamation of the kingdom of God.<\/p>\nLuke, like Matthew and Mark, portrays Jesus preaching and healing. After the account of the birth of John and Jesus and the ministry of John the Baptist, Luke presents Jesus preaching in Nazareth (Lk 4:16-30). Here, in the synagogue of his hometown, Jesus himself, using a quotation from Isaiah 61:1-2, affirms that the Spirit has anointed him to proclaim good news and to announce release for the captives and a recovery of sight for the blind (Lk 4:18). The healing aspect of Jesus’ ministry occupies an important place in the rest of the book of Luke. Indeed, Luke has all the healing incidents noted by Mark, except for those in Mark 6:45–8:26. However, Luke’s opening scene in Nazareth seems to underscore that Jesus’ healing is to be understood, not as merely expressing Jesus’ compassion for the needy, but primarily as a sign of the arrival of the kingdom of God as promised in the Scriptures.<\/p>\nThis emphasis may be seen in the distinctively Lukan account of the commissioning of the 72 disciples (Lk 10:1-12), where Jesus instructs them to heal the sick in any city they enter and announce to the people there that the kingdom of God has come near to them (vv 8-9).<\/p>\nThe first three Gospels take up the OT understanding of God as the healer of his people and see this as fulfilled in Jesus. This fulfillment signifies the presence of God’s reign in the ministry of Jesus and points to him as the one through whom God is at work in the midst of his people.<\/p>\nJohn’s Gospel has only four healing incidents: the official’s son (Jn 4:46-54), the man ill for 38 years (5:1-18), the man born blind (ch 9), and the climactic raising of Lazarus (11:1-44). The special purpose and structure of this Gospel indicate that these incidents are carefully related to the accompanying discourses and are clearly intended as signs revealing the person of Jesus. The heightened emphasis on healings as revelatory signs in this Gospel confirms the similar intention in the first three Gospels.<\/p>\nHealings Done by the Apostles<\/p>\nThe Acts of the Apostles tells of the continuation of Jesus’ ministry through the Spirit at work in his disciples. The primary focus in Acts is on proclamation, as 1:8 indicates. However, the healing of the lame beggar in Jerusalem indicates that the disciples were able to exercise the power of healing in the name of Jesus (3:1-16; 4:8-16). The healing is clearly intended to point to and glorify the person of Jesus and lead to faith in him (3:12-26). The balanced, twofold ministry of the disciples may be seen in the prayer of 4:29-30: “O Lord, hear their threats, and give your servants great boldness in their preaching. Send your healing power; may miraculous signs and wonders be done through the name of your holy servant Jesus” (nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nThe ministry of Philip in Samaria was devoted to proclaiming Christ (Acts 8:5) and healing the sick and those with unclean spirits (v 7). Peter heals Aeneas and raises Tabitha (9:34, 40), and in each case the effects are that many believe in the Lord (vv 35, 42). Paul is also described as preaching the gospel (17:2-3), healing (14:8-11; 28:8), casting out spirits (16:18), and raising a dead man (20:9-10).<\/p>\nHealings in the Church Age<\/p>\nThe letters of the NT say little about healing. First Corinthians speaks of the gifts of healing (1 Cor 12:9, 28). The implication is that such gifts are intended to be part of the ministry of the church, but the context indicates that not all are given such gifts (v 30) and that it is God who sovereignly distributes gifts for the good of the body. James indicates that a believer who is ill should request the church to pray for his healing (Jas 5:14-16; cf. Heb 12:13). The clear implication is that God is willing and able to minister to his people for healing today.<\/p>","summary_ro":"HEAL, HEALING To make well. The OT provides the proper background for a Christian understanding of the concept of healing. In the OT the basic point is made that God is the healer of his people. In Exodus 15:22-26, after God has delivered his people from Egypt, led them through the sea, and sweetened the water at Marah, he speaks of himself as their “healer.” This refers primarily to physical sustenance, but it points to the more encompassing concept of God sustaining his people in an eternal...","summary_en":"HEAL, HEALING To make well. The OT provides the proper background for a Christian understanding of the concept of healing. In the OT the basic point is made that God is the healer of his people. In Exodus 15:22-26, after God has delivered his people from Egypt, led them through the sea, and sweetened the water at Marah, he speaks of himself as their “healer.” This refers primarily to physical sustenance, but it points to the more encompassing concept of God sustaining his people in an eternal...","source":"Articles\/H.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":17860,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Book of Isaiah","title_en":"Book of Isaiah","content_ro":"<h3>ISAIAH, Book of<\/h3>\nPreview<\/p>\n• Author<\/p>\n• Date<\/p>\n• Background<\/p>\n• Literary Unity<\/p>\n• Theological Teaching<\/p>\n• Content<\/p>\nAuthor<\/p>\nThe prophet Isaiah, whose name means “the Lord saves,” lived and ministered in Jerusalem. Because of his repeated contact with the kings of Judah, some scholars believed that Isaiah was related to the royal family, but this is not certain. According to chapters 7 and 8, Isaiah was married and had at least two sons, Shear-jashub and Maher-shalal-hash-baz, whose symbolic names illustrated God’s dealings with the nation as a whole. The “disciples” mentioned in 8:16 probably assisted Isaiah in his ministry and may have helped him record the book that bears his name.<\/p>\nWhen Isaiah saw the Lord in the famous temple vision described in chapter 6, he was willing to go wherever God sent him, even though he would face strong opposition (6:9-10). King Ahaz proved to be particularly resistant to Isaiah’s advice (7:4-17), and the people in general ridiculed his preaching (5:10-12; 28:9-10). During the reign of the godly Hezekiah, however, Isaiah’s ministry was much appreciated, and the king consulted him eagerly during times of crisis (37:1-7, 21-35).<\/p>\nIsaiah is usually regarded as the greatest of the writing prophets. Some of the chapters in his book display an unparalleled literary beauty and make use of poetic devices and a rich variety of symbols. Chapters 40–66 contain many powerful passages that underscore the grandeur of the book. It is ironic, then, that many scholars attribute these chapters to a “second” or “third” Isaiah, unknown authors who wrote much later than Isaiah in connection with the Babylonian exile. Yet elsewhere in the OT, the names of all who wrote the prophetic books are preserved, and it would be most unusual for the Jews not to know who wrote such magnificent prophecy as chapters 40–66.<\/p>\nDate<\/p>\nSince many of the events recorded in chapters 1–39 took place during the ministry of Isaiah, most of these chapters were probably written by about 700 BC<\/span> or shortly thereafter. The destruction of the Assyrian army in 701 BC<\/span> represents the climax of the first half of the book, fulfilling the prophecy of 10:16, 24-34 and 30:31-33. In 37:38 Isaiah refers to the death of King Sennacherib, which did not occur until 681 BC<\/span>. This means that some of the earlier chapters, along with 40–66, were probably written later, during Isaiah’s retirement years. A gap of several decades could help account for the change in subject matter that is found in the last half of the book. In these chapters Isaiah projects into the future as he addresses the Jews who would be in exile in Babylon about 550 BC<\/span>.<\/p>\nBackground<\/p>\nIsaiah’s public ministry occurred primarily from 740–700 BC<\/span>, a period marked by the rapid expansion of the nation of Assyria. Under King Tiglath-pileser III (745–727 BC<\/span>), the Assyrians moved to the west and south, and by 738 BC<\/span> the Assyrian monarch was demanding tribute from Damascus and Israel. About 734 BC<\/span> Rezin of Damascus (Syria) and Pekah of Israel organized a coalition to rebel against Assyria, and they tried to enlist the support of King Ahaz of Judah. But Ahaz refused to join, and when the kings of Damascus and Israel invaded Judah (see 7:1), Ahaz appealed directly to Tiglath-pileser for help (cf. 2 Kgs 16:7-9). With little hesitation the Assyrians returned to capture Damascus and to turn the northern kingdom of Israel into an Assyrian province.<\/p>\nThe puppet king Hoshea ruled over Israel from 732–723 BC but was imprisoned when he joined a revolt against Shalmaneser V, the new Assyrian king. Shalmaneser besieged the capital city of Samaria, which finally fell in 722 BC<\/span>, spelling the end of the northern kingdom. Sargon succeeded Shalmaneser in 722 and had to quell a number of revolts. In 711 BC<\/span> Sargon captured the Philistine city of Ashdod in a campaign that became the occasion of Isaiah’s prophecy of chapter 20.<\/p>\n\nEven more important was the widespread rebellion that broke out with the accession of Sennacherib in 705 BC<\/span>. King Hezekiah of Judah withheld his normal tribute payment, and by 701 BC<\/span> Sennacherib had invaded Palestine to punish the rebels. The details of this campaign are given in Isaiah 36–37 and tell how city after city was captured by the Assyrians before the invaders stood at the gates of Jerusalem and demanded total surrender. With almost no hope of survival, Hezekiah nevertheless was encouraged by Isaiah to trust God, and in one night the angel of the Lord struck down 185,000 Assyrian soldiers, virtually wiping out Sennacherib’s army (Is 37:36-37).<\/p>\nIn an effort to befriend the enemies of Assyria, Hezekiah showed his treasures to envoys of the king of Babylon (39:1-4). Isaiah warned that someday the Babylonian armies would conquer Jerusalem and carry off those very treasures, along with the residents of the city (vv 5-7). Not only did Isaiah predict the Babylonian captivity of 586–539 BC<\/span> (cf. 6:11-12), but he also foretold that Israel would be released from Babylon (48:20). The Chaldean kingdom led by Nebuchadnezzar would be God’s instrument of judgment upon Judah, but they too would suffer defeat. One of Isaiah’s most remarkable prophecies was the naming of Cyrus, king of Persia, the ruler who would conquer the Babylonians in 539 BC<\/span> and release Israel from exile (cf. 44:28). Along with the Medes (cf. 13:17), Cyrus won several important victories before sending his troops against Babylon. Isaiah hailed him as one anointed by the Lord to bring deliverance for Israel (45:1-5).<\/p>\nLiterary Unity<\/p>\nLargely because of the references to the later kingdoms of Babylon and Persia, the unity of Isaiah has been called into question. Chapters 40–66 move abruptly into the exilic period of 550 BC<\/span>, almost 150 years after Isaiah lived. Moreover, the Servant of the Lord plays a prominent role in these chapters and the messianic king fades into the background. Brilliant poetic passages are found in chapters 40, 53, 55, and 60, demonstrating remarkable depth and power.<\/p>\nAlthough these factors are sometimes cited as a sign of disunity, there are actually strong indications for unity in the book. For example, the historical interlude (chs 36–39) forms a hinge or bridge that links chapters 1–35 and 40–66. Chapters 36–37 complete the Assyrian section, and chapters 38–39 introduce the Babylonian material. Most of the linking chapters are written in prose, while the others (in some translations) are largely poetry. From the standpoint of verbal or stylistic unity, one can point to Isaiah’s favorite title for God, “the Holy One of Israel.” This title appears 12 times in chapters 1–39, and 14 times in chapters 40–66, but only seven times in the rest of the OT. A study of the famous Servant Songs of 52:13–53:12 reveals several ties with earlier passages, especially in chapters 1–6. The servant who is smitten and wounded (53:4-5) receives the same punishment as the beaten and injured nation of 1:5-6 (also cf. 52:13 with 2:12 and 6:1).<\/p>\nTheological Teaching<\/p>\nIsaiah is to the OT as the book of Romans is to the NT—a book filled with rich theological truth. Like Romans, Isaiah unveils the sinfulness of God’s rebellious people and his gracious provision of salvation. Because God is the Holy One of Israel (1:4; 6:3), he cannot ignore sin but must punish those who are guilty. Both Israel (5:30; 42:25) and the other nations (2:11, 17, 20) experience a time of judgment known as the Day of the Lord. In anger God raises his hand against his people (cf. 5:25), but ultimately his wrath is poured out upon Babylon and the nations (cf. 13:3-5; 34:2).<\/p>\nWith the fall of Assyria and Babylon, the Day of the Lord becomes a day of joyous victory (10:27; 61:2). According to Isaiah 63:4, it is the year of the Lord’s redemption. Earlier, Israel had been redeemed from slavery in Egypt; now the return from the Babylonian captivity brings equal joy (52:9; 61:1). The ultimate redemption is to be accomplished through the death of Christ, and Isaiah 53 describes our Lord’s suffering and death in graphic terms. His ministry as the Suffering Servant is also introduced in 49:4 and 50:6-7; meanwhile, 49:6 states that the servant will be “a light for the Gentiles.” Looking ahead to the Second Coming, Isaiah predicts a messianic age of peace and righteousness. Nations will “beat their swords into plowshares” (2:4) and the “Prince of Peace” will rule forever (9:6-7).<\/p>\nThroughout the book God is pictured as the all-powerful Creator (48:13)—the sovereign One seated on a throne, high and exalted; the King, the Lord Almighty (6:1, 5). He controls the armies of the earth (13:4) and removes rulers as he wills (40:23-24). Before him, nations “are but a drop in the bucket” (40:15, nlt<\/span>), and compared with him all idols are worthless and without power (41:29; 44:6). This is the God who shows his fury to his foes and his love to his servants (66:14).<\/p>\n\nContent<\/p>\n<h5>Messages of Judgment and Hope (1–12)<\/h5>\nIn the opening chapter Isaiah characterizes Israel (including Judah) as “a sinful nation” that has rebelled against God. Although the people regularly bring offerings to him, their worship is hypocritical, an attempt to mask their oppression of the poor and helpless. The Lord encourages the nation to repent of their sin or face the fires of judgment. After this introduction, Isaiah turns to describe the peace of the messianic age in 2:1-4. The day will come when all nations will obey God’s word and live at peace. “The mountain of the Lord<\/span>”—Jerusalem—will be raised up “and all the nations shall flow to it” (2:2-3, rsv<\/span>). In the meantime, however, both Israel and the nations have exalted themselves against the Lord, and he will judge them in an awesome display of power. For Israel, God’s judgment will bring great upheaval, including the loss of its leaders. Defiant and ruthless, the rulers will face either death or deportation. Chapter 3 ends by denouncing the pride and vanity of the women of Zion; they, too, will suffer disgrace. After Jerusalem is cleansed of its sin, the remnant will enjoy the rule of “the branch of the Lord<\/span>,” who will protect and shield his people (4:2-6).<\/p>\nIn 5:1-7 Isaiah presents a short song about Israel as God’s vineyard. The Lord did everything possible to ensure a yield of good grapes, but the vineyard produced nothing but bad fruit and had to be destroyed. Isaiah then pronounces six woes against Israel, and announces that the Assyrian army will invade the land. Against the backdrop of Israel’s sin, Isaiah (ch 6) gives an account of the vision through which he was called as a prophet. Overwhelmed by the holiness of God and by his own sinfulness, Isaiah thought he was ruined, but when he was assured that his sins were forgiven, he responded positively to God’s call in spite of the stubbornness of the nation to which he was sent.<\/p>\nOne of the most stubborn individuals in all the nation was King Ahaz of Judah, and chapter 7 describes Isaiah’s encounter with this godless ruler. When Ahaz was threatened by Damascus and the northern kingdom, he refused to believe Isaiah’s promise that God would protect him. This was the occasion on which Isaiah gave Ahaz the sign of Immanuel (7:14). The “virgin” refers ultimately to Mary and “Immanuel” to Christ (Mt 1:23), but in the near fulfillment the child could be Isaiah’s own son Maher-shalal-hash-baz (Is 8:3). (See<\/em> four interpretations of this passage in Virgin Birth of Jesus.) This name (meaning “swift to plunder and quick to spoil,” v 1, nlt<\/span> mg) would be a sign that soon Judah’s enemies would fall; “Immanuel” signified that God would be with Judah (v 10, nlt<\/span> mg). However, if Ahaz appealed for help to the king of Assyria, Isaiah warned him, Assyria’s powerful armies would one day invade Judah also (cf. 7:17-25; 8:6-8). The destruction brought by Assyria would plunge Judah into a time of famine and distress (8:21-22).<\/p>\nNevertheless, the gloom and darkness associated with the Assyrian invasion would not last indefinitely, and 9:1-5 speaks of a time of peace and joy. Verses 6-7 introduce a child who would become a righteous King and would rule forever. This “Prince of Peace” is the Messiah, the “Mighty God” whose kingdom is described in 2:2-4.<\/p>\nFor the immediate future, however, both Israel and Judah will suffer the agony of war as punishment for their sins. God is angry with his people because they are proud and arrogant, and their leaders disregard the pleas of the poor and needy. Civil war and foreign invasion will crush the hapless nation (9:8–10:4). But once Israel has been judged, God will turn his hand against Assyria, the instrument he has used to judge other nations. Because of her string of victories, Assyria is filled with pride and is eager for more triumph. Yet even at the moment when Jerusalem is about to succumb, God will cut down the Assyrian army like a cedar in Lebanon and spare his people (10:26-34).<\/p>\nAfter Assyria’s defeat, Isaiah describes the restoration of Israel and the powerful rule of the Messiah (ch 11). Both Jews and Gentiles will be attracted to Jerusalem to enjoy an era of peace and justice. Like David, the Messiah will have the Spirit of God resting upon him as he judges the wicked and protects the needy. To conclude these opening messages, Isaiah offers two short songs of praise that celebrate God’s past deliverance and his promise of future blessing (ch 12).<\/p>\n<h5>Oracles against the Nations (13–23)<\/h5>\nAlthough Babylon is not the major power of the day, Isaiah begins his announcements of judgment with two chapters about the destruction of Assyria’s neighbor to the south. Babylon will eventually conquer Jerusalem (between 605 and 586 BC<\/span>), but the Medes (13:17) along with the Elamites will capture Babylon (539 BC<\/span>). In spite of the glory to be achieved by future kings of Babylon, God will bring their pomp down to the grave (14:9-10). The chapter ends with short prophecies against Assyria and the Philistines.<\/p>\nOne of Israel’s oldest enemies was the nation of Moab, situated east of the Dead Sea. Even though it was a small country, Isaiah devotes two chapters to these descendants of Lot. Chapter 15 describes the extensive mourning that will overwhelm their cities. After a brief interlude urging the Moabites to submit to Israel and to her God (16:1-5), Isaiah notes that pride will lead to Moab’s downfall. Sounds of weeping fill the land as the vines and fields wither and are trampled.<\/p>\nIn chapter 17 the fourth oracle is directed against Damascus and Ephraim (the northern kingdom of Israel), probably reflecting their alliance against Judah about 734 BC<\/span>. Both nations will face ruin, and Ephraim is condemned for abandoning the Lord, her “Savior” and “Rock” (17:10).<\/p>\nIn chapters 18 and 19 Isaiah turns to the south and addresses Ethiopia and Egypt, countries that had strong links from 715–633 BC<\/span>, when an Ethiopian named Shabako became pharaoh in Egypt. But Egypt is plagued with disunity and suffers greatly at the hands of Assyrian kings. In spite of the supposed wisdom of her leaders, Egypt faces economic and political ruin (19:5-15). Yet the time is coming when the Egyptians will be restored and will worship the God of Israel. Along with Assyria and Israel, Egypt will become a blessing (19:24). Some interpreters think this is a prophecy of the salvation of Gentiles during the church age, but others relate this day to the peace of the millennial age (cf. 2:2-4; 11:6-9). For the immediate future, however, Isaiah announces that Assyria will take many Egyptians and Ethiopians into captivity (ch 20).<\/p>\nA second oracle about Babylon (cf. 13:1–14:23) is contained in chapter 21, and Isaiah is staggered as he considers the impact of Babylon’s fall (21:3-4). When Babylon collapses, the world will know that her gods were powerless (21:9; cf. Rv 14:8; 18:2).<\/p>\nAlthough it seems out of place among these oracles against the nations, chapter 22 condemns the city of Jerusalem. Like the nations, Jerusalem is full of revelry (22:2) but will soon experience the terrors of a siege. Since the people no longer rely on the Lord (v 11), he will hand them over to the enemy. Jerusalem’s unfaithfulness is exemplified by Shebna, a high official guilty of pride and materialism whose position will be taken by the godly Eliakim (vv 15-23).<\/p>\nThe last oracle (ch 23) is directed against the city of Tyre, which resisted capture until Alexander the Great conquered the island fortress in 332 BC<\/span>. When Tyre fell, the economy of the entire Mediterranean world was shaken, for her ships had carried the goods of the nations far and wide.<\/p>\n<h5>Final Judgment and Blessing (24–27)<\/h5>\nThis section functions as a grand finale to chapters 13–23 in that it anticipates God’s judgment upon the nations and the inauguration of the kingdom of God. A defiled earth must bear its punishment (24:5-6) and even the forces of Satan face judgment (vv 21-22).<\/p>\nIn chapter 25 Isaiah rejoices over God’s great triumph and looks ahead to a day when death will be swallowed up and tears will be wiped from all faces (25:8). Israel’s longtime enemies, symbolized by Moab, will be laid low (vv 10-12), but Jerusalem will be a stronghold for the righteous (26:1-3). In 26:7-19 the nation prays that these promises will become a reality. Verses 20-21 indicate that the Lord will indeed respond, pouring out his wrath upon a sin-cursed earth and upon Satan himself (27:1). When that takes place, Israel will be a fruitful vineyard, a blessing to the whole world (27:2-6; contrast 5:1-7). First, however, Israel will have to endure war and exile, and then the remnant will return to Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<h5>A Series of Woes (28–33)<\/h5>\nReturning to his own historical period, Isaiah pronounces a series of woes upon both the northern and southern kingdoms, as well as one upon Assyria (ch 33). Chapter 28 begins with a description of the fading power of Samaria, the capital of the northern kingdom. Verses 7-10 portray the leaders of Judah in the same light; they have disregarded Isaiah’s message and are out of touch with God. Judgment is on the way, and their false preparation (vv 15, 18) will be of no avail. God will fight against Israel (vv 21-22), and even Jerusalem will be put under siege until God in his mercy intervenes (29:1-8). Because of their hypocritical worship, the people deserve to be punished, but in the future Israel will again acknowledge the Lord and be made physically and spiritually whole (29:17-24).<\/p>\nChapters 30 and 31 denounce Judah’s proposed alliance with Egypt in the effort to thwart Assyria. God wants his people to trust him, not their unreliable neighbors to the south. The Lord promises to protect Jerusalem (30:18; 31:5) and defeat the invading Assyrian army (30:31-33; 31:8-9). None can stand before his mighty sword.<\/p>\nContinuing on this positive note, Isaiah goes on to emphasize the righteous rule of the messianic king in chapters 32 and 33. Zion will enjoy peace and security at last (32:2, 17-18; 33:6), a great change from Isaiah’s own time. In eighth-century BC<\/span> Judah the women might feel secure (32:9), but the Assyrian troops will devastate the crops and precipitate widespread mourning. However, the lamenting will soon end, as the prophet pronounces woe upon Assyria in 33:1. After Isaiah prays for the destruction of Assyria (33:2-9), God promises to take action (vv 10-12). Gone will be the enemy soldiers and officials, for the Lord will save his people and bring them justice and security.<\/p>\n<h5>More Judgment and Blessing (34–35)<\/h5>\nThis section forms a climax to chapters 28–33. Once more, cataclysmic judgment precedes a time of blessing and restoration. In chapter 34 Isaiah depicts a judgment of cosmic dimensions as he moves to a consideration of the last days. Heaven and earth endure the wrath of God that is poured out upon the nations, and verse 4 provides the basis for John’s description of the great tribulation in Revelation 6:13-14. Edom (like Moab; see Is 25:10-12) represents a world judged by the sword of the Lord in his day of vengeance.<\/p>\nChapter 35, on the other hand, speaks of joy and restoration in a passage that pulsates with life. A blooming desert corresponds to the physical and spiritual age when God will come to redeem his people. Both the return of the Israelites from the Babylonian captivity and the second coming of Christ fit this glorious scene.<\/p>\n<h5>Historical Interlude (36–39)<\/h5>\nThese chapters form the hinge that connects the two halves of the book. Chapters 36 and 37 contain the fulfillment of Isaiah’s prophecies about Assyria’s collapse, and chapters 38 and 39 introduce the Babylonian captivity that forms the backdrop for chapters 40–66. In 701 BC<\/span> King Sennacherib of Assyria demands the unconditional surrender of Jerusalem. He sends his field commander to address the people and try to gain their submission. With persuasive words, the commander tries to convince the city that surrender is the best policy. Amazingly the people do not panic, and King Hezekiah asks Isaiah to pray for the beleaguered city. The prophet does so and announces that the proud Assyrians will not triumph. Instead, they suffer a terrible disaster as the angel of the Lord strikes down 185,000 men.<\/p>\nChapters 38 and 39 relate another crisis in Hezekiah’s life when he becomes desperately ill. Miraculously, God heals him, and Hezekiah praises the Lord for his gracious intervention. When the king of Babylon sends envoys to congratulate Hezekiah on his recovery, Hezekiah foolishly shows these messengers his royal treasures. Isaiah solemnly announces that someday the armies of Babylon will capture Jerusalem, plunder the land, and take away these treasures.<\/p>\n<h5>The Return from Babylon (40–48)<\/h5>\nThe Babylonian captivity eventually comes, but Isaiah promises that it will end. God, the incomparably powerful Creator, is far greater than any king, nation, or god, and he will bring his people back to Jerusalem. To accomplish this return from exile, God raises up Cyrus, the king of Persia (41:2, 25). The Lord does not forget his people, and he encourages them to take heart and to rejoice.<\/p>\nIn chapter 42 we are introduced to a person even more significant than Cyrus the Persian. Verses 1-7 (the first of four Servant Songs) describe the servant of the Lord, who will bring justice to the nations and will be “a light for the Gentiles” (42:6). This is the Messiah, and the redemption he will accomplish on Calvary (cf. ch 53) is greater than the release from Babylon. In light of the good news associated with the servant, Isaiah praises the Lord for punishing the wicked and rescuing his wayward people. Chapter 43 declares that nothing will stand in the way of Israel’s return, and the Lord will remember their sins no more. In fact, he will pour out his Spirit on their descendants (44:3).<\/p>\nA God so great is far more powerful than any idol. In 44:6-20 Isaiah makes use of satire to show the worthlessness of man-made images. God alone has the power to create and to restore, and he will bring Cyrus on the scene to effect the release of the exiles and to begin the rebuilding of Jerusalem. Chapters 46 and 47 contrast the God of Israel and the idols of Babylon. When God raises up Cyrus, Babylon’s idols will be unable to save their nation, and the queen of kingdoms (47:5) will collapse along with her sorcerers and astrologers. The final chapter in this section (ch 48) restates God’s purpose of gaining release of the Israelites from Babylon through his chosen ally, Cyrus of Persia.<\/p>\n<h5>Salvation through the Servant of the Lord (49–57)<\/h5>\nChapters 49–53 contain the final three Servant Songs (cf. also 42:1-7), culminating in the death of the servant for the sins of the world (52:13–53:12). In the second Servant Song (49:1-7), Isaiah describes the call and ministry of the servant, noting that he will face strong opposition as he accomplishes salvation for Israel and the nations. The rest of chapter 49 deals primarily with the way God will bring Israel back from exile. Soon the land will be filled with a mighty throng (vv 19-21), and the Gentiles will acknowledge Israel and her God (vv 22-23).<\/p>\nAlthough Israel has fully deserved the exile because of her sins (50:1-3), the suffering endured by the servant (vv 4-11; the third Servant Song) is wholly undeserved. The beating and mocking of verse 6 are prophetic of Christ’s experience (cf. Mt 27:26, 30; Mk 15:19). In verses 10-11 of Isaiah 50 the whole nation is challenged to trust in the Lord, as the servant did. There is, in fact, a believing remnant who obey the Lord (51:1-8), and the Lord promises that he will restore them to their homeland. Israel has drunk the cup of God’s wrath (vv 17, 22), but the good news of release from exile causes even the ruins of Jerusalem to burst into songs of joy (52:7-10).<\/p>\nYet the best news of all is salvation from sin; the final Servant Song (52:13–53:12) tells how Christ wins freedom for those held in bondage to sin. In this brief passage we learn how Christ suffers rejection (53:3) and even disfigurement (52:14). Led like a lamb to the slaughter (53:7), he carries our sins in his body as he dies in ignominy. The people think he is suffering for his own sins (v 4), but he is “pierced” and “crushed for our iniquities” (v 5). The first and last paragraphs of this section (52:13-15; 53:10-12) state that through his suffering the servant is highly exalted. What seems like a terrible defeat is actually victory over death and Satan and brings salvation for many.<\/p>\nAs a direct result of the servant’s death, great joy comes to all people. In chapter 54 this joy is reflected in Jerusalem’s new status as the Lord’s wife. Her descendants will be numerous and eager to learn from the Lord. For the first time the plural “servants of the Lord<\/span>” appears (54:17), apparently including all believers, whether Jew or Gentile (cf. 65:8-9, 13-15). Joy and prosperity also characterize chapter 55, an invitation to a great spiritual banquet. All people are urged to turn to the Lord who keeps his promises to Israel. In 56:1-8, foreigners are invited to come to God’s “holy mountain” in Jerusalem, for the temple will be a house of prayer for all the nations (56:7; cf. Mt 21:13).<\/p>\nBelieving Gentiles are contrasted sharply with unbelieving Jews, and in 56:9–57:13 Isaiah returns again to the theme of judgment. Israel suffers because her leaders are wicked and because the people are guilty of idolatry. Spiritual healing is available, but unless individuals repent, they cannot be part of the remnant who will return from exile and enjoy peace in the Promised Land.<\/p>\n<h5>Ultimate Blessing and Final Judgment (58–66)<\/h5>\nThe last nine chapters of Isaiah emphasize redemption and glory, but the reality of judgment is also very much in evidence. In fact, chapters 58 and 59 bemoan the sins of Israel. The people are hypocritical in their worship; they are selfish and fail to keep the Sabbath. Lying, oppression, and murder separate the people from God. When Isaiah openly confesses these sins (59:12-13), the Lord suddenly takes action on behalf of his people. Like a mighty warrior, he rescues the believing remnant from Babylon and brings them back to Jerusalem.<\/p>\nIn chapter 60 the glory and wealth of Jerusalem reach new heights. Both the city and the sanctuary are adorned with splendor, matching the prosperity of Solomon’s reign. Just as the nations treated Solomon with honor, so earth’s leaders will assist and strengthen the returning exiles. While it is true that the Persian government did help the Jews repeatedly, the conditions described here will have their ultimate fulfillment during the Millennium and in connection with the new Jerusalem (cf. Rv 21:23; 22:5). The ancient ruins will be rebuilt (Is 61:4), and the Lord will fulfill the covenant made with Abraham and David (Is 61:8; cf. Gn 12:1-3; Is 55:3). Jerusalem will be the city of the holy people, the redeemed of the Lord (Is 62:12), and the Lord will take delight in her (v 4).<\/p>\nIn order to accomplish salvation for his people, God will have to judge the ungodly first. The great trampling of the winepress (63:2-3) graphically portrays the judgment process and is linked with the Day of the Lord (cf. 13:3; 34:2). Since God has promised to intervene on behalf of his people, Isaiah prays for the realization of that promise (63:7–64:12). He recalls God’s faithfulness in the past and pleads that he will again have mercy upon his suffering people.<\/p>\nThe answer to Isaiah’s prayer is found in chapter 65. God does promise to give the Holy Land back to his servants, to those who worship him and obey him. But for that segment of the nation that continues in its obstinacy, God promises anguish and destruction. The ultimate joy of God’s servants is contained in a description of new heavens and a new earth (65:17-25). Peace, long life, and prosperity will be among the blessings enjoyed in an era that seems to combine features of the Millennium and the eternal state (cf. ch 60).<\/p>\nIn a fitting summary, chapter 66 ties together the themes of salvation and judgment. God will comfort Jerusalem and abundantly bless her, but sinners are the objects of his wrath. Those who honor him will endure forever, but those who rebel will suffer everlasting rejection.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Isaiah (Person); Israel, History of; Messiah; Prophecy; Prophet, Prophetess; Servant of the Lord; Virgin Birth of Jesus.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ISAIAH, Book of<\/h3>\nPreview<\/p>\n• Author<\/p>\n• Date<\/p>\n• Background<\/p>\n• Literary Unity<\/p>\n• Theological Teaching<\/p>\n• Content<\/p>\nAuthor<\/p>\nThe prophet Isaiah, whose name means “the Lord saves,” lived and ministered in Jerusalem. Because of his repeated contact with the kings of Judah, some scholars believed that Isaiah was related to the royal family, but this is not certain. According to chapters 7 and 8, Isaiah was married and had at least two sons, Shear-jashub and Maher-shalal-hash-baz, whose symbolic names illustrated God’s dealings with the nation as a whole. The “disciples” mentioned in 8:16 probably assisted Isaiah in his ministry and may have helped him record the book that bears his name.<\/p>\nWhen Isaiah saw the Lord in the famous temple vision described in chapter 6, he was willing to go wherever God sent him, even though he would face strong opposition (6:9-10). King Ahaz proved to be particularly resistant to Isaiah’s advice (7:4-17), and the people in general ridiculed his preaching (5:10-12; 28:9-10). During the reign of the godly Hezekiah, however, Isaiah’s ministry was much appreciated, and the king consulted him eagerly during times of crisis (37:1-7, 21-35).<\/p>\nIsaiah is usually regarded as the greatest of the writing prophets. Some of the chapters in his book display an unparalleled literary beauty and make use of poetic devices and a rich variety of symbols. Chapters 40–66 contain many powerful passages that underscore the grandeur of the book. It is ironic, then, that many scholars attribute these chapters to a “second” or “third” Isaiah, unknown authors who wrote much later than Isaiah in connection with the Babylonian exile. Yet elsewhere in the OT, the names of all who wrote the prophetic books are preserved, and it would be most unusual for the Jews not to know who wrote such magnificent prophecy as chapters 40–66.<\/p>\nDate<\/p>\nSince many of the events recorded in chapters 1–39 took place during the ministry of Isaiah, most of these chapters were probably written by about 700 BC<\/span> or shortly thereafter. The destruction of the Assyrian army in 701 BC<\/span> represents the climax of the first half of the book, fulfilling the prophecy of 10:16, 24-34 and 30:31-33. In 37:38 Isaiah refers to the death of King Sennacherib, which did not occur until 681 BC<\/span>. This means that some of the earlier chapters, along with 40–66, were probably written later, during Isaiah’s retirement years. A gap of several decades could help account for the change in subject matter that is found in the last half of the book. In these chapters Isaiah projects into the future as he addresses the Jews who would be in exile in Babylon about 550 BC<\/span>.<\/p>\nBackground<\/p>\nIsaiah’s public ministry occurred primarily from 740–700 BC<\/span>, a period marked by the rapid expansion of the nation of Assyria. Under King Tiglath-pileser III (745–727 BC<\/span>), the Assyrians moved to the west and south, and by 738 BC<\/span> the Assyrian monarch was demanding tribute from Damascus and Israel. About 734 BC<\/span> Rezin of Damascus (Syria) and Pekah of Israel organized a coalition to rebel against Assyria, and they tried to enlist the support of King Ahaz of Judah. But Ahaz refused to join, and when the kings of Damascus and Israel invaded Judah (see 7:1), Ahaz appealed directly to Tiglath-pileser for help (cf. 2 Kgs 16:7-9). With little hesitation the Assyrians returned to capture Damascus and to turn the northern kingdom of Israel into an Assyrian province.<\/p>\nThe puppet king Hoshea ruled over Israel from 732–723 BC but was imprisoned when he joined a revolt against Shalmaneser V, the new Assyrian king. Shalmaneser besieged the capital city of Samaria, which finally fell in 722 BC<\/span>, spelling the end of the northern kingdom. Sargon succeeded Shalmaneser in 722 and had to quell a number of revolts. In 711 BC<\/span> Sargon captured the Philistine city of Ashdod in a campaign that became the occasion of Isaiah’s prophecy of chapter 20.<\/p>\n\nEven more important was the widespread rebellion that broke out with the accession of Sennacherib in 705 BC<\/span>. King Hezekiah of Judah withheld his normal tribute payment, and by 701 BC<\/span> Sennacherib had invaded Palestine to punish the rebels. The details of this campaign are given in Isaiah 36–37 and tell how city after city was captured by the Assyrians before the invaders stood at the gates of Jerusalem and demanded total surrender. With almost no hope of survival, Hezekiah nevertheless was encouraged by Isaiah to trust God, and in one night the angel of the Lord struck down 185,000 Assyrian soldiers, virtually wiping out Sennacherib’s army (Is 37:36-37).<\/p>\nIn an effort to befriend the enemies of Assyria, Hezekiah showed his treasures to envoys of the king of Babylon (39:1-4). Isaiah warned that someday the Babylonian armies would conquer Jerusalem and carry off those very treasures, along with the residents of the city (vv 5-7). Not only did Isaiah predict the Babylonian captivity of 586–539 BC<\/span> (cf. 6:11-12), but he also foretold that Israel would be released from Babylon (48:20). The Chaldean kingdom led by Nebuchadnezzar would be God’s instrument of judgment upon Judah, but they too would suffer defeat. One of Isaiah’s most remarkable prophecies was the naming of Cyrus, king of Persia, the ruler who would conquer the Babylonians in 539 BC<\/span> and release Israel from exile (cf. 44:28). Along with the Medes (cf. 13:17), Cyrus won several important victories before sending his troops against Babylon. Isaiah hailed him as one anointed by the Lord to bring deliverance for Israel (45:1-5).<\/p>\nLiterary Unity<\/p>\nLargely because of the references to the later kingdoms of Babylon and Persia, the unity of Isaiah has been called into question. Chapters 40–66 move abruptly into the exilic period of 550 BC<\/span>, almost 150 years after Isaiah lived. Moreover, the Servant of the Lord plays a prominent role in these chapters and the messianic king fades into the background. Brilliant poetic passages are found in chapters 40, 53, 55, and 60, demonstrating remarkable depth and power.<\/p>\nAlthough these factors are sometimes cited as a sign of disunity, there are actually strong indications for unity in the book. For example, the historical interlude (chs 36–39) forms a hinge or bridge that links chapters 1–35 and 40–66. Chapters 36–37 complete the Assyrian section, and chapters 38–39 introduce the Babylonian material. Most of the linking chapters are written in prose, while the others (in some translations) are largely poetry. From the standpoint of verbal or stylistic unity, one can point to Isaiah’s favorite title for God, “the Holy One of Israel.” This title appears 12 times in chapters 1–39, and 14 times in chapters 40–66, but only seven times in the rest of the OT. A study of the famous Servant Songs of 52:13–53:12 reveals several ties with earlier passages, especially in chapters 1–6. The servant who is smitten and wounded (53:4-5) receives the same punishment as the beaten and injured nation of 1:5-6 (also cf. 52:13 with 2:12 and 6:1).<\/p>\nTheological Teaching<\/p>\nIsaiah is to the OT as the book of Romans is to the NT—a book filled with rich theological truth. Like Romans, Isaiah unveils the sinfulness of God’s rebellious people and his gracious provision of salvation. Because God is the Holy One of Israel (1:4; 6:3), he cannot ignore sin but must punish those who are guilty. Both Israel (5:30; 42:25) and the other nations (2:11, 17, 20) experience a time of judgment known as the Day of the Lord. In anger God raises his hand against his people (cf. 5:25), but ultimately his wrath is poured out upon Babylon and the nations (cf. 13:3-5; 34:2).<\/p>\nWith the fall of Assyria and Babylon, the Day of the Lord becomes a day of joyous victory (10:27; 61:2). According to Isaiah 63:4, it is the year of the Lord’s redemption. Earlier, Israel had been redeemed from slavery in Egypt; now the return from the Babylonian captivity brings equal joy (52:9; 61:1). The ultimate redemption is to be accomplished through the death of Christ, and Isaiah 53 describes our Lord’s suffering and death in graphic terms. His ministry as the Suffering Servant is also introduced in 49:4 and 50:6-7; meanwhile, 49:6 states that the servant will be “a light for the Gentiles.” Looking ahead to the Second Coming, Isaiah predicts a messianic age of peace and righteousness. Nations will “beat their swords into plowshares” (2:4) and the “Prince of Peace” will rule forever (9:6-7).<\/p>\nThroughout the book God is pictured as the all-powerful Creator (48:13)—the sovereign One seated on a throne, high and exalted; the King, the Lord Almighty (6:1, 5). He controls the armies of the earth (13:4) and removes rulers as he wills (40:23-24). Before him, nations “are but a drop in the bucket” (40:15, nlt<\/span>), and compared with him all idols are worthless and without power (41:29; 44:6). This is the God who shows his fury to his foes and his love to his servants (66:14).<\/p>\n\nContent<\/p>\n<h5>Messages of Judgment and Hope (1–12)<\/h5>\nIn the opening chapter Isaiah characterizes Israel (including Judah) as “a sinful nation” that has rebelled against God. Although the people regularly bring offerings to him, their worship is hypocritical, an attempt to mask their oppression of the poor and helpless. The Lord encourages the nation to repent of their sin or face the fires of judgment. After this introduction, Isaiah turns to describe the peace of the messianic age in 2:1-4. The day will come when all nations will obey God’s word and live at peace. “The mountain of the Lord<\/span>”—Jerusalem—will be raised up “and all the nations shall flow to it” (2:2-3, rsv<\/span>). In the meantime, however, both Israel and the nations have exalted themselves against the Lord, and he will judge them in an awesome display of power. For Israel, God’s judgment will bring great upheaval, including the loss of its leaders. Defiant and ruthless, the rulers will face either death or deportation. Chapter 3 ends by denouncing the pride and vanity of the women of Zion; they, too, will suffer disgrace. After Jerusalem is cleansed of its sin, the remnant will enjoy the rule of “the branch of the Lord<\/span>,” who will protect and shield his people (4:2-6).<\/p>\nIn 5:1-7 Isaiah presents a short song about Israel as God’s vineyard. The Lord did everything possible to ensure a yield of good grapes, but the vineyard produced nothing but bad fruit and had to be destroyed. Isaiah then pronounces six woes against Israel, and announces that the Assyrian army will invade the land. Against the backdrop of Israel’s sin, Isaiah (ch 6) gives an account of the vision through which he was called as a prophet. Overwhelmed by the holiness of God and by his own sinfulness, Isaiah thought he was ruined, but when he was assured that his sins were forgiven, he responded positively to God’s call in spite of the stubbornness of the nation to which he was sent.<\/p>\nOne of the most stubborn individuals in all the nation was King Ahaz of Judah, and chapter 7 describes Isaiah’s encounter with this godless ruler. When Ahaz was threatened by Damascus and the northern kingdom, he refused to believe Isaiah’s promise that God would protect him. This was the occasion on which Isaiah gave Ahaz the sign of Immanuel (7:14). The “virgin” refers ultimately to Mary and “Immanuel” to Christ (Mt 1:23), but in the near fulfillment the child could be Isaiah’s own son Maher-shalal-hash-baz (Is 8:3). (See<\/em> four interpretations of this passage in Virgin Birth of Jesus.) This name (meaning “swift to plunder and quick to spoil,” v 1, nlt<\/span> mg) would be a sign that soon Judah’s enemies would fall; “Immanuel” signified that God would be with Judah (v 10, nlt<\/span> mg). However, if Ahaz appealed for help to the king of Assyria, Isaiah warned him, Assyria’s powerful armies would one day invade Judah also (cf. 7:17-25; 8:6-8). The destruction brought by Assyria would plunge Judah into a time of famine and distress (8:21-22).<\/p>\nNevertheless, the gloom and darkness associated with the Assyrian invasion would not last indefinitely, and 9:1-5 speaks of a time of peace and joy. Verses 6-7 introduce a child who would become a righteous King and would rule forever. This “Prince of Peace” is the Messiah, the “Mighty God” whose kingdom is described in 2:2-4.<\/p>\nFor the immediate future, however, both Israel and Judah will suffer the agony of war as punishment for their sins. God is angry with his people because they are proud and arrogant, and their leaders disregard the pleas of the poor and needy. Civil war and foreign invasion will crush the hapless nation (9:8–10:4). But once Israel has been judged, God will turn his hand against Assyria, the instrument he has used to judge other nations. Because of her string of victories, Assyria is filled with pride and is eager for more triumph. Yet even at the moment when Jerusalem is about to succumb, God will cut down the Assyrian army like a cedar in Lebanon and spare his people (10:26-34).<\/p>\nAfter Assyria’s defeat, Isaiah describes the restoration of Israel and the powerful rule of the Messiah (ch 11). Both Jews and Gentiles will be attracted to Jerusalem to enjoy an era of peace and justice. Like David, the Messiah will have the Spirit of God resting upon him as he judges the wicked and protects the needy. To conclude these opening messages, Isaiah offers two short songs of praise that celebrate God’s past deliverance and his promise of future blessing (ch 12).<\/p>\n<h5>Oracles against the Nations (13–23)<\/h5>\nAlthough Babylon is not the major power of the day, Isaiah begins his announcements of judgment with two chapters about the destruction of Assyria’s neighbor to the south. Babylon will eventually conquer Jerusalem (between 605 and 586 BC<\/span>), but the Medes (13:17) along with the Elamites will capture Babylon (539 BC<\/span>). In spite of the glory to be achieved by future kings of Babylon, God will bring their pomp down to the grave (14:9-10). The chapter ends with short prophecies against Assyria and the Philistines.<\/p>\nOne of Israel’s oldest enemies was the nation of Moab, situated east of the Dead Sea. Even though it was a small country, Isaiah devotes two chapters to these descendants of Lot. Chapter 15 describes the extensive mourning that will overwhelm their cities. After a brief interlude urging the Moabites to submit to Israel and to her God (16:1-5), Isaiah notes that pride will lead to Moab’s downfall. Sounds of weeping fill the land as the vines and fields wither and are trampled.<\/p>\nIn chapter 17 the fourth oracle is directed against Damascus and Ephraim (the northern kingdom of Israel), probably reflecting their alliance against Judah about 734 BC<\/span>. Both nations will face ruin, and Ephraim is condemned for abandoning the Lord, her “Savior” and “Rock” (17:10).<\/p>\nIn chapters 18 and 19 Isaiah turns to the south and addresses Ethiopia and Egypt, countries that had strong links from 715–633 BC<\/span>, when an Ethiopian named Shabako became pharaoh in Egypt. But Egypt is plagued with disunity and suffers greatly at the hands of Assyrian kings. In spite of the supposed wisdom of her leaders, Egypt faces economic and political ruin (19:5-15). Yet the time is coming when the Egyptians will be restored and will worship the God of Israel. Along with Assyria and Israel, Egypt will become a blessing (19:24). Some interpreters think this is a prophecy of the salvation of Gentiles during the church age, but others relate this day to the peace of the millennial age (cf. 2:2-4; 11:6-9). For the immediate future, however, Isaiah announces that Assyria will take many Egyptians and Ethiopians into captivity (ch 20).<\/p>\nA second oracle about Babylon (cf. 13:1–14:23) is contained in chapter 21, and Isaiah is staggered as he considers the impact of Babylon’s fall (21:3-4). When Babylon collapses, the world will know that her gods were powerless (21:9; cf. Rv 14:8; 18:2).<\/p>\nAlthough it seems out of place among these oracles against the nations, chapter 22 condemns the city of Jerusalem. Like the nations, Jerusalem is full of revelry (22:2) but will soon experience the terrors of a siege. Since the people no longer rely on the Lord (v 11), he will hand them over to the enemy. Jerusalem’s unfaithfulness is exemplified by Shebna, a high official guilty of pride and materialism whose position will be taken by the godly Eliakim (vv 15-23).<\/p>\nThe last oracle (ch 23) is directed against the city of Tyre, which resisted capture until Alexander the Great conquered the island fortress in 332 BC<\/span>. When Tyre fell, the economy of the entire Mediterranean world was shaken, for her ships had carried the goods of the nations far and wide.<\/p>\n<h5>Final Judgment and Blessing (24–27)<\/h5>\nThis section functions as a grand finale to chapters 13–23 in that it anticipates God’s judgment upon the nations and the inauguration of the kingdom of God. A defiled earth must bear its punishment (24:5-6) and even the forces of Satan face judgment (vv 21-22).<\/p>\nIn chapter 25 Isaiah rejoices over God’s great triumph and looks ahead to a day when death will be swallowed up and tears will be wiped from all faces (25:8). Israel’s longtime enemies, symbolized by Moab, will be laid low (vv 10-12), but Jerusalem will be a stronghold for the righteous (26:1-3). In 26:7-19 the nation prays that these promises will become a reality. Verses 20-21 indicate that the Lord will indeed respond, pouring out his wrath upon a sin-cursed earth and upon Satan himself (27:1). When that takes place, Israel will be a fruitful vineyard, a blessing to the whole world (27:2-6; contrast 5:1-7). First, however, Israel will have to endure war and exile, and then the remnant will return to Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<h5>A Series of Woes (28–33)<\/h5>\nReturning to his own historical period, Isaiah pronounces a series of woes upon both the northern and southern kingdoms, as well as one upon Assyria (ch 33). Chapter 28 begins with a description of the fading power of Samaria, the capital of the northern kingdom. Verses 7-10 portray the leaders of Judah in the same light; they have disregarded Isaiah’s message and are out of touch with God. Judgment is on the way, and their false preparation (vv 15, 18) will be of no avail. God will fight against Israel (vv 21-22), and even Jerusalem will be put under siege until God in his mercy intervenes (29:1-8). Because of their hypocritical worship, the people deserve to be punished, but in the future Israel will again acknowledge the Lord and be made physically and spiritually whole (29:17-24).<\/p>\nChapters 30 and 31 denounce Judah’s proposed alliance with Egypt in the effort to thwart Assyria. God wants his people to trust him, not their unreliable neighbors to the south. The Lord promises to protect Jerusalem (30:18; 31:5) and defeat the invading Assyrian army (30:31-33; 31:8-9). None can stand before his mighty sword.<\/p>\nContinuing on this positive note, Isaiah goes on to emphasize the righteous rule of the messianic king in chapters 32 and 33. Zion will enjoy peace and security at last (32:2, 17-18; 33:6), a great change from Isaiah’s own time. In eighth-century BC<\/span> Judah the women might feel secure (32:9), but the Assyrian troops will devastate the crops and precipitate widespread mourning. However, the lamenting will soon end, as the prophet pronounces woe upon Assyria in 33:1. After Isaiah prays for the destruction of Assyria (33:2-9), God promises to take action (vv 10-12). Gone will be the enemy soldiers and officials, for the Lord will save his people and bring them justice and security.<\/p>\n<h5>More Judgment and Blessing (34–35)<\/h5>\nThis section forms a climax to chapters 28–33. Once more, cataclysmic judgment precedes a time of blessing and restoration. In chapter 34 Isaiah depicts a judgment of cosmic dimensions as he moves to a consideration of the last days. Heaven and earth endure the wrath of God that is poured out upon the nations, and verse 4 provides the basis for John’s description of the great tribulation in Revelation 6:13-14. Edom (like Moab; see Is 25:10-12) represents a world judged by the sword of the Lord in his day of vengeance.<\/p>\nChapter 35, on the other hand, speaks of joy and restoration in a passage that pulsates with life. A blooming desert corresponds to the physical and spiritual age when God will come to redeem his people. Both the return of the Israelites from the Babylonian captivity and the second coming of Christ fit this glorious scene.<\/p>\n<h5>Historical Interlude (36–39)<\/h5>\nThese chapters form the hinge that connects the two halves of the book. Chapters 36 and 37 contain the fulfillment of Isaiah’s prophecies about Assyria’s collapse, and chapters 38 and 39 introduce the Babylonian captivity that forms the backdrop for chapters 40–66. In 701 BC<\/span> King Sennacherib of Assyria demands the unconditional surrender of Jerusalem. He sends his field commander to address the people and try to gain their submission. With persuasive words, the commander tries to convince the city that surrender is the best policy. Amazingly the people do not panic, and King Hezekiah asks Isaiah to pray for the beleaguered city. The prophet does so and announces that the proud Assyrians will not triumph. Instead, they suffer a terrible disaster as the angel of the Lord strikes down 185,000 men.<\/p>\nChapters 38 and 39 relate another crisis in Hezekiah’s life when he becomes desperately ill. Miraculously, God heals him, and Hezekiah praises the Lord for his gracious intervention. When the king of Babylon sends envoys to congratulate Hezekiah on his recovery, Hezekiah foolishly shows these messengers his royal treasures. Isaiah solemnly announces that someday the armies of Babylon will capture Jerusalem, plunder the land, and take away these treasures.<\/p>\n<h5>The Return from Babylon (40–48)<\/h5>\nThe Babylonian captivity eventually comes, but Isaiah promises that it will end. God, the incomparably powerful Creator, is far greater than any king, nation, or god, and he will bring his people back to Jerusalem. To accomplish this return from exile, God raises up Cyrus, the king of Persia (41:2, 25). The Lord does not forget his people, and he encourages them to take heart and to rejoice.<\/p>\nIn chapter 42 we are introduced to a person even more significant than Cyrus the Persian. Verses 1-7 (the first of four Servant Songs) describe the servant of the Lord, who will bring justice to the nations and will be “a light for the Gentiles” (42:6). This is the Messiah, and the redemption he will accomplish on Calvary (cf. ch 53) is greater than the release from Babylon. In light of the good news associated with the servant, Isaiah praises the Lord for punishing the wicked and rescuing his wayward people. Chapter 43 declares that nothing will stand in the way of Israel’s return, and the Lord will remember their sins no more. In fact, he will pour out his Spirit on their descendants (44:3).<\/p>\nA God so great is far more powerful than any idol. In 44:6-20 Isaiah makes use of satire to show the worthlessness of man-made images. God alone has the power to create and to restore, and he will bring Cyrus on the scene to effect the release of the exiles and to begin the rebuilding of Jerusalem. Chapters 46 and 47 contrast the God of Israel and the idols of Babylon. When God raises up Cyrus, Babylon’s idols will be unable to save their nation, and the queen of kingdoms (47:5) will collapse along with her sorcerers and astrologers. The final chapter in this section (ch 48) restates God’s purpose of gaining release of the Israelites from Babylon through his chosen ally, Cyrus of Persia.<\/p>\n<h5>Salvation through the Servant of the Lord (49–57)<\/h5>\nChapters 49–53 contain the final three Servant Songs (cf. also 42:1-7), culminating in the death of the servant for the sins of the world (52:13–53:12). In the second Servant Song (49:1-7), Isaiah describes the call and ministry of the servant, noting that he will face strong opposition as he accomplishes salvation for Israel and the nations. The rest of chapter 49 deals primarily with the way God will bring Israel back from exile. Soon the land will be filled with a mighty throng (vv 19-21), and the Gentiles will acknowledge Israel and her God (vv 22-23).<\/p>\nAlthough Israel has fully deserved the exile because of her sins (50:1-3), the suffering endured by the servant (vv 4-11; the third Servant Song) is wholly undeserved. The beating and mocking of verse 6 are prophetic of Christ’s experience (cf. Mt 27:26, 30; Mk 15:19). In verses 10-11 of Isaiah 50 the whole nation is challenged to trust in the Lord, as the servant did. There is, in fact, a believing remnant who obey the Lord (51:1-8), and the Lord promises that he will restore them to their homeland. Israel has drunk the cup of God’s wrath (vv 17, 22), but the good news of release from exile causes even the ruins of Jerusalem to burst into songs of joy (52:7-10).<\/p>\nYet the best news of all is salvation from sin; the final Servant Song (52:13–53:12) tells how Christ wins freedom for those held in bondage to sin. In this brief passage we learn how Christ suffers rejection (53:3) and even disfigurement (52:14). Led like a lamb to the slaughter (53:7), he carries our sins in his body as he dies in ignominy. The people think he is suffering for his own sins (v 4), but he is “pierced” and “crushed for our iniquities” (v 5). The first and last paragraphs of this section (52:13-15; 53:10-12) state that through his suffering the servant is highly exalted. What seems like a terrible defeat is actually victory over death and Satan and brings salvation for many.<\/p>\nAs a direct result of the servant’s death, great joy comes to all people. In chapter 54 this joy is reflected in Jerusalem’s new status as the Lord’s wife. Her descendants will be numerous and eager to learn from the Lord. For the first time the plural “servants of the Lord<\/span>” appears (54:17), apparently including all believers, whether Jew or Gentile (cf. 65:8-9, 13-15). Joy and prosperity also characterize chapter 55, an invitation to a great spiritual banquet. All people are urged to turn to the Lord who keeps his promises to Israel. In 56:1-8, foreigners are invited to come to God’s “holy mountain” in Jerusalem, for the temple will be a house of prayer for all the nations (56:7; cf. Mt 21:13).<\/p>\nBelieving Gentiles are contrasted sharply with unbelieving Jews, and in 56:9–57:13 Isaiah returns again to the theme of judgment. Israel suffers because her leaders are wicked and because the people are guilty of idolatry. Spiritual healing is available, but unless individuals repent, they cannot be part of the remnant who will return from exile and enjoy peace in the Promised Land.<\/p>\n<h5>Ultimate Blessing and Final Judgment (58–66)<\/h5>\nThe last nine chapters of Isaiah emphasize redemption and glory, but the reality of judgment is also very much in evidence. In fact, chapters 58 and 59 bemoan the sins of Israel. The people are hypocritical in their worship; they are selfish and fail to keep the Sabbath. Lying, oppression, and murder separate the people from God. When Isaiah openly confesses these sins (59:12-13), the Lord suddenly takes action on behalf of his people. Like a mighty warrior, he rescues the believing remnant from Babylon and brings them back to Jerusalem.<\/p>\nIn chapter 60 the glory and wealth of Jerusalem reach new heights. Both the city and the sanctuary are adorned with splendor, matching the prosperity of Solomon’s reign. Just as the nations treated Solomon with honor, so earth’s leaders will assist and strengthen the returning exiles. While it is true that the Persian government did help the Jews repeatedly, the conditions described here will have their ultimate fulfillment during the Millennium and in connection with the new Jerusalem (cf. Rv 21:23; 22:5). The ancient ruins will be rebuilt (Is 61:4), and the Lord will fulfill the covenant made with Abraham and David (Is 61:8; cf. Gn 12:1-3; Is 55:3). Jerusalem will be the city of the holy people, the redeemed of the Lord (Is 62:12), and the Lord will take delight in her (v 4).<\/p>\nIn order to accomplish salvation for his people, God will have to judge the ungodly first. The great trampling of the winepress (63:2-3) graphically portrays the judgment process and is linked with the Day of the Lord (cf. 13:3; 34:2). Since God has promised to intervene on behalf of his people, Isaiah prays for the realization of that promise (63:7–64:12). He recalls God’s faithfulness in the past and pleads that he will again have mercy upon his suffering people.<\/p>\nThe answer to Isaiah’s prayer is found in chapter 65. God does promise to give the Holy Land back to his servants, to those who worship him and obey him. But for that segment of the nation that continues in its obstinacy, God promises anguish and destruction. The ultimate joy of God’s servants is contained in a description of new heavens and a new earth (65:17-25). Peace, long life, and prosperity will be among the blessings enjoyed in an era that seems to combine features of the Millennium and the eternal state (cf. ch 60).<\/p>\nIn a fitting summary, chapter 66 ties together the themes of salvation and judgment. God will comfort Jerusalem and abundantly bless her, but sinners are the objects of his wrath. Those who honor him will endure forever, but those who rebel will suffer everlasting rejection.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Isaiah (Person); Israel, History of; Messiah; Prophecy; Prophet, Prophetess; Servant of the Lord; Virgin Birth of Jesus.<\/p>","summary_ro":"ISAIAH, Book of Preview • Author • Date • Background • Literary Unity • Theological Teaching • Content Author The prophet Isaiah, whose name means “the Lord saves,” lived and ministered in Jerusalem. Because of his repeated contact with the kings of Judah, some scholars believed that Isaiah was related to the royal family, but this is not certain. According to chapters 7 and 8, Isaiah was married and had at least two sons, Shear-jashub and Maher-shalal-hash-baz, whose symbolic names illustrat...","summary_en":"ISAIAH, Book of Preview • Author • Date • Background • Literary Unity • Theological Teaching • Content Author The prophet Isaiah, whose name means “the Lord saves,” lived and ministered in Jerusalem. Because of his repeated contact with the kings of Judah, some scholars believed that Isaiah was related to the royal family, but this is not certain. According to chapters 7 and 8, Isaiah was married and had at least two sons, Shear-jashub and Maher-shalal-hash-baz, whose symbolic names illustrat...","source":"Articles\/I.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":20381,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"John the Baptist","title_en":"John the Baptist","content_ro":"<h3>JOHN THE BAPTIST<\/h3>\nForerunner of the Messiah who prepared the people for Jesus’ coming, proclaimed the need for forgiveness of sins, and offered a baptism symbolizing repentance. His ministry included the baptism of Jesus in the Jordan River, where he testified to Jesus being the Expected One from God. John was arrested and beheaded by Herod Antipas in approximately AD<\/span> 29, while Jesus was still ministering.<\/p>\nPreview<\/p>\n• Birth, Infancy, and Boyhood<\/p>\n• Appearance and Identity<\/p>\n• John’s Proclamation<\/p>\n• John’s Baptism<\/p>\n• John’s View of Jesus<\/p>\n• Jesus’ View of John<\/p>\n• Arrest, Imprisonment, and Martyrdom<\/p>\n• The Disciples of John<\/p>\nBirth, Infancy, and Boyhood<\/p>\nLuke’s Gospel is our only source of information concerning the birth and boyhood of John. The Gospel writer states that John was born in the hill country of Judah (Lk 1:39) of priestly descent, being the son of Zechariah, a priest of the order of Abijah, and Elizabeth, a descendant of Aaron (v 5). Both parents were righteous in the sight of God, following all the commandments closely (v 6). Like the birth of Jesus, only to a much lesser degree, the birth of John the Baptist is described in Luke as extraordinary. The angel Gabriel announced the coming birth to Zechariah in the temple; to the older, barren Elizabeth it came as an answer to prayer (vv 8-13). John’s name is announced to Zechariah by the angel, even as his purpose as forerunner is revealed before birth (vv 13-17). Such a consecration from birth is reminiscent of the call of the OT prophet Jeremiah (cf. Jer 1:5).<\/p>\nThere existed some familial relationship between the families of John and Jesus. Elizabeth is described as a relative of Mary (Lk 1:36), which may connote cousin or aunt, or may only mean being from the same tribe.<\/p>\nJohn’s childhood, as that of Jesus, is left quite vague in the Gospel account. All that is said is that “John grew up and became strong in spirit. Then he lived out in the wilderness until he began his public ministry to Israel” (Lk 1:80, nlt<\/span>). Some scholars have suggested that John might have been adopted as a boy by the Essenes (as was their practice) at Qumran and reared in their wilderness community, adjacent to the Dead Sea and near the Jordan River. There are some similarities between the activities of the Qumran sect, known through the Dead Sea Scrolls, and the later ministry of John the Baptist. Both practiced a type of asceticism and removed themselves from the life of Jerusalem. Both practiced baptism and associated this rite with initiation and repentance. Finally, John and the Qumran group were both eschatologically minded, awaiting God’s final end-time activity in history. Nevertheless, many significant differences exist between John and the Qumran sect.<\/p>\nAppearance and Identity<\/p>\nMark’s Gospel begins with an account of John the Baptist’s appearance: “John the Baptist . . . lived in the wilderness and was preaching that people should be baptized to show that they had turned from their sins and turned to God to be forgiven” (Mk 1:4, nlt<\/span>). A rich OT background lies behind John’s association with the wilderness, in this case the wilderness of Judea. It was in the wilderness that God revealed himself to Moses (Ex 3), gave the law, and entered into the covenant with Israel (ch 19). It was also the site of refuge for David (1 Sm 23–26; Ps 63) and Elijah (1 Kgs 19), and in this light became the anticipated site of God’s future deliverance (Is 40:3-5; Ez 47:1-12; Hos 2:14-15).<\/p>\nThe unusual dress of John the Baptist—“clothing made of camel’s hair, with a leather belt around his waist” (Mk 1:6, niv<\/span>)—may have suggested to his audience an association with Elijah in particular (2 Kgs 1:8) or with the prophets in general (Zec 13:4). His diet, “locusts and wild honey” (Mk 1:6), was Levitically clean, reflecting one who lived off the desert (such food was also eaten at Qumran) and formed part of the broader asceticism practiced by John and his disciples (Mt 9:14; 11:18).<\/p>\nWho did John understand himself to be? In answer to questions by the multitude whether he was the Messiah, Elijah, or the expected prophet (Jn 1:20-23), John only identified himself as “a voice crying in the wilderness, ‘Prepare the way of the Lord’ ” (Is 40:3). The background for the question lies at the end of the OT period. Prophecy, on the one hand, was considered to have ceased (Zec 13:2-6); yet, on the other hand, it was expected to appear again before the coming of the messianic kingdom (see Jl 2:28-29; Mal 3:1-4). Some anticipated this final prophet to be one who was like Moses (Dt 18:15), others a returning Elijah as foretold in Malachi 4:5-6. While John personally refrained from identifying himself with these specific expectations (Jn 1:20-23), it is clear that his dress, lifestyle, and message caused the people to identify him with this end-time prophet (Mt 14:5; Mk 11:32). Jesus also saw John as this final “Elijah-like” prophet (Mt 11:7-15), who from Malachi’s prophecy was to be a forerunner to the coming of the Lord (Mal 3:1-4; 4:5-6).<\/p>\nJohn’s Proclamation<\/p>\nJohn’s proclamation involved three elements: a warning of imminent judgment at the hands of the Coming One, a call for repentance in light of the coming kingdom of heaven, and a demand to express this repentance in concrete ethical terms. Many Jews looked forward confidently to the messianic judgment as a time of blessing for themselves and destruction for the gentile oppressors. John, however, warned that Jewish ancestry was false security in the coming judgment (Lk 3:8); true repentance was the only means of escaping destruction (Mt 3:2). John anticipated this judgment at the hands of the Coming One, who would baptize the nation with “the Holy Spirit and with fire” (Lk 3:16). Fire represented the OT means of destruction in the end time (Mal 4:1) as well as purification (Mal 3:1-4), while the outpouring of the Holy Spirit in the end time connoted blessing (Is 32:15; Ez 39:29; Jl 2:28) and purification (Is 4:2-4). The judgment anticipated by John was therefore twofold: destruction for the unrepentant, and blessing for the penitent and righteous (Mt 3:12).<\/p>\nIn light of this imminent event John called for repentance on the part of his listeners (Mt 3:2), a true “turning back” or “turning toward” God in obedience that would bring forgiveness of sin. Such a turnabout in an individual’s relation with God should be lived out in one’s everyday dealings: fairness on the part of tax collectors (Lk 3:12-13) and soldiers (v 14), and the general requirement of compassion for the poor (vv 10-11).<\/p>\nJohn’s Baptism<\/p>\nThe Gospels record that John baptized those repentant of their sins at several locations: the Jordan River (Mk 1:5), Bethany beyond the Jordan (Jn 1:28), and Aenon near Salim (Jn 3:23). This practice was an integral part of John’s call for repentance, given in light of the approaching judgment and the appearance of the Coming One. The baptism of the penitent symbolized desire for forgiveness of sin, a renunciation of past life, and a desire to be included in the coming messianic kingdom.<\/p>\nWhat was the background for John’s practice of baptism? From the OT we know of ceremonial lustrations or washings that guaranteed ritual purity (Lv 14–15; Nm 19). Unlike John’s baptism, these washings were repetitive in nature and referred predominantly to ritual rather than moral cleansing. The prophets, however, urged a moral purification associated with the washing of water (Is 1:16-18; Jer 4:14). More significantly, the prophets anticipated a cleansing by God in the end times preceding the Day of Judgment (Ez 36:25; Zec 13:1; cf. Is 44:3), an eschatological element that John may have assumed was being fulfilled in his water baptism.<\/p>\nAnother precedent for John’s practice may have been proselyte baptism, a rite (along with circumcision and the offering of sacrifices) that constituted the conversion of a Gentile to Judaism. Common to both proselyte baptism and John’s baptism were the emphasis on an ethical break with the past, a once-for-all character, and the similarity of immersion. Notable differences were that John’s baptism was for Jews, not Gentile converts, and that it had a marked eschatological character as a preparation for the new age. Unless John, in light of the imminence of the messianic age, consciously treated all Jews as “pagan” in need of a baptism of repentance (cf. Mt 3:7-10), it is doubtful that proselyte baptism formed the primary background for John’s baptismal ministry.<\/p>\nIf John’s baptism had a clear association with the forgiveness of sin, the question naturally arises as to why Jesus, the Son of God, sought baptism from John. John himself asks this very question of Jesus (Mt 3:14), to which Jesus responds, “It must be done, because we must do everything that is right” (v 15, nlt<\/span>). First, it is clear that Jesus’ baptism represented an act of obedience on his part to God’s will as he saw it. Second, by submitting to the baptism of John, Jesus was clearly validating the ministry and message of John. The imminent coming of the kingdom and its Messiah, and the need for repentance in anticipation of this event that John proclaimed, were affirmed by Jesus through baptism. Third, by being baptized, Jesus condemned the self-righteous for their lack of repentance and took a stand with the penitent publicans and sinners awaiting the kingdom of God (Lk 7:29-30). Fourth, Jesus stepped forward for baptism not as an individual in need of forgiveness but as one who represented the people of God. His baptism, therefore, demonstrated solidarity with the people in their need of deliverance, even as he is judged in their place on the cross. Finally, the voice from heaven (Mk 1:11) and the descent of the Spirit (Lk 3:21-22) signify the inauguration of Jesus’ own ministry through his baptism by John.<\/p>\nJohn’s View of Jesus<\/p>\nThroughout his ministry John pointed beyond himself to one “who is far greater than I am—so much greater that I am not even worthy to be his slave” (Mk 1:7, nlt<\/span>). His self-understanding apparently sprang from the application of Isaiah 40:3 to himself, that he was the preparer or forerunner for God’s coming activity through the Messiah (Lk 3:4-6). When asked by curious spectators, John firmly denied that he was the Messiah, and according to the Gospel accounts, subordinated himself to the Coming One (Mk 1:7-8; Jn 1:26-28; 3:28-31). The coming of Jesus to baptism seems to represent the first time John identified these expectations with Jesus himself (Jn 1:35-36). His recognition of Jesus as the Messiah prior to baptism (Mt 3:14) was confirmed by the descent of the Holy Spirit as a dove and the voice from heaven quoting a phrase from an OT messianic psalm (Mk 1:11a, from Ps 2:7), together with a phrase from a Suffering Servant song of Isaiah (Mk 1:11b, from Is 42:1). In the fourth Gospel, John the Baptist goes even further in acknowledging Jesus to be the “Lamb of God” (Jn 1:29), in anticipation of Jesus’ sacrificial role on the cross. And John recognized him as “God’s Chosen One” (v 34, neb<\/span>—another term for the Messiah; Ps 2:7, see Mk 1:11).<\/p>\nIn light of John’s strong affirmation, it is at first difficult to understand his questioning of Jesus while imprisoned: “Are you he who is to come, or shall we look for another?” (Mt 11:3, rsv<\/span>). Some have suggested that John was merely asking for the sake of his disciples, or that the question reflected John’s despondency with being imprisoned. It is more likely, however, that the question represents John’s own confusion with the activity expected of the Messiah. John had proclaimed a Coming One who would bring a baptism of fire and judgment upon the wicked (Lk 3:16). It may have been difficult for him to understand Jesus’ different emphases on forgiveness and acceptance of sinners (Mt 9:9-13) and his healing of the sick (Mt 8–9). When John’s disciples brought their master’s question to Jesus, asking whether or not he was the Messiah, Jesus responded by quoting Isaiah 35:5-6 (see also Is 61:1). This text proclaims the activities of healing and proclaiming salvation to the poor to be fulfillments of the Messiah’s role, even though they may not have been what John or countless other Jews expected.<\/p>\nJesus’ View of John<\/p>\nThat Jesus highly regarded John the Baptist is indicated by his baptism by John. It is also explicitly stated on several occasions. Jesus called him the greatest man to have ever lived (Lk 7:28). (Of course, he was not as great as Jesus, the God-man.) Jesus also said that John was a burning and shining lamp (Jn 5:33-35) and that he practiced a baptism divinely ordained (Lk 20:1-8).<\/p>\nJohn’s uniqueness, however, lies in the fact that he stood at the turning of the ages. He was the last of the old era, the period of the law and the prophets (Lk 16:16), which was to precede the coming of the messianic age (the kingdom of God). John was the last of the prophets, the greatest of them, the Elijah figure who would prepare the way for the judgment of God (Mt 11:13-15; Lk 1:17). Because John belonged to the era of the law and the prophets, however, he was not as great as the “least” already in the kingdom of God (Mt 11:11)—that is, those who belonged to the era of the kingdom’s appearance in Jesus.<\/p>\nArrest, Imprisonment, and Martyrdom<\/p>\nTo understand why John was arrested and beheaded by Herod Antipas, one has to grasp the messianic excitement caused by John’s appearance and message (Lk 3:15-18). Herod and other secular rulers were obviously suspicious of anyone who might stir up the crowds with predictions of a coming messianic ruler. Other messianic movements had arisen before John, which resulted in outbreaks of violence against the Roman-Herodian rulership. Moreover, Herod Antipas was under heavy criticism for his marriage with Herodias, the ex-wife of his brother Philip. His first marriage, with the daughter of Aretus II, constituted a political alliance between the Herodian family and the Nabatean kingdom of Perea. His new relationship with Herodias was perceived as a breach of the political alliance and led to friction between the two families. John’s denunciation of Herod’s new marriage (Mt 14:3-12) could thus have been interpreted by Herod as a subversive rousing of sentiment against his authority. The Jewish historian Josephus states that Herod did, in fact, arrest John because he feared John’s influence over the crowds. According to Josephus, John was imprisoned at the fortress Machaerus on the eastern side of the Dead Sea. That he was not killed immediately was due to Herod’s personal fear of the righteous John (Mk 6:2) and of the people’s reaction (Mt 14:5). On a point about which Josephus is silent, the Gospels record that it was Herodias’s feelings against John (Mk 6:17) and her plot, through the dancing of her daughter, which brought about the beheading of John (vv 21-29). John was beheaded at Herodias’s request in approximately AD<\/span> 29 or 30.<\/p>\nThe Disciples of John<\/p>\nWhile it is clear that a band of disciples formed around John in his lifetime (Jn 1:35), to suggest that he intended to begin a continuing movement is contradicted by his message on the imminent Day of Judgment. Apparently, John’s disciples consisted of a small group of those who had been baptized by him and were awaiting the coming Messiah. Some transferred their loyalty to Jesus after John had identified Jesus as the Coming One (Jn 1:37). Others, however, apparently stayed on with their teacher, communicating with the imprisoned John concerning the activities of Jesus (Lk 7:18-23) and, after his death, taking the body for burial (Mk 6:29).<\/p>\nWe know little about the activities and practices of the band of disciples clustered around John. We do know, however, that fasting was one practice specifically associated with the group, and one that marked them as similar to the Pharisees (Mt 9:14). In this practice they no doubt followed the example of John himself (Lk 7:33). Prayer and fasting were often linked in late Judaism. The disciples of John were also known for the prayers taught by their master (11:1). Seeing this practice, the disciples of Jesus asked the Lord to teach them to pray, to which Jesus responded with the Lord’s Prayer (vv 2-4).<\/p>\nAfter his death it is likely that other disciples of John joined the followers of Jesus (see Lk 7:29-30). Not all did so, however, as disciples of John were encountered by Paul and other Christians approximately 25 years later in Ephesus (Acts 18:24–29:7). Upon hearing witness to Jesus, these followers of John proclaimed Jesus as Messiah. When Paul baptized them in the name of Jesus they received the Holy Spirit (19:4-7). Even so, it is apparent from later documents that various groups continued to honor John, even considering him the Messiah, centuries after the NT period.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>JOHN THE BAPTIST<\/h3>\nForerunner of the Messiah who prepared the people for Jesus’ coming, proclaimed the need for forgiveness of sins, and offered a baptism symbolizing repentance. His ministry included the baptism of Jesus in the Jordan River, where he testified to Jesus being the Expected One from God. John was arrested and beheaded by Herod Antipas in approximately AD<\/span> 29, while Jesus was still ministering.<\/p>\nPreview<\/p>\n• Birth, Infancy, and Boyhood<\/p>\n• Appearance and Identity<\/p>\n• John’s Proclamation<\/p>\n• John’s Baptism<\/p>\n• John’s View of Jesus<\/p>\n• Jesus’ View of John<\/p>\n• Arrest, Imprisonment, and Martyrdom<\/p>\n• The Disciples of John<\/p>\nBirth, Infancy, and Boyhood<\/p>\nLuke’s Gospel is our only source of information concerning the birth and boyhood of John. The Gospel writer states that John was born in the hill country of Judah (Lk 1:39) of priestly descent, being the son of Zechariah, a priest of the order of Abijah, and Elizabeth, a descendant of Aaron (v 5). Both parents were righteous in the sight of God, following all the commandments closely (v 6). Like the birth of Jesus, only to a much lesser degree, the birth of John the Baptist is described in Luke as extraordinary. The angel Gabriel announced the coming birth to Zechariah in the temple; to the older, barren Elizabeth it came as an answer to prayer (vv 8-13). John’s name is announced to Zechariah by the angel, even as his purpose as forerunner is revealed before birth (vv 13-17). Such a consecration from birth is reminiscent of the call of the OT prophet Jeremiah (cf. Jer 1:5).<\/p>\nThere existed some familial relationship between the families of John and Jesus. Elizabeth is described as a relative of Mary (Lk 1:36), which may connote cousin or aunt, or may only mean being from the same tribe.<\/p>\nJohn’s childhood, as that of Jesus, is left quite vague in the Gospel account. All that is said is that “John grew up and became strong in spirit. Then he lived out in the wilderness until he began his public ministry to Israel” (Lk 1:80, nlt<\/span>). Some scholars have suggested that John might have been adopted as a boy by the Essenes (as was their practice) at Qumran and reared in their wilderness community, adjacent to the Dead Sea and near the Jordan River. There are some similarities between the activities of the Qumran sect, known through the Dead Sea Scrolls, and the later ministry of John the Baptist. Both practiced a type of asceticism and removed themselves from the life of Jerusalem. Both practiced baptism and associated this rite with initiation and repentance. Finally, John and the Qumran group were both eschatologically minded, awaiting God’s final end-time activity in history. Nevertheless, many significant differences exist between John and the Qumran sect.<\/p>\nAppearance and Identity<\/p>\nMark’s Gospel begins with an account of John the Baptist’s appearance: “John the Baptist . . . lived in the wilderness and was preaching that people should be baptized to show that they had turned from their sins and turned to God to be forgiven” (Mk 1:4, nlt<\/span>). A rich OT background lies behind John’s association with the wilderness, in this case the wilderness of Judea. It was in the wilderness that God revealed himself to Moses (Ex 3), gave the law, and entered into the covenant with Israel (ch 19). It was also the site of refuge for David (1 Sm 23–26; Ps 63) and Elijah (1 Kgs 19), and in this light became the anticipated site of God’s future deliverance (Is 40:3-5; Ez 47:1-12; Hos 2:14-15).<\/p>\nThe unusual dress of John the Baptist—“clothing made of camel’s hair, with a leather belt around his waist” (Mk 1:6, niv<\/span>)—may have suggested to his audience an association with Elijah in particular (2 Kgs 1:8) or with the prophets in general (Zec 13:4). His diet, “locusts and wild honey” (Mk 1:6), was Levitically clean, reflecting one who lived off the desert (such food was also eaten at Qumran) and formed part of the broader asceticism practiced by John and his disciples (Mt 9:14; 11:18).<\/p>\nWho did John understand himself to be? In answer to questions by the multitude whether he was the Messiah, Elijah, or the expected prophet (Jn 1:20-23), John only identified himself as “a voice crying in the wilderness, ‘Prepare the way of the Lord’ ” (Is 40:3). The background for the question lies at the end of the OT period. Prophecy, on the one hand, was considered to have ceased (Zec 13:2-6); yet, on the other hand, it was expected to appear again before the coming of the messianic kingdom (see Jl 2:28-29; Mal 3:1-4). Some anticipated this final prophet to be one who was like Moses (Dt 18:15), others a returning Elijah as foretold in Malachi 4:5-6. While John personally refrained from identifying himself with these specific expectations (Jn 1:20-23), it is clear that his dress, lifestyle, and message caused the people to identify him with this end-time prophet (Mt 14:5; Mk 11:32). Jesus also saw John as this final “Elijah-like” prophet (Mt 11:7-15), who from Malachi’s prophecy was to be a forerunner to the coming of the Lord (Mal 3:1-4; 4:5-6).<\/p>\nJohn’s Proclamation<\/p>\nJohn’s proclamation involved three elements: a warning of imminent judgment at the hands of the Coming One, a call for repentance in light of the coming kingdom of heaven, and a demand to express this repentance in concrete ethical terms. Many Jews looked forward confidently to the messianic judgment as a time of blessing for themselves and destruction for the gentile oppressors. John, however, warned that Jewish ancestry was false security in the coming judgment (Lk 3:8); true repentance was the only means of escaping destruction (Mt 3:2). John anticipated this judgment at the hands of the Coming One, who would baptize the nation with “the Holy Spirit and with fire” (Lk 3:16). Fire represented the OT means of destruction in the end time (Mal 4:1) as well as purification (Mal 3:1-4), while the outpouring of the Holy Spirit in the end time connoted blessing (Is 32:15; Ez 39:29; Jl 2:28) and purification (Is 4:2-4). The judgment anticipated by John was therefore twofold: destruction for the unrepentant, and blessing for the penitent and righteous (Mt 3:12).<\/p>\nIn light of this imminent event John called for repentance on the part of his listeners (Mt 3:2), a true “turning back” or “turning toward” God in obedience that would bring forgiveness of sin. Such a turnabout in an individual’s relation with God should be lived out in one’s everyday dealings: fairness on the part of tax collectors (Lk 3:12-13) and soldiers (v 14), and the general requirement of compassion for the poor (vv 10-11).<\/p>\nJohn’s Baptism<\/p>\nThe Gospels record that John baptized those repentant of their sins at several locations: the Jordan River (Mk 1:5), Bethany beyond the Jordan (Jn 1:28), and Aenon near Salim (Jn 3:23). This practice was an integral part of John’s call for repentance, given in light of the approaching judgment and the appearance of the Coming One. The baptism of the penitent symbolized desire for forgiveness of sin, a renunciation of past life, and a desire to be included in the coming messianic kingdom.<\/p>\nWhat was the background for John’s practice of baptism? From the OT we know of ceremonial lustrations or washings that guaranteed ritual purity (Lv 14–15; Nm 19). Unlike John’s baptism, these washings were repetitive in nature and referred predominantly to ritual rather than moral cleansing. The prophets, however, urged a moral purification associated with the washing of water (Is 1:16-18; Jer 4:14). More significantly, the prophets anticipated a cleansing by God in the end times preceding the Day of Judgment (Ez 36:25; Zec 13:1; cf. Is 44:3), an eschatological element that John may have assumed was being fulfilled in his water baptism.<\/p>\nAnother precedent for John’s practice may have been proselyte baptism, a rite (along with circumcision and the offering of sacrifices) that constituted the conversion of a Gentile to Judaism. Common to both proselyte baptism and John’s baptism were the emphasis on an ethical break with the past, a once-for-all character, and the similarity of immersion. Notable differences were that John’s baptism was for Jews, not Gentile converts, and that it had a marked eschatological character as a preparation for the new age. Unless John, in light of the imminence of the messianic age, consciously treated all Jews as “pagan” in need of a baptism of repentance (cf. Mt 3:7-10), it is doubtful that proselyte baptism formed the primary background for John’s baptismal ministry.<\/p>\nIf John’s baptism had a clear association with the forgiveness of sin, the question naturally arises as to why Jesus, the Son of God, sought baptism from John. John himself asks this very question of Jesus (Mt 3:14), to which Jesus responds, “It must be done, because we must do everything that is right” (v 15, nlt<\/span>). First, it is clear that Jesus’ baptism represented an act of obedience on his part to God’s will as he saw it. Second, by submitting to the baptism of John, Jesus was clearly validating the ministry and message of John. The imminent coming of the kingdom and its Messiah, and the need for repentance in anticipation of this event that John proclaimed, were affirmed by Jesus through baptism. Third, by being baptized, Jesus condemned the self-righteous for their lack of repentance and took a stand with the penitent publicans and sinners awaiting the kingdom of God (Lk 7:29-30). Fourth, Jesus stepped forward for baptism not as an individual in need of forgiveness but as one who represented the people of God. His baptism, therefore, demonstrated solidarity with the people in their need of deliverance, even as he is judged in their place on the cross. Finally, the voice from heaven (Mk 1:11) and the descent of the Spirit (Lk 3:21-22) signify the inauguration of Jesus’ own ministry through his baptism by John.<\/p>\nJohn’s View of Jesus<\/p>\nThroughout his ministry John pointed beyond himself to one “who is far greater than I am—so much greater that I am not even worthy to be his slave” (Mk 1:7, nlt<\/span>). His self-understanding apparently sprang from the application of Isaiah 40:3 to himself, that he was the preparer or forerunner for God’s coming activity through the Messiah (Lk 3:4-6). When asked by curious spectators, John firmly denied that he was the Messiah, and according to the Gospel accounts, subordinated himself to the Coming One (Mk 1:7-8; Jn 1:26-28; 3:28-31). The coming of Jesus to baptism seems to represent the first time John identified these expectations with Jesus himself (Jn 1:35-36). His recognition of Jesus as the Messiah prior to baptism (Mt 3:14) was confirmed by the descent of the Holy Spirit as a dove and the voice from heaven quoting a phrase from an OT messianic psalm (Mk 1:11a, from Ps 2:7), together with a phrase from a Suffering Servant song of Isaiah (Mk 1:11b, from Is 42:1). In the fourth Gospel, John the Baptist goes even further in acknowledging Jesus to be the “Lamb of God” (Jn 1:29), in anticipation of Jesus’ sacrificial role on the cross. And John recognized him as “God’s Chosen One” (v 34, neb<\/span>—another term for the Messiah; Ps 2:7, see Mk 1:11).<\/p>\nIn light of John’s strong affirmation, it is at first difficult to understand his questioning of Jesus while imprisoned: “Are you he who is to come, or shall we look for another?” (Mt 11:3, rsv<\/span>). Some have suggested that John was merely asking for the sake of his disciples, or that the question reflected John’s despondency with being imprisoned. It is more likely, however, that the question represents John’s own confusion with the activity expected of the Messiah. John had proclaimed a Coming One who would bring a baptism of fire and judgment upon the wicked (Lk 3:16). It may have been difficult for him to understand Jesus’ different emphases on forgiveness and acceptance of sinners (Mt 9:9-13) and his healing of the sick (Mt 8–9). When John’s disciples brought their master’s question to Jesus, asking whether or not he was the Messiah, Jesus responded by quoting Isaiah 35:5-6 (see also Is 61:1). This text proclaims the activities of healing and proclaiming salvation to the poor to be fulfillments of the Messiah’s role, even though they may not have been what John or countless other Jews expected.<\/p>\nJesus’ View of John<\/p>\nThat Jesus highly regarded John the Baptist is indicated by his baptism by John. It is also explicitly stated on several occasions. Jesus called him the greatest man to have ever lived (Lk 7:28). (Of course, he was not as great as Jesus, the God-man.) Jesus also said that John was a burning and shining lamp (Jn 5:33-35) and that he practiced a baptism divinely ordained (Lk 20:1-8).<\/p>\nJohn’s uniqueness, however, lies in the fact that he stood at the turning of the ages. He was the last of the old era, the period of the law and the prophets (Lk 16:16), which was to precede the coming of the messianic age (the kingdom of God). John was the last of the prophets, the greatest of them, the Elijah figure who would prepare the way for the judgment of God (Mt 11:13-15; Lk 1:17). Because John belonged to the era of the law and the prophets, however, he was not as great as the “least” already in the kingdom of God (Mt 11:11)—that is, those who belonged to the era of the kingdom’s appearance in Jesus.<\/p>\nArrest, Imprisonment, and Martyrdom<\/p>\nTo understand why John was arrested and beheaded by Herod Antipas, one has to grasp the messianic excitement caused by John’s appearance and message (Lk 3:15-18). Herod and other secular rulers were obviously suspicious of anyone who might stir up the crowds with predictions of a coming messianic ruler. Other messianic movements had arisen before John, which resulted in outbreaks of violence against the Roman-Herodian rulership. Moreover, Herod Antipas was under heavy criticism for his marriage with Herodias, the ex-wife of his brother Philip. His first marriage, with the daughter of Aretus II, constituted a political alliance between the Herodian family and the Nabatean kingdom of Perea. His new relationship with Herodias was perceived as a breach of the political alliance and led to friction between the two families. John’s denunciation of Herod’s new marriage (Mt 14:3-12) could thus have been interpreted by Herod as a subversive rousing of sentiment against his authority. The Jewish historian Josephus states that Herod did, in fact, arrest John because he feared John’s influence over the crowds. According to Josephus, John was imprisoned at the fortress Machaerus on the eastern side of the Dead Sea. That he was not killed immediately was due to Herod’s personal fear of the righteous John (Mk 6:2) and of the people’s reaction (Mt 14:5). On a point about which Josephus is silent, the Gospels record that it was Herodias’s feelings against John (Mk 6:17) and her plot, through the dancing of her daughter, which brought about the beheading of John (vv 21-29). John was beheaded at Herodias’s request in approximately AD<\/span> 29 or 30.<\/p>\nThe Disciples of John<\/p>\nWhile it is clear that a band of disciples formed around John in his lifetime (Jn 1:35), to suggest that he intended to begin a continuing movement is contradicted by his message on the imminent Day of Judgment. Apparently, John’s disciples consisted of a small group of those who had been baptized by him and were awaiting the coming Messiah. Some transferred their loyalty to Jesus after John had identified Jesus as the Coming One (Jn 1:37). Others, however, apparently stayed on with their teacher, communicating with the imprisoned John concerning the activities of Jesus (Lk 7:18-23) and, after his death, taking the body for burial (Mk 6:29).<\/p>\nWe know little about the activities and practices of the band of disciples clustered around John. We do know, however, that fasting was one practice specifically associated with the group, and one that marked them as similar to the Pharisees (Mt 9:14). In this practice they no doubt followed the example of John himself (Lk 7:33). Prayer and fasting were often linked in late Judaism. The disciples of John were also known for the prayers taught by their master (11:1). Seeing this practice, the disciples of Jesus asked the Lord to teach them to pray, to which Jesus responded with the Lord’s Prayer (vv 2-4).<\/p>\nAfter his death it is likely that other disciples of John joined the followers of Jesus (see Lk 7:29-30). Not all did so, however, as disciples of John were encountered by Paul and other Christians approximately 25 years later in Ephesus (Acts 18:24–29:7). Upon hearing witness to Jesus, these followers of John proclaimed Jesus as Messiah. When Paul baptized them in the name of Jesus they received the Holy Spirit (19:4-7). Even so, it is apparent from later documents that various groups continued to honor John, even considering him the Messiah, centuries after the NT period.<\/p>","summary_ro":"JOHN THE BAPTIST Forerunner of the Messiah who prepared the people for Jesus’ coming, proclaimed the need for forgiveness of sins, and offered a baptism symbolizing repentance. His ministry included the baptism of Jesus in the Jordan River, where he testified to Jesus being the Expected One from God. John was arrested and beheaded by Herod Antipas in approximately AD 29, while Jesus was still ministering. Preview • Birth, Infancy, and Boyhood • Appearance and Identity • John’s Proclamation • ...","summary_en":"JOHN THE BAPTIST Forerunner of the Messiah who prepared the people for Jesus’ coming, proclaimed the need for forgiveness of sins, and offered a baptism symbolizing repentance. His ministry included the baptism of Jesus in the Jordan River, where he testified to Jesus being the Expected One from God. John was arrested and beheaded by Herod Antipas in approximately AD 29, while Jesus was still ministering. Preview • Birth, Infancy, and Boyhood • Appearance and Identity • John’s Proclamation • ...","source":"Articles\/J.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":25380,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Messiah","title_en":"Messiah","content_ro":"<h3>MESSIAH<\/h3>\nTitle derived from the Hebrew, mashiach<\/span>,<\/em> a verbal adjective meaning “anointed one.” Along with its NT equivalent, christos<\/span> (Christ), it refers to an act of consecration whereby an individual is set apart to serve God and then anointed with oil. The verbal root (<\/em>mashach<\/span>)<\/em> conveys this idea as well.<\/p>\nIsrael’s practice of ceremonially anointing with oil is present in several contexts. Priests were regularly anointed prior to their divinely given service at the altar of sacrifice (Lv 4:3). While there is evidence for a literal anointing of prophets (1 Kgs 19:16), this does not appear to have been a standard practice. The anointing of Saul and David by Samuel established the act as a significant prerequisite for Hebrew kings before they assumed their positions of royal leadership. The king was especially considered to be the Lord’s anointed and as such was viewed to hold a secure position before men (1 Sm 12:14; 2 Sm 19:21) and God (Pss 2:2; 20:6). Along with numerous messianic prophecies, these proceedings helped inform the Jews of the Anointed One, par excellence, who would eventually come to bring salvation to Israel.<\/p>\nConcluding the 13 articles of Hebraic faith attributed to Moses Maimonides (13th century AD<\/span>) is the statement still found in many Hebrew prayer books: “I believe with a perfect heart that the Messiah will come; and although his coming be delayed, I will still wait patiently for his speedy appearance.”<\/p>\nMessiah in the Old Testament<\/p>\nJewish hope for the advent of the Messiah developed dynamically from the period of David’s reign, when it was prophesied that his kingdom would endure to the end of time (2 Sm 7:16). Israel was told that, through David’s descendants, his throne would exert a never-ending dominion over all the earth (2 Sm 22:48-51; Jer 33). It is with this aspect of messianic salvation that Jewish minds have traditionally been preoccupied (cf. Acts 1:6).<\/p>\nAmong Orthodox rabbis there has never been a lack of conjecture respecting the details of the Messiah’s ministry. At one time the rabbis applied no less than 456 passages of Scripture to his person and salvation. Preoccupation with the Messiah is evident in the tractate Sanhedrin<\/em> (Babylonian Talmud), where passages state that the world was created for him and that all the prophets prophesied of his days (Sanhedrin<\/em> 98b, 99a). By and large, Orthodoxy still retains its time-worn belief in the Messiah’s reign in Jerusalem, the rebuilding of the temple, and the reestablishment of both priesthood and sacrifice.<\/p>\nWhile later Judaism looked for the Messiah as an eschatological figure who will reign at the end of time, modern Jewish thought has largely jettisoned the traditional notion of a personal Messiah in favor of belief in a messianic age. Prevalent liberal Judaism envisions the world ultimately perfected through the influence of the twin Judaic ideals of justice and compassion. Such conviction, ignoring the plight of fallen humans and the teaching of Scripture, substitutes humanistic thinking for miraculous heavenly intervention.<\/p>\nWhile the Messiah’s origin is linked firmly to the house of David (2 Sm 7:14; Hos 3:5), the promise for a Messiah was given long before David lived. In fact, the hope for the Messiah is implicit in the first promise of the establishment of the kingdom of God. Addressed to Satan, Genesis 3:15 declares that God will place hostility between the serpent and the woman until, in the fullness of time, the “seed” of the woman inflicts a fatal blow to the head of the serpent.<\/p>\nThe nature of messianic prophecy is progressive; each prophecy casts more light on the subject. This occurs, for example, respecting the concept of the “seed”: Messiah is to be born of a woman (Gn 3:15), through the line of Shem (9:26) and specifically through Abraham (22:18). Yet even as late as Genesis 22:18, the “seed” is not clearly presented as a person, since zerah<\/span> (seed) may indicate a singular or plural object. Still less apparent in these early stages of messianic prophecy is the nature of the “bruising” that is to occur. Yet the idea of the Messiah being crushed for sin is implicit in the Genesis pronouncement, as is the violence associated with that act. Chief among the messianic prophets, Isaiah gives full range to the axiom that the Anointed One must endure extensive suffering (Is 53:1). Under the figure “the Servant of the Lord,” four “servant songs” delineate the mission of the future deliverer (Is 42:1-7; 49:1-9; 50:4-11; 52:13–53:12). While it is true that Isaiah does not explicitly link the title Messiah with the Servant of the Lord, identifying both figures as one and the same person is justifiable. Both figures are uniquely anointed (61:1); each brings light to the Gentiles (55:4; cf. 49:6); neither is pretentious in his first appearance (7:14-15; 11:1; cf. 42:3; 53:1); and the title of Davidic “branch” rests upon them both (11:1-4). Equally significant are the dual facts of their humiliation and exaltation (49:7; 52:13-15). Jewish scholars of the early Christian era in the Aramaic Targum on the prophets paraphrase Isaiah 42:1, “Behold my Servant Messiah” and begin Isaiah 53, “Behold my Servant Messiah will prosper.” While Cyrus may be spoken of as “anointed,” no final salvific work is attributed to him (45:1-5). Israel, although elect and loved by God (41:8), is ill-equipped as God’s servant to bring his redeeming work to mankind (42:18). The collapse of David’s dynasty points eloquently to Israel’s need for an anointed monarch who will heal the apostasy and disobedience (Ex 33:5; Hos 4:1). More and more, OT history presents Israel’s comprehensive moral failure. Her problem, which she shares with mankind, can only be solved by the making of a covenant whose surety and focal point is both a personal Savior and sovereign Lord (Jer 31:31-34). The advent of such a champion lives in the recorded promise of a shoot from the stump of Jesse’s fallen tree, who will bring the light of life to God’s benighted people (Is 9:2; 11:1).<\/p>\nIt is difficult to get away from the idea that the concept of servanthood and lowliness belongs within the sphere of royalty (Zec 9:9). The concept of the Messiah filling the complementary offices of priest and king is incontrovertible (Ps 110:1-4); a suffering priest-king is far less obvious. Some among the Talmudic writers apparently recognized the likelihood that the Messiah would have to suffer. In the Babylonian Talmud, tractate Sanhedrin<\/em> 98b, the Messiah is said to bear sicknesses and pain. Among the prayers for the Day of Atonement may be found the words of Eleazar ben Qalir (perhaps as late as AD<\/span> 1000): “Our righteous Messiah has departed from us; we are horror-stricken, and there is none to justify us. Our iniquities and the yoke of our transgressions he carries, and is wounded for our transgressions. He bears on his shoulders our sins to find pardon for our iniquities. May we be healed by his stripes.” In a similar vein Rabbi Eliyya de Vidas writes, “The meaning of ‘He was wounded for our transgressions, bruised for our iniquities,’ is that since the Messiah bears our iniquities, which produce the effect of His being bruised, it follows that whosoever will not admit that the Messiah thus suffers for our iniquities must endure and suffer for them himself.” For all this, it is highly doubtful that anyone imagined the Messiah would accomplish his salvational work by means of his own death (cf. Is 53:12). When rabbinic speculation failed to satisfactorily harmonize the paradoxical facts of humiliation and exaltation, some hypothesized that God would send a Messiah to suffer as well as a Messiah to reign. Biblically, it is evident that the Anointed One’s terrible ordeal of suffering is but the necessary prelude to infinite glory. He is pictured not only as a great king (52:13; 53:12) but also as humble (53:2), humiliated (52:14), rejected (53:3), and bearing the consequences of mankind’s rebellion (vv 5-6). Yet he is raised up to intercede for, and richly bless, his people (v 12). The Messiah, having accomplished that full obedience that Adam and Israel failed to achieve, will bring Israel and the nations back to God (42:18-19; 49:3, 6).<\/p>\nThe writings of Daniel contain important messianic data. Daniel is unique in that he boldly speaks of “Messiah the Prince” (Dn 9:25), identifies him as the “Son of Man” (7:13), and says he suffers (“cut off,” 9:26). This statement of the cutting off (i.e., death) of the Messiah makes possible his work of atonement (9:24). The doctrine of a vicarious substitutionary atonement is the only doctrine of atonement found in the Bible (cf. Lv 17:11). Israel understood that to bear sin meant enduring the consequences, or penalty, for sin (cf. Nm 14:33). The same penal substitution is evident in the working principle of the Messiah’s atoning sacrifice. He is the victim’s substitute to whom is transferred the suffering due the sinner. The penalty having been thus borne vicariously, the suppliant is fully pardoned.<\/p>\nPsalm 22:1 records the plaintive cry of the Messiah bearing man’s penalty for sin (cf. Mt 27:46) as he becomes sin on behalf of his people (2 Cor 5:21). Yet his cry, “My God,” indicates an intimate relationship that cannot be radically severed. Once again the motif of messianic humiliation prior to great exaltation is in view (Ps 22:27). In the so-called “royal psalms” (e.g., 2; 72; 110) it is the priestly intercessor who is also ordained to function as monarch and judge.<\/p>\nJeremiah brings the portrait a step further. The one who will enable humans to enter into a salvational covenant with God conveys God’s imputed righteousness: the Messiah, God’s righteous branch, becomes “the Lord our Righteousness.” Paradoxically, under the law no one could be crucified who was not guilty of sin (Dt 21:22). But it is Christ the righteous one who was crucified, thereby forever undermining any supposed legalistic confidence (Dt 21:23; Gal 3:13). More than forgiven, believers are deemed righteous in him (Jer 23:5-6).<\/p>\nWhile the birthplace of the Messiah was well established (Mi 5:2), his deity was a hotly contested matter. Although few in ancient Israel disputed the belief in a superhuman Messiah, it is doubtful that anyone imagined him to be “God with us” in the fullest sense of the expression (cf. Heb 1:3).<\/p>\nMessiah in the New Testament<\/p>\nThe NT writers present the picture that he who was the child of supernatural origins (Is 7:14; Mi 5:2) carried the full weight of divinity (Is 9:6; Phil 2:6; Col 1:19). He is the Son of God, worthy to receive the worship of all people (Ps 45:6-7; cf. Heb 1:8-9).<\/p>\nThe Jews of first-century Palestine knew that the messianic promise would be fulfilled in the coming of one like Moses (Dt 18:18). Parallels between Jesus and Moses are abundant. As mediators, innovators, and propagators of new phases of spiritual life for the people, they are unexcelled. Specifically, both are miraculously spared in infancy (Ex 2; Mt 2:13-23); both renounce a royal court for the sake of serving the people of God (Phil 2:5-8; Heb 11:24-28); both exhibit intense compassion for others (Nm 27:17; Mt 9:36); both commune “face to face” with God (Ex 34:29-30; 2 Cor 3:7); and each mediates a covenant of redemption (Dt 29:1; Heb 8:6-7). But, as Luther observes, “Christ is no Moses.” In the final analysis Moses is but a household servant; the Messiah is the maker and master of all things (Heb 3:3-6; cf. Jn 1:1-2, 18).<\/p>\nFamily genealogies are important in Scripture. Rabbis agreed upon the absolute necessity of the Messiah’s Davidic lineage based on Hosea 3:5 and Jeremiah 30:9. The angelic announcement immediately establishes the correct lineage for Jesus (Lk 1:32-33; cf. 2:4), as does Matthew’s (Mt 1:1-17). The Lukan list, like that of Matthew, sets forth the exclusive kingly descent verifying Jesus as Messiah (Lk 3:23-38). Although variations occur between the two genealogies, there is a firm solidarity emphasizing an ancestry within the unique messianic stock. Fully aware of the messianic focus of Scripture (Jn 5:46; 8:56), Jesus acknowledged himself to be the Christ on numerous occasions. He accepted the title from blind Bartimaeus (Mk 10:46-48); from the crowds when he entered Jerusalem (Mt 21:9); from the children at the temple (v 15); and in other contexts as well (Mt 16:16-18; Mk 14:61-62; Lk 4:21; Jn 4:25-26). Nonetheless, he warned his disciples not to broadcast his mighty acts as Messiah prior to his resurrection (Mt 17:9; cf. Lk 9:20-21). Owing to the commonly held (but false) notion that the Messiah’s role was primarily that of a political liberator, Jesus actually avoided use of that term and preferred to identify himself as “the Son of Man.” It was by no means assumed that both designations referred to the same person (cf. Mk 14:61-62). Borrowing essentially from Daniel’s vision of a heavenly conqueror (Dn 7:13-14), Jesus consistently employed this less-known title and filled it with the true character and scope of messianic salvation. Jesus’ teaching in this regard enabled his disciples to correct their erroneous views concerning his mission (Mt 16:21-23). In the fullness of time they would come to see him not only as Messiah but also as the theme of the entire OT (Mt 5:17; Lk 24:27, 44; Jn 5:39; cf. Heb 10:7). When Jesus expounded the Scriptures beginning with the Torah (Lk 24:27), he did so as the living exegesis of God, the Word made flesh (Jn 1:14, 18). Legitimate messianic exposition is found in a host of texts, such as Psalms 2; 16; 22; 40; 110; Isaiah 7:14; 9:6; 11:1; 40:10-11; 50:6; 52:13–53:12; 61:1; 63:1-6; Jeremiah 23:5-6; 33:14-16; Ezekiel 34:23; 37:25; Daniel 9:24-27; Hosea 11:1; Micah 5:2; Zechariah 9:9; 11:13; 12:10; 13:7; Malachi 3:1; 4:2.<\/p>\nThe messiahship of Jesus is firmly proclaimed by all four evangelists (Mt 1:1; Mk 1:1; Lk 24:26; Jn 20:31). Peter on Pentecost, Philip before the Ethiopian eunuch, and Apollos in open debate all argue convincingly that Jesus is the Messiah (Acts 2:36; 8:35; 28:28). Peter says he was “made” both Lord and Christ (2:36), signifying that the resurrection rightfully confirms him as such. Similarly, the apostle Paul speaks of Jesus’ resurrection as a patent declaration of his inalienable right to the title (Rom 1:4). For the ex-Pharisee and former persecutor of the church, “Jesus the Christ” is the very heart and soul of Paul’s preaching. Nothing is worthy to be compared to the glory of the Messiah; everything pales by comparison (Phil 3:5-10). The apostle’s all-consuming passion is for others to know the fullness of God in the person of his only Son (Eph 3:14-19).<\/p>\nThe Holy Spirit in Scripture speaks of Jesus with wide-ranging appellatives—Holy One, Judge, Righteous One, King, Son of God, and Lord—but these are not exhaustive. In him all the lines of messianic prediction converge; he is the touchstone whereby their validity is firmly established. The Lord Jesus Christ is himself the heart and substance of that covenant through which sinful people may be reconciled to a holy God (Is 42:6; Jn 14:6). That Jesus is the Messiah of Israel, God incarnate, exhaustively fulfills prophecy, type, and symbol—all shadows of his coming. Therefore, all should trust in him, the source of all grace, the only abiding treasure (Mt 12:21; Jn 1:16-17; Col 2:3). Anointed as prophet, he leads us into all truth (Jn 6:14; 7:16); as priest he intercedes for us (Heb 7:21); and as king he reigns over us (Phil 2:9-10).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Atonement; Branch; Christology; Jesus Christ, Life and Teachings of; Redeemer, Redemption; Son of God; Son of Man.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>MESSIAH<\/h3>\nTitle derived from the Hebrew, mashiach<\/span>,<\/em> a verbal adjective meaning “anointed one.” Along with its NT equivalent, christos<\/span> (Christ), it refers to an act of consecration whereby an individual is set apart to serve God and then anointed with oil. The verbal root (<\/em>mashach<\/span>)<\/em> conveys this idea as well.<\/p>\nIsrael’s practice of ceremonially anointing with oil is present in several contexts. Priests were regularly anointed prior to their divinely given service at the altar of sacrifice (Lv 4:3). While there is evidence for a literal anointing of prophets (1 Kgs 19:16), this does not appear to have been a standard practice. The anointing of Saul and David by Samuel established the act as a significant prerequisite for Hebrew kings before they assumed their positions of royal leadership. The king was especially considered to be the Lord’s anointed and as such was viewed to hold a secure position before men (1 Sm 12:14; 2 Sm 19:21) and God (Pss 2:2; 20:6). Along with numerous messianic prophecies, these proceedings helped inform the Jews of the Anointed One, par excellence, who would eventually come to bring salvation to Israel.<\/p>\nConcluding the 13 articles of Hebraic faith attributed to Moses Maimonides (13th century AD<\/span>) is the statement still found in many Hebrew prayer books: “I believe with a perfect heart that the Messiah will come; and although his coming be delayed, I will still wait patiently for his speedy appearance.”<\/p>\nMessiah in the Old Testament<\/p>\nJewish hope for the advent of the Messiah developed dynamically from the period of David’s reign, when it was prophesied that his kingdom would endure to the end of time (2 Sm 7:16). Israel was told that, through David’s descendants, his throne would exert a never-ending dominion over all the earth (2 Sm 22:48-51; Jer 33). It is with this aspect of messianic salvation that Jewish minds have traditionally been preoccupied (cf. Acts 1:6).<\/p>\nAmong Orthodox rabbis there has never been a lack of conjecture respecting the details of the Messiah’s ministry. At one time the rabbis applied no less than 456 passages of Scripture to his person and salvation. Preoccupation with the Messiah is evident in the tractate Sanhedrin<\/em> (Babylonian Talmud), where passages state that the world was created for him and that all the prophets prophesied of his days (Sanhedrin<\/em> 98b, 99a). By and large, Orthodoxy still retains its time-worn belief in the Messiah’s reign in Jerusalem, the rebuilding of the temple, and the reestablishment of both priesthood and sacrifice.<\/p>\nWhile later Judaism looked for the Messiah as an eschatological figure who will reign at the end of time, modern Jewish thought has largely jettisoned the traditional notion of a personal Messiah in favor of belief in a messianic age. Prevalent liberal Judaism envisions the world ultimately perfected through the influence of the twin Judaic ideals of justice and compassion. Such conviction, ignoring the plight of fallen humans and the teaching of Scripture, substitutes humanistic thinking for miraculous heavenly intervention.<\/p>\nWhile the Messiah’s origin is linked firmly to the house of David (2 Sm 7:14; Hos 3:5), the promise for a Messiah was given long before David lived. In fact, the hope for the Messiah is implicit in the first promise of the establishment of the kingdom of God. Addressed to Satan, Genesis 3:15 declares that God will place hostility between the serpent and the woman until, in the fullness of time, the “seed” of the woman inflicts a fatal blow to the head of the serpent.<\/p>\nThe nature of messianic prophecy is progressive; each prophecy casts more light on the subject. This occurs, for example, respecting the concept of the “seed”: Messiah is to be born of a woman (Gn 3:15), through the line of Shem (9:26) and specifically through Abraham (22:18). Yet even as late as Genesis 22:18, the “seed” is not clearly presented as a person, since zerah<\/span> (seed) may indicate a singular or plural object. Still less apparent in these early stages of messianic prophecy is the nature of the “bruising” that is to occur. Yet the idea of the Messiah being crushed for sin is implicit in the Genesis pronouncement, as is the violence associated with that act. Chief among the messianic prophets, Isaiah gives full range to the axiom that the Anointed One must endure extensive suffering (Is 53:1). Under the figure “the Servant of the Lord,” four “servant songs” delineate the mission of the future deliverer (Is 42:1-7; 49:1-9; 50:4-11; 52:13–53:12). While it is true that Isaiah does not explicitly link the title Messiah with the Servant of the Lord, identifying both figures as one and the same person is justifiable. Both figures are uniquely anointed (61:1); each brings light to the Gentiles (55:4; cf. 49:6); neither is pretentious in his first appearance (7:14-15; 11:1; cf. 42:3; 53:1); and the title of Davidic “branch” rests upon them both (11:1-4). Equally significant are the dual facts of their humiliation and exaltation (49:7; 52:13-15). Jewish scholars of the early Christian era in the Aramaic Targum on the prophets paraphrase Isaiah 42:1, “Behold my Servant Messiah” and begin Isaiah 53, “Behold my Servant Messiah will prosper.” While Cyrus may be spoken of as “anointed,” no final salvific work is attributed to him (45:1-5). Israel, although elect and loved by God (41:8), is ill-equipped as God’s servant to bring his redeeming work to mankind (42:18). The collapse of David’s dynasty points eloquently to Israel’s need for an anointed monarch who will heal the apostasy and disobedience (Ex 33:5; Hos 4:1). More and more, OT history presents Israel’s comprehensive moral failure. Her problem, which she shares with mankind, can only be solved by the making of a covenant whose surety and focal point is both a personal Savior and sovereign Lord (Jer 31:31-34). The advent of such a champion lives in the recorded promise of a shoot from the stump of Jesse’s fallen tree, who will bring the light of life to God’s benighted people (Is 9:2; 11:1).<\/p>\nIt is difficult to get away from the idea that the concept of servanthood and lowliness belongs within the sphere of royalty (Zec 9:9). The concept of the Messiah filling the complementary offices of priest and king is incontrovertible (Ps 110:1-4); a suffering priest-king is far less obvious. Some among the Talmudic writers apparently recognized the likelihood that the Messiah would have to suffer. In the Babylonian Talmud, tractate Sanhedrin<\/em> 98b, the Messiah is said to bear sicknesses and pain. Among the prayers for the Day of Atonement may be found the words of Eleazar ben Qalir (perhaps as late as AD<\/span> 1000): “Our righteous Messiah has departed from us; we are horror-stricken, and there is none to justify us. Our iniquities and the yoke of our transgressions he carries, and is wounded for our transgressions. He bears on his shoulders our sins to find pardon for our iniquities. May we be healed by his stripes.” In a similar vein Rabbi Eliyya de Vidas writes, “The meaning of ‘He was wounded for our transgressions, bruised for our iniquities,’ is that since the Messiah bears our iniquities, which produce the effect of His being bruised, it follows that whosoever will not admit that the Messiah thus suffers for our iniquities must endure and suffer for them himself.” For all this, it is highly doubtful that anyone imagined the Messiah would accomplish his salvational work by means of his own death (cf. Is 53:12). When rabbinic speculation failed to satisfactorily harmonize the paradoxical facts of humiliation and exaltation, some hypothesized that God would send a Messiah to suffer as well as a Messiah to reign. Biblically, it is evident that the Anointed One’s terrible ordeal of suffering is but the necessary prelude to infinite glory. He is pictured not only as a great king (52:13; 53:12) but also as humble (53:2), humiliated (52:14), rejected (53:3), and bearing the consequences of mankind’s rebellion (vv 5-6). Yet he is raised up to intercede for, and richly bless, his people (v 12). The Messiah, having accomplished that full obedience that Adam and Israel failed to achieve, will bring Israel and the nations back to God (42:18-19; 49:3, 6).<\/p>\nThe writings of Daniel contain important messianic data. Daniel is unique in that he boldly speaks of “Messiah the Prince” (Dn 9:25), identifies him as the “Son of Man” (7:13), and says he suffers (“cut off,” 9:26). This statement of the cutting off (i.e., death) of the Messiah makes possible his work of atonement (9:24). The doctrine of a vicarious substitutionary atonement is the only doctrine of atonement found in the Bible (cf. Lv 17:11). Israel understood that to bear sin meant enduring the consequences, or penalty, for sin (cf. Nm 14:33). The same penal substitution is evident in the working principle of the Messiah’s atoning sacrifice. He is the victim’s substitute to whom is transferred the suffering due the sinner. The penalty having been thus borne vicariously, the suppliant is fully pardoned.<\/p>\nPsalm 22:1 records the plaintive cry of the Messiah bearing man’s penalty for sin (cf. Mt 27:46) as he becomes sin on behalf of his people (2 Cor 5:21). Yet his cry, “My God,” indicates an intimate relationship that cannot be radically severed. Once again the motif of messianic humiliation prior to great exaltation is in view (Ps 22:27). In the so-called “royal psalms” (e.g., 2; 72; 110) it is the priestly intercessor who is also ordained to function as monarch and judge.<\/p>\nJeremiah brings the portrait a step further. The one who will enable humans to enter into a salvational covenant with God conveys God’s imputed righteousness: the Messiah, God’s righteous branch, becomes “the Lord our Righteousness.” Paradoxically, under the law no one could be crucified who was not guilty of sin (Dt 21:22). But it is Christ the righteous one who was crucified, thereby forever undermining any supposed legalistic confidence (Dt 21:23; Gal 3:13). More than forgiven, believers are deemed righteous in him (Jer 23:5-6).<\/p>\nWhile the birthplace of the Messiah was well established (Mi 5:2), his deity was a hotly contested matter. Although few in ancient Israel disputed the belief in a superhuman Messiah, it is doubtful that anyone imagined him to be “God with us” in the fullest sense of the expression (cf. Heb 1:3).<\/p>\nMessiah in the New Testament<\/p>\nThe NT writers present the picture that he who was the child of supernatural origins (Is 7:14; Mi 5:2) carried the full weight of divinity (Is 9:6; Phil 2:6; Col 1:19). He is the Son of God, worthy to receive the worship of all people (Ps 45:6-7; cf. Heb 1:8-9).<\/p>\nThe Jews of first-century Palestine knew that the messianic promise would be fulfilled in the coming of one like Moses (Dt 18:18). Parallels between Jesus and Moses are abundant. As mediators, innovators, and propagators of new phases of spiritual life for the people, they are unexcelled. Specifically, both are miraculously spared in infancy (Ex 2; Mt 2:13-23); both renounce a royal court for the sake of serving the people of God (Phil 2:5-8; Heb 11:24-28); both exhibit intense compassion for others (Nm 27:17; Mt 9:36); both commune “face to face” with God (Ex 34:29-30; 2 Cor 3:7); and each mediates a covenant of redemption (Dt 29:1; Heb 8:6-7). But, as Luther observes, “Christ is no Moses.” In the final analysis Moses is but a household servant; the Messiah is the maker and master of all things (Heb 3:3-6; cf. Jn 1:1-2, 18).<\/p>\nFamily genealogies are important in Scripture. Rabbis agreed upon the absolute necessity of the Messiah’s Davidic lineage based on Hosea 3:5 and Jeremiah 30:9. The angelic announcement immediately establishes the correct lineage for Jesus (Lk 1:32-33; cf. 2:4), as does Matthew’s (Mt 1:1-17). The Lukan list, like that of Matthew, sets forth the exclusive kingly descent verifying Jesus as Messiah (Lk 3:23-38). Although variations occur between the two genealogies, there is a firm solidarity emphasizing an ancestry within the unique messianic stock. Fully aware of the messianic focus of Scripture (Jn 5:46; 8:56), Jesus acknowledged himself to be the Christ on numerous occasions. He accepted the title from blind Bartimaeus (Mk 10:46-48); from the crowds when he entered Jerusalem (Mt 21:9); from the children at the temple (v 15); and in other contexts as well (Mt 16:16-18; Mk 14:61-62; Lk 4:21; Jn 4:25-26). Nonetheless, he warned his disciples not to broadcast his mighty acts as Messiah prior to his resurrection (Mt 17:9; cf. Lk 9:20-21). Owing to the commonly held (but false) notion that the Messiah’s role was primarily that of a political liberator, Jesus actually avoided use of that term and preferred to identify himself as “the Son of Man.” It was by no means assumed that both designations referred to the same person (cf. Mk 14:61-62). Borrowing essentially from Daniel’s vision of a heavenly conqueror (Dn 7:13-14), Jesus consistently employed this less-known title and filled it with the true character and scope of messianic salvation. Jesus’ teaching in this regard enabled his disciples to correct their erroneous views concerning his mission (Mt 16:21-23). In the fullness of time they would come to see him not only as Messiah but also as the theme of the entire OT (Mt 5:17; Lk 24:27, 44; Jn 5:39; cf. Heb 10:7). When Jesus expounded the Scriptures beginning with the Torah (Lk 24:27), he did so as the living exegesis of God, the Word made flesh (Jn 1:14, 18). Legitimate messianic exposition is found in a host of texts, such as Psalms 2; 16; 22; 40; 110; Isaiah 7:14; 9:6; 11:1; 40:10-11; 50:6; 52:13–53:12; 61:1; 63:1-6; Jeremiah 23:5-6; 33:14-16; Ezekiel 34:23; 37:25; Daniel 9:24-27; Hosea 11:1; Micah 5:2; Zechariah 9:9; 11:13; 12:10; 13:7; Malachi 3:1; 4:2.<\/p>\nThe messiahship of Jesus is firmly proclaimed by all four evangelists (Mt 1:1; Mk 1:1; Lk 24:26; Jn 20:31). Peter on Pentecost, Philip before the Ethiopian eunuch, and Apollos in open debate all argue convincingly that Jesus is the Messiah (Acts 2:36; 8:35; 28:28). Peter says he was “made” both Lord and Christ (2:36), signifying that the resurrection rightfully confirms him as such. Similarly, the apostle Paul speaks of Jesus’ resurrection as a patent declaration of his inalienable right to the title (Rom 1:4). For the ex-Pharisee and former persecutor of the church, “Jesus the Christ” is the very heart and soul of Paul’s preaching. Nothing is worthy to be compared to the glory of the Messiah; everything pales by comparison (Phil 3:5-10). The apostle’s all-consuming passion is for others to know the fullness of God in the person of his only Son (Eph 3:14-19).<\/p>\nThe Holy Spirit in Scripture speaks of Jesus with wide-ranging appellatives—Holy One, Judge, Righteous One, King, Son of God, and Lord—but these are not exhaustive. In him all the lines of messianic prediction converge; he is the touchstone whereby their validity is firmly established. The Lord Jesus Christ is himself the heart and substance of that covenant through which sinful people may be reconciled to a holy God (Is 42:6; Jn 14:6). That Jesus is the Messiah of Israel, God incarnate, exhaustively fulfills prophecy, type, and symbol—all shadows of his coming. Therefore, all should trust in him, the source of all grace, the only abiding treasure (Mt 12:21; Jn 1:16-17; Col 2:3). Anointed as prophet, he leads us into all truth (Jn 6:14; 7:16); as priest he intercedes for us (Heb 7:21); and as king he reigns over us (Phil 2:9-10).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Atonement; Branch; Christology; Jesus Christ, Life and Teachings of; Redeemer, Redemption; Son of God; Son of Man.<\/p>","summary_ro":"MESSIAH Title derived from the Hebrew, mashiach, a verbal adjective meaning “anointed one.” Along with its NT equivalent, christos (Christ), it refers to an act of consecration whereby an individual is set apart to serve God and then anointed with oil. The verbal root (mashach) conveys this idea as well. Israel’s practice of ceremonially anointing with oil is present in several contexts. Priests were regularly anointed prior to their divinely given service at the altar of sacrifice (Lv 4:3). ...","summary_en":"MESSIAH Title derived from the Hebrew, mashiach, a verbal adjective meaning “anointed one.” Along with its NT equivalent, christos (Christ), it refers to an act of consecration whereby an individual is set apart to serve God and then anointed with oil. The verbal root (mashach) conveys this idea as well. Israel’s practice of ceremonially anointing with oil is present in several contexts. Priests were regularly anointed prior to their divinely given service at the altar of sacrifice (Lv 4:3). ...","source":"Articles\/M.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":32099,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Book of Psalms","title_en":"Book of Psalms","content_ro":"<h3>PSALMS, Book of<\/h3>\nPoems sung to musical accompaniment, originally the harp. The alternative title, the Psalter, refers to a collection of songs sung to harp accompaniment. The English title, therefore, broadly defines the form employed, whereas the Hebrew title of the book, “Praises,” or “Book of Praises,” suggests the content.<\/p>\nPreview<\/p>\n• Authors<\/p>\n• Date<\/p>\n• Background<\/p>\n• Structure<\/p>\n• Canonicity<\/p>\n• Purpose and Theology<\/p>\n• Content<\/p>\nAuthors<\/p>\n<h5>The Evidence of the Titles<\/h5>\nThe Hebrew Bible credits David with 73 psalms, compared with 84 in the Septuagint and 85 in the Latin Vulgate. Korah and Asaph, the leaders of the Levitical singing groups, are connected with 11 and 12 psalms, respectively (although Ps 43 is almost certainly to be attributed to Korah also). Two psalms are ascribed to Solomon (Pss 72; 127), one to Moses (Ps 90), and one to Ethan (Ps 89), while Heman shares the credit for one psalm with the sons of Korah (Ps 88). The remainder are sometimes called “orphan psalms” because of their anonymity.<\/p>\nThe preposition “of” found in the titles (for example, “A Psalm of David”) usually indicates authorship. But in the case of groups, such as the sons of Asaph or Korah, it may simply indicate that the psalms were included in their repertoire. Less plausible is the idea that it may also be rendered “for the use of.” For example, some of the “Psalms of David” might be “for the use of” the Davidic king on some occasion.<\/p>\n<h5>Historical Allusions in the Titles<\/h5>\nMany of the titles refer to specific events in the life of David (e.g., Pss 3; 7; 18; 30; 34; 51). There is evidence that the titles were added at an early date. When the psalms were translated into Greek, there appears to have been some difficulty in translating the titles, possibly because of their antiquity. If the historical references were added at a late date, there is no reason why plausible backgrounds could not have been supplied for all the Davidic psalms, instead of only a few. Moreover, the apparent disparity between the title and the actual content of some psalms (e.g., Ps 30) indicates that the titles were supplied by those who knew about a connection unknown to a later editor. Admittedly, there are minor discrepancies between the titles and the references in the historical books. For example, in Psalm 34 David acts the madman before Abimelech, whereas in 1 Samuel it is before Achish. But probably Abimelech was the general name (like Pharaoh for the kings of Egypt) for all the Philistine kings (e.g., Gn 21:32; 26:26).<\/p>\nEvidence of authorship and historical background in the titles, therefore, may be taken as a reasonably reliable guide. But the internal difficulties, together with the freedom exercised by successive translators into Greek, Syriac, and Latin, indicates that they were not regarded as inspired.<\/p>\n<h5>The Case for Davidic Authorship<\/h5>\nFive points can be offered to support David’s authorship of several psalms:<\/p>\n1. The authenticity of David’s lament over Saul and Jonathan (2 Sm 1:19-27) is generally accepted. This indicates a deeply poetic spirit and a generous temperament that prepares us to accept those psalms ascribed to David that evidence similar characteristics. “The last words of David” is another Davidic poem in the historical books (2 Sm 23:1-7).<\/p>\n<li>2. David had a reputation as a skillful musician at Saul’s court (1 Sm 16:16-18). Amos comments on his inventiveness as a musician (Am 6:5), while the Chronicler repeatedly stresses his contribution to the musical aspect of temple worship (e.g., 1 Chr 6:31; 16:7; Ezr 3:10). The Jewish historian Josephus said that David composed songs and hymns to God in varied meters. The probability is that David, as well as amassing materials and preparing the plans for Solomon’s temple, also gave attention to the temple worship. This is his place in Jewish tradition.<\/li>\n<li>3. The early monarchy, with a freshly secured independence, national prestige, and a new prosperity, would most likely be a time of artistic creativity. David was at the heart of this movement.<\/li>\n<li>4. There is a close correspondence between David’s life as described in the historical books and certain psalms, for example, his sin concerning Bathsheba and Uriah (2 Sm 11:2–12:25) and Psalm 51, as witnessed in the title. David’s lapses and genuine repentance, as well as the varied aspects of his career—shepherd, fugitive, warrior, and so on—find expression in many of the psalms attributed to him. The correspondence between the David of the psalms and the David of the historical books is close, especially in the display of strong faith in God.<\/li>\n<li>5. Although some scholars believe that when “David” is mentioned in the NT, it is simply a reference to the book of Psalms and not an ascription of authorship, a straightforward interpretation of the NT text strengthens the case for Davidic authorship. David is specifically named as the author of various psalms in Matthew 22:41-45; Acts 1:16; 2:25, 34; Romans 4:6; 11:9.<\/li>\nIn conclusion, there is strong support for the view that the substantial nucleus of the Psalter is Davidic. Moreover, it is probable that some of the anonymous psalms were the work of the “sweet psalmist of Israel” (2 Sm 23:1). Hebrews 4:7 refers one of these, Psalm 95, to David (see also Acts 4:25 and Ps 2).<\/p>\nDate<\/p>\nOnce David’s authorship of several psalms is established, then it must follow that these psalms are dated during David’s life. Thus, most of the psalms formed the hymnbook of Israel in the period of the monarchy. Other psalms were written later. For example, Psalm 137 is clearly exilic, and Psalms 107:2-3 and 126:1 allude to the return from captivity. Psalms 44 and 79 are probably, but not conclusively, postexilic.<\/p>\nThe book of Psalms was probably the product of a considerable period of growth. The incidence of Davidic psalms in the first section indicates that it was completed early, possibly toward the end of David’s reign. The remainder of the process of compilation is difficult to reconstruct, but the fact that the titles, with their allusions to authors, events, and musical directions, become less frequent in the two final collections (Pss 90–150) lends support to the probability that the collections were combined chronologically in the sequence in which they are found today. Ezra is traditionally credited with the final grouping and editing of the psalms, a hypothesis that appears reasonable in light of his vital contribution to the systematic reshaping of the national religious life. In any case, the process was completed before the translation of the Psalter into Greek (the Septuagint) at the end of the third century BC<\/span>, since the traditional order is found there. General, but not complete, support comes also from the evidence of the Dead Sea Scrolls. At some point minor dislocations occurred. Psalms 9 and 10 may have originally formed one psalm (as in the Septuagint), and there is a strong case for combining Psalms 42 and 43.<\/p>\nBackground<\/p>\nAs the book of Psalms lies before us, its connection with temple worship is apparent. Fifty-five psalms are addressed to the choirmaster, and as we have noted, 23 or 24 are linked with the two main guilds of Levitical singers, Asaph and Korah. The musical instruments, such as stringed instruments (Ps 55 title) and flutes (Ps 5 title) are noted. Probably other terms concern musical directions: Selah<\/span>,<\/em> which occurs 71 times, may indicate a pause or crescendo; Higgaion<\/span> (Ps 9:16) may recommend a meditative attitude. Seemingly obscure references like “The Hind of the Dawn” (Ps 22 title), “Lilies” (Pss 45 title; 80 title) and “The Dove on Far-off Terebinths” (Ps 56 title) may indicate the tunes to which the psalms were to be sung. The precise meaning of other terms, such as Shiggaion<\/span> (Ps 7 title) or Alamoth<\/span> (conjecturally a choir of ladies, Ps 46 title), may also be in the realm of musical directions.<\/p>\nStructure<\/p>\nThe Psalter, possibly in conscious imitation of the five books of Moses in the Law, is divided into five sections (Pss 1–41; 42–72; 73–89; 90–106; 107–150), separated by four doxologies (41:13; 72:18-19; 89:52; 106:48). While the editorial comment in Psalm 72:20 notes that the psalms of David were ended, Davidic psalms are found later in the book (Pss 86; 101; 103), suggesting that at least some of these sections circulated independently until their inclusion in the final collection. Such independence is further indicated by the duplications in the various sections (e.g., Pss 14 and 53; 40:13-17 and 70) and by the use of different names for God, who is usually referred to as “Lord” in the first collection and as “God” in the second.<\/p>\nCanonicity<\/p>\nIn the various recensions of the third section of the Hebrew canon, the Writings or Holy Books, the book of Psalms is almost invariably placed first. It was clearly regarded as the most important book in this section, and in Luke 24:44, “Psalms” is synonymous with “Writings” as its title. While the canonicity of all the contents of the Writings was not finalized until the end of the first century AD<\/span>, it is likely that the book of Psalms was accepted as inspired long before this, probably by 300 BC<\/span>.<\/p>\nIt must not be inferred that all the psalms had their origin in the cultic life of the community, but the sanctuary was the focal point of Israel’s worship for the greater part of the OT period. Prayer was possible elsewhere, but whenever practicable, it was customary for the worshiper to present his petitions at the main sanctuary. And thanksgiving in ancient Israel was almost invariably connected with a thank offering, vow offering, or freewill offering. The psalms could have been composed by individuals, like David, who had the requisite technical ability. And it must be appreciated that poetry, an unfamiliar medium to most Western civilizations, was the natural way for the ancient Easterner to express his emotions. Or the individual could have engaged a member of the Levitical guilds of musicians to frame either his supplication or his thanksgiving. Gradually, a comprehensive collection of psalms would be available for the use of individuals, the congregation, and even the entire nation in any conceivable situation. Once finalized, this collection served not only the subsequent needs of Israel but the devotional requirements of successive generations of Christians as well. Whatever the origin of an individual psalm, each has finally been incorporated in a cultic setting, and it may be assumed that the best of Israel’s psalmody has thus been preserved.<\/p>\nPurpose and Theology<\/p>\n<h5>The Doctrine of God<\/h5>\nIn both adversity and prosperity, the psalmists indicate a strong faith in God and a clear conception of his attributes. Understandably, anthropomorphisms (ascribing human characteristics to nonhuman things) abound, with references to God’s voice, words, ears, eyes, face, or hands and fingers. No exception needs to be taken to this. Anthropomorphisms of this kind are, in fact, widely used by present-day Christians. Their great value is that they make God real to the worshiper. How else could humans describe God, except in terms of their own understanding?<\/p>\nThe monotheism of the psalms emerges clearly in Psalms 115:3-8; 135:15-18; 139. God is viewed as the Creator (Pss 8:3; 89:11; 95:3-5), with references to the creation mythology of surrounding nations (e.g., Ps 89:10) serving merely as illustrations of his almighty creative power. He is proclaimed as the Lord of history (Pss 44, 78, 80, 81, 105, 106) and as the sovereign controller of nature (Pss 18:7; 19:1-6; 65:8-13; 105:26-42; 135:5-7). The psalmists never tired of celebrating God’s absolute greatness.<\/p>\n<h5>The Human Perspective<\/h5>\nThe Psalter is a God-centered book, but humanity has a worthy place, in spite of the vast gulf between them and their Creator (Pss 8:3-4; 145:3-4) and the limitations of their earthly life (Ps 90:9-10). By the will of God, humans occupy a responsible, mediating position between God and all other created beings (Ps 8:5-8). The relationship with a righteous God is endangered by sin (Ps 106), but God is gracious and long-suffering (Ps 103), faithful and forgiving (Ps 130). While references to the sacrificial system are not lacking (Pss 20:3; 50:8-9), the emphasis is upon a personal piety that demands obedience and a surrendered heart (Ps 40:6-8). Psalm 51 indicates a depth of sin with which the sacrificial system was totally inadequate to cope; the psalmist could only cast himself, in total penitence, upon God’s mercy. Man’s moral obligations (Pss 15; 24:3-5) and loyalty to the law (Pss 19:7-11; 119) are fully accepted. Throughout, there is the revelation of a strong personal relationship that encourages prayer and praise and invites trust.<\/p>\n<h5>The Afterlife<\/h5>\nThe Psalms maintain the traditional Hebrew view of Sheol as the abode of the departed, without distinction between the good and evil, where all but mere existence has perished. The chief complaint of the devout man was that, in Sheol, all meaningful relationship with God ceased (Pss 6:5; 88:10-12). However, it was recognized that, since God was almighty, even Sheol was not exempt from his reach (Ps 139:8). Added to this was the preciousness and strength of fellowship with God, which could not be terminated even by death. Psalms 16:9-11, 49:15, and 73:23-26 well illustrate this insight. The Psalter, therefore, witnesses to an important transitional phase in Israel’s belief.<\/p>\n<h5>Universal Recognition of God<\/h5>\nPassages like Psalms 9:11; 47:1-2, 7-9; 66:8; 67; and 117:1 call upon all nations to acknowledge and praise God and show an awareness of his sovereignty over all nations. But this universalism does not appear to involve any desire to convert the heathen nations and, indeed, it is balanced by strong particularistic elements. God’s covenant relationship with his people and his mighty deeds on their behalf are the chief items for which the praise of all nations is summoned (Pss 47:3-4; 66:8-9; 126:2). As elsewhere in the OT, the role of Israel is passive; her continued existence witnesses to God’s faithfulness and brings glory to him.<\/p>\n<h5>Lasting Value<\/h5>\nWhatever the emotion of the psalmists, be it bitter complaint, anguished lament, or joyous exultation, all the psalms reflect one or other of the many aspects of communion with God. The reader may look “into the heart of all the saints” (so said Luther) as they faced life’s experiences in the awareness of a God who was all-seeing, all-knowing, and all-powerful. The strength of that personal relationship with God that typified OT worship at its best is exemplified here, and the many echoes of the psalms elsewhere in Israel’s literature show the powerful influence of these testimonies on the faithful. The fact that, almost invariably, little specific detail is given of the psalmists’ actual conditions has made it easier for the Psalter to become the universal hymnbook and devotional treasury of God’s people, in both public and private worship, until and including the present day. Modern life, materially, is vastly different from that of ancient Israel, but God remains unchanged and so do the basic needs of the human heart. The Holy Spirit, therefore, can still use this spiritual treasury as a means of revelation and communication between God and man. Few books in the Bible have exercised so profound an influence or been so widely used.<\/p>\nContent<\/p>\n<h5>Introduction<\/h5>\nIt is more helpful to describe the psalms in categories than to explain them one by one in canonical order. The psalms can be categorized as follows:<\/p>\nPsalms of praise<\/p>\nRoyal, messianic psalms<\/p>\nPassion psalms<\/p>\nPsalms about Zion<\/p>\nLaments<\/p>\nImprecatory psalms<\/p>\nPenitential psalms<\/p>\nWisdom psalms and historical psalms<\/p>\nPsalms of trust<\/p>\n<h5>Psalms of Praise<\/h5>\nThe Hebrew title, “Praises,” defines accurately a large part of the contents of the book. Each of the first four sections concludes with a doxology, while the fifth section concludes with five psalms, each of which begins and ends with one or two “Hallelujahs.” The last of these, Psalm 150, sounds the call to total praise. God is to be praised for his being, for his great acts in creation, nature, and history on both the individual and the communal level.<\/p>\n1. Individual praise. In comparison with the number of individual laments, there are relatively few psalms in this category. Those normally included are Psalms 9, 18, 32, 34, 116, and 138. This may, in part, be due to the universal tendency to complain rather than to express thanks. But a number of the laments do, in fact, include the note of thanksgiving for the anticipated deliverance, and the normal round of congregational thanksgiving would allow the individual to express his personal praise. However, it was customary in temple worship to give a verbal act of thanksgiving before the whole assembly whenever a vow offering or a thank offering was made. Such public testimony, and the communal meal associated with this type of sacrifice, is indicated in Psalms 22:22-26; 66:13-20; 116:17-19. The inclusion of such opportunities for personal praise and testimony must have added warmth and significance to worship. Each act of deliverance and every experience of God’s mercy became part of salvation history, which was a cumulative, ongoing concept, not simply a recital of God’s deeds in earlier centuries.<\/p>\n<li>2. General communal praise. This is sometimes entitled “hymns” or “descriptive praise,” its main feature being linked to a particular act of deliverance. God is usually referred to in the third person, not directly. Psalm 103 may be taken as representative of this group. It begins and ends with individual references (vv 1-5, 22b), but the central section (esp. vv 6-14) shows that the psalmist was part of a worshiping community. There is first of all the imperative call to praise God for the full range of his mercy to each individual, including physical and spiritual deliverance and his sustaining and satisfying grace. Then the focus changes to his great works in history (vv 6-7). This forms a natural basis for the recital of those gracious qualities revealed so consistently during the course of the national history, especially his tender, fatherly care (vv 8-14). The frailty of humanity contrasts with God’s constancy (vv 15-18), and his rule, being universal and absolute (v 19), merits the praise of all things, living and inanimate, in heaven and on earth (vv 19-22). There is, however, a great number of possible variations in the way in which God is celebrated, as Psalms 113 and 136, which come within this class, illustrate.<\/li>\n<li>3. Specific communal praise. Occasionally termed “declarative praise,” this type of psalm connects with a particular outstanding evidence of God’s mercy and would most naturally follow soon after the event itself. Deliverance from an enemy provides the occasion for most of the psalms in this category (e.g., Pss 124, 129). Psalm 66:8-12, now the nucleus of an expanded recital of God’s goodness, was possibly once complete in itself. Psalms 46–48 may form a trilogy connected with the remarkable deliverance of Jerusalem from Sennacherib’s Assyrians in 701 BC<\/span> (2 Kgs 18:17–19:37). Psalm 67 was probably composed in gratitude for a particular harvest. It is easy to see how psalms of this type could, in the process of time, acquire a more general usage.<\/li>\n<li>4. Praise for the God of nature. The first part of Psalm 19 pictures the praise of God sounding from the heavens; Psalm 29 celebrates him as the God of the thunderstorm, which, sweeping in from the Mediterranean near Lebanon, pursues its awe-inspiring path southward into the wilderness of Kadesh, with the result that “in his temple” (the created world?) all are praising, “Glory, glory to the Lord<\/span>” (v 9). His sovereignty and self-sufficiency in this world are celebrated in Psalm 50:10-12; he is the God of growth and harvest (Ps 65:9-13); in Psalm 104, often called the “Hymn of Creation,” he sustains and supplies everything on the earth and in the seas and is the absolute Lord of all life (vv 29-30). There is no confusion between God and his creation; even the seemingly permanent heaven and earth will perish, but “you go on forever” (Ps 102:25-27). Nature’s role is to proclaim the glory of God (Ps 19:1) and to praise him (Ps 148). People see themselves as insignificant when set against those forces of nature, which are themselves dwarfed by God—hence, the awareness of the immeasurable gulf between God and people that God has bridged by his grace (Ps 8).<\/li>\n<li>5. Praise for God’s kingship. A relatively small group of psalms (Pss 47, 93, 96–99) celebrate the kingship of God in a way that goes beyond the ascription of praise noted in the foregoing groups. They are marked by acclamation, by both shouting and clapping when God “ascends.” Presumably, the reference is to his throne (Ps 47:1-5; cf. 99:1-2). “The Lord<\/span> reigns” (Pss 93:1; 97:1; 99:1) is the frequent cry, and the nature of his reign is extolled (Ps 99:4-5).<\/li>\n<h5>Royal, Messianic Psalms<\/h5>\nPsalms 2, 18, 20, 21, 45, 61, 72, 89, 101, 110, 132, and 144 are usually included as the royal psalms. They do not form a literary category, since psalms of various types are included, but they all have some reference to the king, the nature of his rule, and his relationship to God. Since the Davidic monarchy was terminated in 586 BC<\/span>, these psalms, almost certainly, were composed before that date. The language in these psalms often shows the king as being God’s vice-regent. For example, Psalm 45, a royal marriage psalm, contains the assertion “Your throne, O God, endures for ever and ever” (45:6). But this is best understood in terms of the throne being regarded as the Lord’s, occupied by the king as his representative. Similarly, the wording in Psalm 110:1, “Sit at my right hand,” indicates the privileges and prerogatives that the king enjoys as God’s vice-regent. The balance of the OT evidence concerning the king shows that the monarchy in Israel was qualified by the nature of God’s covenantal relationship with his people; the king did not enjoy the absolutism claimed by most of the rulers of surrounding kingdoms.<\/p>\nMost of the royal psalms can also be called messianic psalms. They were interpreted as such in the early Christian church, as witnessed in Jesus Christ’s general statement that the psalmists wrote of him (Lk 24:44) and by particular NT quotations. The main psalms concerned, and the NT references, are the following:<\/p>\n1. Psalm 2 (Acts 13:33; Heb 1:5; 5:5), while linked with the Davidic king, nevertheless speaks of a universal vindication and rule, which far transcended even David’s rule. Further, the picture of the Davidic king, anointed to rule on the earth as the representative of God, who is enthroned in heaven, strongly suggests Christ’s mediating, incarnate ministry.<\/p>\n<li>2. Psalm 45 (Heb 1:8-9), a marriage psalm for one of the Davidic kings, possibly Solomon, speaks not only of love and marriage but also a permanence and quality of rule. In the most obvious translation of verse 6, the writer addresses God, “Your divine throne endures for ever and ever.” The writer to the Hebrews clearly accepted this interpretation (Heb 1:8-9) and used it in contrast to the exalted status of even the angels, reinforcing it with two other quotations from the psalms that originally applied to God (Ps 97:7; 102:25-27; cf. Heb 1:6, 10-12).<\/li>\n<li>3. Psalm 110 is the most frequently quoted messianic psalm (Mt 22:43-45; Acts 2:34-35; Heb 1:13; 5:5-10; 6:20; 7:21). The language, speaking of the privileges, universal victory and continuing priesthood of David and his successors, would be considered hyperbolic and possibly misleading except for its fulfillment in “great David’s greater Son.” In contrast to the angels, who are privileged to stand in God’s presence (Lk 1:19), Christ the Son sits in the place of power and authority (Heb 1:13).<\/li>\nOther psalms that could also be designated messianic but are not specifically included among the royal psalms are Psalm 8 (1 Cor 15:27); Psalm 40 (Heb 10:5-10); Psalm 72, with its idealized picture of the nature, consequences, and extent of the rule of God’s representative; Psalm 118:22-23; and Psalm 132 (Acts 2:30).<\/p>\n\n<h5>Passion Psalms<\/h5>\nThe four psalms in this group (Pss 16; 22; 40; 69; some scholars would also include Pss 102; 109) may also be regarded as messianic. They connect with that line of OT prophecy that interprets the Messiah’s ministry in terms of the Suffering Servant who features prominently in Isaiah (e.g., Is 42:1-9; 52:13–53:12). Of these four, Psalm 22 is the most remarkable. Jesus recited part of it when he was on the cross (Ps 22:1; cf. Mt 27:46), and other connections with the crucifixion scene are noteworthy (e.g., Ps 22:6-8, 14-18). Some further considerations are even more significant: there is no suggestion of any awareness of sin; the suffering of the psalmist appears completely unjustified; there is no imprecatory element, even in the face of bitter persecution. This connects with the sinless Christ (2 Cor 5:21), who could even pray for his executioners (Lk 23:34). Psalm 16:10 anticipates the triumph of the incorruptible Christ over the grave (cf. Acts 2:24-31). Psalm 40:6-8 foreshadows the Incarnation and self-giving redemptive work of Christ (Heb 10:5-10). Psalm 69 refers to the isolation resulting from a commitment to God’s cause (Ps 69:8-9) and anticipates the part played by Judas in what was fundamentally God’s work in Christ (Ps 69:25-26; cf. Ps 109:8; Is 53:10; Acts 1:20).<\/p>\n<h5>Psalms about Zion<\/h5>\nThis group could have been classified as a subsection of communal praise, but due to the close historical connection between God’s choice of the house of David and Jerusalem (Pss 78:68-72; 132:11-13), and their subsequent interrelated fortunes, we consider them at this point. There was a biting satire in the request of the Babylonians to the refugees of a shattered city to “Sing us one of the songs of Zion!” (Ps 137:3, niv<\/span>), but it witnesses to the existence of such a collection. Praise of Zion was, in fact, almost synonymous with the praise of the Lord who dwelt there. Jerusalem’s continued survival, in spite of its difficulties, was ample demonstration of God’s enduring greatness (Ps 48:11-14) and peculiar affection for the city that housed his temple (Ps 87:1-3). Psalms 48, 76, 84, 87 and 122 are the main psalms in this category, but the theme itself appears widely throughout the psalms (e.g., 102:16; 125:1; 126:1-3; 133:3; 147:2). The basis of the NT concept of a heavenly Jerusalem, the spiritual home of the regenerate of all nations, finds its origin in this concept, especially in Psalm 87.<\/p>\n<h5>Laments<\/h5>\nThese are associated with specific occasions of distress and are of two types:<\/p>\n1. National. The prophetic and historical books give several examples of the kind of occasion, such as drought, locust infestation, or enemy attack, that could prompt national laments, and also the inward and outward attitudes that accompanied them (e.g., Jgs 20:23, 26; Jer 14:1-12; 36:9; Jl 1:13-14; 2:12-17; Jon 3:5). There is a regular structure in the psalms of this class: the distressing situation is first described; God is petitioned to come to the aid of his people, often with the reminder of his past mercies for Israel; finally, there is often an expression of confidence that God would heed their cry. Israel’s adversaries are clearly in mind in Psalms 14, 44, 60, 74, 80, and 83, while Psalms 58, 106, and 125 reflect situations less critical.<\/p>\n<li>2. Individual. There are so many of this type (approximately 50) that it is frequently described as the backbone of the Psalter. Their most obvious features are the sharpness of complaint and the bitterness of attack upon those responsible. As in the national laments, there is often complaint against God, especially for his lack of attention or his tardiness in intervening. The basic components of this type are almost identical to the national laments, except that they often conclude with the avowal to praise God in anticipation of deliverance (e.g., Ps 13:5-6). Frequently, the lament is accompanied by thanksgiving for the deliverance sought and experienced, as illustrated in the two sections of Psalms 22:1-21 and 28:1-9.<\/li>\n<h5>Imprecatory Psalms<\/h5>\nApproximately 20 psalms contain passionate pleas for the overthrow of the wicked, in language that is often shocking. Any instant condemnation of this attitude must, however, be tempered by certain relevant considerations:<\/p>\nThe cry for vengeance was not purely personal; it was firmly believed that God’s honor was at stake (e.g., Ps 109:21). In an age where there was a less developed view of an afterlife, it was axiomatic that rewards and punishments resulting from obedience or disobedience to God, must be observable within this lifetime. Whenever this was not apparent, it would seem that no righteous God existed, and the name of God was dishonored (e.g., Ps 74:10). This burning desire for the eradication of evil and evil men sprang from a consciousness of a moral God and virtually demanded the triumph of truth.<\/p>\nThe poetic language is also prone to hyperbole—a feature not confined to the psalms (e.g., Neh 4:4-5; Jer 20:14-18; Am 7:17). Such language is startling; indeed, part of its function was probably to startle—to express and promote a sense of outrage.<\/p>\nIn the pre-Christian period, therefore, such outbursts were not completely unjustifiable. But in the light of the fuller revelation in the NT, such an attitude cannot be condoned. The Christian is to love as Christ loved (Jn 13:34), to pray for his enemies and to forgive them (Mt 5:38-48; Col 3:13). The theme of judgment continues into the NT and is indeed heightened there, since Christ’s coming has left people without excuse to live in sin (Jn 16:8-11), but there can be no place for purely private vengeance.<\/p>\n<h5>Penitential Psalms<\/h5>\nPsalms 32, 38, 51, and 130 are the clearest examples of penitential psalms, although traditionally the church has also included Psalms 6, 102, 143, where there is no explicit confession of sin. In an age when adversity in its various forms was seen as God’s judgment for wrongdoing, the admission of distress was tantamount to a confession of guilt. In the four main examples there is an intensity of feeling and a deep sense of the enormity of sin in God’s sight, although, as elsewhere, there is no indication of specific sin, even in Psalm 51, which is surely to be connected with David’s sin against Bathsheba (2 Sm 11–12). Significantly, David bypasses the sacrificial system, which was totally inefficacious in his case, casting himself entirely on the mercy of God (Ps 51:1, 16). The burden of unconfessed sin is clearly revealed in Psalm 32, and sin’s searing and corrupting effect in Psalm 38.<\/p>\n<h5>Wisdom Psalms and Historical Psalms<\/h5>\nWhile it is accepted that prophets, priests, and wise men all functioned at the major sanctuaries, some overlap in their modes of expression is to be expected. Proverbial forms are not infrequently found in the psalms (Pss 37:5, 8, 16, 21-22; 111:10; 127:1-5). Psalm 1, probably an introduction to the whole Psalter, contrasts the diverging paths of the righteous and ungodly (cf. Ps 112), while Psalms 127 and 128 concentrate on the blessings given to the godly. Psalm 133 is written in praise of unity. The problem of explaining the sufferings of a righteous person and the apparent prosperity of evil people, dealt with in the Wisdom Literature in the book of Job and in the prophets also (e.g., Jer 12:1-4), is taken up in Psalms 37, 49, and 73.<\/p>\nThe historical psalms should be included in this category, since they underscore the lessons arising from the favored nation’s often bitter experience. It is apparent that Israel delighted in the recital of salvation history. The main psalms, and the periods covered are Psalm 78, from the exodus to the establishment of the Davidic monarchy (note the declared intention to teach in vv 1-4); Psalm 105, from Abraham to the conquest of Canaan; Psalm 106, from Egypt to the judges; and Psalm 136, from the Creation to the Promised Land.<\/p>\n<h5>Psalms of Trust<\/h5>\nWhile some of these may also be classified as laments, the dominant feature of this group is the serene trust in God revealed, which makes them particularly suitable for devotional use. Many of these psalms begin with an affirmation of gratitude to and affection for God. Psalms 23 and 27 are the outstanding examples of this type, which could also include Psalms 11, 16, 62, 116, 131, and 138.<\/p>\nConclusion<\/p>\nThe difficulties in any precise categorization of psalms are obvious; many do not neatly fall into one group—hence, the occasional overlap. What is clearly evident is a pulsating, vital devotional life that has found its clearest expression in the book of Psalms. To say that it expresses the worship and devotion of the ordinary person is a simplification; kings and priests, wise men and prophets all contributed to this remarkable collection. Yet there remains the truth that, in God’s sight, all people, regardless of human achievement or privilege, are “ordinary,” for all are sinners in need of God’s grace and goodness. So the worshiping community of ancient Israel, and the saints of every succeeding generation, in the vastness of their diversity, have found the expression of their own hearts’ condition, desires, and devotion in this unique treasury—the Psalms.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> David; Messiah; Music; Poetry, Biblical; Singers in the Temple; Tabernacle; Temple; Wisdom; Wisdom Literature.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>PSALMS, Book of<\/h3>\nPoems sung to musical accompaniment, originally the harp. The alternative title, the Psalter, refers to a collection of songs sung to harp accompaniment. The English title, therefore, broadly defines the form employed, whereas the Hebrew title of the book, “Praises,” or “Book of Praises,” suggests the content.<\/p>\nPreview<\/p>\n• Authors<\/p>\n• Date<\/p>\n• Background<\/p>\n• Structure<\/p>\n• Canonicity<\/p>\n• Purpose and Theology<\/p>\n• Content<\/p>\nAuthors<\/p>\n<h5>The Evidence of the Titles<\/h5>\nThe Hebrew Bible credits David with 73 psalms, compared with 84 in the Septuagint and 85 in the Latin Vulgate. Korah and Asaph, the leaders of the Levitical singing groups, are connected with 11 and 12 psalms, respectively (although Ps 43 is almost certainly to be attributed to Korah also). Two psalms are ascribed to Solomon (Pss 72; 127), one to Moses (Ps 90), and one to Ethan (Ps 89), while Heman shares the credit for one psalm with the sons of Korah (Ps 88). The remainder are sometimes called “orphan psalms” because of their anonymity.<\/p>\nThe preposition “of” found in the titles (for example, “A Psalm of David”) usually indicates authorship. But in the case of groups, such as the sons of Asaph or Korah, it may simply indicate that the psalms were included in their repertoire. Less plausible is the idea that it may also be rendered “for the use of.” For example, some of the “Psalms of David” might be “for the use of” the Davidic king on some occasion.<\/p>\n<h5>Historical Allusions in the Titles<\/h5>\nMany of the titles refer to specific events in the life of David (e.g., Pss 3; 7; 18; 30; 34; 51). There is evidence that the titles were added at an early date. When the psalms were translated into Greek, there appears to have been some difficulty in translating the titles, possibly because of their antiquity. If the historical references were added at a late date, there is no reason why plausible backgrounds could not have been supplied for all the Davidic psalms, instead of only a few. Moreover, the apparent disparity between the title and the actual content of some psalms (e.g., Ps 30) indicates that the titles were supplied by those who knew about a connection unknown to a later editor. Admittedly, there are minor discrepancies between the titles and the references in the historical books. For example, in Psalm 34 David acts the madman before Abimelech, whereas in 1 Samuel it is before Achish. But probably Abimelech was the general name (like Pharaoh for the kings of Egypt) for all the Philistine kings (e.g., Gn 21:32; 26:26).<\/p>\nEvidence of authorship and historical background in the titles, therefore, may be taken as a reasonably reliable guide. But the internal difficulties, together with the freedom exercised by successive translators into Greek, Syriac, and Latin, indicates that they were not regarded as inspired.<\/p>\n<h5>The Case for Davidic Authorship<\/h5>\nFive points can be offered to support David’s authorship of several psalms:<\/p>\n1. The authenticity of David’s lament over Saul and Jonathan (2 Sm 1:19-27) is generally accepted. This indicates a deeply poetic spirit and a generous temperament that prepares us to accept those psalms ascribed to David that evidence similar characteristics. “The last words of David” is another Davidic poem in the historical books (2 Sm 23:1-7).<\/p>\n<li>2. David had a reputation as a skillful musician at Saul’s court (1 Sm 16:16-18). Amos comments on his inventiveness as a musician (Am 6:5), while the Chronicler repeatedly stresses his contribution to the musical aspect of temple worship (e.g., 1 Chr 6:31; 16:7; Ezr 3:10). The Jewish historian Josephus said that David composed songs and hymns to God in varied meters. The probability is that David, as well as amassing materials and preparing the plans for Solomon’s temple, also gave attention to the temple worship. This is his place in Jewish tradition.<\/li>\n<li>3. The early monarchy, with a freshly secured independence, national prestige, and a new prosperity, would most likely be a time of artistic creativity. David was at the heart of this movement.<\/li>\n<li>4. There is a close correspondence between David’s life as described in the historical books and certain psalms, for example, his sin concerning Bathsheba and Uriah (2 Sm 11:2–12:25) and Psalm 51, as witnessed in the title. David’s lapses and genuine repentance, as well as the varied aspects of his career—shepherd, fugitive, warrior, and so on—find expression in many of the psalms attributed to him. The correspondence between the David of the psalms and the David of the historical books is close, especially in the display of strong faith in God.<\/li>\n<li>5. Although some scholars believe that when “David” is mentioned in the NT, it is simply a reference to the book of Psalms and not an ascription of authorship, a straightforward interpretation of the NT text strengthens the case for Davidic authorship. David is specifically named as the author of various psalms in Matthew 22:41-45; Acts 1:16; 2:25, 34; Romans 4:6; 11:9.<\/li>\nIn conclusion, there is strong support for the view that the substantial nucleus of the Psalter is Davidic. Moreover, it is probable that some of the anonymous psalms were the work of the “sweet psalmist of Israel” (2 Sm 23:1). Hebrews 4:7 refers one of these, Psalm 95, to David (see also Acts 4:25 and Ps 2).<\/p>\nDate<\/p>\nOnce David’s authorship of several psalms is established, then it must follow that these psalms are dated during David’s life. Thus, most of the psalms formed the hymnbook of Israel in the period of the monarchy. Other psalms were written later. For example, Psalm 137 is clearly exilic, and Psalms 107:2-3 and 126:1 allude to the return from captivity. Psalms 44 and 79 are probably, but not conclusively, postexilic.<\/p>\nThe book of Psalms was probably the product of a considerable period of growth. The incidence of Davidic psalms in the first section indicates that it was completed early, possibly toward the end of David’s reign. The remainder of the process of compilation is difficult to reconstruct, but the fact that the titles, with their allusions to authors, events, and musical directions, become less frequent in the two final collections (Pss 90–150) lends support to the probability that the collections were combined chronologically in the sequence in which they are found today. Ezra is traditionally credited with the final grouping and editing of the psalms, a hypothesis that appears reasonable in light of his vital contribution to the systematic reshaping of the national religious life. In any case, the process was completed before the translation of the Psalter into Greek (the Septuagint) at the end of the third century BC<\/span>, since the traditional order is found there. General, but not complete, support comes also from the evidence of the Dead Sea Scrolls. At some point minor dislocations occurred. Psalms 9 and 10 may have originally formed one psalm (as in the Septuagint), and there is a strong case for combining Psalms 42 and 43.<\/p>\nBackground<\/p>\nAs the book of Psalms lies before us, its connection with temple worship is apparent. Fifty-five psalms are addressed to the choirmaster, and as we have noted, 23 or 24 are linked with the two main guilds of Levitical singers, Asaph and Korah. The musical instruments, such as stringed instruments (Ps 55 title) and flutes (Ps 5 title) are noted. Probably other terms concern musical directions: Selah<\/span>,<\/em> which occurs 71 times, may indicate a pause or crescendo; Higgaion<\/span> (Ps 9:16) may recommend a meditative attitude. Seemingly obscure references like “The Hind of the Dawn” (Ps 22 title), “Lilies” (Pss 45 title; 80 title) and “The Dove on Far-off Terebinths” (Ps 56 title) may indicate the tunes to which the psalms were to be sung. The precise meaning of other terms, such as Shiggaion<\/span> (Ps 7 title) or Alamoth<\/span> (conjecturally a choir of ladies, Ps 46 title), may also be in the realm of musical directions.<\/p>\nStructure<\/p>\nThe Psalter, possibly in conscious imitation of the five books of Moses in the Law, is divided into five sections (Pss 1–41; 42–72; 73–89; 90–106; 107–150), separated by four doxologies (41:13; 72:18-19; 89:52; 106:48). While the editorial comment in Psalm 72:20 notes that the psalms of David were ended, Davidic psalms are found later in the book (Pss 86; 101; 103), suggesting that at least some of these sections circulated independently until their inclusion in the final collection. Such independence is further indicated by the duplications in the various sections (e.g., Pss 14 and 53; 40:13-17 and 70) and by the use of different names for God, who is usually referred to as “Lord” in the first collection and as “God” in the second.<\/p>\nCanonicity<\/p>\nIn the various recensions of the third section of the Hebrew canon, the Writings or Holy Books, the book of Psalms is almost invariably placed first. It was clearly regarded as the most important book in this section, and in Luke 24:44, “Psalms” is synonymous with “Writings” as its title. While the canonicity of all the contents of the Writings was not finalized until the end of the first century AD<\/span>, it is likely that the book of Psalms was accepted as inspired long before this, probably by 300 BC<\/span>.<\/p>\nIt must not be inferred that all the psalms had their origin in the cultic life of the community, but the sanctuary was the focal point of Israel’s worship for the greater part of the OT period. Prayer was possible elsewhere, but whenever practicable, it was customary for the worshiper to present his petitions at the main sanctuary. And thanksgiving in ancient Israel was almost invariably connected with a thank offering, vow offering, or freewill offering. The psalms could have been composed by individuals, like David, who had the requisite technical ability. And it must be appreciated that poetry, an unfamiliar medium to most Western civilizations, was the natural way for the ancient Easterner to express his emotions. Or the individual could have engaged a member of the Levitical guilds of musicians to frame either his supplication or his thanksgiving. Gradually, a comprehensive collection of psalms would be available for the use of individuals, the congregation, and even the entire nation in any conceivable situation. Once finalized, this collection served not only the subsequent needs of Israel but the devotional requirements of successive generations of Christians as well. Whatever the origin of an individual psalm, each has finally been incorporated in a cultic setting, and it may be assumed that the best of Israel’s psalmody has thus been preserved.<\/p>\nPurpose and Theology<\/p>\n<h5>The Doctrine of God<\/h5>\nIn both adversity and prosperity, the psalmists indicate a strong faith in God and a clear conception of his attributes. Understandably, anthropomorphisms (ascribing human characteristics to nonhuman things) abound, with references to God’s voice, words, ears, eyes, face, or hands and fingers. No exception needs to be taken to this. Anthropomorphisms of this kind are, in fact, widely used by present-day Christians. Their great value is that they make God real to the worshiper. How else could humans describe God, except in terms of their own understanding?<\/p>\nThe monotheism of the psalms emerges clearly in Psalms 115:3-8; 135:15-18; 139. God is viewed as the Creator (Pss 8:3; 89:11; 95:3-5), with references to the creation mythology of surrounding nations (e.g., Ps 89:10) serving merely as illustrations of his almighty creative power. He is proclaimed as the Lord of history (Pss 44, 78, 80, 81, 105, 106) and as the sovereign controller of nature (Pss 18:7; 19:1-6; 65:8-13; 105:26-42; 135:5-7). The psalmists never tired of celebrating God’s absolute greatness.<\/p>\n<h5>The Human Perspective<\/h5>\nThe Psalter is a God-centered book, but humanity has a worthy place, in spite of the vast gulf between them and their Creator (Pss 8:3-4; 145:3-4) and the limitations of their earthly life (Ps 90:9-10). By the will of God, humans occupy a responsible, mediating position between God and all other created beings (Ps 8:5-8). The relationship with a righteous God is endangered by sin (Ps 106), but God is gracious and long-suffering (Ps 103), faithful and forgiving (Ps 130). While references to the sacrificial system are not lacking (Pss 20:3; 50:8-9), the emphasis is upon a personal piety that demands obedience and a surrendered heart (Ps 40:6-8). Psalm 51 indicates a depth of sin with which the sacrificial system was totally inadequate to cope; the psalmist could only cast himself, in total penitence, upon God’s mercy. Man’s moral obligations (Pss 15; 24:3-5) and loyalty to the law (Pss 19:7-11; 119) are fully accepted. Throughout, there is the revelation of a strong personal relationship that encourages prayer and praise and invites trust.<\/p>\n<h5>The Afterlife<\/h5>\nThe Psalms maintain the traditional Hebrew view of Sheol as the abode of the departed, without distinction between the good and evil, where all but mere existence has perished. The chief complaint of the devout man was that, in Sheol, all meaningful relationship with God ceased (Pss 6:5; 88:10-12). However, it was recognized that, since God was almighty, even Sheol was not exempt from his reach (Ps 139:8). Added to this was the preciousness and strength of fellowship with God, which could not be terminated even by death. Psalms 16:9-11, 49:15, and 73:23-26 well illustrate this insight. The Psalter, therefore, witnesses to an important transitional phase in Israel’s belief.<\/p>\n<h5>Universal Recognition of God<\/h5>\nPassages like Psalms 9:11; 47:1-2, 7-9; 66:8; 67; and 117:1 call upon all nations to acknowledge and praise God and show an awareness of his sovereignty over all nations. But this universalism does not appear to involve any desire to convert the heathen nations and, indeed, it is balanced by strong particularistic elements. God’s covenant relationship with his people and his mighty deeds on their behalf are the chief items for which the praise of all nations is summoned (Pss 47:3-4; 66:8-9; 126:2). As elsewhere in the OT, the role of Israel is passive; her continued existence witnesses to God’s faithfulness and brings glory to him.<\/p>\n<h5>Lasting Value<\/h5>\nWhatever the emotion of the psalmists, be it bitter complaint, anguished lament, or joyous exultation, all the psalms reflect one or other of the many aspects of communion with God. The reader may look “into the heart of all the saints” (so said Luther) as they faced life’s experiences in the awareness of a God who was all-seeing, all-knowing, and all-powerful. The strength of that personal relationship with God that typified OT worship at its best is exemplified here, and the many echoes of the psalms elsewhere in Israel’s literature show the powerful influence of these testimonies on the faithful. The fact that, almost invariably, little specific detail is given of the psalmists’ actual conditions has made it easier for the Psalter to become the universal hymnbook and devotional treasury of God’s people, in both public and private worship, until and including the present day. Modern life, materially, is vastly different from that of ancient Israel, but God remains unchanged and so do the basic needs of the human heart. The Holy Spirit, therefore, can still use this spiritual treasury as a means of revelation and communication between God and man. Few books in the Bible have exercised so profound an influence or been so widely used.<\/p>\nContent<\/p>\n<h5>Introduction<\/h5>\nIt is more helpful to describe the psalms in categories than to explain them one by one in canonical order. The psalms can be categorized as follows:<\/p>\nPsalms of praise<\/p>\nRoyal, messianic psalms<\/p>\nPassion psalms<\/p>\nPsalms about Zion<\/p>\nLaments<\/p>\nImprecatory psalms<\/p>\nPenitential psalms<\/p>\nWisdom psalms and historical psalms<\/p>\nPsalms of trust<\/p>\n<h5>Psalms of Praise<\/h5>\nThe Hebrew title, “Praises,” defines accurately a large part of the contents of the book. Each of the first four sections concludes with a doxology, while the fifth section concludes with five psalms, each of which begins and ends with one or two “Hallelujahs.” The last of these, Psalm 150, sounds the call to total praise. God is to be praised for his being, for his great acts in creation, nature, and history on both the individual and the communal level.<\/p>\n1. Individual praise. In comparison with the number of individual laments, there are relatively few psalms in this category. Those normally included are Psalms 9, 18, 32, 34, 116, and 138. This may, in part, be due to the universal tendency to complain rather than to express thanks. But a number of the laments do, in fact, include the note of thanksgiving for the anticipated deliverance, and the normal round of congregational thanksgiving would allow the individual to express his personal praise. However, it was customary in temple worship to give a verbal act of thanksgiving before the whole assembly whenever a vow offering or a thank offering was made. Such public testimony, and the communal meal associated with this type of sacrifice, is indicated in Psalms 22:22-26; 66:13-20; 116:17-19. The inclusion of such opportunities for personal praise and testimony must have added warmth and significance to worship. Each act of deliverance and every experience of God’s mercy became part of salvation history, which was a cumulative, ongoing concept, not simply a recital of God’s deeds in earlier centuries.<\/p>\n<li>2. General communal praise. This is sometimes entitled “hymns” or “descriptive praise,” its main feature being linked to a particular act of deliverance. God is usually referred to in the third person, not directly. Psalm 103 may be taken as representative of this group. It begins and ends with individual references (vv 1-5, 22b), but the central section (esp. vv 6-14) shows that the psalmist was part of a worshiping community. There is first of all the imperative call to praise God for the full range of his mercy to each individual, including physical and spiritual deliverance and his sustaining and satisfying grace. Then the focus changes to his great works in history (vv 6-7). This forms a natural basis for the recital of those gracious qualities revealed so consistently during the course of the national history, especially his tender, fatherly care (vv 8-14). The frailty of humanity contrasts with God’s constancy (vv 15-18), and his rule, being universal and absolute (v 19), merits the praise of all things, living and inanimate, in heaven and on earth (vv 19-22). There is, however, a great number of possible variations in the way in which God is celebrated, as Psalms 113 and 136, which come within this class, illustrate.<\/li>\n<li>3. Specific communal praise. Occasionally termed “declarative praise,” this type of psalm connects with a particular outstanding evidence of God’s mercy and would most naturally follow soon after the event itself. Deliverance from an enemy provides the occasion for most of the psalms in this category (e.g., Pss 124, 129). Psalm 66:8-12, now the nucleus of an expanded recital of God’s goodness, was possibly once complete in itself. Psalms 46–48 may form a trilogy connected with the remarkable deliverance of Jerusalem from Sennacherib’s Assyrians in 701 BC<\/span> (2 Kgs 18:17–19:37). Psalm 67 was probably composed in gratitude for a particular harvest. It is easy to see how psalms of this type could, in the process of time, acquire a more general usage.<\/li>\n<li>4. Praise for the God of nature. The first part of Psalm 19 pictures the praise of God sounding from the heavens; Psalm 29 celebrates him as the God of the thunderstorm, which, sweeping in from the Mediterranean near Lebanon, pursues its awe-inspiring path southward into the wilderness of Kadesh, with the result that “in his temple” (the created world?) all are praising, “Glory, glory to the Lord<\/span>” (v 9). His sovereignty and self-sufficiency in this world are celebrated in Psalm 50:10-12; he is the God of growth and harvest (Ps 65:9-13); in Psalm 104, often called the “Hymn of Creation,” he sustains and supplies everything on the earth and in the seas and is the absolute Lord of all life (vv 29-30). There is no confusion between God and his creation; even the seemingly permanent heaven and earth will perish, but “you go on forever” (Ps 102:25-27). Nature’s role is to proclaim the glory of God (Ps 19:1) and to praise him (Ps 148). People see themselves as insignificant when set against those forces of nature, which are themselves dwarfed by God—hence, the awareness of the immeasurable gulf between God and people that God has bridged by his grace (Ps 8).<\/li>\n<li>5. Praise for God’s kingship. A relatively small group of psalms (Pss 47, 93, 96–99) celebrate the kingship of God in a way that goes beyond the ascription of praise noted in the foregoing groups. They are marked by acclamation, by both shouting and clapping when God “ascends.” Presumably, the reference is to his throne (Ps 47:1-5; cf. 99:1-2). “The Lord<\/span> reigns” (Pss 93:1; 97:1; 99:1) is the frequent cry, and the nature of his reign is extolled (Ps 99:4-5).<\/li>\n<h5>Royal, Messianic Psalms<\/h5>\nPsalms 2, 18, 20, 21, 45, 61, 72, 89, 101, 110, 132, and 144 are usually included as the royal psalms. They do not form a literary category, since psalms of various types are included, but they all have some reference to the king, the nature of his rule, and his relationship to God. Since the Davidic monarchy was terminated in 586 BC<\/span>, these psalms, almost certainly, were composed before that date. The language in these psalms often shows the king as being God’s vice-regent. For example, Psalm 45, a royal marriage psalm, contains the assertion “Your throne, O God, endures for ever and ever” (45:6). But this is best understood in terms of the throne being regarded as the Lord’s, occupied by the king as his representative. Similarly, the wording in Psalm 110:1, “Sit at my right hand,” indicates the privileges and prerogatives that the king enjoys as God’s vice-regent. The balance of the OT evidence concerning the king shows that the monarchy in Israel was qualified by the nature of God’s covenantal relationship with his people; the king did not enjoy the absolutism claimed by most of the rulers of surrounding kingdoms.<\/p>\nMost of the royal psalms can also be called messianic psalms. They were interpreted as such in the early Christian church, as witnessed in Jesus Christ’s general statement that the psalmists wrote of him (Lk 24:44) and by particular NT quotations. The main psalms concerned, and the NT references, are the following:<\/p>\n1. Psalm 2 (Acts 13:33; Heb 1:5; 5:5), while linked with the Davidic king, nevertheless speaks of a universal vindication and rule, which far transcended even David’s rule. Further, the picture of the Davidic king, anointed to rule on the earth as the representative of God, who is enthroned in heaven, strongly suggests Christ’s mediating, incarnate ministry.<\/p>\n<li>2. Psalm 45 (Heb 1:8-9), a marriage psalm for one of the Davidic kings, possibly Solomon, speaks not only of love and marriage but also a permanence and quality of rule. In the most obvious translation of verse 6, the writer addresses God, “Your divine throne endures for ever and ever.” The writer to the Hebrews clearly accepted this interpretation (Heb 1:8-9) and used it in contrast to the exalted status of even the angels, reinforcing it with two other quotations from the psalms that originally applied to God (Ps 97:7; 102:25-27; cf. Heb 1:6, 10-12).<\/li>\n<li>3. Psalm 110 is the most frequently quoted messianic psalm (Mt 22:43-45; Acts 2:34-35; Heb 1:13; 5:5-10; 6:20; 7:21). The language, speaking of the privileges, universal victory and continuing priesthood of David and his successors, would be considered hyperbolic and possibly misleading except for its fulfillment in “great David’s greater Son.” In contrast to the angels, who are privileged to stand in God’s presence (Lk 1:19), Christ the Son sits in the place of power and authority (Heb 1:13).<\/li>\nOther psalms that could also be designated messianic but are not specifically included among the royal psalms are Psalm 8 (1 Cor 15:27); Psalm 40 (Heb 10:5-10); Psalm 72, with its idealized picture of the nature, consequences, and extent of the rule of God’s representative; Psalm 118:22-23; and Psalm 132 (Acts 2:30).<\/p>\n\n<h5>Passion Psalms<\/h5>\nThe four psalms in this group (Pss 16; 22; 40; 69; some scholars would also include Pss 102; 109) may also be regarded as messianic. They connect with that line of OT prophecy that interprets the Messiah’s ministry in terms of the Suffering Servant who features prominently in Isaiah (e.g., Is 42:1-9; 52:13–53:12). Of these four, Psalm 22 is the most remarkable. Jesus recited part of it when he was on the cross (Ps 22:1; cf. Mt 27:46), and other connections with the crucifixion scene are noteworthy (e.g., Ps 22:6-8, 14-18). Some further considerations are even more significant: there is no suggestion of any awareness of sin; the suffering of the psalmist appears completely unjustified; there is no imprecatory element, even in the face of bitter persecution. This connects with the sinless Christ (2 Cor 5:21), who could even pray for his executioners (Lk 23:34). Psalm 16:10 anticipates the triumph of the incorruptible Christ over the grave (cf. Acts 2:24-31). Psalm 40:6-8 foreshadows the Incarnation and self-giving redemptive work of Christ (Heb 10:5-10). Psalm 69 refers to the isolation resulting from a commitment to God’s cause (Ps 69:8-9) and anticipates the part played by Judas in what was fundamentally God’s work in Christ (Ps 69:25-26; cf. Ps 109:8; Is 53:10; Acts 1:20).<\/p>\n<h5>Psalms about Zion<\/h5>\nThis group could have been classified as a subsection of communal praise, but due to the close historical connection between God’s choice of the house of David and Jerusalem (Pss 78:68-72; 132:11-13), and their subsequent interrelated fortunes, we consider them at this point. There was a biting satire in the request of the Babylonians to the refugees of a shattered city to “Sing us one of the songs of Zion!” (Ps 137:3, niv<\/span>), but it witnesses to the existence of such a collection. Praise of Zion was, in fact, almost synonymous with the praise of the Lord who dwelt there. Jerusalem’s continued survival, in spite of its difficulties, was ample demonstration of God’s enduring greatness (Ps 48:11-14) and peculiar affection for the city that housed his temple (Ps 87:1-3). Psalms 48, 76, 84, 87 and 122 are the main psalms in this category, but the theme itself appears widely throughout the psalms (e.g., 102:16; 125:1; 126:1-3; 133:3; 147:2). The basis of the NT concept of a heavenly Jerusalem, the spiritual home of the regenerate of all nations, finds its origin in this concept, especially in Psalm 87.<\/p>\n<h5>Laments<\/h5>\nThese are associated with specific occasions of distress and are of two types:<\/p>\n1. National. The prophetic and historical books give several examples of the kind of occasion, such as drought, locust infestation, or enemy attack, that could prompt national laments, and also the inward and outward attitudes that accompanied them (e.g., Jgs 20:23, 26; Jer 14:1-12; 36:9; Jl 1:13-14; 2:12-17; Jon 3:5). There is a regular structure in the psalms of this class: the distressing situation is first described; God is petitioned to come to the aid of his people, often with the reminder of his past mercies for Israel; finally, there is often an expression of confidence that God would heed their cry. Israel’s adversaries are clearly in mind in Psalms 14, 44, 60, 74, 80, and 83, while Psalms 58, 106, and 125 reflect situations less critical.<\/p>\n<li>2. Individual. There are so many of this type (approximately 50) that it is frequently described as the backbone of the Psalter. Their most obvious features are the sharpness of complaint and the bitterness of attack upon those responsible. As in the national laments, there is often complaint against God, especially for his lack of attention or his tardiness in intervening. The basic components of this type are almost identical to the national laments, except that they often conclude with the avowal to praise God in anticipation of deliverance (e.g., Ps 13:5-6). Frequently, the lament is accompanied by thanksgiving for the deliverance sought and experienced, as illustrated in the two sections of Psalms 22:1-21 and 28:1-9.<\/li>\n<h5>Imprecatory Psalms<\/h5>\nApproximately 20 psalms contain passionate pleas for the overthrow of the wicked, in language that is often shocking. Any instant condemnation of this attitude must, however, be tempered by certain relevant considerations:<\/p>\nThe cry for vengeance was not purely personal; it was firmly believed that God’s honor was at stake (e.g., Ps 109:21). In an age where there was a less developed view of an afterlife, it was axiomatic that rewards and punishments resulting from obedience or disobedience to God, must be observable within this lifetime. Whenever this was not apparent, it would seem that no righteous God existed, and the name of God was dishonored (e.g., Ps 74:10). This burning desire for the eradication of evil and evil men sprang from a consciousness of a moral God and virtually demanded the triumph of truth.<\/p>\nThe poetic language is also prone to hyperbole—a feature not confined to the psalms (e.g., Neh 4:4-5; Jer 20:14-18; Am 7:17). Such language is startling; indeed, part of its function was probably to startle—to express and promote a sense of outrage.<\/p>\nIn the pre-Christian period, therefore, such outbursts were not completely unjustifiable. But in the light of the fuller revelation in the NT, such an attitude cannot be condoned. The Christian is to love as Christ loved (Jn 13:34), to pray for his enemies and to forgive them (Mt 5:38-48; Col 3:13). The theme of judgment continues into the NT and is indeed heightened there, since Christ’s coming has left people without excuse to live in sin (Jn 16:8-11), but there can be no place for purely private vengeance.<\/p>\n<h5>Penitential Psalms<\/h5>\nPsalms 32, 38, 51, and 130 are the clearest examples of penitential psalms, although traditionally the church has also included Psalms 6, 102, 143, where there is no explicit confession of sin. In an age when adversity in its various forms was seen as God’s judgment for wrongdoing, the admission of distress was tantamount to a confession of guilt. In the four main examples there is an intensity of feeling and a deep sense of the enormity of sin in God’s sight, although, as elsewhere, there is no indication of specific sin, even in Psalm 51, which is surely to be connected with David’s sin against Bathsheba (2 Sm 11–12). Significantly, David bypasses the sacrificial system, which was totally inefficacious in his case, casting himself entirely on the mercy of God (Ps 51:1, 16). The burden of unconfessed sin is clearly revealed in Psalm 32, and sin’s searing and corrupting effect in Psalm 38.<\/p>\n<h5>Wisdom Psalms and Historical Psalms<\/h5>\nWhile it is accepted that prophets, priests, and wise men all functioned at the major sanctuaries, some overlap in their modes of expression is to be expected. Proverbial forms are not infrequently found in the psalms (Pss 37:5, 8, 16, 21-22; 111:10; 127:1-5). Psalm 1, probably an introduction to the whole Psalter, contrasts the diverging paths of the righteous and ungodly (cf. Ps 112), while Psalms 127 and 128 concentrate on the blessings given to the godly. Psalm 133 is written in praise of unity. The problem of explaining the sufferings of a righteous person and the apparent prosperity of evil people, dealt with in the Wisdom Literature in the book of Job and in the prophets also (e.g., Jer 12:1-4), is taken up in Psalms 37, 49, and 73.<\/p>\nThe historical psalms should be included in this category, since they underscore the lessons arising from the favored nation’s often bitter experience. It is apparent that Israel delighted in the recital of salvation history. The main psalms, and the periods covered are Psalm 78, from the exodus to the establishment of the Davidic monarchy (note the declared intention to teach in vv 1-4); Psalm 105, from Abraham to the conquest of Canaan; Psalm 106, from Egypt to the judges; and Psalm 136, from the Creation to the Promised Land.<\/p>\n<h5>Psalms of Trust<\/h5>\nWhile some of these may also be classified as laments, the dominant feature of this group is the serene trust in God revealed, which makes them particularly suitable for devotional use. Many of these psalms begin with an affirmation of gratitude to and affection for God. Psalms 23 and 27 are the outstanding examples of this type, which could also include Psalms 11, 16, 62, 116, 131, and 138.<\/p>\nConclusion<\/p>\nThe difficulties in any precise categorization of psalms are obvious; many do not neatly fall into one group—hence, the occasional overlap. What is clearly evident is a pulsating, vital devotional life that has found its clearest expression in the book of Psalms. To say that it expresses the worship and devotion of the ordinary person is a simplification; kings and priests, wise men and prophets all contributed to this remarkable collection. Yet there remains the truth that, in God’s sight, all people, regardless of human achievement or privilege, are “ordinary,” for all are sinners in need of God’s grace and goodness. So the worshiping community of ancient Israel, and the saints of every succeeding generation, in the vastness of their diversity, have found the expression of their own hearts’ condition, desires, and devotion in this unique treasury—the Psalms.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> David; Messiah; Music; Poetry, Biblical; Singers in the Temple; Tabernacle; Temple; Wisdom; Wisdom Literature.<\/p>","summary_ro":"PSALMS, Book of Poems sung to musical accompaniment, originally the harp. The alternative title, the Psalter, refers to a collection of songs sung to harp accompaniment. The English title, therefore, broadly defines the form employed, whereas the Hebrew title of the book, “Praises,” or “Book of Praises,” suggests the content. Preview • Authors • Date • Background • Structure • Canonicity • Purpose and Theology • Content Authors The Evidence of the Titles The Hebrew Bible credits David with 73...","summary_en":"PSALMS, Book of Poems sung to musical accompaniment, originally the harp. The alternative title, the Psalter, refers to a collection of songs sung to harp accompaniment. The English title, therefore, broadly defines the form employed, whereas the Hebrew title of the book, “Praises,” or “Book of Praises,” suggests the content. Preview • Authors • Date • Background • Structure • Canonicity • Purpose and Theology • Content Authors The Evidence of the Titles The Hebrew Bible credits David with 73...","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":36072,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Spirit of God","title_en":"Spirit of God","content_ro":"<h3>SPIRIT OF GOD<\/h3>\nDescription of God in action, God in motion. The word “spirit” (Hebrew, ruach<\/span>;<\/em> Greek, pneuma<\/span>) is the word used from ancient times to describe and explain the experience of divine power working in, upon, and around people.<\/p>\nIn the Old Testament<\/p>\nThere are three basic meanings evident in the use of “spirit” from the earliest Hebrew writings: It was a wind from God, it was the breath of life, and it was a spirit of ecstasy.<\/p>\nFirst, it was a wind from God (the same Hebrew word translated “Spirit” in Gn 1:2) that caused the waters of the Flood to subside (8:1). A wind from God blew locusts over Egypt (Ex 10:13) and quail over the camp of Israel. The blast of his nostrils separated the waters of the Red Sea at the exodus (14:21).<\/p>\nSecond, it was the breath of God that made man a living being (Gn 2:7). It is one of the earliest perceptions of Hebrew faith that humans live only because of the stirring of the divine breath or spirit within them (Gn 6:3; Jb 33:4; 34:14-15; Ps 104:29-30). Later, a clearer distinction was drawn between divine Spirit and human spirit, and between spirit and soul, but at the earliest stage these were all more or less perceived to be synonymous manifestations of the same divine power, the source of all life—animal as well as human (Gn 7:15, 22; see Eccl 3:19-21).<\/p>\nThird, there were occasions when this divine power seemed to overtake and possess an individual fully, so that his or her words or actions far transcended those of normal behavior. Such a person was clearly marked as an agent of God’s purpose and given respect. This was apparently how leaders were recognized in the premonarchy period—Othniel (Jgs 3:10), Gideon (6:34), Jephthah (11:29), and the first king, Saul (1 Sm 11:6), as well. So, too, the earliest prophets were those whose inspiration came in ecstasy (1 Sm 19:20-24).<\/p>\nIn the earlier stages of Hebrew thought, ecstatic experience was seen as the direct effect of divine power. This was true even when the ecstasy was recognized as evil in character, as in the case of Saul’s seizure by the Spirit (1 Sm 16:14-16). A spirit from God could be for evil as well as for good (see Jgs 9:23; 1 Kgs 22:19-23).<\/p>\n<h5>In the Writings of the Prophets<\/h5>\nFor Isaiah, the spirit was that which characterized God and distinguished him and his actions from human affairs (Is 31:3). Later, the adjective “holy” appeared as that which distinguished the Spirit of God from any other spirit, human or divine (Ps 51:11; Is 63:10-11).<\/p>\nThe problem of false prophecy emphasized the danger of assuming that every message delivered in ecstasy was the word of the Lord. Thus, tests of prophecy evaluated the content of the message delivered or the character of the prophet’s life, not the degree or quality of inspiration (see Dt 13:1-5; 18:22; Jer 23:14; Mi 3:5). This sense of a need to discriminate between true and false inspiration and to distinguish the word of God from the merely ecstatic oracle may help to explain the otherwise puzzling reluctance of the major eighth- and seventh-century BC<\/span> prophets to attribute their inspiration to the Spirit.<\/p>\n<h5>In the Exilic and Postexilic Writings<\/h5>\nIn exilic and postexilic literature, the role of the Spirit is narrowed to two major functions: that of the prophetic Spirit and that of the Spirit of the age to come.<\/p>\nThe later prophets again spoke of the Spirit in explicit terms as the inspirer of prophecy (see Ez 3:1-4, 22-24; Hg 2:5; Zec 4:6). As they looked back to the preexilic period, these prophets freely attributed the inspiration of “the former prophets” to the Spirit as well (Zec 7:12).<\/p>\nThis tendency to exalt the Spirit’s role as the inspirer of prophecy became steadily stronger in the period between the OT and NT, until in rabbinic Judaism the Spirit was almost exclusively the inspirer of the prophetic writings now regarded as Scripture.<\/p>\nThe other understanding of the Spirit’s role during exilic and postexilic times was that the Spirit would be the manifestation of the power of God in the age to come. That eschatological hope of divine power effecting a final cleansing and a renewed creation is rooted principally in Isaiah’s prophecies (Is 4:4; 32:15; 44:3-4). Isaiah speaks of one anointed by the Spirit to accomplish complete and final salvation (11:2; 42:1; 61:1). Elsewhere, the same longing is expressed in terms of the Spirit being freely dispensed to all Israel (Ez 39:29; Jl 2:28-29; Zec 12:10) in the new covenant (Jer 31:31-34; Ez 36:26-27).<\/p>\nIn the period prior to Jesus, the understanding of the Spirit as the Spirit of prophecy and as the Spirit of the age to come had developed into the widespread dogma that the Spirit was no longer to be experienced in the present. The Spirit had been known in the past as the inspirer of prophetic writings, but after Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi, the Spirit had withdrawn (1 Macc 4:44-46; 9:27; 2 Bar 85:1-3; see also Ps 74:9; Zec 13:2-6). The Spirit would be known again in the age of the Messiah, but in the interim the Spirit was absent from Israel. Even the great Hillel (learned Jewish leader and teacher, 60? BC<\/span>–AD<\/span> 20?), a near contemporary of Jesus, had not received the Spirit—though if anyone was worthy of the Spirit, it was he. There is a tradition that at a meeting of Hillel and other wise men, a voice from heaven said, “Among those here present is one who would have deserved the Holy Spirit to rest upon him, if his time had been worthy of it.” The wise men all looked at Hillel.<\/p>\nThe consequence of this accepted dearth of the Spirit was that the Spirit in effect became subordinated to the law. The Spirit was the inspirer of the law, but since the Spirit could no longer be experienced directly, the law became the sole voice of the Spirit. It was this increasing dominance of the law and its authoritative interpreters that provided the background for the mission of Jesus and the initial spread of Christianity.<\/p>\nIn the New Testament<\/p>\nIf we are to understand the NT’s teaching on the Spirit, we must recognize both its continuity and discontinuity with the OT. At many points NT usage cannot be fully understood except against the background of OT concepts or passages. For example, the ambiguity of John 3:8 (“wind,” “Spirit”), 2 Thessalonians 2:8 (“breath”), and Revelation 11:11 (“breath of life”) takes us back to the basic Hebrew meanings of “spirit.” Acts 8:39 and Revelation 17:3 and 21:10 reflect the same conception of the Spirit that we find in 1 Kings 18:12, 2 Kings 2:16, and Ezekiel 3:14. The NT writers generally share the rabbinic view that Scripture has the authority of the Spirit behind it (see Mk 12:36; Acts 28:25; Heb 3:7; 2 Pt 1:21). The principal continuity is that the NT brings the fulfillment of what the OT writers looked forward to. At the same time, Christianity is not simply fulfilled Judaism. Jesus’ coming and his giving of his Spirit to live within his believers marks off the new faith as something new and distinct.<\/p>\n<h5>The Spirit of the New Age<\/h5>\nThe most striking feature of Jesus’ ministry and of the message of the earliest Christians was their conviction and proclamation that the blessings of the new age were already present, that the eschatological Spirit had already been poured out. With the exception of the Essenes at Qumran, no other group or individual within the Jewish religion of that time had dared to make such a bold claim. The prophets and the rabbis looked for a messianic age yet to come, and the apocalyptic writers warned of its imminent arrival, but none thought of it as already present. Even John the Baptist spoke only of one about to come and of the Spirit’s operation in the imminent future (Mk 1:8). But for Jesus and first-century Christians, the longed for hope was a living reality, and the claim carried with it the exciting sense of being in “the last days.” Without some recognition of that eschatological dimension of the Christians’ faith and life, we cannot understand this teaching on, and experience of, the Spirit.<\/p>\nJesus clearly thought of his teachings and healings as fulfillment of the prophetic hope (Mt 12:41-42; 13:16-17; Lk 17:20-21). In particular, he saw himself as the one anointed by the Spirit to provide salvation (Mt 5:3-6; 11:5; Lk 4:17-19). So, too, Jesus understood his exorcisms as the effect of the power of God and as manifestations of the end-time rule of God (Mt 12:27-28; Mk 3:22-26). The Gospel writers, especially Luke, emphasize the eschatological character of Jesus’ life and ministry by stressing the role of the Spirit in his birth (Mt 1:18; Lk 1:35, 41, 67; 2:25-27), his baptism (Mk 1:9-10; Acts 10:38), and his ministry (Mt 4:1; 12:18; Mk 1:12; Lk 4:1, 14; 10:21; Jn 3:34).<\/p>\nThe Christian church began with the in-breathing of the Holy Spirit on the day of Christ’s resurrection (Jn 20:22), followed by the outpouring of the Spirit at Pentecost “in the last days.” The overwhelming experience of vision and inspired utterance was taken as proof positive that the new age prophesied by Joel had now arrived (Acts 2:2-5, 17-18). Similarly, in Hebrews the gift of the Spirit is spoken of as “the powers of the age to come” (Heb 6:4-5). More striking still is Paul’s understanding of the Spirit as the guarantee of God’s complete salvation (2 Cor 1:22; 5:5; Eph 1:13-14), and as the first installment of the believer’s inheritance of God’s kingdom (Rom 8:15-17; 1 Cor 6:9-11; 15:42-50; Gal 4:6-7; 5:16-18, 21-23; Eph 1:13-14). The Spirit is here again thought of as the power of the age to come, as that power (which will characterize God’s rule at the end of time) already shaping and transforming the lives of believers.<\/p>\nFor Paul, this means also that the gift of the Spirit is but the beginning of a lifelong process that will not end until the believer’s whole person is brought under the Spirit’s power (Rom 8:11, 23; 1 Cor 15:44-49; 2 Cor 3:18; 5:1-5). It also means that the present experience of faith is one of lifelong tension between what God has already begun to bring about in the believer’s life and what has not yet been brought under God’s grace (Phil 1:6). It is this tension between life “in the Spirit” and life “in the flesh” (see Gal 2:20) that comes to poignant expression in Romans 7:24 and 2 Corinthians 5:2-4.<\/p>\n<h5>The Spirit of New Life<\/h5>\nSince the Spirit is the mark of the new age, it is not surprising that the NT writers understood the gift of the Spirit to be that which brings an individual into the new age. John the Baptist described the way the coming one would baptize with the Holy Spirit and with fire (Mt 3:11). According to Acts 1:5 and 11:16, this imagery was taken up by Jesus, and the promise is seen as fulfilled at Pentecost—the outpouring of the Spirit here being understood as the risen Christ’s action in drawing his disciples into the new age (Acts 2:17, 33).<\/p>\nIt seems to be one of Luke’s aims in the book of Acts to highlight the central importance of the gift of the Spirit in conversion-initiation—it is that decisive “gift of the Holy Spirit” that makes one a Christian (Acts 2:38-39). People could have been followers of Jesus on earth, but it was only when they received the gift of the Spirit that they could be said to have “believed in the Lord Jesus Christ” (11:16-17). When the Spirit’s presence was manifested in and upon a person’s life, that was recognized by Peter as proof enough that God had accepted that person, even though he or she had not yet made any formal profession of faith or been baptized (10:44-48; 11:15-18; 15:7-9). So too Apollos, already aglow with the Spirit (18:25), even though his knowledge of “the way of God” was slightly defective (vv 24-26), apparently was not required to supplement his “baptism of John” with Christian baptism. However, the 12 so-called disciples at Ephesus proved by their very ignorance of the Spirit that they were not yet disciples of the Lord Jesus (19:1-6). Paul asked these 12 men, “Did you receive the Holy Spirit when you believed?” (19:2).<\/p>\nThis accords with Paul’s emphasis in his letters. Belief and reception of the Spirit go together: to receive the Spirit is to begin the Christian life (Gal 3:2-3); to be baptized in the Spirit is to become a member of the body of Christ (1 Cor 12:13); to “have the Spirit of Christ” is to belong to Christ (Rom 8:9-11); to receive the Spirit is tantamount to becoming a child of God (Rom 8:14-17; Gal 4:6-7). The Spirit so characterizes the new age and the life of the new age that only the gift of the Spirit can bring a person into the new age to experience the life of the new age. For the Spirit is distinctively and peculiarly the life-giver; the Spirit indeed is<\/em> the life of the new age (Rom 8:2, 6, 10; 1 Cor 15:45; 2 Cor 3:6; Gal 5:25).<\/p>\nIn just the same way in John’s writings, the Spirit is characteristically the life-giving Spirit (Jn 6:63), the power from above, the seed of divine life that brings about the new birth (Jn 3:3-8; 1 Jn 3:9), and a river of living water that brings life when one believes in Christ (Jn 7:37-39; so also 4:10, 14). Or again, reception of the Spirit in John 20:22 is depicted as a new creation analogous to Genesis 2:7. Consequently, in 1 John 3:24 and 4:13, possession and experience of the Spirit count as one of the “tests of life” listed in that letter.<\/p>\n<h5>Manifestations of the Spirit<\/h5>\nIt will be clear from what has already been said that when the first Christians, like the ancient Hebrews, spoke of the Spirit, they were thinking of experiences of divine power. In the NT, as in the OT, “Spirit” is the word used to explain the experience of new life and vitality (see above), of liberation from legalism (e.g., Rom 8:2; 2 Cor 3:17), of spiritual refreshing and renewal (cf. e.g., Is 32:15; Ez 39:29 with Jn 7:37-39; Rom 5:5; 1 Cor 12:13; 1 Tm 3:5-6). It is important to realize how wide a range of experiences were attributed to the Spirit: ecstatic experiences (Acts 2:24; 10:43-47; 19:6; cf. 10:10; 22:17—“in ecstasy”; 2 Cor 12:1-4; Rv 1:10), emotional experiences (e.g., love—Rom 5:5; joy—Acts 13:52; 1 Thes 1:6; see also Gal 5:22; Phil 2:1-2), experiences of illumination (2 Cor 3:14-17; Eph 1:17-18; Heb 6:4-5; 1 Jn 2:20-21), and experiences issuing in moral transformation (1 Cor 6:9-11). Likewise, when Paul speaks of spiritual gifts, called charismata<\/span> (acts or words that bring divine grace to concrete expression), he evidently has a wide range of actual events in mind: inspired speech (1 Cor 12:8-10; 1 Thes 1:5), miracles and healings (1 Cor 12:9; Gal 3:5; cf. Heb 2:4), and various acts of service and help, of counsel and administration, and of aid and mercy (Rom 12:7-8; 1 Cor 12:28).<\/p>\nIn talking thus of the Spirit in terms of experience, we should not overemphasize particular experiences or manifestations, as though earliest Christianity consisted of a sequence of mountaintop experiences or spiritual highs. There clearly were such experiences, indeed a wide range of experiences, but no one experience is singled out to be sought by all (except prophecy). There is no distinctively second (or third) experience of the Spirit in the NT, and Paul warned against overvaluing particular manifestations of the Spirit (1 Cor 14:6-19; 2 Cor 12:1-10; cf. Mk 8:11-13). Where particular experiences are valued, it is as manifestations of a more sustained experience, particular expressions of an underlying relationship (cf. Acts 6:3-5; 11:24—“full of the Spirit”; Eph 5:18). What we are in touch with here is the vigor of the experiential dimension of earliest Christianity. If the Spirit is the breath of the new life in Christ (cf. Ez 37:9-10, 14; Jn 20:22; 1 Cor 15:45), then presumably the analogy extends further, and the experience of the Spirit is like the experience of breathing: one is not conscious of it all the time, but if one is not conscious of it, at least sometimes, something is wrong.<\/p>\n<h5>The Fellowship of the Spirit<\/h5>\nIt was out of this shared experience of the Spirit that the earliest Christian community grew and developed, for this is what “the fellowship [koinonia<\/span>] of the Spirit” properly means: common participation in the same Spirit (Phil 2:1; cf. Acts 2:42; 1 Cor 1:4-9). It was the gift of the Spirit that brought those in Samaria, Caesarea, and elsewhere effectively into the community of the Spirit (Act 8, 10). So also, it was the experience of the one Spirit that provided the unifying bond in the churches of Paul’s mission (1 Cor 12:13; Eph 4:3-4; Phil 2:1-2). Here we see the real importance of the divine manifestations of the Spirit for Paul: it is out of the diversity of these particular manifestations that the body of Christ grows in unity (Rom 12:4-8; 1 Cor 12:12-17; Eph 4:4-16).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>SPIRIT OF GOD<\/h3>\nDescription of God in action, God in motion. The word “spirit” (Hebrew, ruach<\/span>;<\/em> Greek, pneuma<\/span>) is the word used from ancient times to describe and explain the experience of divine power working in, upon, and around people.<\/p>\nIn the Old Testament<\/p>\nThere are three basic meanings evident in the use of “spirit” from the earliest Hebrew writings: It was a wind from God, it was the breath of life, and it was a spirit of ecstasy.<\/p>\nFirst, it was a wind from God (the same Hebrew word translated “Spirit” in Gn 1:2) that caused the waters of the Flood to subside (8:1). A wind from God blew locusts over Egypt (Ex 10:13) and quail over the camp of Israel. The blast of his nostrils separated the waters of the Red Sea at the exodus (14:21).<\/p>\nSecond, it was the breath of God that made man a living being (Gn 2:7). It is one of the earliest perceptions of Hebrew faith that humans live only because of the stirring of the divine breath or spirit within them (Gn 6:3; Jb 33:4; 34:14-15; Ps 104:29-30). Later, a clearer distinction was drawn between divine Spirit and human spirit, and between spirit and soul, but at the earliest stage these were all more or less perceived to be synonymous manifestations of the same divine power, the source of all life—animal as well as human (Gn 7:15, 22; see Eccl 3:19-21).<\/p>\nThird, there were occasions when this divine power seemed to overtake and possess an individual fully, so that his or her words or actions far transcended those of normal behavior. Such a person was clearly marked as an agent of God’s purpose and given respect. This was apparently how leaders were recognized in the premonarchy period—Othniel (Jgs 3:10), Gideon (6:34), Jephthah (11:29), and the first king, Saul (1 Sm 11:6), as well. So, too, the earliest prophets were those whose inspiration came in ecstasy (1 Sm 19:20-24).<\/p>\nIn the earlier stages of Hebrew thought, ecstatic experience was seen as the direct effect of divine power. This was true even when the ecstasy was recognized as evil in character, as in the case of Saul’s seizure by the Spirit (1 Sm 16:14-16). A spirit from God could be for evil as well as for good (see Jgs 9:23; 1 Kgs 22:19-23).<\/p>\n<h5>In the Writings of the Prophets<\/h5>\nFor Isaiah, the spirit was that which characterized God and distinguished him and his actions from human affairs (Is 31:3). Later, the adjective “holy” appeared as that which distinguished the Spirit of God from any other spirit, human or divine (Ps 51:11; Is 63:10-11).<\/p>\nThe problem of false prophecy emphasized the danger of assuming that every message delivered in ecstasy was the word of the Lord. Thus, tests of prophecy evaluated the content of the message delivered or the character of the prophet’s life, not the degree or quality of inspiration (see Dt 13:1-5; 18:22; Jer 23:14; Mi 3:5). This sense of a need to discriminate between true and false inspiration and to distinguish the word of God from the merely ecstatic oracle may help to explain the otherwise puzzling reluctance of the major eighth- and seventh-century BC<\/span> prophets to attribute their inspiration to the Spirit.<\/p>\n<h5>In the Exilic and Postexilic Writings<\/h5>\nIn exilic and postexilic literature, the role of the Spirit is narrowed to two major functions: that of the prophetic Spirit and that of the Spirit of the age to come.<\/p>\nThe later prophets again spoke of the Spirit in explicit terms as the inspirer of prophecy (see Ez 3:1-4, 22-24; Hg 2:5; Zec 4:6). As they looked back to the preexilic period, these prophets freely attributed the inspiration of “the former prophets” to the Spirit as well (Zec 7:12).<\/p>\nThis tendency to exalt the Spirit’s role as the inspirer of prophecy became steadily stronger in the period between the OT and NT, until in rabbinic Judaism the Spirit was almost exclusively the inspirer of the prophetic writings now regarded as Scripture.<\/p>\nThe other understanding of the Spirit’s role during exilic and postexilic times was that the Spirit would be the manifestation of the power of God in the age to come. That eschatological hope of divine power effecting a final cleansing and a renewed creation is rooted principally in Isaiah’s prophecies (Is 4:4; 32:15; 44:3-4). Isaiah speaks of one anointed by the Spirit to accomplish complete and final salvation (11:2; 42:1; 61:1). Elsewhere, the same longing is expressed in terms of the Spirit being freely dispensed to all Israel (Ez 39:29; Jl 2:28-29; Zec 12:10) in the new covenant (Jer 31:31-34; Ez 36:26-27).<\/p>\nIn the period prior to Jesus, the understanding of the Spirit as the Spirit of prophecy and as the Spirit of the age to come had developed into the widespread dogma that the Spirit was no longer to be experienced in the present. The Spirit had been known in the past as the inspirer of prophetic writings, but after Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi, the Spirit had withdrawn (1 Macc 4:44-46; 9:27; 2 Bar 85:1-3; see also Ps 74:9; Zec 13:2-6). The Spirit would be known again in the age of the Messiah, but in the interim the Spirit was absent from Israel. Even the great Hillel (learned Jewish leader and teacher, 60? BC<\/span>–AD<\/span> 20?), a near contemporary of Jesus, had not received the Spirit—though if anyone was worthy of the Spirit, it was he. There is a tradition that at a meeting of Hillel and other wise men, a voice from heaven said, “Among those here present is one who would have deserved the Holy Spirit to rest upon him, if his time had been worthy of it.” The wise men all looked at Hillel.<\/p>\nThe consequence of this accepted dearth of the Spirit was that the Spirit in effect became subordinated to the law. The Spirit was the inspirer of the law, but since the Spirit could no longer be experienced directly, the law became the sole voice of the Spirit. It was this increasing dominance of the law and its authoritative interpreters that provided the background for the mission of Jesus and the initial spread of Christianity.<\/p>\nIn the New Testament<\/p>\nIf we are to understand the NT’s teaching on the Spirit, we must recognize both its continuity and discontinuity with the OT. At many points NT usage cannot be fully understood except against the background of OT concepts or passages. For example, the ambiguity of John 3:8 (“wind,” “Spirit”), 2 Thessalonians 2:8 (“breath”), and Revelation 11:11 (“breath of life”) takes us back to the basic Hebrew meanings of “spirit.” Acts 8:39 and Revelation 17:3 and 21:10 reflect the same conception of the Spirit that we find in 1 Kings 18:12, 2 Kings 2:16, and Ezekiel 3:14. The NT writers generally share the rabbinic view that Scripture has the authority of the Spirit behind it (see Mk 12:36; Acts 28:25; Heb 3:7; 2 Pt 1:21). The principal continuity is that the NT brings the fulfillment of what the OT writers looked forward to. At the same time, Christianity is not simply fulfilled Judaism. Jesus’ coming and his giving of his Spirit to live within his believers marks off the new faith as something new and distinct.<\/p>\n<h5>The Spirit of the New Age<\/h5>\nThe most striking feature of Jesus’ ministry and of the message of the earliest Christians was their conviction and proclamation that the blessings of the new age were already present, that the eschatological Spirit had already been poured out. With the exception of the Essenes at Qumran, no other group or individual within the Jewish religion of that time had dared to make such a bold claim. The prophets and the rabbis looked for a messianic age yet to come, and the apocalyptic writers warned of its imminent arrival, but none thought of it as already present. Even John the Baptist spoke only of one about to come and of the Spirit’s operation in the imminent future (Mk 1:8). But for Jesus and first-century Christians, the longed for hope was a living reality, and the claim carried with it the exciting sense of being in “the last days.” Without some recognition of that eschatological dimension of the Christians’ faith and life, we cannot understand this teaching on, and experience of, the Spirit.<\/p>\nJesus clearly thought of his teachings and healings as fulfillment of the prophetic hope (Mt 12:41-42; 13:16-17; Lk 17:20-21). In particular, he saw himself as the one anointed by the Spirit to provide salvation (Mt 5:3-6; 11:5; Lk 4:17-19). So, too, Jesus understood his exorcisms as the effect of the power of God and as manifestations of the end-time rule of God (Mt 12:27-28; Mk 3:22-26). The Gospel writers, especially Luke, emphasize the eschatological character of Jesus’ life and ministry by stressing the role of the Spirit in his birth (Mt 1:18; Lk 1:35, 41, 67; 2:25-27), his baptism (Mk 1:9-10; Acts 10:38), and his ministry (Mt 4:1; 12:18; Mk 1:12; Lk 4:1, 14; 10:21; Jn 3:34).<\/p>\nThe Christian church began with the in-breathing of the Holy Spirit on the day of Christ’s resurrection (Jn 20:22), followed by the outpouring of the Spirit at Pentecost “in the last days.” The overwhelming experience of vision and inspired utterance was taken as proof positive that the new age prophesied by Joel had now arrived (Acts 2:2-5, 17-18). Similarly, in Hebrews the gift of the Spirit is spoken of as “the powers of the age to come” (Heb 6:4-5). More striking still is Paul’s understanding of the Spirit as the guarantee of God’s complete salvation (2 Cor 1:22; 5:5; Eph 1:13-14), and as the first installment of the believer’s inheritance of God’s kingdom (Rom 8:15-17; 1 Cor 6:9-11; 15:42-50; Gal 4:6-7; 5:16-18, 21-23; Eph 1:13-14). The Spirit is here again thought of as the power of the age to come, as that power (which will characterize God’s rule at the end of time) already shaping and transforming the lives of believers.<\/p>\nFor Paul, this means also that the gift of the Spirit is but the beginning of a lifelong process that will not end until the believer’s whole person is brought under the Spirit’s power (Rom 8:11, 23; 1 Cor 15:44-49; 2 Cor 3:18; 5:1-5). It also means that the present experience of faith is one of lifelong tension between what God has already begun to bring about in the believer’s life and what has not yet been brought under God’s grace (Phil 1:6). It is this tension between life “in the Spirit” and life “in the flesh” (see Gal 2:20) that comes to poignant expression in Romans 7:24 and 2 Corinthians 5:2-4.<\/p>\n<h5>The Spirit of New Life<\/h5>\nSince the Spirit is the mark of the new age, it is not surprising that the NT writers understood the gift of the Spirit to be that which brings an individual into the new age. John the Baptist described the way the coming one would baptize with the Holy Spirit and with fire (Mt 3:11). According to Acts 1:5 and 11:16, this imagery was taken up by Jesus, and the promise is seen as fulfilled at Pentecost—the outpouring of the Spirit here being understood as the risen Christ’s action in drawing his disciples into the new age (Acts 2:17, 33).<\/p>\nIt seems to be one of Luke’s aims in the book of Acts to highlight the central importance of the gift of the Spirit in conversion-initiation—it is that decisive “gift of the Holy Spirit” that makes one a Christian (Acts 2:38-39). People could have been followers of Jesus on earth, but it was only when they received the gift of the Spirit that they could be said to have “believed in the Lord Jesus Christ” (11:16-17). When the Spirit’s presence was manifested in and upon a person’s life, that was recognized by Peter as proof enough that God had accepted that person, even though he or she had not yet made any formal profession of faith or been baptized (10:44-48; 11:15-18; 15:7-9). So too Apollos, already aglow with the Spirit (18:25), even though his knowledge of “the way of God” was slightly defective (vv 24-26), apparently was not required to supplement his “baptism of John” with Christian baptism. However, the 12 so-called disciples at Ephesus proved by their very ignorance of the Spirit that they were not yet disciples of the Lord Jesus (19:1-6). Paul asked these 12 men, “Did you receive the Holy Spirit when you believed?” (19:2).<\/p>\nThis accords with Paul’s emphasis in his letters. Belief and reception of the Spirit go together: to receive the Spirit is to begin the Christian life (Gal 3:2-3); to be baptized in the Spirit is to become a member of the body of Christ (1 Cor 12:13); to “have the Spirit of Christ” is to belong to Christ (Rom 8:9-11); to receive the Spirit is tantamount to becoming a child of God (Rom 8:14-17; Gal 4:6-7). The Spirit so characterizes the new age and the life of the new age that only the gift of the Spirit can bring a person into the new age to experience the life of the new age. For the Spirit is distinctively and peculiarly the life-giver; the Spirit indeed is<\/em> the life of the new age (Rom 8:2, 6, 10; 1 Cor 15:45; 2 Cor 3:6; Gal 5:25).<\/p>\nIn just the same way in John’s writings, the Spirit is characteristically the life-giving Spirit (Jn 6:63), the power from above, the seed of divine life that brings about the new birth (Jn 3:3-8; 1 Jn 3:9), and a river of living water that brings life when one believes in Christ (Jn 7:37-39; so also 4:10, 14). Or again, reception of the Spirit in John 20:22 is depicted as a new creation analogous to Genesis 2:7. Consequently, in 1 John 3:24 and 4:13, possession and experience of the Spirit count as one of the “tests of life” listed in that letter.<\/p>\n<h5>Manifestations of the Spirit<\/h5>\nIt will be clear from what has already been said that when the first Christians, like the ancient Hebrews, spoke of the Spirit, they were thinking of experiences of divine power. In the NT, as in the OT, “Spirit” is the word used to explain the experience of new life and vitality (see above), of liberation from legalism (e.g., Rom 8:2; 2 Cor 3:17), of spiritual refreshing and renewal (cf. e.g., Is 32:15; Ez 39:29 with Jn 7:37-39; Rom 5:5; 1 Cor 12:13; 1 Tm 3:5-6). It is important to realize how wide a range of experiences were attributed to the Spirit: ecstatic experiences (Acts 2:24; 10:43-47; 19:6; cf. 10:10; 22:17—“in ecstasy”; 2 Cor 12:1-4; Rv 1:10), emotional experiences (e.g., love—Rom 5:5; joy—Acts 13:52; 1 Thes 1:6; see also Gal 5:22; Phil 2:1-2), experiences of illumination (2 Cor 3:14-17; Eph 1:17-18; Heb 6:4-5; 1 Jn 2:20-21), and experiences issuing in moral transformation (1 Cor 6:9-11). Likewise, when Paul speaks of spiritual gifts, called charismata<\/span> (acts or words that bring divine grace to concrete expression), he evidently has a wide range of actual events in mind: inspired speech (1 Cor 12:8-10; 1 Thes 1:5), miracles and healings (1 Cor 12:9; Gal 3:5; cf. Heb 2:4), and various acts of service and help, of counsel and administration, and of aid and mercy (Rom 12:7-8; 1 Cor 12:28).<\/p>\nIn talking thus of the Spirit in terms of experience, we should not overemphasize particular experiences or manifestations, as though earliest Christianity consisted of a sequence of mountaintop experiences or spiritual highs. There clearly were such experiences, indeed a wide range of experiences, but no one experience is singled out to be sought by all (except prophecy). There is no distinctively second (or third) experience of the Spirit in the NT, and Paul warned against overvaluing particular manifestations of the Spirit (1 Cor 14:6-19; 2 Cor 12:1-10; cf. Mk 8:11-13). Where particular experiences are valued, it is as manifestations of a more sustained experience, particular expressions of an underlying relationship (cf. Acts 6:3-5; 11:24—“full of the Spirit”; Eph 5:18). What we are in touch with here is the vigor of the experiential dimension of earliest Christianity. If the Spirit is the breath of the new life in Christ (cf. Ez 37:9-10, 14; Jn 20:22; 1 Cor 15:45), then presumably the analogy extends further, and the experience of the Spirit is like the experience of breathing: one is not conscious of it all the time, but if one is not conscious of it, at least sometimes, something is wrong.<\/p>\n<h5>The Fellowship of the Spirit<\/h5>\nIt was out of this shared experience of the Spirit that the earliest Christian community grew and developed, for this is what “the fellowship [koinonia<\/span>] of the Spirit” properly means: common participation in the same Spirit (Phil 2:1; cf. Acts 2:42; 1 Cor 1:4-9). It was the gift of the Spirit that brought those in Samaria, Caesarea, and elsewhere effectively into the community of the Spirit (Act 8, 10). So also, it was the experience of the one Spirit that provided the unifying bond in the churches of Paul’s mission (1 Cor 12:13; Eph 4:3-4; Phil 2:1-2). Here we see the real importance of the divine manifestations of the Spirit for Paul: it is out of the diversity of these particular manifestations that the body of Christ grows in unity (Rom 12:4-8; 1 Cor 12:12-17; Eph 4:4-16).<\/p>","summary_ro":"SPIRIT OF GOD Description of God in action, God in motion. The word “spirit” (Hebrew, ruach; Greek, pneuma) is the word used from ancient times to describe and explain the experience of divine power working in, upon, and around people. In the Old Testament There are three basic meanings evident in the use of “spirit” from the earliest Hebrew writings: It was a wind from God, it was the breath of life, and it was a spirit of ecstasy. First, it was a wind from God (the same Hebrew word translat...","summary_en":"SPIRIT OF GOD Description of God in action, God in motion. The word “spirit” (Hebrew, ruach; Greek, pneuma) is the word used from ancient times to describe and explain the experience of divine power working in, upon, and around people. In the Old Testament There are three basic meanings evident in the use of “spirit” from the earliest Hebrew writings: It was a wind from God, it was the breath of life, and it was a spirit of ecstasy. First, it was a wind from God (the same Hebrew word translat...","source":"Articles\/S.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":51654,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 42:1","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 42:1","content_ro":"42:1-4<\/strong> The servant<\/em> here is not the people Israel (as in 41:8-28 and elsewhere in chs 41–48; see 49:5-6) but is a royal figure who accomplishes his mission with care for people, especially for those who are hurting. The passage is the first of four songs about this servant (42:1-4; 49:1-13; 50:4-11; 52:13–53:12). He brings in an era of universal justice. For the connection of the servant with Jesus Christ, see Matt 12:18-21.<\/p>","content_en":"42:1-4<\/strong> The servant<\/em> here is not the people Israel (as in 41:8-28 and elsewhere in chs 41–48; see 49:5-6) but is a royal figure who accomplishes his mission with care for people, especially for those who are hurting. The passage is the first of four songs about this servant (42:1-4; 49:1-13; 50:4-11; 52:13–53:12). He brings in an era of universal justice. For the connection of the servant with Jesus Christ, see Matt 12:18-21.<\/p>","summary_ro":"42:1-4 The servant here is not the people Israel (as in 41:8-28 and elsewhere in chs 41–48; see 49:5-6) but is a royal figure who accomplishes his mission with care for people, especially for those who are hurting. The passage is the first of four songs about this servant (42:1-4; 49:1-13; 50:4-11; 52:13–53:12). He brings in an era of universal justice. For the connection of the servant with Jesus Christ, see Matt 12:18-21.","summary_en":"42:1-4 The servant here is not the people Israel (as in 41:8-28 and elsewhere in chs 41–48; see 49:5-6) but is a royal figure who accomplishes his mission with care for people, especially for those who are hurting. The passage is the first of four songs about this servant (42:1-4; 49:1-13; 50:4-11; 52:13–53:12). He brings in an era of universal justice. For the connection of the servant with Jesus Christ, see Matt 12:18-21.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":51655,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 42:1","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 42:1","content_ro":"42:1<\/strong> who pleases me:<\/em> God used similar language at Jesus’ baptism (Matt 3:17). • I have put my Spirit upon him:<\/em> Any leader might be called a servant, but the presence of the Spirit suggests a king of David’s line or a prophet like Moses (see Num 11:17, 24-29). • Establishing justice<\/em> is the responsibility of a king (see Isa 9:6-7; Ps 72:1). • This king’s mission will be a greater mission to the nations<\/em> than simply governing the small nation of Judah.<\/p>","content_en":"42:1<\/strong> who pleases me:<\/em> God used similar language at Jesus’ baptism (Matt 3:17). • I have put my Spirit upon him:<\/em> Any leader might be called a servant, but the presence of the Spirit suggests a king of David’s line or a prophet like Moses (see Num 11:17, 24-29). • Establishing justice<\/em> is the responsibility of a king (see Isa 9:6-7; Ps 72:1). • This king’s mission will be a greater mission to the nations<\/em> than simply governing the small nation of Judah.<\/p>","summary_ro":"42:1 who pleases me: God used similar language at Jesus’ baptism (Matt 3:17). • I have put my Spirit upon him: Any leader might be called a servant, but the presence of the Spirit suggests a king of David’s line or a prophet like Moses (see Num 11:17, 24-29). • Establishing justice is the responsibility of a king (see Isa 9:6-7; Ps 72:1). • This king’s mission will be a greater mission to the nations than simply governing the small nation of Judah.","summary_en":"42:1 who pleases me: God used similar language at Jesus’ baptism (Matt 3:17). • I have put my Spirit upon him: Any leader might be called a servant, but the presence of the Spirit suggests a king of David’s line or a prophet like Moses (see Num 11:17, 24-29). • Establishing justice is the responsibility of a king (see Isa 9:6-7; Ps 72:1). • This king’s mission will be a greater mission to the nations than simply governing the small nation of Judah.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":79280,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 42:1","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 42:1","content_ro":"42:1-4<\/strong> The servant<\/em> here is not the people Israel (as in 41:8-28 and elsewhere in chs 41–48; see 49:5-6) but is a royal figure who accomplishes his mission with care for people, especially for those who are hurting. The passage is the first of four songs about this servant (42:1-4; 49:1-13; 50:4-11; 52:13–53:12). He brings in an era of universal justice. For the connection of the servant with Jesus Christ, see Matt 12:18-21.<\/p>","content_en":"42:1-4<\/strong> The servant<\/em> here is not the people Israel (as in 41:8-28 and elsewhere in chs 41–48; see 49:5-6) but is a royal figure who accomplishes his mission with care for people, especially for those who are hurting. The passage is the first of four songs about this servant (42:1-4; 49:1-13; 50:4-11; 52:13–53:12). He brings in an era of universal justice. For the connection of the servant with Jesus Christ, see Matt 12:18-21.<\/p>","summary_ro":"42:1-4 The servant here is not the people Israel (as in 41:8-28 and elsewhere in chs 41–48; see 49:5-6) but is a royal figure who accomplishes his mission with care for people, especially for those who are hurting. The passage is the first of four songs about this servant (42:1-4; 49:1-13; 50:4-11; 52:13–53:12). He brings in an era of universal justice. For the connection of the servant with Jesus Christ, see Matt 12:18-21.","summary_en":"42:1-4 The servant here is not the people Israel (as in 41:8-28 and elsewhere in chs 41–48; see 49:5-6) but is a royal figure who accomplishes his mission with care for people, especially for those who are hurting. The passage is the first of four songs about this servant (42:1-4; 49:1-13; 50:4-11; 52:13–53:12). He brings in an era of universal justice. For the connection of the servant with Jesus Christ, see Matt 12:18-21.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":79281,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 42:1","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 42:1","content_ro":"42:1<\/strong> who pleases me:<\/em> God used similar language at Jesus’ baptism (Matt 3:17). • I have put my Spirit upon him:<\/em> Any leader might be called a servant, but the presence of the Spirit suggests a king of David’s line or a prophet like Moses (see Num 11:17, 24-29). • Establishing justice<\/em> is the responsibility of a king (see Isa 9:6-7; Ps 72:1). • This king’s mission will be a greater mission to the nations<\/em> than simply governing the small nation of Judah.<\/p>","content_en":"42:1<\/strong> who pleases me:<\/em> God used similar language at Jesus’ baptism (Matt 3:17). • I have put my Spirit upon him:<\/em> Any leader might be called a servant, but the presence of the Spirit suggests a king of David’s line or a prophet like Moses (see Num 11:17, 24-29). • Establishing justice<\/em> is the responsibility of a king (see Isa 9:6-7; Ps 72:1). • This king’s mission will be a greater mission to the nations<\/em> than simply governing the small nation of Judah.<\/p>","summary_ro":"42:1 who pleases me: God used similar language at Jesus’ baptism (Matt 3:17). • I have put my Spirit upon him: Any leader might be called a servant, but the presence of the Spirit suggests a king of David’s line or a prophet like Moses (see Num 11:17, 24-29). • Establishing justice is the responsibility of a king (see Isa 9:6-7; Ps 72:1). • This king’s mission will be a greater mission to the nations than simply governing the small nation of Judah.","summary_en":"42:1 who pleases me: God used similar language at Jesus’ baptism (Matt 3:17). • I have put my Spirit upon him: Any leader might be called a servant, but the presence of the Spirit suggests a king of David’s line or a prophet like Moses (see Num 11:17, 24-29). • Establishing justice is the responsibility of a king (see Isa 9:6-7; Ps 72:1). • This king’s mission will be a greater mission to the nations than simply governing the small nation of Judah.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":106906,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 42:1","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 42:1","content_ro":"42:1-4<\/strong> The servant<\/em> here is not the people Israel (as in 41:8-28 and elsewhere in chs 41–48; see 49:5-6) but is a royal figure who accomplishes his mission with care for people, especially for those who are hurting. The passage is the first of four songs about this servant (42:1-4; 49:1-13; 50:4-11; 52:13–53:12). He brings in an era of universal justice. For the connection of the servant with Jesus Christ, see Matt 12:18-21.<\/p>","content_en":"42:1-4<\/strong> The servant<\/em> here is not the people Israel (as in 41:8-28 and elsewhere in chs 41–48; see 49:5-6) but is a royal figure who accomplishes his mission with care for people, especially for those who are hurting. The passage is the first of four songs about this servant (42:1-4; 49:1-13; 50:4-11; 52:13–53:12). He brings in an era of universal justice. For the connection of the servant with Jesus Christ, see Matt 12:18-21.<\/p>","summary_ro":"42:1-4 The servant here is not the people Israel (as in 41:8-28 and elsewhere in chs 41–48; see 49:5-6) but is a royal figure who accomplishes his mission with care for people, especially for those who are hurting. The passage is the first of four songs about this servant (42:1-4; 49:1-13; 50:4-11; 52:13–53:12). He brings in an era of universal justice. For the connection of the servant with Jesus Christ, see Matt 12:18-21.","summary_en":"42:1-4 The servant here is not the people Israel (as in 41:8-28 and elsewhere in chs 41–48; see 49:5-6) but is a royal figure who accomplishes his mission with care for people, especially for those who are hurting. The passage is the first of four songs about this servant (42:1-4; 49:1-13; 50:4-11; 52:13–53:12). He brings in an era of universal justice. For the connection of the servant with Jesus Christ, see Matt 12:18-21.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":106907,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 42:1","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 42:1","content_ro":"42:1<\/strong> who pleases me:<\/em> God used similar language at Jesus’ baptism (Matt 3:17). • I have put my Spirit upon him:<\/em> Any leader might be called a servant, but the presence of the Spirit suggests a king of David’s line or a prophet like Moses (see Num 11:17, 24-29). • Establishing justice<\/em> is the responsibility of a king (see Isa 9:6-7; Ps 72:1). • This king’s mission will be a greater mission to the nations<\/em> than simply governing the small nation of Judah.<\/p>","content_en":"42:1<\/strong> who pleases me:<\/em> God used similar language at Jesus’ baptism (Matt 3:17). • I have put my Spirit upon him:<\/em> Any leader might be called a servant, but the presence of the Spirit suggests a king of David’s line or a prophet like Moses (see Num 11:17, 24-29). • Establishing justice<\/em> is the responsibility of a king (see Isa 9:6-7; Ps 72:1). • This king’s mission will be a greater mission to the nations<\/em> than simply governing the small nation of Judah.<\/p>","summary_ro":"42:1 who pleases me: God used similar language at Jesus’ baptism (Matt 3:17). • I have put my Spirit upon him: Any leader might be called a servant, but the presence of the Spirit suggests a king of David’s line or a prophet like Moses (see Num 11:17, 24-29). • Establishing justice is the responsibility of a king (see Isa 9:6-7; Ps 72:1). • This king’s mission will be a greater mission to the nations than simply governing the small nation of Judah.","summary_en":"42:1 who pleases me: God used similar language at Jesus’ baptism (Matt 3:17). • I have put my Spirit upon him: Any leader might be called a servant, but the presence of the Spirit suggests a king of David’s line or a prophet like Moses (see Num 11:17, 24-29). • Establishing justice is the responsibility of a king (see Isa 9:6-7; Ps 72:1). • This king’s mission will be a greater mission to the nations than simply governing the small nation of Judah.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":134532,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 42:1","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 42:1","content_ro":"42:1-4<\/strong> The servant<\/em> here is not the people Israel (as in 41:8-28 and elsewhere in chs 41–48; see 49:5-6) but is a royal figure who accomplishes his mission with care for people, especially for those who are hurting. The passage is the first of four songs about this servant (42:1-4; 49:1-13; 50:4-11; 52:13–53:12). He brings in an era of universal justice. For the connection of the servant with Jesus Christ, see Matt 12:18-21.<\/p>","content_en":"42:1-4<\/strong> The servant<\/em> here is not the people Israel (as in 41:8-28 and elsewhere in chs 41–48; see 49:5-6) but is a royal figure who accomplishes his mission with care for people, especially for those who are hurting. The passage is the first of four songs about this servant (42:1-4; 49:1-13; 50:4-11; 52:13–53:12). He brings in an era of universal justice. For the connection of the servant with Jesus Christ, see Matt 12:18-21.<\/p>","summary_ro":"42:1-4 The servant here is not the people Israel (as in 41:8-28 and elsewhere in chs 41–48; see 49:5-6) but is a royal figure who accomplishes his mission with care for people, especially for those who are hurting. The passage is the first of four songs about this servant (42:1-4; 49:1-13; 50:4-11; 52:13–53:12). He brings in an era of universal justice. For the connection of the servant with Jesus Christ, see Matt 12:18-21.","summary_en":"42:1-4 The servant here is not the people Israel (as in 41:8-28 and elsewhere in chs 41–48; see 49:5-6) but is a royal figure who accomplishes his mission with care for people, especially for those who are hurting. The passage is the first of four songs about this servant (42:1-4; 49:1-13; 50:4-11; 52:13–53:12). He brings in an era of universal justice. For the connection of the servant with Jesus Christ, see Matt 12:18-21.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":134533,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 42:1","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 42:1","content_ro":"42:1<\/strong> who pleases me:<\/em> God used similar language at Jesus’ baptism (Matt 3:17). • I have put my Spirit upon him:<\/em> Any leader might be called a servant, but the presence of the Spirit suggests a king of David’s line or a prophet like Moses (see Num 11:17, 24-29). • Establishing justice<\/em> is the responsibility of a king (see Isa 9:6-7; Ps 72:1). • This king’s mission will be a greater mission to the nations<\/em> than simply governing the small nation of Judah.<\/p>","content_en":"42:1<\/strong> who pleases me:<\/em> God used similar language at Jesus’ baptism (Matt 3:17). • I have put my Spirit upon him:<\/em> Any leader might be called a servant, but the presence of the Spirit suggests a king of David’s line or a prophet like Moses (see Num 11:17, 24-29). • Establishing justice<\/em> is the responsibility of a king (see Isa 9:6-7; Ps 72:1). • This king’s mission will be a greater mission to the nations<\/em> than simply governing the small nation of Judah.<\/p>","summary_ro":"42:1 who pleases me: God used similar language at Jesus’ baptism (Matt 3:17). • I have put my Spirit upon him: Any leader might be called a servant, but the presence of the Spirit suggests a king of David’s line or a prophet like Moses (see Num 11:17, 24-29). • Establishing justice is the responsibility of a king (see Isa 9:6-7; Ps 72:1). • This king’s mission will be a greater mission to the nations than simply governing the small nation of Judah.","summary_en":"42:1 who pleases me: God used similar language at Jesus’ baptism (Matt 3:17). • I have put my Spirit upon him: Any leader might be called a servant, but the presence of the Spirit suggests a king of David’s line or a prophet like Moses (see Num 11:17, 24-29). • Establishing justice is the responsibility of a king (see Isa 9:6-7; Ps 72:1). • This king’s mission will be a greater mission to the nations than simply governing the small nation of Judah.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":61986,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God’s Inscrutable Purposes in History","title_en":"God’s Inscrutable Purposes in History","content_ro":"<h3>God’s Inscrutable Purposes in History<\/h3>\nGod directs people and events to fulfill his purposes in history. He has no need to explain himself, but he always has a purpose that he is working out; he guides individuals, nations, and events in accord with his will. This philosophy of history remains consistent throughout biblical history. God works through human actions to bring about results that he has planned and that cannot be explained in any other way except his orchestration.<\/p>\nFor example, the Chronicler gives just one explanation for the continued division of the kingdom of Israel: Rehoboam and those loyal to him “obeyed the message of the Lord<\/span> and did not fight against Jeroboam” (2 Chr 11:4). The cause of the division—the irrational response of Rehoboam to the people’s request—has already been explained in the previous narrative: “This turn of events was the will of God, for it fulfilled the Lord<\/span>’s message to Jeroboam son of Nebat through the prophet Ahijah from Shiloh” (10:15). Rehoboam may have been able to easily defeat the rebels, but he was deterred by the will of the Lord.<\/p>\nObedience to God’s will brought positive results for Rehoboam: He fortified cities; he put military leaders, equipment, and food supplies in place; loyal citizens migrated to his territory; and he had a large family. God’s will was clear, and the benefit to Rehoboam was obvious, yet the Chronicler could not explain God’s purposes. Readers of the book today are also left to ponder why God allowed the kingdom to remain divided.<\/p>\nThe prophet Isaiah declares the mystery of God’s ways: “‘My thoughts are nothing like your thoughts,’ says the Lord<\/span>. ‘And my ways are far beyond anything you could imagine. For just as the heavens are higher than the earth, so my ways are higher than your ways and my thoughts higher than your thoughts’” (Isa 55:8-9). Those who fear God learn not to lean on human understanding, but to follow the word of God even when it is contrary to earthly values.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n1 Kgs 8:56-61; 2 Chr 10:1–11:4; Job 42:1-6; Ps 115:1-3; Isa 40:9-31; 42:1-17; 55:8-13; Rom 8:26-30; Eph 1:9-14<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God’s Inscrutable Purposes in History<\/h3>\nGod directs people and events to fulfill his purposes in history. He has no need to explain himself, but he always has a purpose that he is working out; he guides individuals, nations, and events in accord with his will. This philosophy of history remains consistent throughout biblical history. God works through human actions to bring about results that he has planned and that cannot be explained in any other way except his orchestration.<\/p>\nFor example, the Chronicler gives just one explanation for the continued division of the kingdom of Israel: Rehoboam and those loyal to him “obeyed the message of the Lord<\/span> and did not fight against Jeroboam” (2 Chr 11:4). The cause of the division—the irrational response of Rehoboam to the people’s request—has already been explained in the previous narrative: “This turn of events was the will of God, for it fulfilled the Lord<\/span>’s message to Jeroboam son of Nebat through the prophet Ahijah from Shiloh” (10:15). Rehoboam may have been able to easily defeat the rebels, but he was deterred by the will of the Lord.<\/p>\nObedience to God’s will brought positive results for Rehoboam: He fortified cities; he put military leaders, equipment, and food supplies in place; loyal citizens migrated to his territory; and he had a large family. God’s will was clear, and the benefit to Rehoboam was obvious, yet the Chronicler could not explain God’s purposes. Readers of the book today are also left to ponder why God allowed the kingdom to remain divided.<\/p>\nThe prophet Isaiah declares the mystery of God’s ways: “‘My thoughts are nothing like your thoughts,’ says the Lord<\/span>. ‘And my ways are far beyond anything you could imagine. For just as the heavens are higher than the earth, so my ways are higher than your ways and my thoughts higher than your thoughts’” (Isa 55:8-9). Those who fear God learn not to lean on human understanding, but to follow the word of God even when it is contrary to earthly values.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n1 Kgs 8:56-61; 2 Chr 10:1–11:4; Job 42:1-6; Ps 115:1-3; Isa 40:9-31; 42:1-17; 55:8-13; Rom 8:26-30; Eph 1:9-14<\/p>","summary_ro":"God’s Inscrutable Purposes in History God directs people and events to fulfill his purposes in history. He has no need to explain himself, but he always has a purpose that he is working out; he guides individuals, nations, and events in accord with his will. This philosophy of history remains consistent throughout biblical history. God works through human actions to bring about results that he has planned and that cannot be explained in any other way except his orchestration. For example, the...","summary_en":"God’s Inscrutable Purposes in History God directs people and events to fulfill his purposes in history. He has no need to explain himself, but he always has a purpose that he is working out; he guides individuals, nations, and events in accord with his will. This philosophy of history remains consistent throughout biblical history. God works through human actions to bring about results that he has planned and that cannot be explained in any other way except his orchestration. For example, the...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":62716,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Psalms of Suffering","title_en":"Psalms of Suffering","content_ro":"<h3>Psalms of Suffering<\/h3>\nThe four psalms of suffering (also called “Passion Psalms”; Pss 16; 22; 40; 69) address the deep distress experienced by God’s servant.<\/p>\nPsalm 22 has perhaps the most remarkable language of the psalms of suffering. In this psalm, God’s servant suffers though he is righteous. There is no suggestion of any sin, so the psalmist’s suffering appears completely unjustified. Despite bitter persecution, there is no prayer for vengeance (see Ps 137). This psalm has some noteworthy connections with the crucifixion of Christ (e.g., Ps 22:6-8, 14-18). In fact, Jesus recited part of Psalm 22 when he was on the cross (22:1; see Matt 27:46). The sinless Christ even prayed for his executioners (Luke 23:34).<\/p>\nThe other psalms of suffering also came to be associated with Christ. Psalm 16:10 anticipates Christ’s triumph over death (cp. Acts 2:24-31). Psalm 40:6-8 foreshadows the self-giving, redemptive work of Christ (Heb 10:5-10). Psalm 69 refers to isolation as resulting from commitment to God’s cause (69:8-9). It also anticipates the part Judas played in what was fundamentally God’s work in Christ (69:25-26; see Ps 109:8; Isa 53:10; Acts 1:20).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nPss 16; 22; 40; 69; 102; 109; Isa 42:1-9; 52:13–53:12; Matt 27:46; Luke 23:34; Heb 10:5-10<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Psalms of Suffering<\/h3>\nThe four psalms of suffering (also called “Passion Psalms”; Pss 16; 22; 40; 69) address the deep distress experienced by God’s servant.<\/p>\nPsalm 22 has perhaps the most remarkable language of the psalms of suffering. In this psalm, God’s servant suffers though he is righteous. There is no suggestion of any sin, so the psalmist’s suffering appears completely unjustified. Despite bitter persecution, there is no prayer for vengeance (see Ps 137). This psalm has some noteworthy connections with the crucifixion of Christ (e.g., Ps 22:6-8, 14-18). In fact, Jesus recited part of Psalm 22 when he was on the cross (22:1; see Matt 27:46). The sinless Christ even prayed for his executioners (Luke 23:34).<\/p>\nThe other psalms of suffering also came to be associated with Christ. Psalm 16:10 anticipates Christ’s triumph over death (cp. Acts 2:24-31). Psalm 40:6-8 foreshadows the self-giving, redemptive work of Christ (Heb 10:5-10). Psalm 69 refers to isolation as resulting from commitment to God’s cause (69:8-9). It also anticipates the part Judas played in what was fundamentally God’s work in Christ (69:25-26; see Ps 109:8; Isa 53:10; Acts 1:20).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nPss 16; 22; 40; 69; 102; 109; Isa 42:1-9; 52:13–53:12; Matt 27:46; Luke 23:34; Heb 10:5-10<\/p>","summary_ro":"Psalms of Suffering The four psalms of suffering (also called “Passion Psalms”; Pss 16; 22; 40; 69) address the deep distress experienced by God’s servant. Psalm 22 has perhaps the most remarkable language of the psalms of suffering. In this psalm, God’s servant suffers though he is righteous. There is no suggestion of any sin, so the psalmist’s suffering appears completely unjustified. Despite bitter persecution, there is no prayer for vengeance (see Ps 137). This psalm has some noteworthy c...","summary_en":"Psalms of Suffering The four psalms of suffering (also called “Passion Psalms”; Pss 16; 22; 40; 69) address the deep distress experienced by God’s servant. Psalm 22 has perhaps the most remarkable language of the psalms of suffering. In this psalm, God’s servant suffers though he is righteous. There is no suggestion of any sin, so the psalmist’s suffering appears completely unjustified. Despite bitter persecution, there is no prayer for vengeance (see Ps 137). This psalm has some noteworthy c...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":63773,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Fearing People","title_en":"Fearing People","content_ro":"<h3>Fearing People<\/h3>\nGod had promised to be with his people in the face of opposition (see, e.g., Deut 20:1-4; Josh 1:9); as long as they remained committed to him, they had no reason to fear others. Israel’s history demonstrated this reality (see Exod 14:10-31; Josh 10:9-14). But for those who look elsewhere for peace and security, God can be a stumbling stone rather than a source of safety (Isa 8:14).<\/p>\nDuring the reign of King Ahaz of Judah, when the king heard that Syria and Israel had allied against him, he trembled in fear (Isa 7:2). The Lord encouraged him to be a man of faith, because without faith he could not expect the Lord’s protection (7:9). However, Ahaz refused to trust the Lord. Rather, he turned to the Assyrians for help. As a result, the Lord became a trap for him, as well as for all Israel and Judah (8:11-15).<\/p>\nOne of the purposes of Isaiah’s message was to highlight the contrast between faith and fear. We see Ahaz as an example of fear. We then see Hezekiah as an imperfect example of faith (see ch 37). Isaiah himself provides a better example of faith (ch 8). Finally, God’s servant stands as the ideal example of faith (42:1-7; 50:4-7).<\/p>\nJesus instructed his followers not to fear those who threaten them—even those who wish to kill them (Matt 10:26-31). The same God who is aware of the happenings of each individual sparrow and who knows the number of hairs on a person’s head will be with those who trust in him. Such trust has been demonstrated by believers throughout history who have rejected the fear of what others can do to them—even to the point of martyrdom (see Acts 6:8–7:60).<\/p>\nThose who do not commit themselves wholly to God will live in fear of others. But those who rely on the Lord will be able to overcome such fear, recognizing the temporality of human foes and the enduring sovereignty of God.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nNum 14:1-12; 21:34-35; Josh 1:9; 2 Kgs 16:5-18; 2 Chr 28:16-23; Ps 23:4; Prov 29:25; Isa 7:1-25; 41:10; 51:7-8, 12-13; 54:4; 57:11; Jer 10:5; 30:10; 46:27-28<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Fearing People<\/h3>\nGod had promised to be with his people in the face of opposition (see, e.g., Deut 20:1-4; Josh 1:9); as long as they remained committed to him, they had no reason to fear others. Israel’s history demonstrated this reality (see Exod 14:10-31; Josh 10:9-14). But for those who look elsewhere for peace and security, God can be a stumbling stone rather than a source of safety (Isa 8:14).<\/p>\nDuring the reign of King Ahaz of Judah, when the king heard that Syria and Israel had allied against him, he trembled in fear (Isa 7:2). The Lord encouraged him to be a man of faith, because without faith he could not expect the Lord’s protection (7:9). However, Ahaz refused to trust the Lord. Rather, he turned to the Assyrians for help. As a result, the Lord became a trap for him, as well as for all Israel and Judah (8:11-15).<\/p>\nOne of the purposes of Isaiah’s message was to highlight the contrast between faith and fear. We see Ahaz as an example of fear. We then see Hezekiah as an imperfect example of faith (see ch 37). Isaiah himself provides a better example of faith (ch 8). Finally, God’s servant stands as the ideal example of faith (42:1-7; 50:4-7).<\/p>\nJesus instructed his followers not to fear those who threaten them—even those who wish to kill them (Matt 10:26-31). The same God who is aware of the happenings of each individual sparrow and who knows the number of hairs on a person’s head will be with those who trust in him. Such trust has been demonstrated by believers throughout history who have rejected the fear of what others can do to them—even to the point of martyrdom (see Acts 6:8–7:60).<\/p>\nThose who do not commit themselves wholly to God will live in fear of others. But those who rely on the Lord will be able to overcome such fear, recognizing the temporality of human foes and the enduring sovereignty of God.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nNum 14:1-12; 21:34-35; Josh 1:9; 2 Kgs 16:5-18; 2 Chr 28:16-23; Ps 23:4; Prov 29:25; Isa 7:1-25; 41:10; 51:7-8, 12-13; 54:4; 57:11; Jer 10:5; 30:10; 46:27-28<\/p>","summary_ro":"Fearing People God had promised to be with his people in the face of opposition (see, e.g., Deut 20:1-4; Josh 1:9); as long as they remained committed to him, they had no reason to fear others. Israel’s history demonstrated this reality (see Exod 14:10-31; Josh 10:9-14). But for those who look elsewhere for peace and security, God can be a stumbling stone rather than a source of safety (Isa 8:14). During the reign of King Ahaz of Judah, when the king heard that Syria and Israel had allied aga...","summary_en":"Fearing People God had promised to be with his people in the face of opposition (see, e.g., Deut 20:1-4; Josh 1:9); as long as they remained committed to him, they had no reason to fear others. Israel’s history demonstrated this reality (see Exod 14:10-31; Josh 10:9-14). But for those who look elsewhere for peace and security, God can be a stumbling stone rather than a source of safety (Isa 8:14). During the reign of King Ahaz of Judah, when the king heard that Syria and Israel had allied aga...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":64011,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God’s Servant","title_en":"God’s Servant","content_ro":"<h3>God’s Servant<\/h3>\nIn Isaiah 40–66 the figure of God’s servant features prominently. The servant proclaims a new order of justice and righteousness to the world (42:3-4) and serves as God’s instrument to prepare the world for God’s coming (52:7).<\/p>\nWho is the Lord’s servant? Isaiah identifies the servant with Israel (41:8; 44:1-2), who serves as God’s witness (43:10) and as a light to the Gentiles. Yet Israel could not fully complete this mission: Israel was deaf, blind, and in need of God’s forgiveness (42:19; 44:21-22). Israel failed again and again. By contrast, God’s servant is faithful and waits for the coming redemption (see 61:1-3; 62:1-5). The servant thus represents the godly in Israel. The servant is God’s faithful witness to humanity, and he stands in opposition to the idolatrous practices of paganism.<\/p>\nIsaiah portrays the servant as an obedient individual who suffers. The notion of the “suffering servant” found fulfillment in one particular Israelite who was perfectly faithful and suffered on behalf of others: Jesus Christ. By his suffering, God’s blessings came to many, including other nations (see Acts 26:22-23). In union and fellowship with Christ, the apostles ministered as his servants to both Jews and Gentiles (Acts 13:47; 26:14-18). All those who have faith in Christ share in the mission of the servant and fulfill the role of God’s servants in the world (e.g., Col 1:7; 4:12; 1 Tim 4:6; 2 Tim 2:24).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nLev 25:42, 55; 1 Kgs 11:36; 2 Kgs 9:7; Pss 89:20-29; 113:1; Isa 41:8-10; 42:1-4, 19-20; 43:10; 44:1-5, 21-22; 49:1-7; 52:7, 13–53:12; 61:1-3; Jer 30:10; 33:20-22, 26; 46:27-28; Ezek 28:25; 34:23-24; 37:24-25; Zech 3:8; Matt 12:15-21; Acts 2:18; 2 Tim 2:24<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God’s Servant<\/h3>\nIn Isaiah 40–66 the figure of God’s servant features prominently. The servant proclaims a new order of justice and righteousness to the world (42:3-4) and serves as God’s instrument to prepare the world for God’s coming (52:7).<\/p>\nWho is the Lord’s servant? Isaiah identifies the servant with Israel (41:8; 44:1-2), who serves as God’s witness (43:10) and as a light to the Gentiles. Yet Israel could not fully complete this mission: Israel was deaf, blind, and in need of God’s forgiveness (42:19; 44:21-22). Israel failed again and again. By contrast, God’s servant is faithful and waits for the coming redemption (see 61:1-3; 62:1-5). The servant thus represents the godly in Israel. The servant is God’s faithful witness to humanity, and he stands in opposition to the idolatrous practices of paganism.<\/p>\nIsaiah portrays the servant as an obedient individual who suffers. The notion of the “suffering servant” found fulfillment in one particular Israelite who was perfectly faithful and suffered on behalf of others: Jesus Christ. By his suffering, God’s blessings came to many, including other nations (see Acts 26:22-23). In union and fellowship with Christ, the apostles ministered as his servants to both Jews and Gentiles (Acts 13:47; 26:14-18). All those who have faith in Christ share in the mission of the servant and fulfill the role of God’s servants in the world (e.g., Col 1:7; 4:12; 1 Tim 4:6; 2 Tim 2:24).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nLev 25:42, 55; 1 Kgs 11:36; 2 Kgs 9:7; Pss 89:20-29; 113:1; Isa 41:8-10; 42:1-4, 19-20; 43:10; 44:1-5, 21-22; 49:1-7; 52:7, 13–53:12; 61:1-3; Jer 30:10; 33:20-22, 26; 46:27-28; Ezek 28:25; 34:23-24; 37:24-25; Zech 3:8; Matt 12:15-21; Acts 2:18; 2 Tim 2:24<\/p>","summary_ro":"God’s Servant In Isaiah 40–66 the figure of God’s servant features prominently. The servant proclaims a new order of justice and righteousness to the world (42:3-4) and serves as God’s instrument to prepare the world for God’s coming (52:7). Who is the Lord’s servant? Isaiah identifies the servant with Israel (41:8; 44:1-2), who serves as God’s witness (43:10) and as a light to the Gentiles. Yet Israel could not fully complete this mission: Israel was deaf, blind, and in need of God’s forgive...","summary_en":"God’s Servant In Isaiah 40–66 the figure of God’s servant features prominently. The servant proclaims a new order of justice and righteousness to the world (42:3-4) and serves as God’s instrument to prepare the world for God’s coming (52:7). Who is the Lord’s servant? Isaiah identifies the servant with Israel (41:8; 44:1-2), who serves as God’s witness (43:10) and as a light to the Gentiles. Yet Israel could not fully complete this mission: Israel was deaf, blind, and in need of God’s forgive...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":64656,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Social Justice","title_en":"Social Justice","content_ro":"<h3>Social Justice<\/h3>\nIn the Old Testament, prophets often confronted evil in society and articulated a demand for social justice. An early example of this is found in Elijah’s response to the murder of Naboth, followed by his rebuke of Ahab (1 Kgs 21:16-24, 800s BC<\/span>). The social aspect of the prophetic message became even more prominent among the prophets of the 700s BC<\/span> (Hosea and Amos in Israel, Micah and Isaiah in Judah), with Amos as the most articulate spokesman on this issue.<\/p>\nAmos was appalled by Israel’s abuse of the powerless (Amos 2:6-8; 3:10). Unlike the surrounding nations, Israel had known God in a uniquely personal and intimate manner and then turned away from him (2:9-12; 3:1-2). The people of Israel had refused to worship God appropriately and had oppressed the powerless, so God would hold them accountable and meet them in judgment (4:12), not mercy. God wants justice to flow like a mighty river (Amos 5:24). Those who oppose it will be swept away.<\/p>\nThe importance of social justice is also made clear in the New Testament. Jesus drew a connection between proper worship and the practice of social justice, warning of the judgment that is coming upon those who do not express their faith in loving action toward others (see Matt 25:31-46). Right understanding must be matched by right practice, which serves as evidence of one’s faith (see Luke 10:25-37; John 13:35). Jesus’ followers recoginzed the significant role social justice needed to play within the early Christian communities (see Acts 2:44-45; Gal 2:9-10; 1 Tim 5:3-16; Jas 1:27–2:26; 1 Jn 3:17-19).<\/p>\nGod’s compassion for the oppressed is evidenced throughout Scripture. As followers of Christ, we must not neglect those who are in need, and like the prophets, we must confront injustice wherever it is encountered.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nExod 23:1-12; Lev 19:9-18; Deut 10:17-20; 16:18-20; 24:10-22; 1 Kgs 21:1-24; 2 Chr 19:4-11; Pss 94:20-23; 146:3-9; Prov 22:8-9; 31:8-9; Eccl 5:8-9; Isa 1:17; 5:7; 9:6-7; 10:1-2; 42:1-4; 58:4-12; Amos 2:6-8; 5:7-17, 23-24; Matt 12:15-21; 23:23; Luke 10:25-37; Heb 1:8-9<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Social Justice<\/h3>\nIn the Old Testament, prophets often confronted evil in society and articulated a demand for social justice. An early example of this is found in Elijah’s response to the murder of Naboth, followed by his rebuke of Ahab (1 Kgs 21:16-24, 800s BC<\/span>). The social aspect of the prophetic message became even more prominent among the prophets of the 700s BC<\/span> (Hosea and Amos in Israel, Micah and Isaiah in Judah), with Amos as the most articulate spokesman on this issue.<\/p>\nAmos was appalled by Israel’s abuse of the powerless (Amos 2:6-8; 3:10). Unlike the surrounding nations, Israel had known God in a uniquely personal and intimate manner and then turned away from him (2:9-12; 3:1-2). The people of Israel had refused to worship God appropriately and had oppressed the powerless, so God would hold them accountable and meet them in judgment (4:12), not mercy. God wants justice to flow like a mighty river (Amos 5:24). Those who oppose it will be swept away.<\/p>\nThe importance of social justice is also made clear in the New Testament. Jesus drew a connection between proper worship and the practice of social justice, warning of the judgment that is coming upon those who do not express their faith in loving action toward others (see Matt 25:31-46). Right understanding must be matched by right practice, which serves as evidence of one’s faith (see Luke 10:25-37; John 13:35). Jesus’ followers recoginzed the significant role social justice needed to play within the early Christian communities (see Acts 2:44-45; Gal 2:9-10; 1 Tim 5:3-16; Jas 1:27–2:26; 1 Jn 3:17-19).<\/p>\nGod’s compassion for the oppressed is evidenced throughout Scripture. As followers of Christ, we must not neglect those who are in need, and like the prophets, we must confront injustice wherever it is encountered.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nExod 23:1-12; Lev 19:9-18; Deut 10:17-20; 16:18-20; 24:10-22; 1 Kgs 21:1-24; 2 Chr 19:4-11; Pss 94:20-23; 146:3-9; Prov 22:8-9; 31:8-9; Eccl 5:8-9; Isa 1:17; 5:7; 9:6-7; 10:1-2; 42:1-4; 58:4-12; Amos 2:6-8; 5:7-17, 23-24; Matt 12:15-21; 23:23; Luke 10:25-37; Heb 1:8-9<\/p>","summary_ro":"Social Justice In the Old Testament, prophets often confronted evil in society and articulated a demand for social justice. An early example of this is found in Elijah’s response to the murder of Naboth, followed by his rebuke of Ahab (1 Kgs 21:16-24, 800s BC). The social aspect of the prophetic message became even more prominent among the prophets of the 700s BC (Hosea and Amos in Israel, Micah and Isaiah in Judah), with Amos as the most articulate spokesman on this issue. Amos was appalled ...","summary_en":"Social Justice In the Old Testament, prophets often confronted evil in society and articulated a demand for social justice. An early example of this is found in Elijah’s response to the murder of Naboth, followed by his rebuke of Ahab (1 Kgs 21:16-24, 800s BC). The social aspect of the prophetic message became even more prominent among the prophets of the 700s BC (Hosea and Amos in Israel, Micah and Isaiah in Judah), with Amos as the most articulate spokesman on this issue. Amos was appalled ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":64844,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God’s Commitment to His People","title_en":"God’s Commitment to His People","content_ro":"<h3>God’s Commitment to His People<\/h3>\nSometimes, from the perspective of God’s people, it seems that God is being slow to fulfill his promises. Abraham and Sarah had to wait twenty-five years from the time God first promised to make of them a great nation until their son Isaac was born. After God promised the kingship to David, David had to endure many trials under the reign of Saul before God finally established him as king. And though God had promised to bring a remnant back to the Promised Land after the Exile, the Jewish captives had to wait seventy years to return. Yet in each case, God indeed brought about the fulfillment of his promises.<\/p>\nZechariah prophesied around the time that the Temple was being rebuilt after the Exile. At one point during the reconstruction, God told Zechariah not to “despise these small beginnings” (Zech 4:10). God had acted in the past for the ultimate good of his people, even in the exile to Babylon (see 7:12-14). God would accomplish his purposes for Israel’s well-being in his own time and his own way. The people of Israel could take courage in the present and have hope for the future because God keeps his word and fulfills his promises (4:9).<\/p>\nGod wants patience and faith from his people, not a strident voice. God kept his word and fulfilled the promises he made indicating that his people would return to Jerusalem and that the Temple would be rebuilt. About five hundred years after Zechariah, God fulfilled the promises that he would bring salvation for all people, by sending Jesus the Messiah into the world. Likewise, Jesus’ words that he will one day return and fully establish his Kingdom can be trusted (see Matt 24:27, 30; see also Acts 1:6-11).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n1 Sam 15:29; 2 Sam 7:28-29; 2 Chr 36:21; Isa 42:1-9; 49:15; Zech 2:13; 4:9-10; 14:3; John 14:1-4; 17:17; Acts 1:6-11; Titus 1:2; Rev 21:5<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God’s Commitment to His People<\/h3>\nSometimes, from the perspective of God’s people, it seems that God is being slow to fulfill his promises. Abraham and Sarah had to wait twenty-five years from the time God first promised to make of them a great nation until their son Isaac was born. After God promised the kingship to David, David had to endure many trials under the reign of Saul before God finally established him as king. And though God had promised to bring a remnant back to the Promised Land after the Exile, the Jewish captives had to wait seventy years to return. Yet in each case, God indeed brought about the fulfillment of his promises.<\/p>\nZechariah prophesied around the time that the Temple was being rebuilt after the Exile. At one point during the reconstruction, God told Zechariah not to “despise these small beginnings” (Zech 4:10). God had acted in the past for the ultimate good of his people, even in the exile to Babylon (see 7:12-14). God would accomplish his purposes for Israel’s well-being in his own time and his own way. The people of Israel could take courage in the present and have hope for the future because God keeps his word and fulfills his promises (4:9).<\/p>\nGod wants patience and faith from his people, not a strident voice. God kept his word and fulfilled the promises he made indicating that his people would return to Jerusalem and that the Temple would be rebuilt. About five hundred years after Zechariah, God fulfilled the promises that he would bring salvation for all people, by sending Jesus the Messiah into the world. Likewise, Jesus’ words that he will one day return and fully establish his Kingdom can be trusted (see Matt 24:27, 30; see also Acts 1:6-11).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n1 Sam 15:29; 2 Sam 7:28-29; 2 Chr 36:21; Isa 42:1-9; 49:15; Zech 2:13; 4:9-10; 14:3; John 14:1-4; 17:17; Acts 1:6-11; Titus 1:2; Rev 21:5<\/p>","summary_ro":"God’s Commitment to His People Sometimes, from the perspective of God’s people, it seems that God is being slow to fulfill his promises. Abraham and Sarah had to wait twenty-five years from the time God first promised to make of them a great nation until their son Isaac was born. After God promised the kingship to David, David had to endure many trials under the reign of Saul before God finally established him as king. And though God had promised to bring a remnant back to the Promised Land a...","summary_en":"God’s Commitment to His People Sometimes, from the perspective of God’s people, it seems that God is being slow to fulfill his promises. Abraham and Sarah had to wait twenty-five years from the time God first promised to make of them a great nation until their son Isaac was born. After God promised the kingship to David, David had to endure many trials under the reign of Saul before God finally established him as king. And though God had promised to bring a remnant back to the Promised Land a...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":89612,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God’s Inscrutable Purposes in History","title_en":"God’s Inscrutable Purposes in History","content_ro":"<h3>God’s Inscrutable Purposes in History<\/h3>\nGod directs people and events to fulfill his purposes in history. He has no need to explain himself, but he always has a purpose that he is working out; he guides individuals, nations, and events in accord with his will. This philosophy of history remains consistent throughout biblical history. God works through human actions to bring about results that he has planned and that cannot be explained in any other way except his orchestration.<\/p>\nFor example, the Chronicler gives just one explanation for the continued division of the kingdom of Israel: Rehoboam and those loyal to him “obeyed the message of the Lord<\/span> and did not fight against Jeroboam” (2 Chr 11:4). The cause of the division—the irrational response of Rehoboam to the people’s request—has already been explained in the previous narrative: “This turn of events was the will of God, for it fulfilled the Lord<\/span>’s message to Jeroboam son of Nebat through the prophet Ahijah from Shiloh” (10:15). Rehoboam may have been able to easily defeat the rebels, but he was deterred by the will of the Lord.<\/p>\nObedience to God’s will brought positive results for Rehoboam: He fortified cities; he put military leaders, equipment, and food supplies in place; loyal citizens migrated to his territory; and he had a large family. God’s will was clear, and the benefit to Rehoboam was obvious, yet the Chronicler could not explain God’s purposes. Readers of the book today are also left to ponder why God allowed the kingdom to remain divided.<\/p>\nThe prophet Isaiah declares the mystery of God’s ways: “‘My thoughts are nothing like your thoughts,’ says the Lord<\/span>. ‘And my ways are far beyond anything you could imagine. For just as the heavens are higher than the earth, so my ways are higher than your ways and my thoughts higher than your thoughts’” (Isa 55:8-9). Those who fear God learn not to lean on human understanding, but to follow the word of God even when it is contrary to earthly values.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n1 Kgs 8:56-61; 2 Chr 10:1–11:4; Job 42:1-6; Ps 115:1-3; Isa 40:9-31; 42:1-17; 55:8-13; Rom 8:26-30; Eph 1:9-14<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God’s Inscrutable Purposes in History<\/h3>\nGod directs people and events to fulfill his purposes in history. He has no need to explain himself, but he always has a purpose that he is working out; he guides individuals, nations, and events in accord with his will. This philosophy of history remains consistent throughout biblical history. God works through human actions to bring about results that he has planned and that cannot be explained in any other way except his orchestration.<\/p>\nFor example, the Chronicler gives just one explanation for the continued division of the kingdom of Israel: Rehoboam and those loyal to him “obeyed the message of the Lord<\/span> and did not fight against Jeroboam” (2 Chr 11:4). The cause of the division—the irrational response of Rehoboam to the people’s request—has already been explained in the previous narrative: “This turn of events was the will of God, for it fulfilled the Lord<\/span>’s message to Jeroboam son of Nebat through the prophet Ahijah from Shiloh” (10:15). Rehoboam may have been able to easily defeat the rebels, but he was deterred by the will of the Lord.<\/p>\nObedience to God’s will brought positive results for Rehoboam: He fortified cities; he put military leaders, equipment, and food supplies in place; loyal citizens migrated to his territory; and he had a large family. God’s will was clear, and the benefit to Rehoboam was obvious, yet the Chronicler could not explain God’s purposes. Readers of the book today are also left to ponder why God allowed the kingdom to remain divided.<\/p>\nThe prophet Isaiah declares the mystery of God’s ways: “‘My thoughts are nothing like your thoughts,’ says the Lord<\/span>. ‘And my ways are far beyond anything you could imagine. For just as the heavens are higher than the earth, so my ways are higher than your ways and my thoughts higher than your thoughts’” (Isa 55:8-9). Those who fear God learn not to lean on human understanding, but to follow the word of God even when it is contrary to earthly values.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n1 Kgs 8:56-61; 2 Chr 10:1–11:4; Job 42:1-6; Ps 115:1-3; Isa 40:9-31; 42:1-17; 55:8-13; Rom 8:26-30; Eph 1:9-14<\/p>","summary_ro":"God’s Inscrutable Purposes in History God directs people and events to fulfill his purposes in history. He has no need to explain himself, but he always has a purpose that he is working out; he guides individuals, nations, and events in accord with his will. This philosophy of history remains consistent throughout biblical history. God works through human actions to bring about results that he has planned and that cannot be explained in any other way except his orchestration. For example, the...","summary_en":"God’s Inscrutable Purposes in History God directs people and events to fulfill his purposes in history. He has no need to explain himself, but he always has a purpose that he is working out; he guides individuals, nations, and events in accord with his will. This philosophy of history remains consistent throughout biblical history. God works through human actions to bring about results that he has planned and that cannot be explained in any other way except his orchestration. For example, the...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":90342,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Psalms of Suffering","title_en":"Psalms of Suffering","content_ro":"<h3>Psalms of Suffering<\/h3>\nThe four psalms of suffering (also called “Passion Psalms”; Pss 16; 22; 40; 69) address the deep distress experienced by God’s servant.<\/p>\nPsalm 22 has perhaps the most remarkable language of the psalms of suffering. In this psalm, God’s servant suffers though he is righteous. There is no suggestion of any sin, so the psalmist’s suffering appears completely unjustified. Despite bitter persecution, there is no prayer for vengeance (see Ps 137). This psalm has some noteworthy connections with the crucifixion of Christ (e.g., Ps 22:6-8, 14-18). In fact, Jesus recited part of Psalm 22 when he was on the cross (22:1; see Matt 27:46). The sinless Christ even prayed for his executioners (Luke 23:34).<\/p>\nThe other psalms of suffering also came to be associated with Christ. Psalm 16:10 anticipates Christ’s triumph over death (cp. Acts 2:24-31). Psalm 40:6-8 foreshadows the self-giving, redemptive work of Christ (Heb 10:5-10). Psalm 69 refers to isolation as resulting from commitment to God’s cause (69:8-9). It also anticipates the part Judas played in what was fundamentally God’s work in Christ (69:25-26; see Ps 109:8; Isa 53:10; Acts 1:20).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nPss 16; 22; 40; 69; 102; 109; Isa 42:1-9; 52:13–53:12; Matt 27:46; Luke 23:34; Heb 10:5-10<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Psalms of Suffering<\/h3>\nThe four psalms of suffering (also called “Passion Psalms”; Pss 16; 22; 40; 69) address the deep distress experienced by God’s servant.<\/p>\nPsalm 22 has perhaps the most remarkable language of the psalms of suffering. In this psalm, God’s servant suffers though he is righteous. There is no suggestion of any sin, so the psalmist’s suffering appears completely unjustified. Despite bitter persecution, there is no prayer for vengeance (see Ps 137). This psalm has some noteworthy connections with the crucifixion of Christ (e.g., Ps 22:6-8, 14-18). In fact, Jesus recited part of Psalm 22 when he was on the cross (22:1; see Matt 27:46). The sinless Christ even prayed for his executioners (Luke 23:34).<\/p>\nThe other psalms of suffering also came to be associated with Christ. Psalm 16:10 anticipates Christ’s triumph over death (cp. Acts 2:24-31). Psalm 40:6-8 foreshadows the self-giving, redemptive work of Christ (Heb 10:5-10). Psalm 69 refers to isolation as resulting from commitment to God’s cause (69:8-9). It also anticipates the part Judas played in what was fundamentally God’s work in Christ (69:25-26; see Ps 109:8; Isa 53:10; Acts 1:20).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nPss 16; 22; 40; 69; 102; 109; Isa 42:1-9; 52:13–53:12; Matt 27:46; Luke 23:34; Heb 10:5-10<\/p>","summary_ro":"Psalms of Suffering The four psalms of suffering (also called “Passion Psalms”; Pss 16; 22; 40; 69) address the deep distress experienced by God’s servant. Psalm 22 has perhaps the most remarkable language of the psalms of suffering. In this psalm, God’s servant suffers though he is righteous. There is no suggestion of any sin, so the psalmist’s suffering appears completely unjustified. Despite bitter persecution, there is no prayer for vengeance (see Ps 137). This psalm has some noteworthy c...","summary_en":"Psalms of Suffering The four psalms of suffering (also called “Passion Psalms”; Pss 16; 22; 40; 69) address the deep distress experienced by God’s servant. Psalm 22 has perhaps the most remarkable language of the psalms of suffering. In this psalm, God’s servant suffers though he is righteous. There is no suggestion of any sin, so the psalmist’s suffering appears completely unjustified. Despite bitter persecution, there is no prayer for vengeance (see Ps 137). This psalm has some noteworthy c...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":91399,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Fearing People","title_en":"Fearing People","content_ro":"<h3>Fearing People<\/h3>\nGod had promised to be with his people in the face of opposition (see, e.g., Deut 20:1-4; Josh 1:9); as long as they remained committed to him, they had no reason to fear others. Israel’s history demonstrated this reality (see Exod 14:10-31; Josh 10:9-14). But for those who look elsewhere for peace and security, God can be a stumbling stone rather than a source of safety (Isa 8:14).<\/p>\nDuring the reign of King Ahaz of Judah, when the king heard that Syria and Israel had allied against him, he trembled in fear (Isa 7:2). The Lord encouraged him to be a man of faith, because without faith he could not expect the Lord’s protection (7:9). However, Ahaz refused to trust the Lord. Rather, he turned to the Assyrians for help. As a result, the Lord became a trap for him, as well as for all Israel and Judah (8:11-15).<\/p>\nOne of the purposes of Isaiah’s message was to highlight the contrast between faith and fear. We see Ahaz as an example of fear. We then see Hezekiah as an imperfect example of faith (see ch 37). Isaiah himself provides a better example of faith (ch 8). Finally, God’s servant stands as the ideal example of faith (42:1-7; 50:4-7).<\/p>\nJesus instructed his followers not to fear those who threaten them—even those who wish to kill them (Matt 10:26-31). The same God who is aware of the happenings of each individual sparrow and who knows the number of hairs on a person’s head will be with those who trust in him. Such trust has been demonstrated by believers throughout history who have rejected the fear of what others can do to them—even to the point of martyrdom (see Acts 6:8–7:60).<\/p>\nThose who do not commit themselves wholly to God will live in fear of others. But those who rely on the Lord will be able to overcome such fear, recognizing the temporality of human foes and the enduring sovereignty of God.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nNum 14:1-12; 21:34-35; Josh 1:9; 2 Kgs 16:5-18; 2 Chr 28:16-23; Ps 23:4; Prov 29:25; Isa 7:1-25; 41:10; 51:7-8, 12-13; 54:4; 57:11; Jer 10:5; 30:10; 46:27-28<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Fearing People<\/h3>\nGod had promised to be with his people in the face of opposition (see, e.g., Deut 20:1-4; Josh 1:9); as long as they remained committed to him, they had no reason to fear others. Israel’s history demonstrated this reality (see Exod 14:10-31; Josh 10:9-14). But for those who look elsewhere for peace and security, God can be a stumbling stone rather than a source of safety (Isa 8:14).<\/p>\nDuring the reign of King Ahaz of Judah, when the king heard that Syria and Israel had allied against him, he trembled in fear (Isa 7:2). The Lord encouraged him to be a man of faith, because without faith he could not expect the Lord’s protection (7:9). However, Ahaz refused to trust the Lord. Rather, he turned to the Assyrians for help. As a result, the Lord became a trap for him, as well as for all Israel and Judah (8:11-15).<\/p>\nOne of the purposes of Isaiah’s message was to highlight the contrast between faith and fear. We see Ahaz as an example of fear. We then see Hezekiah as an imperfect example of faith (see ch 37). Isaiah himself provides a better example of faith (ch 8). Finally, God’s servant stands as the ideal example of faith (42:1-7; 50:4-7).<\/p>\nJesus instructed his followers not to fear those who threaten them—even those who wish to kill them (Matt 10:26-31). The same God who is aware of the happenings of each individual sparrow and who knows the number of hairs on a person’s head will be with those who trust in him. Such trust has been demonstrated by believers throughout history who have rejected the fear of what others can do to them—even to the point of martyrdom (see Acts 6:8–7:60).<\/p>\nThose who do not commit themselves wholly to God will live in fear of others. But those who rely on the Lord will be able to overcome such fear, recognizing the temporality of human foes and the enduring sovereignty of God.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nNum 14:1-12; 21:34-35; Josh 1:9; 2 Kgs 16:5-18; 2 Chr 28:16-23; Ps 23:4; Prov 29:25; Isa 7:1-25; 41:10; 51:7-8, 12-13; 54:4; 57:11; Jer 10:5; 30:10; 46:27-28<\/p>","summary_ro":"Fearing People God had promised to be with his people in the face of opposition (see, e.g., Deut 20:1-4; Josh 1:9); as long as they remained committed to him, they had no reason to fear others. Israel’s history demonstrated this reality (see Exod 14:10-31; Josh 10:9-14). But for those who look elsewhere for peace and security, God can be a stumbling stone rather than a source of safety (Isa 8:14). During the reign of King Ahaz of Judah, when the king heard that Syria and Israel had allied aga...","summary_en":"Fearing People God had promised to be with his people in the face of opposition (see, e.g., Deut 20:1-4; Josh 1:9); as long as they remained committed to him, they had no reason to fear others. Israel’s history demonstrated this reality (see Exod 14:10-31; Josh 10:9-14). But for those who look elsewhere for peace and security, God can be a stumbling stone rather than a source of safety (Isa 8:14). During the reign of King Ahaz of Judah, when the king heard that Syria and Israel had allied aga...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":91637,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God’s Servant","title_en":"God’s Servant","content_ro":"<h3>God’s Servant<\/h3>\nIn Isaiah 40–66 the figure of God’s servant features prominently. The servant proclaims a new order of justice and righteousness to the world (42:3-4) and serves as God’s instrument to prepare the world for God’s coming (52:7).<\/p>\nWho is the Lord’s servant? Isaiah identifies the servant with Israel (41:8; 44:1-2), who serves as God’s witness (43:10) and as a light to the Gentiles. Yet Israel could not fully complete this mission: Israel was deaf, blind, and in need of God’s forgiveness (42:19; 44:21-22). Israel failed again and again. By contrast, God’s servant is faithful and waits for the coming redemption (see 61:1-3; 62:1-5). The servant thus represents the godly in Israel. The servant is God’s faithful witness to humanity, and he stands in opposition to the idolatrous practices of paganism.<\/p>\nIsaiah portrays the servant as an obedient individual who suffers. The notion of the “suffering servant” found fulfillment in one particular Israelite who was perfectly faithful and suffered on behalf of others: Jesus Christ. By his suffering, God’s blessings came to many, including other nations (see Acts 26:22-23). In union and fellowship with Christ, the apostles ministered as his servants to both Jews and Gentiles (Acts 13:47; 26:14-18). All those who have faith in Christ share in the mission of the servant and fulfill the role of God’s servants in the world (e.g., Col 1:7; 4:12; 1 Tim 4:6; 2 Tim 2:24).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nLev 25:42, 55; 1 Kgs 11:36; 2 Kgs 9:7; Pss 89:20-29; 113:1; Isa 41:8-10; 42:1-4, 19-20; 43:10; 44:1-5, 21-22; 49:1-7; 52:7, 13–53:12; 61:1-3; Jer 30:10; 33:20-22, 26; 46:27-28; Ezek 28:25; 34:23-24; 37:24-25; Zech 3:8; Matt 12:15-21; Acts 2:18; 2 Tim 2:24<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God’s Servant<\/h3>\nIn Isaiah 40–66 the figure of God’s servant features prominently. The servant proclaims a new order of justice and righteousness to the world (42:3-4) and serves as God’s instrument to prepare the world for God’s coming (52:7).<\/p>\nWho is the Lord’s servant? Isaiah identifies the servant with Israel (41:8; 44:1-2), who serves as God’s witness (43:10) and as a light to the Gentiles. Yet Israel could not fully complete this mission: Israel was deaf, blind, and in need of God’s forgiveness (42:19; 44:21-22). Israel failed again and again. By contrast, God’s servant is faithful and waits for the coming redemption (see 61:1-3; 62:1-5). The servant thus represents the godly in Israel. The servant is God’s faithful witness to humanity, and he stands in opposition to the idolatrous practices of paganism.<\/p>\nIsaiah portrays the servant as an obedient individual who suffers. The notion of the “suffering servant” found fulfillment in one particular Israelite who was perfectly faithful and suffered on behalf of others: Jesus Christ. By his suffering, God’s blessings came to many, including other nations (see Acts 26:22-23). In union and fellowship with Christ, the apostles ministered as his servants to both Jews and Gentiles (Acts 13:47; 26:14-18). All those who have faith in Christ share in the mission of the servant and fulfill the role of God’s servants in the world (e.g., Col 1:7; 4:12; 1 Tim 4:6; 2 Tim 2:24).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nLev 25:42, 55; 1 Kgs 11:36; 2 Kgs 9:7; Pss 89:20-29; 113:1; Isa 41:8-10; 42:1-4, 19-20; 43:10; 44:1-5, 21-22; 49:1-7; 52:7, 13–53:12; 61:1-3; Jer 30:10; 33:20-22, 26; 46:27-28; Ezek 28:25; 34:23-24; 37:24-25; Zech 3:8; Matt 12:15-21; Acts 2:18; 2 Tim 2:24<\/p>","summary_ro":"God’s Servant In Isaiah 40–66 the figure of God’s servant features prominently. The servant proclaims a new order of justice and righteousness to the world (42:3-4) and serves as God’s instrument to prepare the world for God’s coming (52:7). Who is the Lord’s servant? Isaiah identifies the servant with Israel (41:8; 44:1-2), who serves as God’s witness (43:10) and as a light to the Gentiles. Yet Israel could not fully complete this mission: Israel was deaf, blind, and in need of God’s forgive...","summary_en":"God’s Servant In Isaiah 40–66 the figure of God’s servant features prominently. The servant proclaims a new order of justice and righteousness to the world (42:3-4) and serves as God’s instrument to prepare the world for God’s coming (52:7). Who is the Lord’s servant? Isaiah identifies the servant with Israel (41:8; 44:1-2), who serves as God’s witness (43:10) and as a light to the Gentiles. Yet Israel could not fully complete this mission: Israel was deaf, blind, and in need of God’s forgive...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":92282,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Social Justice","title_en":"Social Justice","content_ro":"<h3>Social Justice<\/h3>\nIn the Old Testament, prophets often confronted evil in society and articulated a demand for social justice. An early example of this is found in Elijah’s response to the murder of Naboth, followed by his rebuke of Ahab (1 Kgs 21:16-24, 800s BC<\/span>). The social aspect of the prophetic message became even more prominent among the prophets of the 700s BC<\/span> (Hosea and Amos in Israel, Micah and Isaiah in Judah), with Amos as the most articulate spokesman on this issue.<\/p>\nAmos was appalled by Israel’s abuse of the powerless (Amos 2:6-8; 3:10). Unlike the surrounding nations, Israel had known God in a uniquely personal and intimate manner and then turned away from him (2:9-12; 3:1-2). The people of Israel had refused to worship God appropriately and had oppressed the powerless, so God would hold them accountable and meet them in judgment (4:12), not mercy. God wants justice to flow like a mighty river (Amos 5:24). Those who oppose it will be swept away.<\/p>\nThe importance of social justice is also made clear in the New Testament. Jesus drew a connection between proper worship and the practice of social justice, warning of the judgment that is coming upon those who do not express their faith in loving action toward others (see Matt 25:31-46). Right understanding must be matched by right practice, which serves as evidence of one’s faith (see Luke 10:25-37; John 13:35). Jesus’ followers recoginzed the significant role social justice needed to play within the early Christian communities (see Acts 2:44-45; Gal 2:9-10; 1 Tim 5:3-16; Jas 1:27–2:26; 1 Jn 3:17-19).<\/p>\nGod’s compassion for the oppressed is evidenced throughout Scripture. As followers of Christ, we must not neglect those who are in need, and like the prophets, we must confront injustice wherever it is encountered.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nExod 23:1-12; Lev 19:9-18; Deut 10:17-20; 16:18-20; 24:10-22; 1 Kgs 21:1-24; 2 Chr 19:4-11; Pss 94:20-23; 146:3-9; Prov 22:8-9; 31:8-9; Eccl 5:8-9; Isa 1:17; 5:7; 9:6-7; 10:1-2; 42:1-4; 58:4-12; Amos 2:6-8; 5:7-17, 23-24; Matt 12:15-21; 23:23; Luke 10:25-37; Heb 1:8-9<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Social Justice<\/h3>\nIn the Old Testament, prophets often confronted evil in society and articulated a demand for social justice. An early example of this is found in Elijah’s response to the murder of Naboth, followed by his rebuke of Ahab (1 Kgs 21:16-24, 800s BC<\/span>). The social aspect of the prophetic message became even more prominent among the prophets of the 700s BC<\/span> (Hosea and Amos in Israel, Micah and Isaiah in Judah), with Amos as the most articulate spokesman on this issue.<\/p>\nAmos was appalled by Israel’s abuse of the powerless (Amos 2:6-8; 3:10). Unlike the surrounding nations, Israel had known God in a uniquely personal and intimate manner and then turned away from him (2:9-12; 3:1-2). The people of Israel had refused to worship God appropriately and had oppressed the powerless, so God would hold them accountable and meet them in judgment (4:12), not mercy. God wants justice to flow like a mighty river (Amos 5:24). Those who oppose it will be swept away.<\/p>\nThe importance of social justice is also made clear in the New Testament. Jesus drew a connection between proper worship and the practice of social justice, warning of the judgment that is coming upon those who do not express their faith in loving action toward others (see Matt 25:31-46). Right understanding must be matched by right practice, which serves as evidence of one’s faith (see Luke 10:25-37; John 13:35). Jesus’ followers recoginzed the significant role social justice needed to play within the early Christian communities (see Acts 2:44-45; Gal 2:9-10; 1 Tim 5:3-16; Jas 1:27–2:26; 1 Jn 3:17-19).<\/p>\nGod’s compassion for the oppressed is evidenced throughout Scripture. As followers of Christ, we must not neglect those who are in need, and like the prophets, we must confront injustice wherever it is encountered.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nExod 23:1-12; Lev 19:9-18; Deut 10:17-20; 16:18-20; 24:10-22; 1 Kgs 21:1-24; 2 Chr 19:4-11; Pss 94:20-23; 146:3-9; Prov 22:8-9; 31:8-9; Eccl 5:8-9; Isa 1:17; 5:7; 9:6-7; 10:1-2; 42:1-4; 58:4-12; Amos 2:6-8; 5:7-17, 23-24; Matt 12:15-21; 23:23; Luke 10:25-37; Heb 1:8-9<\/p>","summary_ro":"Social Justice In the Old Testament, prophets often confronted evil in society and articulated a demand for social justice. An early example of this is found in Elijah’s response to the murder of Naboth, followed by his rebuke of Ahab (1 Kgs 21:16-24, 800s BC). The social aspect of the prophetic message became even more prominent among the prophets of the 700s BC (Hosea and Amos in Israel, Micah and Isaiah in Judah), with Amos as the most articulate spokesman on this issue. Amos was appalled ...","summary_en":"Social Justice In the Old Testament, prophets often confronted evil in society and articulated a demand for social justice. An early example of this is found in Elijah’s response to the murder of Naboth, followed by his rebuke of Ahab (1 Kgs 21:16-24, 800s BC). The social aspect of the prophetic message became even more prominent among the prophets of the 700s BC (Hosea and Amos in Israel, Micah and Isaiah in Judah), with Amos as the most articulate spokesman on this issue. Amos was appalled ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":92470,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God’s Commitment to His People","title_en":"God’s Commitment to His People","content_ro":"<h3>God’s Commitment to His People<\/h3>\nSometimes, from the perspective of God’s people, it seems that God is being slow to fulfill his promises. Abraham and Sarah had to wait twenty-five years from the time God first promised to make of them a great nation until their son Isaac was born. After God promised the kingship to David, David had to endure many trials under the reign of Saul before God finally established him as king. And though God had promised to bring a remnant back to the Promised Land after the Exile, the Jewish captives had to wait seventy years to return. Yet in each case, God indeed brought about the fulfillment of his promises.<\/p>\nZechariah prophesied around the time that the Temple was being rebuilt after the Exile. At one point during the reconstruction, God told Zechariah not to “despise these small beginnings” (Zech 4:10). God had acted in the past for the ultimate good of his people, even in the exile to Babylon (see 7:12-14). God would accomplish his purposes for Israel’s well-being in his own time and his own way. The people of Israel could take courage in the present and have hope for the future because God keeps his word and fulfills his promises (4:9).<\/p>\nGod wants patience and faith from his people, not a strident voice. God kept his word and fulfilled the promises he made indicating that his people would return to Jerusalem and that the Temple would be rebuilt. About five hundred years after Zechariah, God fulfilled the promises that he would bring salvation for all people, by sending Jesus the Messiah into the world. Likewise, Jesus’ words that he will one day return and fully establish his Kingdom can be trusted (see Matt 24:27, 30; see also Acts 1:6-11).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n1 Sam 15:29; 2 Sam 7:28-29; 2 Chr 36:21; Isa 42:1-9; 49:15; Zech 2:13; 4:9-10; 14:3; John 14:1-4; 17:17; Acts 1:6-11; Titus 1:2; Rev 21:5<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God’s Commitment to His People<\/h3>\nSometimes, from the perspective of God’s people, it seems that God is being slow to fulfill his promises. Abraham and Sarah had to wait twenty-five years from the time God first promised to make of them a great nation until their son Isaac was born. After God promised the kingship to David, David had to endure many trials under the reign of Saul before God finally established him as king. And though God had promised to bring a remnant back to the Promised Land after the Exile, the Jewish captives had to wait seventy years to return. Yet in each case, God indeed brought about the fulfillment of his promises.<\/p>\nZechariah prophesied around the time that the Temple was being rebuilt after the Exile. At one point during the reconstruction, God told Zechariah not to “despise these small beginnings” (Zech 4:10). God had acted in the past for the ultimate good of his people, even in the exile to Babylon (see 7:12-14). God would accomplish his purposes for Israel’s well-being in his own time and his own way. The people of Israel could take courage in the present and have hope for the future because God keeps his word and fulfills his promises (4:9).<\/p>\nGod wants patience and faith from his people, not a strident voice. God kept his word and fulfilled the promises he made indicating that his people would return to Jerusalem and that the Temple would be rebuilt. About five hundred years after Zechariah, God fulfilled the promises that he would bring salvation for all people, by sending Jesus the Messiah into the world. Likewise, Jesus’ words that he will one day return and fully establish his Kingdom can be trusted (see Matt 24:27, 30; see also Acts 1:6-11).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n1 Sam 15:29; 2 Sam 7:28-29; 2 Chr 36:21; Isa 42:1-9; 49:15; Zech 2:13; 4:9-10; 14:3; John 14:1-4; 17:17; Acts 1:6-11; Titus 1:2; Rev 21:5<\/p>","summary_ro":"God’s Commitment to His People Sometimes, from the perspective of God’s people, it seems that God is being slow to fulfill his promises. Abraham and Sarah had to wait twenty-five years from the time God first promised to make of them a great nation until their son Isaac was born. After God promised the kingship to David, David had to endure many trials under the reign of Saul before God finally established him as king. And though God had promised to bring a remnant back to the Promised Land a...","summary_en":"God’s Commitment to His People Sometimes, from the perspective of God’s people, it seems that God is being slow to fulfill his promises. Abraham and Sarah had to wait twenty-five years from the time God first promised to make of them a great nation until their son Isaac was born. After God promised the kingship to David, David had to endure many trials under the reign of Saul before God finally established him as king. And though God had promised to bring a remnant back to the Promised Land a...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":117238,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God’s Inscrutable Purposes in History","title_en":"God’s Inscrutable Purposes in History","content_ro":"<h3>God’s Inscrutable Purposes in History<\/h3>\nGod directs people and events to fulfill his purposes in history. He has no need to explain himself, but he always has a purpose that he is working out; he guides individuals, nations, and events in accord with his will. This philosophy of history remains consistent throughout biblical history. God works through human actions to bring about results that he has planned and that cannot be explained in any other way except his orchestration.<\/p>\nFor example, the Chronicler gives just one explanation for the continued division of the kingdom of Israel: Rehoboam and those loyal to him “obeyed the message of the Lord<\/span> and did not fight against Jeroboam” (2 Chr 11:4). The cause of the division—the irrational response of Rehoboam to the people’s request—has already been explained in the previous narrative: “This turn of events was the will of God, for it fulfilled the Lord<\/span>’s message to Jeroboam son of Nebat through the prophet Ahijah from Shiloh” (10:15). Rehoboam may have been able to easily defeat the rebels, but he was deterred by the will of the Lord.<\/p>\nObedience to God’s will brought positive results for Rehoboam: He fortified cities; he put military leaders, equipment, and food supplies in place; loyal citizens migrated to his territory; and he had a large family. God’s will was clear, and the benefit to Rehoboam was obvious, yet the Chronicler could not explain God’s purposes. Readers of the book today are also left to ponder why God allowed the kingdom to remain divided.<\/p>\nThe prophet Isaiah declares the mystery of God’s ways: “‘My thoughts are nothing like your thoughts,’ says the Lord<\/span>. ‘And my ways are far beyond anything you could imagine. For just as the heavens are higher than the earth, so my ways are higher than your ways and my thoughts higher than your thoughts’” (Isa 55:8-9). Those who fear God learn not to lean on human understanding, but to follow the word of God even when it is contrary to earthly values.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n1 Kgs 8:56-61; 2 Chr 10:1–11:4; Job 42:1-6; Ps 115:1-3; Isa 40:9-31; 42:1-17; 55:8-13; Rom 8:26-30; Eph 1:9-14<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God’s Inscrutable Purposes in History<\/h3>\nGod directs people and events to fulfill his purposes in history. He has no need to explain himself, but he always has a purpose that he is working out; he guides individuals, nations, and events in accord with his will. This philosophy of history remains consistent throughout biblical history. God works through human actions to bring about results that he has planned and that cannot be explained in any other way except his orchestration.<\/p>\nFor example, the Chronicler gives just one explanation for the continued division of the kingdom of Israel: Rehoboam and those loyal to him “obeyed the message of the Lord<\/span> and did not fight against Jeroboam” (2 Chr 11:4). The cause of the division—the irrational response of Rehoboam to the people’s request—has already been explained in the previous narrative: “This turn of events was the will of God, for it fulfilled the Lord<\/span>’s message to Jeroboam son of Nebat through the prophet Ahijah from Shiloh” (10:15). Rehoboam may have been able to easily defeat the rebels, but he was deterred by the will of the Lord.<\/p>\nObedience to God’s will brought positive results for Rehoboam: He fortified cities; he put military leaders, equipment, and food supplies in place; loyal citizens migrated to his territory; and he had a large family. God’s will was clear, and the benefit to Rehoboam was obvious, yet the Chronicler could not explain God’s purposes. Readers of the book today are also left to ponder why God allowed the kingdom to remain divided.<\/p>\nThe prophet Isaiah declares the mystery of God’s ways: “‘My thoughts are nothing like your thoughts,’ says the Lord<\/span>. ‘And my ways are far beyond anything you could imagine. For just as the heavens are higher than the earth, so my ways are higher than your ways and my thoughts higher than your thoughts’” (Isa 55:8-9). Those who fear God learn not to lean on human understanding, but to follow the word of God even when it is contrary to earthly values.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n1 Kgs 8:56-61; 2 Chr 10:1–11:4; Job 42:1-6; Ps 115:1-3; Isa 40:9-31; 42:1-17; 55:8-13; Rom 8:26-30; Eph 1:9-14<\/p>","summary_ro":"God’s Inscrutable Purposes in History God directs people and events to fulfill his purposes in history. He has no need to explain himself, but he always has a purpose that he is working out; he guides individuals, nations, and events in accord with his will. This philosophy of history remains consistent throughout biblical history. God works through human actions to bring about results that he has planned and that cannot be explained in any other way except his orchestration. For example, the...","summary_en":"God’s Inscrutable Purposes in History God directs people and events to fulfill his purposes in history. He has no need to explain himself, but he always has a purpose that he is working out; he guides individuals, nations, and events in accord with his will. This philosophy of history remains consistent throughout biblical history. God works through human actions to bring about results that he has planned and that cannot be explained in any other way except his orchestration. For example, the...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":117968,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Psalms of Suffering","title_en":"Psalms of Suffering","content_ro":"<h3>Psalms of Suffering<\/h3>\nThe four psalms of suffering (also called “Passion Psalms”; Pss 16; 22; 40; 69) address the deep distress experienced by God’s servant.<\/p>\nPsalm 22 has perhaps the most remarkable language of the psalms of suffering. In this psalm, God’s servant suffers though he is righteous. There is no suggestion of any sin, so the psalmist’s suffering appears completely unjustified. Despite bitter persecution, there is no prayer for vengeance (see Ps 137). This psalm has some noteworthy connections with the crucifixion of Christ (e.g., Ps 22:6-8, 14-18). In fact, Jesus recited part of Psalm 22 when he was on the cross (22:1; see Matt 27:46). The sinless Christ even prayed for his executioners (Luke 23:34).<\/p>\nThe other psalms of suffering also came to be associated with Christ. Psalm 16:10 anticipates Christ’s triumph over death (cp. Acts 2:24-31). Psalm 40:6-8 foreshadows the self-giving, redemptive work of Christ (Heb 10:5-10). Psalm 69 refers to isolation as resulting from commitment to God’s cause (69:8-9). It also anticipates the part Judas played in what was fundamentally God’s work in Christ (69:25-26; see Ps 109:8; Isa 53:10; Acts 1:20).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nPss 16; 22; 40; 69; 102; 109; Isa 42:1-9; 52:13–53:12; Matt 27:46; Luke 23:34; Heb 10:5-10<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Psalms of Suffering<\/h3>\nThe four psalms of suffering (also called “Passion Psalms”; Pss 16; 22; 40; 69) address the deep distress experienced by God’s servant.<\/p>\nPsalm 22 has perhaps the most remarkable language of the psalms of suffering. In this psalm, God’s servant suffers though he is righteous. There is no suggestion of any sin, so the psalmist’s suffering appears completely unjustified. Despite bitter persecution, there is no prayer for vengeance (see Ps 137). This psalm has some noteworthy connections with the crucifixion of Christ (e.g., Ps 22:6-8, 14-18). In fact, Jesus recited part of Psalm 22 when he was on the cross (22:1; see Matt 27:46). The sinless Christ even prayed for his executioners (Luke 23:34).<\/p>\nThe other psalms of suffering also came to be associated with Christ. Psalm 16:10 anticipates Christ’s triumph over death (cp. Acts 2:24-31). Psalm 40:6-8 foreshadows the self-giving, redemptive work of Christ (Heb 10:5-10). Psalm 69 refers to isolation as resulting from commitment to God’s cause (69:8-9). It also anticipates the part Judas played in what was fundamentally God’s work in Christ (69:25-26; see Ps 109:8; Isa 53:10; Acts 1:20).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nPss 16; 22; 40; 69; 102; 109; Isa 42:1-9; 52:13–53:12; Matt 27:46; Luke 23:34; Heb 10:5-10<\/p>","summary_ro":"Psalms of Suffering The four psalms of suffering (also called “Passion Psalms”; Pss 16; 22; 40; 69) address the deep distress experienced by God’s servant. Psalm 22 has perhaps the most remarkable language of the psalms of suffering. In this psalm, God’s servant suffers though he is righteous. There is no suggestion of any sin, so the psalmist’s suffering appears completely unjustified. Despite bitter persecution, there is no prayer for vengeance (see Ps 137). This psalm has some noteworthy c...","summary_en":"Psalms of Suffering The four psalms of suffering (also called “Passion Psalms”; Pss 16; 22; 40; 69) address the deep distress experienced by God’s servant. Psalm 22 has perhaps the most remarkable language of the psalms of suffering. In this psalm, God’s servant suffers though he is righteous. There is no suggestion of any sin, so the psalmist’s suffering appears completely unjustified. Despite bitter persecution, there is no prayer for vengeance (see Ps 137). This psalm has some noteworthy c...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":119025,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Fearing People","title_en":"Fearing People","content_ro":"<h3>Fearing People<\/h3>\nGod had promised to be with his people in the face of opposition (see, e.g., Deut 20:1-4; Josh 1:9); as long as they remained committed to him, they had no reason to fear others. Israel’s history demonstrated this reality (see Exod 14:10-31; Josh 10:9-14). But for those who look elsewhere for peace and security, God can be a stumbling stone rather than a source of safety (Isa 8:14).<\/p>\nDuring the reign of King Ahaz of Judah, when the king heard that Syria and Israel had allied against him, he trembled in fear (Isa 7:2). The Lord encouraged him to be a man of faith, because without faith he could not expect the Lord’s protection (7:9). However, Ahaz refused to trust the Lord. Rather, he turned to the Assyrians for help. As a result, the Lord became a trap for him, as well as for all Israel and Judah (8:11-15).<\/p>\nOne of the purposes of Isaiah’s message was to highlight the contrast between faith and fear. We see Ahaz as an example of fear. We then see Hezekiah as an imperfect example of faith (see ch 37). Isaiah himself provides a better example of faith (ch 8). Finally, God’s servant stands as the ideal example of faith (42:1-7; 50:4-7).<\/p>\nJesus instructed his followers not to fear those who threaten them—even those who wish to kill them (Matt 10:26-31). The same God who is aware of the happenings of each individual sparrow and who knows the number of hairs on a person’s head will be with those who trust in him. Such trust has been demonstrated by believers throughout history who have rejected the fear of what others can do to them—even to the point of martyrdom (see Acts 6:8–7:60).<\/p>\nThose who do not commit themselves wholly to God will live in fear of others. But those who rely on the Lord will be able to overcome such fear, recognizing the temporality of human foes and the enduring sovereignty of God.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nNum 14:1-12; 21:34-35; Josh 1:9; 2 Kgs 16:5-18; 2 Chr 28:16-23; Ps 23:4; Prov 29:25; Isa 7:1-25; 41:10; 51:7-8, 12-13; 54:4; 57:11; Jer 10:5; 30:10; 46:27-28<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Fearing People<\/h3>\nGod had promised to be with his people in the face of opposition (see, e.g., Deut 20:1-4; Josh 1:9); as long as they remained committed to him, they had no reason to fear others. Israel’s history demonstrated this reality (see Exod 14:10-31; Josh 10:9-14). But for those who look elsewhere for peace and security, God can be a stumbling stone rather than a source of safety (Isa 8:14).<\/p>\nDuring the reign of King Ahaz of Judah, when the king heard that Syria and Israel had allied against him, he trembled in fear (Isa 7:2). The Lord encouraged him to be a man of faith, because without faith he could not expect the Lord’s protection (7:9). However, Ahaz refused to trust the Lord. Rather, he turned to the Assyrians for help. As a result, the Lord became a trap for him, as well as for all Israel and Judah (8:11-15).<\/p>\nOne of the purposes of Isaiah’s message was to highlight the contrast between faith and fear. We see Ahaz as an example of fear. We then see Hezekiah as an imperfect example of faith (see ch 37). Isaiah himself provides a better example of faith (ch 8). Finally, God’s servant stands as the ideal example of faith (42:1-7; 50:4-7).<\/p>\nJesus instructed his followers not to fear those who threaten them—even those who wish to kill them (Matt 10:26-31). The same God who is aware of the happenings of each individual sparrow and who knows the number of hairs on a person’s head will be with those who trust in him. Such trust has been demonstrated by believers throughout history who have rejected the fear of what others can do to them—even to the point of martyrdom (see Acts 6:8–7:60).<\/p>\nThose who do not commit themselves wholly to God will live in fear of others. But those who rely on the Lord will be able to overcome such fear, recognizing the temporality of human foes and the enduring sovereignty of God.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nNum 14:1-12; 21:34-35; Josh 1:9; 2 Kgs 16:5-18; 2 Chr 28:16-23; Ps 23:4; Prov 29:25; Isa 7:1-25; 41:10; 51:7-8, 12-13; 54:4; 57:11; Jer 10:5; 30:10; 46:27-28<\/p>","summary_ro":"Fearing People God had promised to be with his people in the face of opposition (see, e.g., Deut 20:1-4; Josh 1:9); as long as they remained committed to him, they had no reason to fear others. Israel’s history demonstrated this reality (see Exod 14:10-31; Josh 10:9-14). But for those who look elsewhere for peace and security, God can be a stumbling stone rather than a source of safety (Isa 8:14). During the reign of King Ahaz of Judah, when the king heard that Syria and Israel had allied aga...","summary_en":"Fearing People God had promised to be with his people in the face of opposition (see, e.g., Deut 20:1-4; Josh 1:9); as long as they remained committed to him, they had no reason to fear others. Israel’s history demonstrated this reality (see Exod 14:10-31; Josh 10:9-14). But for those who look elsewhere for peace and security, God can be a stumbling stone rather than a source of safety (Isa 8:14). During the reign of King Ahaz of Judah, when the king heard that Syria and Israel had allied aga...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":119263,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God’s Servant","title_en":"God’s Servant","content_ro":"<h3>God’s Servant<\/h3>\nIn Isaiah 40–66 the figure of God’s servant features prominently. The servant proclaims a new order of justice and righteousness to the world (42:3-4) and serves as God’s instrument to prepare the world for God’s coming (52:7).<\/p>\nWho is the Lord’s servant? Isaiah identifies the servant with Israel (41:8; 44:1-2), who serves as God’s witness (43:10) and as a light to the Gentiles. Yet Israel could not fully complete this mission: Israel was deaf, blind, and in need of God’s forgiveness (42:19; 44:21-22). Israel failed again and again. By contrast, God’s servant is faithful and waits for the coming redemption (see 61:1-3; 62:1-5). The servant thus represents the godly in Israel. The servant is God’s faithful witness to humanity, and he stands in opposition to the idolatrous practices of paganism.<\/p>\nIsaiah portrays the servant as an obedient individual who suffers. The notion of the “suffering servant” found fulfillment in one particular Israelite who was perfectly faithful and suffered on behalf of others: Jesus Christ. By his suffering, God’s blessings came to many, including other nations (see Acts 26:22-23). In union and fellowship with Christ, the apostles ministered as his servants to both Jews and Gentiles (Acts 13:47; 26:14-18). All those who have faith in Christ share in the mission of the servant and fulfill the role of God’s servants in the world (e.g., Col 1:7; 4:12; 1 Tim 4:6; 2 Tim 2:24).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nLev 25:42, 55; 1 Kgs 11:36; 2 Kgs 9:7; Pss 89:20-29; 113:1; Isa 41:8-10; 42:1-4, 19-20; 43:10; 44:1-5, 21-22; 49:1-7; 52:7, 13–53:12; 61:1-3; Jer 30:10; 33:20-22, 26; 46:27-28; Ezek 28:25; 34:23-24; 37:24-25; Zech 3:8; Matt 12:15-21; Acts 2:18; 2 Tim 2:24<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God’s Servant<\/h3>\nIn Isaiah 40–66 the figure of God’s servant features prominently. The servant proclaims a new order of justice and righteousness to the world (42:3-4) and serves as God’s instrument to prepare the world for God’s coming (52:7).<\/p>\nWho is the Lord’s servant? Isaiah identifies the servant with Israel (41:8; 44:1-2), who serves as God’s witness (43:10) and as a light to the Gentiles. Yet Israel could not fully complete this mission: Israel was deaf, blind, and in need of God’s forgiveness (42:19; 44:21-22). Israel failed again and again. By contrast, God’s servant is faithful and waits for the coming redemption (see 61:1-3; 62:1-5). The servant thus represents the godly in Israel. The servant is God’s faithful witness to humanity, and he stands in opposition to the idolatrous practices of paganism.<\/p>\nIsaiah portrays the servant as an obedient individual who suffers. The notion of the “suffering servant” found fulfillment in one particular Israelite who was perfectly faithful and suffered on behalf of others: Jesus Christ. By his suffering, God’s blessings came to many, including other nations (see Acts 26:22-23). In union and fellowship with Christ, the apostles ministered as his servants to both Jews and Gentiles (Acts 13:47; 26:14-18). All those who have faith in Christ share in the mission of the servant and fulfill the role of God’s servants in the world (e.g., Col 1:7; 4:12; 1 Tim 4:6; 2 Tim 2:24).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nLev 25:42, 55; 1 Kgs 11:36; 2 Kgs 9:7; Pss 89:20-29; 113:1; Isa 41:8-10; 42:1-4, 19-20; 43:10; 44:1-5, 21-22; 49:1-7; 52:7, 13–53:12; 61:1-3; Jer 30:10; 33:20-22, 26; 46:27-28; Ezek 28:25; 34:23-24; 37:24-25; Zech 3:8; Matt 12:15-21; Acts 2:18; 2 Tim 2:24<\/p>","summary_ro":"God’s Servant In Isaiah 40–66 the figure of God’s servant features prominently. The servant proclaims a new order of justice and righteousness to the world (42:3-4) and serves as God’s instrument to prepare the world for God’s coming (52:7). Who is the Lord’s servant? Isaiah identifies the servant with Israel (41:8; 44:1-2), who serves as God’s witness (43:10) and as a light to the Gentiles. Yet Israel could not fully complete this mission: Israel was deaf, blind, and in need of God’s forgive...","summary_en":"God’s Servant In Isaiah 40–66 the figure of God’s servant features prominently. The servant proclaims a new order of justice and righteousness to the world (42:3-4) and serves as God’s instrument to prepare the world for God’s coming (52:7). Who is the Lord’s servant? Isaiah identifies the servant with Israel (41:8; 44:1-2), who serves as God’s witness (43:10) and as a light to the Gentiles. Yet Israel could not fully complete this mission: Israel was deaf, blind, and in need of God’s forgive...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":119908,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Social Justice","title_en":"Social Justice","content_ro":"<h3>Social Justice<\/h3>\nIn the Old Testament, prophets often confronted evil in society and articulated a demand for social justice. An early example of this is found in Elijah’s response to the murder of Naboth, followed by his rebuke of Ahab (1 Kgs 21:16-24, 800s BC<\/span>). The social aspect of the prophetic message became even more prominent among the prophets of the 700s BC<\/span> (Hosea and Amos in Israel, Micah and Isaiah in Judah), with Amos as the most articulate spokesman on this issue.<\/p>\nAmos was appalled by Israel’s abuse of the powerless (Amos 2:6-8; 3:10). Unlike the surrounding nations, Israel had known God in a uniquely personal and intimate manner and then turned away from him (2:9-12; 3:1-2). The people of Israel had refused to worship God appropriately and had oppressed the powerless, so God would hold them accountable and meet them in judgment (4:12), not mercy. God wants justice to flow like a mighty river (Amos 5:24). Those who oppose it will be swept away.<\/p>\nThe importance of social justice is also made clear in the New Testament. Jesus drew a connection between proper worship and the practice of social justice, warning of the judgment that is coming upon those who do not express their faith in loving action toward others (see Matt 25:31-46). Right understanding must be matched by right practice, which serves as evidence of one’s faith (see Luke 10:25-37; John 13:35). Jesus’ followers recoginzed the significant role social justice needed to play within the early Christian communities (see Acts 2:44-45; Gal 2:9-10; 1 Tim 5:3-16; Jas 1:27–2:26; 1 Jn 3:17-19).<\/p>\nGod’s compassion for the oppressed is evidenced throughout Scripture. As followers of Christ, we must not neglect those who are in need, and like the prophets, we must confront injustice wherever it is encountered.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nExod 23:1-12; Lev 19:9-18; Deut 10:17-20; 16:18-20; 24:10-22; 1 Kgs 21:1-24; 2 Chr 19:4-11; Pss 94:20-23; 146:3-9; Prov 22:8-9; 31:8-9; Eccl 5:8-9; Isa 1:17; 5:7; 9:6-7; 10:1-2; 42:1-4; 58:4-12; Amos 2:6-8; 5:7-17, 23-24; Matt 12:15-21; 23:23; Luke 10:25-37; Heb 1:8-9<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Social Justice<\/h3>\nIn the Old Testament, prophets often confronted evil in society and articulated a demand for social justice. An early example of this is found in Elijah’s response to the murder of Naboth, followed by his rebuke of Ahab (1 Kgs 21:16-24, 800s BC<\/span>). The social aspect of the prophetic message became even more prominent among the prophets of the 700s BC<\/span> (Hosea and Amos in Israel, Micah and Isaiah in Judah), with Amos as the most articulate spokesman on this issue.<\/p>\nAmos was appalled by Israel’s abuse of the powerless (Amos 2:6-8; 3:10). Unlike the surrounding nations, Israel had known God in a uniquely personal and intimate manner and then turned away from him (2:9-12; 3:1-2). The people of Israel had refused to worship God appropriately and had oppressed the powerless, so God would hold them accountable and meet them in judgment (4:12), not mercy. God wants justice to flow like a mighty river (Amos 5:24). Those who oppose it will be swept away.<\/p>\nThe importance of social justice is also made clear in the New Testament. Jesus drew a connection between proper worship and the practice of social justice, warning of the judgment that is coming upon those who do not express their faith in loving action toward others (see Matt 25:31-46). Right understanding must be matched by right practice, which serves as evidence of one’s faith (see Luke 10:25-37; John 13:35). Jesus’ followers recoginzed the significant role social justice needed to play within the early Christian communities (see Acts 2:44-45; Gal 2:9-10; 1 Tim 5:3-16; Jas 1:27–2:26; 1 Jn 3:17-19).<\/p>\nGod’s compassion for the oppressed is evidenced throughout Scripture. As followers of Christ, we must not neglect those who are in need, and like the prophets, we must confront injustice wherever it is encountered.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nExod 23:1-12; Lev 19:9-18; Deut 10:17-20; 16:18-20; 24:10-22; 1 Kgs 21:1-24; 2 Chr 19:4-11; Pss 94:20-23; 146:3-9; Prov 22:8-9; 31:8-9; Eccl 5:8-9; Isa 1:17; 5:7; 9:6-7; 10:1-2; 42:1-4; 58:4-12; Amos 2:6-8; 5:7-17, 23-24; Matt 12:15-21; 23:23; Luke 10:25-37; Heb 1:8-9<\/p>","summary_ro":"Social Justice In the Old Testament, prophets often confronted evil in society and articulated a demand for social justice. An early example of this is found in Elijah’s response to the murder of Naboth, followed by his rebuke of Ahab (1 Kgs 21:16-24, 800s BC). The social aspect of the prophetic message became even more prominent among the prophets of the 700s BC (Hosea and Amos in Israel, Micah and Isaiah in Judah), with Amos as the most articulate spokesman on this issue. Amos was appalled ...","summary_en":"Social Justice In the Old Testament, prophets often confronted evil in society and articulated a demand for social justice. An early example of this is found in Elijah’s response to the murder of Naboth, followed by his rebuke of Ahab (1 Kgs 21:16-24, 800s BC). The social aspect of the prophetic message became even more prominent among the prophets of the 700s BC (Hosea and Amos in Israel, Micah and Isaiah in Judah), with Amos as the most articulate spokesman on this issue. Amos was appalled ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":120096,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God’s Commitment to His People","title_en":"God’s Commitment to His People","content_ro":"<h3>God’s Commitment to His People<\/h3>\nSometimes, from the perspective of God’s people, it seems that God is being slow to fulfill his promises. Abraham and Sarah had to wait twenty-five years from the time God first promised to make of them a great nation until their son Isaac was born. After God promised the kingship to David, David had to endure many trials under the reign of Saul before God finally established him as king. And though God had promised to bring a remnant back to the Promised Land after the Exile, the Jewish captives had to wait seventy years to return. Yet in each case, God indeed brought about the fulfillment of his promises.<\/p>\nZechariah prophesied around the time that the Temple was being rebuilt after the Exile. At one point during the reconstruction, God told Zechariah not to “despise these small beginnings” (Zech 4:10). God had acted in the past for the ultimate good of his people, even in the exile to Babylon (see 7:12-14). God would accomplish his purposes for Israel’s well-being in his own time and his own way. The people of Israel could take courage in the present and have hope for the future because God keeps his word and fulfills his promises (4:9).<\/p>\nGod wants patience and faith from his people, not a strident voice. God kept his word and fulfilled the promises he made indicating that his people would return to Jerusalem and that the Temple would be rebuilt. About five hundred years after Zechariah, God fulfilled the promises that he would bring salvation for all people, by sending Jesus the Messiah into the world. Likewise, Jesus’ words that he will one day return and fully establish his Kingdom can be trusted (see Matt 24:27, 30; see also Acts 1:6-11).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n1 Sam 15:29; 2 Sam 7:28-29; 2 Chr 36:21; Isa 42:1-9; 49:15; Zech 2:13; 4:9-10; 14:3; John 14:1-4; 17:17; Acts 1:6-11; Titus 1:2; Rev 21:5<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God’s Commitment to His People<\/h3>\nSometimes, from the perspective of God’s people, it seems that God is being slow to fulfill his promises. Abraham and Sarah had to wait twenty-five years from the time God first promised to make of them a great nation until their son Isaac was born. After God promised the kingship to David, David had to endure many trials under the reign of Saul before God finally established him as king. And though God had promised to bring a remnant back to the Promised Land after the Exile, the Jewish captives had to wait seventy years to return. Yet in each case, God indeed brought about the fulfillment of his promises.<\/p>\nZechariah prophesied around the time that the Temple was being rebuilt after the Exile. At one point during the reconstruction, God told Zechariah not to “despise these small beginnings” (Zech 4:10). God had acted in the past for the ultimate good of his people, even in the exile to Babylon (see 7:12-14). God would accomplish his purposes for Israel’s well-being in his own time and his own way. The people of Israel could take courage in the present and have hope for the future because God keeps his word and fulfills his promises (4:9).<\/p>\nGod wants patience and faith from his people, not a strident voice. God kept his word and fulfilled the promises he made indicating that his people would return to Jerusalem and that the Temple would be rebuilt. About five hundred years after Zechariah, God fulfilled the promises that he would bring salvation for all people, by sending Jesus the Messiah into the world. Likewise, Jesus’ words that he will one day return and fully establish his Kingdom can be trusted (see Matt 24:27, 30; see also Acts 1:6-11).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n1 Sam 15:29; 2 Sam 7:28-29; 2 Chr 36:21; Isa 42:1-9; 49:15; Zech 2:13; 4:9-10; 14:3; John 14:1-4; 17:17; Acts 1:6-11; Titus 1:2; Rev 21:5<\/p>","summary_ro":"God’s Commitment to His People Sometimes, from the perspective of God’s people, it seems that God is being slow to fulfill his promises. Abraham and Sarah had to wait twenty-five years from the time God first promised to make of them a great nation until their son Isaac was born. After God promised the kingship to David, David had to endure many trials under the reign of Saul before God finally established him as king. And though God had promised to bring a remnant back to the Promised Land a...","summary_en":"God’s Commitment to His People Sometimes, from the perspective of God’s people, it seems that God is being slow to fulfill his promises. Abraham and Sarah had to wait twenty-five years from the time God first promised to make of them a great nation until their son Isaac was born. After God promised the kingship to David, David had to endure many trials under the reign of Saul before God finally established him as king. And though God had promised to bring a remnant back to the Promised Land a...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":144864,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God’s Inscrutable Purposes in History","title_en":"God’s Inscrutable Purposes in History","content_ro":"<h3>God’s Inscrutable Purposes in History<\/h3>\nGod directs people and events to fulfill his purposes in history. He has no need to explain himself, but he always has a purpose that he is working out; he guides individuals, nations, and events in accord with his will. This philosophy of history remains consistent throughout biblical history. God works through human actions to bring about results that he has planned and that cannot be explained in any other way except his orchestration.<\/p>\nFor example, the Chronicler gives just one explanation for the continued division of the kingdom of Israel: Rehoboam and those loyal to him “obeyed the message of the Lord<\/span> and did not fight against Jeroboam” (2 Chr 11:4). The cause of the division—the irrational response of Rehoboam to the people’s request—has already been explained in the previous narrative: “This turn of events was the will of God, for it fulfilled the Lord<\/span>’s message to Jeroboam son of Nebat through the prophet Ahijah from Shiloh” (10:15). Rehoboam may have been able to easily defeat the rebels, but he was deterred by the will of the Lord.<\/p>\nObedience to God’s will brought positive results for Rehoboam: He fortified cities; he put military leaders, equipment, and food supplies in place; loyal citizens migrated to his territory; and he had a large family. God’s will was clear, and the benefit to Rehoboam was obvious, yet the Chronicler could not explain God’s purposes. Readers of the book today are also left to ponder why God allowed the kingdom to remain divided.<\/p>\nThe prophet Isaiah declares the mystery of God’s ways: “‘My thoughts are nothing like your thoughts,’ says the Lord<\/span>. ‘And my ways are far beyond anything you could imagine. For just as the heavens are higher than the earth, so my ways are higher than your ways and my thoughts higher than your thoughts’” (Isa 55:8-9). Those who fear God learn not to lean on human understanding, but to follow the word of God even when it is contrary to earthly values.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n1 Kgs 8:56-61; 2 Chr 10:1–11:4; Job 42:1-6; Ps 115:1-3; Isa 40:9-31; 42:1-17; 55:8-13; Rom 8:26-30; Eph 1:9-14<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God’s Inscrutable Purposes in History<\/h3>\nGod directs people and events to fulfill his purposes in history. He has no need to explain himself, but he always has a purpose that he is working out; he guides individuals, nations, and events in accord with his will. This philosophy of history remains consistent throughout biblical history. God works through human actions to bring about results that he has planned and that cannot be explained in any other way except his orchestration.<\/p>\nFor example, the Chronicler gives just one explanation for the continued division of the kingdom of Israel: Rehoboam and those loyal to him “obeyed the message of the Lord<\/span> and did not fight against Jeroboam” (2 Chr 11:4). The cause of the division—the irrational response of Rehoboam to the people’s request—has already been explained in the previous narrative: “This turn of events was the will of God, for it fulfilled the Lord<\/span>’s message to Jeroboam son of Nebat through the prophet Ahijah from Shiloh” (10:15). Rehoboam may have been able to easily defeat the rebels, but he was deterred by the will of the Lord.<\/p>\nObedience to God’s will brought positive results for Rehoboam: He fortified cities; he put military leaders, equipment, and food supplies in place; loyal citizens migrated to his territory; and he had a large family. God’s will was clear, and the benefit to Rehoboam was obvious, yet the Chronicler could not explain God’s purposes. Readers of the book today are also left to ponder why God allowed the kingdom to remain divided.<\/p>\nThe prophet Isaiah declares the mystery of God’s ways: “‘My thoughts are nothing like your thoughts,’ says the Lord<\/span>. ‘And my ways are far beyond anything you could imagine. For just as the heavens are higher than the earth, so my ways are higher than your ways and my thoughts higher than your thoughts’” (Isa 55:8-9). Those who fear God learn not to lean on human understanding, but to follow the word of God even when it is contrary to earthly values.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n1 Kgs 8:56-61; 2 Chr 10:1–11:4; Job 42:1-6; Ps 115:1-3; Isa 40:9-31; 42:1-17; 55:8-13; Rom 8:26-30; Eph 1:9-14<\/p>","summary_ro":"God’s Inscrutable Purposes in History God directs people and events to fulfill his purposes in history. He has no need to explain himself, but he always has a purpose that he is working out; he guides individuals, nations, and events in accord with his will. This philosophy of history remains consistent throughout biblical history. God works through human actions to bring about results that he has planned and that cannot be explained in any other way except his orchestration. For example, the...","summary_en":"God’s Inscrutable Purposes in History God directs people and events to fulfill his purposes in history. He has no need to explain himself, but he always has a purpose that he is working out; he guides individuals, nations, and events in accord with his will. This philosophy of history remains consistent throughout biblical history. God works through human actions to bring about results that he has planned and that cannot be explained in any other way except his orchestration. For example, the...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":145594,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Psalms of Suffering","title_en":"Psalms of Suffering","content_ro":"<h3>Psalms of Suffering<\/h3>\nThe four psalms of suffering (also called “Passion Psalms”; Pss 16; 22; 40; 69) address the deep distress experienced by God’s servant.<\/p>\nPsalm 22 has perhaps the most remarkable language of the psalms of suffering. In this psalm, God’s servant suffers though he is righteous. There is no suggestion of any sin, so the psalmist’s suffering appears completely unjustified. Despite bitter persecution, there is no prayer for vengeance (see Ps 137). This psalm has some noteworthy connections with the crucifixion of Christ (e.g., Ps 22:6-8, 14-18). In fact, Jesus recited part of Psalm 22 when he was on the cross (22:1; see Matt 27:46). The sinless Christ even prayed for his executioners (Luke 23:34).<\/p>\nThe other psalms of suffering also came to be associated with Christ. Psalm 16:10 anticipates Christ’s triumph over death (cp. Acts 2:24-31). Psalm 40:6-8 foreshadows the self-giving, redemptive work of Christ (Heb 10:5-10). Psalm 69 refers to isolation as resulting from commitment to God’s cause (69:8-9). It also anticipates the part Judas played in what was fundamentally God’s work in Christ (69:25-26; see Ps 109:8; Isa 53:10; Acts 1:20).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nPss 16; 22; 40; 69; 102; 109; Isa 42:1-9; 52:13–53:12; Matt 27:46; Luke 23:34; Heb 10:5-10<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Psalms of Suffering<\/h3>\nThe four psalms of suffering (also called “Passion Psalms”; Pss 16; 22; 40; 69) address the deep distress experienced by God’s servant.<\/p>\nPsalm 22 has perhaps the most remarkable language of the psalms of suffering. In this psalm, God’s servant suffers though he is righteous. There is no suggestion of any sin, so the psalmist’s suffering appears completely unjustified. Despite bitter persecution, there is no prayer for vengeance (see Ps 137). This psalm has some noteworthy connections with the crucifixion of Christ (e.g., Ps 22:6-8, 14-18). In fact, Jesus recited part of Psalm 22 when he was on the cross (22:1; see Matt 27:46). The sinless Christ even prayed for his executioners (Luke 23:34).<\/p>\nThe other psalms of suffering also came to be associated with Christ. Psalm 16:10 anticipates Christ’s triumph over death (cp. Acts 2:24-31). Psalm 40:6-8 foreshadows the self-giving, redemptive work of Christ (Heb 10:5-10). Psalm 69 refers to isolation as resulting from commitment to God’s cause (69:8-9). It also anticipates the part Judas played in what was fundamentally God’s work in Christ (69:25-26; see Ps 109:8; Isa 53:10; Acts 1:20).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nPss 16; 22; 40; 69; 102; 109; Isa 42:1-9; 52:13–53:12; Matt 27:46; Luke 23:34; Heb 10:5-10<\/p>","summary_ro":"Psalms of Suffering The four psalms of suffering (also called “Passion Psalms”; Pss 16; 22; 40; 69) address the deep distress experienced by God’s servant. Psalm 22 has perhaps the most remarkable language of the psalms of suffering. In this psalm, God’s servant suffers though he is righteous. There is no suggestion of any sin, so the psalmist’s suffering appears completely unjustified. Despite bitter persecution, there is no prayer for vengeance (see Ps 137). This psalm has some noteworthy c...","summary_en":"Psalms of Suffering The four psalms of suffering (also called “Passion Psalms”; Pss 16; 22; 40; 69) address the deep distress experienced by God’s servant. Psalm 22 has perhaps the most remarkable language of the psalms of suffering. In this psalm, God’s servant suffers though he is righteous. There is no suggestion of any sin, so the psalmist’s suffering appears completely unjustified. Despite bitter persecution, there is no prayer for vengeance (see Ps 137). This psalm has some noteworthy c...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":146651,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Fearing People","title_en":"Fearing People","content_ro":"<h3>Fearing People<\/h3>\nGod had promised to be with his people in the face of opposition (see, e.g., Deut 20:1-4; Josh 1:9); as long as they remained committed to him, they had no reason to fear others. Israel’s history demonstrated this reality (see Exod 14:10-31; Josh 10:9-14). But for those who look elsewhere for peace and security, God can be a stumbling stone rather than a source of safety (Isa 8:14).<\/p>\nDuring the reign of King Ahaz of Judah, when the king heard that Syria and Israel had allied against him, he trembled in fear (Isa 7:2). The Lord encouraged him to be a man of faith, because without faith he could not expect the Lord’s protection (7:9). However, Ahaz refused to trust the Lord. Rather, he turned to the Assyrians for help. As a result, the Lord became a trap for him, as well as for all Israel and Judah (8:11-15).<\/p>\nOne of the purposes of Isaiah’s message was to highlight the contrast between faith and fear. We see Ahaz as an example of fear. We then see Hezekiah as an imperfect example of faith (see ch 37). Isaiah himself provides a better example of faith (ch 8). Finally, God’s servant stands as the ideal example of faith (42:1-7; 50:4-7).<\/p>\nJesus instructed his followers not to fear those who threaten them—even those who wish to kill them (Matt 10:26-31). The same God who is aware of the happenings of each individual sparrow and who knows the number of hairs on a person’s head will be with those who trust in him. Such trust has been demonstrated by believers throughout history who have rejected the fear of what others can do to them—even to the point of martyrdom (see Acts 6:8–7:60).<\/p>\nThose who do not commit themselves wholly to God will live in fear of others. But those who rely on the Lord will be able to overcome such fear, recognizing the temporality of human foes and the enduring sovereignty of God.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nNum 14:1-12; 21:34-35; Josh 1:9; 2 Kgs 16:5-18; 2 Chr 28:16-23; Ps 23:4; Prov 29:25; Isa 7:1-25; 41:10; 51:7-8, 12-13; 54:4; 57:11; Jer 10:5; 30:10; 46:27-28<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Fearing People<\/h3>\nGod had promised to be with his people in the face of opposition (see, e.g., Deut 20:1-4; Josh 1:9); as long as they remained committed to him, they had no reason to fear others. Israel’s history demonstrated this reality (see Exod 14:10-31; Josh 10:9-14). But for those who look elsewhere for peace and security, God can be a stumbling stone rather than a source of safety (Isa 8:14).<\/p>\nDuring the reign of King Ahaz of Judah, when the king heard that Syria and Israel had allied against him, he trembled in fear (Isa 7:2). The Lord encouraged him to be a man of faith, because without faith he could not expect the Lord’s protection (7:9). However, Ahaz refused to trust the Lord. Rather, he turned to the Assyrians for help. As a result, the Lord became a trap for him, as well as for all Israel and Judah (8:11-15).<\/p>\nOne of the purposes of Isaiah’s message was to highlight the contrast between faith and fear. We see Ahaz as an example of fear. We then see Hezekiah as an imperfect example of faith (see ch 37). Isaiah himself provides a better example of faith (ch 8). Finally, God’s servant stands as the ideal example of faith (42:1-7; 50:4-7).<\/p>\nJesus instructed his followers not to fear those who threaten them—even those who wish to kill them (Matt 10:26-31). The same God who is aware of the happenings of each individual sparrow and who knows the number of hairs on a person’s head will be with those who trust in him. Such trust has been demonstrated by believers throughout history who have rejected the fear of what others can do to them—even to the point of martyrdom (see Acts 6:8–7:60).<\/p>\nThose who do not commit themselves wholly to God will live in fear of others. But those who rely on the Lord will be able to overcome such fear, recognizing the temporality of human foes and the enduring sovereignty of God.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nNum 14:1-12; 21:34-35; Josh 1:9; 2 Kgs 16:5-18; 2 Chr 28:16-23; Ps 23:4; Prov 29:25; Isa 7:1-25; 41:10; 51:7-8, 12-13; 54:4; 57:11; Jer 10:5; 30:10; 46:27-28<\/p>","summary_ro":"Fearing People God had promised to be with his people in the face of opposition (see, e.g., Deut 20:1-4; Josh 1:9); as long as they remained committed to him, they had no reason to fear others. Israel’s history demonstrated this reality (see Exod 14:10-31; Josh 10:9-14). But for those who look elsewhere for peace and security, God can be a stumbling stone rather than a source of safety (Isa 8:14). During the reign of King Ahaz of Judah, when the king heard that Syria and Israel had allied aga...","summary_en":"Fearing People God had promised to be with his people in the face of opposition (see, e.g., Deut 20:1-4; Josh 1:9); as long as they remained committed to him, they had no reason to fear others. Israel’s history demonstrated this reality (see Exod 14:10-31; Josh 10:9-14). But for those who look elsewhere for peace and security, God can be a stumbling stone rather than a source of safety (Isa 8:14). During the reign of King Ahaz of Judah, when the king heard that Syria and Israel had allied aga...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":146889,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God’s Servant","title_en":"God’s Servant","content_ro":"<h3>God’s Servant<\/h3>\nIn Isaiah 40–66 the figure of God’s servant features prominently. The servant proclaims a new order of justice and righteousness to the world (42:3-4) and serves as God’s instrument to prepare the world for God’s coming (52:7).<\/p>\nWho is the Lord’s servant? Isaiah identifies the servant with Israel (41:8; 44:1-2), who serves as God’s witness (43:10) and as a light to the Gentiles. Yet Israel could not fully complete this mission: Israel was deaf, blind, and in need of God’s forgiveness (42:19; 44:21-22). Israel failed again and again. By contrast, God’s servant is faithful and waits for the coming redemption (see 61:1-3; 62:1-5). The servant thus represents the godly in Israel. The servant is God’s faithful witness to humanity, and he stands in opposition to the idolatrous practices of paganism.<\/p>\nIsaiah portrays the servant as an obedient individual who suffers. The notion of the “suffering servant” found fulfillment in one particular Israelite who was perfectly faithful and suffered on behalf of others: Jesus Christ. By his suffering, God’s blessings came to many, including other nations (see Acts 26:22-23). In union and fellowship with Christ, the apostles ministered as his servants to both Jews and Gentiles (Acts 13:47; 26:14-18). All those who have faith in Christ share in the mission of the servant and fulfill the role of God’s servants in the world (e.g., Col 1:7; 4:12; 1 Tim 4:6; 2 Tim 2:24).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nLev 25:42, 55; 1 Kgs 11:36; 2 Kgs 9:7; Pss 89:20-29; 113:1; Isa 41:8-10; 42:1-4, 19-20; 43:10; 44:1-5, 21-22; 49:1-7; 52:7, 13–53:12; 61:1-3; Jer 30:10; 33:20-22, 26; 46:27-28; Ezek 28:25; 34:23-24; 37:24-25; Zech 3:8; Matt 12:15-21; Acts 2:18; 2 Tim 2:24<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God’s Servant<\/h3>\nIn Isaiah 40–66 the figure of God’s servant features prominently. The servant proclaims a new order of justice and righteousness to the world (42:3-4) and serves as God’s instrument to prepare the world for God’s coming (52:7).<\/p>\nWho is the Lord’s servant? Isaiah identifies the servant with Israel (41:8; 44:1-2), who serves as God’s witness (43:10) and as a light to the Gentiles. Yet Israel could not fully complete this mission: Israel was deaf, blind, and in need of God’s forgiveness (42:19; 44:21-22). Israel failed again and again. By contrast, God’s servant is faithful and waits for the coming redemption (see 61:1-3; 62:1-5). The servant thus represents the godly in Israel. The servant is God’s faithful witness to humanity, and he stands in opposition to the idolatrous practices of paganism.<\/p>\nIsaiah portrays the servant as an obedient individual who suffers. The notion of the “suffering servant” found fulfillment in one particular Israelite who was perfectly faithful and suffered on behalf of others: Jesus Christ. By his suffering, God’s blessings came to many, including other nations (see Acts 26:22-23). In union and fellowship with Christ, the apostles ministered as his servants to both Jews and Gentiles (Acts 13:47; 26:14-18). All those who have faith in Christ share in the mission of the servant and fulfill the role of God’s servants in the world (e.g., Col 1:7; 4:12; 1 Tim 4:6; 2 Tim 2:24).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nLev 25:42, 55; 1 Kgs 11:36; 2 Kgs 9:7; Pss 89:20-29; 113:1; Isa 41:8-10; 42:1-4, 19-20; 43:10; 44:1-5, 21-22; 49:1-7; 52:7, 13–53:12; 61:1-3; Jer 30:10; 33:20-22, 26; 46:27-28; Ezek 28:25; 34:23-24; 37:24-25; Zech 3:8; Matt 12:15-21; Acts 2:18; 2 Tim 2:24<\/p>","summary_ro":"God’s Servant In Isaiah 40–66 the figure of God’s servant features prominently. The servant proclaims a new order of justice and righteousness to the world (42:3-4) and serves as God’s instrument to prepare the world for God’s coming (52:7). Who is the Lord’s servant? Isaiah identifies the servant with Israel (41:8; 44:1-2), who serves as God’s witness (43:10) and as a light to the Gentiles. Yet Israel could not fully complete this mission: Israel was deaf, blind, and in need of God’s forgive...","summary_en":"God’s Servant In Isaiah 40–66 the figure of God’s servant features prominently. The servant proclaims a new order of justice and righteousness to the world (42:3-4) and serves as God’s instrument to prepare the world for God’s coming (52:7). Who is the Lord’s servant? Isaiah identifies the servant with Israel (41:8; 44:1-2), who serves as God’s witness (43:10) and as a light to the Gentiles. Yet Israel could not fully complete this mission: Israel was deaf, blind, and in need of God’s forgive...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":147534,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Social Justice","title_en":"Social Justice","content_ro":"<h3>Social Justice<\/h3>\nIn the Old Testament, prophets often confronted evil in society and articulated a demand for social justice. An early example of this is found in Elijah’s response to the murder of Naboth, followed by his rebuke of Ahab (1 Kgs 21:16-24, 800s BC<\/span>). The social aspect of the prophetic message became even more prominent among the prophets of the 700s BC<\/span> (Hosea and Amos in Israel, Micah and Isaiah in Judah), with Amos as the most articulate spokesman on this issue.<\/p>\nAmos was appalled by Israel’s abuse of the powerless (Amos 2:6-8; 3:10). Unlike the surrounding nations, Israel had known God in a uniquely personal and intimate manner and then turned away from him (2:9-12; 3:1-2). The people of Israel had refused to worship God appropriately and had oppressed the powerless, so God would hold them accountable and meet them in judgment (4:12), not mercy. God wants justice to flow like a mighty river (Amos 5:24). Those who oppose it will be swept away.<\/p>\nThe importance of social justice is also made clear in the New Testament. Jesus drew a connection between proper worship and the practice of social justice, warning of the judgment that is coming upon those who do not express their faith in loving action toward others (see Matt 25:31-46). Right understanding must be matched by right practice, which serves as evidence of one’s faith (see Luke 10:25-37; John 13:35). Jesus’ followers recoginzed the significant role social justice needed to play within the early Christian communities (see Acts 2:44-45; Gal 2:9-10; 1 Tim 5:3-16; Jas 1:27–2:26; 1 Jn 3:17-19).<\/p>\nGod’s compassion for the oppressed is evidenced throughout Scripture. As followers of Christ, we must not neglect those who are in need, and like the prophets, we must confront injustice wherever it is encountered.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nExod 23:1-12; Lev 19:9-18; Deut 10:17-20; 16:18-20; 24:10-22; 1 Kgs 21:1-24; 2 Chr 19:4-11; Pss 94:20-23; 146:3-9; Prov 22:8-9; 31:8-9; Eccl 5:8-9; Isa 1:17; 5:7; 9:6-7; 10:1-2; 42:1-4; 58:4-12; Amos 2:6-8; 5:7-17, 23-24; Matt 12:15-21; 23:23; Luke 10:25-37; Heb 1:8-9<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Social Justice<\/h3>\nIn the Old Testament, prophets often confronted evil in society and articulated a demand for social justice. An early example of this is found in Elijah’s response to the murder of Naboth, followed by his rebuke of Ahab (1 Kgs 21:16-24, 800s BC<\/span>). The social aspect of the prophetic message became even more prominent among the prophets of the 700s BC<\/span> (Hosea and Amos in Israel, Micah and Isaiah in Judah), with Amos as the most articulate spokesman on this issue.<\/p>\nAmos was appalled by Israel’s abuse of the powerless (Amos 2:6-8; 3:10). Unlike the surrounding nations, Israel had known God in a uniquely personal and intimate manner and then turned away from him (2:9-12; 3:1-2). The people of Israel had refused to worship God appropriately and had oppressed the powerless, so God would hold them accountable and meet them in judgment (4:12), not mercy. God wants justice to flow like a mighty river (Amos 5:24). Those who oppose it will be swept away.<\/p>\nThe importance of social justice is also made clear in the New Testament. Jesus drew a connection between proper worship and the practice of social justice, warning of the judgment that is coming upon those who do not express their faith in loving action toward others (see Matt 25:31-46). Right understanding must be matched by right practice, which serves as evidence of one’s faith (see Luke 10:25-37; John 13:35). Jesus’ followers recoginzed the significant role social justice needed to play within the early Christian communities (see Acts 2:44-45; Gal 2:9-10; 1 Tim 5:3-16; Jas 1:27–2:26; 1 Jn 3:17-19).<\/p>\nGod’s compassion for the oppressed is evidenced throughout Scripture. As followers of Christ, we must not neglect those who are in need, and like the prophets, we must confront injustice wherever it is encountered.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nExod 23:1-12; Lev 19:9-18; Deut 10:17-20; 16:18-20; 24:10-22; 1 Kgs 21:1-24; 2 Chr 19:4-11; Pss 94:20-23; 146:3-9; Prov 22:8-9; 31:8-9; Eccl 5:8-9; Isa 1:17; 5:7; 9:6-7; 10:1-2; 42:1-4; 58:4-12; Amos 2:6-8; 5:7-17, 23-24; Matt 12:15-21; 23:23; Luke 10:25-37; Heb 1:8-9<\/p>","summary_ro":"Social Justice In the Old Testament, prophets often confronted evil in society and articulated a demand for social justice. An early example of this is found in Elijah’s response to the murder of Naboth, followed by his rebuke of Ahab (1 Kgs 21:16-24, 800s BC). The social aspect of the prophetic message became even more prominent among the prophets of the 700s BC (Hosea and Amos in Israel, Micah and Isaiah in Judah), with Amos as the most articulate spokesman on this issue. Amos was appalled ...","summary_en":"Social Justice In the Old Testament, prophets often confronted evil in society and articulated a demand for social justice. An early example of this is found in Elijah’s response to the murder of Naboth, followed by his rebuke of Ahab (1 Kgs 21:16-24, 800s BC). The social aspect of the prophetic message became even more prominent among the prophets of the 700s BC (Hosea and Amos in Israel, Micah and Isaiah in Judah), with Amos as the most articulate spokesman on this issue. Amos was appalled ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":147722,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God’s Commitment to His People","title_en":"God’s Commitment to His People","content_ro":"<h3>God’s Commitment to His People<\/h3>\nSometimes, from the perspective of God’s people, it seems that God is being slow to fulfill his promises. Abraham and Sarah had to wait twenty-five years from the time God first promised to make of them a great nation until their son Isaac was born. After God promised the kingship to David, David had to endure many trials under the reign of Saul before God finally established him as king. And though God had promised to bring a remnant back to the Promised Land after the Exile, the Jewish captives had to wait seventy years to return. Yet in each case, God indeed brought about the fulfillment of his promises.<\/p>\nZechariah prophesied around the time that the Temple was being rebuilt after the Exile. At one point during the reconstruction, God told Zechariah not to “despise these small beginnings” (Zech 4:10). God had acted in the past for the ultimate good of his people, even in the exile to Babylon (see 7:12-14). God would accomplish his purposes for Israel’s well-being in his own time and his own way. The people of Israel could take courage in the present and have hope for the future because God keeps his word and fulfills his promises (4:9).<\/p>\nGod wants patience and faith from his people, not a strident voice. God kept his word and fulfilled the promises he made indicating that his people would return to Jerusalem and that the Temple would be rebuilt. About five hundred years after Zechariah, God fulfilled the promises that he would bring salvation for all people, by sending Jesus the Messiah into the world. Likewise, Jesus’ words that he will one day return and fully establish his Kingdom can be trusted (see Matt 24:27, 30; see also Acts 1:6-11).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n1 Sam 15:29; 2 Sam 7:28-29; 2 Chr 36:21; Isa 42:1-9; 49:15; Zech 2:13; 4:9-10; 14:3; John 14:1-4; 17:17; Acts 1:6-11; Titus 1:2; Rev 21:5<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God’s Commitment to His People<\/h3>\nSometimes, from the perspective of God’s people, it seems that God is being slow to fulfill his promises. Abraham and Sarah had to wait twenty-five years from the time God first promised to make of them a great nation until their son Isaac was born. After God promised the kingship to David, David had to endure many trials under the reign of Saul before God finally established him as king. And though God had promised to bring a remnant back to the Promised Land after the Exile, the Jewish captives had to wait seventy years to return. Yet in each case, God indeed brought about the fulfillment of his promises.<\/p>\nZechariah prophesied around the time that the Temple was being rebuilt after the Exile. At one point during the reconstruction, God told Zechariah not to “despise these small beginnings” (Zech 4:10). God had acted in the past for the ultimate good of his people, even in the exile to Babylon (see 7:12-14). God would accomplish his purposes for Israel’s well-being in his own time and his own way. The people of Israel could take courage in the present and have hope for the future because God keeps his word and fulfills his promises (4:9).<\/p>\nGod wants patience and faith from his people, not a strident voice. God kept his word and fulfilled the promises he made indicating that his people would return to Jerusalem and that the Temple would be rebuilt. About five hundred years after Zechariah, God fulfilled the promises that he would bring salvation for all people, by sending Jesus the Messiah into the world. Likewise, Jesus’ words that he will one day return and fully establish his Kingdom can be trusted (see Matt 24:27, 30; see also Acts 1:6-11).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n1 Sam 15:29; 2 Sam 7:28-29; 2 Chr 36:21; Isa 42:1-9; 49:15; Zech 2:13; 4:9-10; 14:3; John 14:1-4; 17:17; Acts 1:6-11; Titus 1:2; Rev 21:5<\/p>","summary_ro":"God’s Commitment to His People Sometimes, from the perspective of God’s people, it seems that God is being slow to fulfill his promises. Abraham and Sarah had to wait twenty-five years from the time God first promised to make of them a great nation until their son Isaac was born. After God promised the kingship to David, David had to endure many trials under the reign of Saul before God finally established him as king. And though God had promised to bring a remnant back to the Promised Land a...","summary_en":"God’s Commitment to His People Sometimes, from the perspective of God’s people, it seems that God is being slow to fulfill his promises. Abraham and Sarah had to wait twenty-five years from the time God first promised to make of them a great nation until their son Isaac was born. After God promised the kingship to David, David had to endure many trials under the reign of Saul before God finally established him as king. And though God had promised to bring a remnant back to the Promised Land a...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"2":[{"id":51656,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 42:2","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 42:2","content_ro":"42:2<\/strong> shout or raise his voice:<\/em> The royal servant will have calm confidence in his message and calling from God (see also 11:1-5).<\/p>","content_en":"42:2<\/strong> shout or raise his voice:<\/em> The royal servant will have calm confidence in his message and calling from God (see also 11:1-5).<\/p>","summary_ro":"42:2 shout or raise his voice: The royal servant will have calm confidence in his message and calling from God (see also 11:1-5).","summary_en":"42:2 shout or raise his voice: The royal servant will have calm confidence in his message and calling from God (see also 11:1-5).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":79282,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 42:2","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 42:2","content_ro":"42:2<\/strong> shout or raise his voice:<\/em> The royal servant will have calm confidence in his message and calling from God (see also 11:1-5).<\/p>","content_en":"42:2<\/strong> shout or raise his voice:<\/em> The royal servant will have calm confidence in his message and calling from God (see also 11:1-5).<\/p>","summary_ro":"42:2 shout or raise his voice: The royal servant will have calm confidence in his message and calling from God (see also 11:1-5).","summary_en":"42:2 shout or raise his voice: The royal servant will have calm confidence in his message and calling from God (see also 11:1-5).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":106908,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 42:2","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 42:2","content_ro":"42:2<\/strong> shout or raise his voice:<\/em> The royal servant will have calm confidence in his message and calling from God (see also 11:1-5).<\/p>","content_en":"42:2<\/strong> shout or raise his voice:<\/em> The royal servant will have calm confidence in his message and calling from God (see also 11:1-5).<\/p>","summary_ro":"42:2 shout or raise his voice: The royal servant will have calm confidence in his message and calling from God (see also 11:1-5).","summary_en":"42:2 shout or raise his voice: The royal servant will have calm confidence in his message and calling from God (see also 11:1-5).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":134534,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 42:2","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 42:2","content_ro":"42:2<\/strong> shout or raise his voice:<\/em> The royal servant will have calm confidence in his message and calling from God (see also 11:1-5).<\/p>","content_en":"42:2<\/strong> shout or raise his voice:<\/em> The royal servant will have calm confidence in his message and calling from God (see also 11:1-5).<\/p>","summary_ro":"42:2 shout or raise his voice: The royal servant will have calm confidence in his message and calling from God (see also 11:1-5).","summary_en":"42:2 shout or raise his voice: The royal servant will have calm confidence in his message and calling from God (see also 11:1-5).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"3":[{"id":22476,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Lampstand Lamp","title_en":"Lampstand Lamp","content_ro":"<h3>LAMP, LAMPSTAND<\/h3>\nIsraelite lamps developed from those in general use among the Canaanites in the second millennium BC<\/span>. Their shape was similar to a shell or saucer with a lip. Lamps of stone, metal, and shells were used, although the majority were made of pottery. A multitude of clay lamps, fashioned in a variety of designs, have been excavated in Palestine.<\/p>\n\nThe clay bowl was fashioned first, and the rim was folded over to help contain the oil. A spout was pinched in place at one end, into which the wick would be placed. When the clay had dried, the lamp would be fired to a dull brown shade. Gradually a style with an increasingly sharply pinched lip was developed. The wick was generally made of flax (Is 42:3, kjv<\/span>), although an old piece of linen cloth was sometimes used. Salt could be added to the wick for a brighter flame, and frequently extra wicks were used. This led to the development of multispouted lamps like those found at Tell Dotha from 1200 BC<\/span>.<\/p>\nOlive oil provided the most common form of lamp fuel (Ex 27:20), and the average lamp could hold enough oil to burn through the night. Despite this, the housewife would have to get up several times to tend the wick and keep her precious lamp lit (Prv 31:18). Tongs were used for extinguishing the flame of a lamp in the tabernacle or temple (Ex 25:38; 37:23; Nm 4:9; 1 Kgs 7:49; Is 6:6). Since candles were not known in biblical times, the translation in the kjv<\/span> is incorrect.<\/p>\nThe saucer lamp, which would have spilled easily, was not suitable for night travel, so a torch was probably used for that purpose (Jgs 7:16-20). In addition, the wick of the open saucer lamp could easily have blown out at night.<\/p>\nLamps were commonly found in burials along with food offerings. Because the lamp’s flame was associated with life, lamps were frequently placed in tombs as a symbol of life being rekindled.<\/p>\nAlthough a more elaborate cup-and-saucer style of lamp was developed in which the flame came from the central area, the saucer lamp remained the most popular. The earliest Hellenistic lamp found in Palestine dates from 630 BC<\/span> and already shows indications of the later covered model. During the sixth and fifth centuries BC<\/span>, a flat-bottomed, saucer-style lamp was developed.<\/p>\nIn the third century BC<\/span> the more elaborate wheel-made, covered Greek style took precedence. These lamps were often simple in design, rounded, with a central hole for the oil and one in the small spout for the wick.<\/p>\nIn the second century BC<\/span> the wheel-made lamp was replaced by a molded ceramic lamp of finer design with a larger spout. Imported Egyptian lamps of this type have been found in southern Palestine. Multispouted lamps were probably used on festive occasions. From the same period comes the Hellenistic-influenced bronze lamp of a seated figure holding out a saucer lamp in his hands. At the end of the Hellenistic age the form of lamps deteriorated as the spouts became thick and squat.<\/p>\nSmall, round wheel-made lamps of simple design were prevalent in the time of Christ; this would be the type of lamp used by the woman searching the house for her gold coin (Lk 15:8). With wicks trimmed, the lamps of the foolish virgins would probably have lasted approximately five hours, from dark until about midnight (Mt 25:1-12).<\/p>\nJewish lamps were part of the religious symbolism of the home, probably dating back to the prohibition against lighting a fire on the Sabbath (Ex 35:3). References to light abound in Scripture. We read of the eye as a lamp (Mt 6:22-23; Lk 11:33-36) and of Christ as the Light of the World (Jn 8:12). We are warned to pay attention to teaching as to a light shining in the dark (Prv 6:23; 2 Pt 1:19). Both God and the spirit of man are symbolized as lamps (2 Sm 22:29; Prv 20:27), while in Proverbs 13:9 “lamp” is synonymous with the essence of life itself. Lamps, with or without stands, were also part of the Jewish ritual of death, mourning, and burial.<\/p>\nThe tabernacle housed an ornate golden lampstand, or menorah. On either side three branches came out from the main central stem, and seven lamps could be lighted in the flower-shaped holders. The menorah from the Jerusalem temple is represented in relief on the Arch of Titus in Rome. This particular seven-branched lampstand resembles the ten that were part of the furnishings of Solomon’s temple.<\/p>\nThe seven-branched lampstand has been a particular symbol of the Jewish faith from the time of its earliest appearance on a coin in the reign of Antigonus (40–37 BC<\/span>) up to the present day.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Menorah.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>LAMP, LAMPSTAND<\/h3>\nIsraelite lamps developed from those in general use among the Canaanites in the second millennium BC<\/span>. Their shape was similar to a shell or saucer with a lip. Lamps of stone, metal, and shells were used, although the majority were made of pottery. A multitude of clay lamps, fashioned in a variety of designs, have been excavated in Palestine.<\/p>\n\nThe clay bowl was fashioned first, and the rim was folded over to help contain the oil. A spout was pinched in place at one end, into which the wick would be placed. When the clay had dried, the lamp would be fired to a dull brown shade. Gradually a style with an increasingly sharply pinched lip was developed. The wick was generally made of flax (Is 42:3, kjv<\/span>), although an old piece of linen cloth was sometimes used. Salt could be added to the wick for a brighter flame, and frequently extra wicks were used. This led to the development of multispouted lamps like those found at Tell Dotha from 1200 BC<\/span>.<\/p>\nOlive oil provided the most common form of lamp fuel (Ex 27:20), and the average lamp could hold enough oil to burn through the night. Despite this, the housewife would have to get up several times to tend the wick and keep her precious lamp lit (Prv 31:18). Tongs were used for extinguishing the flame of a lamp in the tabernacle or temple (Ex 25:38; 37:23; Nm 4:9; 1 Kgs 7:49; Is 6:6). Since candles were not known in biblical times, the translation in the kjv<\/span> is incorrect.<\/p>\nThe saucer lamp, which would have spilled easily, was not suitable for night travel, so a torch was probably used for that purpose (Jgs 7:16-20). In addition, the wick of the open saucer lamp could easily have blown out at night.<\/p>\nLamps were commonly found in burials along with food offerings. Because the lamp’s flame was associated with life, lamps were frequently placed in tombs as a symbol of life being rekindled.<\/p>\nAlthough a more elaborate cup-and-saucer style of lamp was developed in which the flame came from the central area, the saucer lamp remained the most popular. The earliest Hellenistic lamp found in Palestine dates from 630 BC<\/span> and already shows indications of the later covered model. During the sixth and fifth centuries BC<\/span>, a flat-bottomed, saucer-style lamp was developed.<\/p>\nIn the third century BC<\/span> the more elaborate wheel-made, covered Greek style took precedence. These lamps were often simple in design, rounded, with a central hole for the oil and one in the small spout for the wick.<\/p>\nIn the second century BC<\/span> the wheel-made lamp was replaced by a molded ceramic lamp of finer design with a larger spout. Imported Egyptian lamps of this type have been found in southern Palestine. Multispouted lamps were probably used on festive occasions. From the same period comes the Hellenistic-influenced bronze lamp of a seated figure holding out a saucer lamp in his hands. At the end of the Hellenistic age the form of lamps deteriorated as the spouts became thick and squat.<\/p>\nSmall, round wheel-made lamps of simple design were prevalent in the time of Christ; this would be the type of lamp used by the woman searching the house for her gold coin (Lk 15:8). With wicks trimmed, the lamps of the foolish virgins would probably have lasted approximately five hours, from dark until about midnight (Mt 25:1-12).<\/p>\nJewish lamps were part of the religious symbolism of the home, probably dating back to the prohibition against lighting a fire on the Sabbath (Ex 35:3). References to light abound in Scripture. We read of the eye as a lamp (Mt 6:22-23; Lk 11:33-36) and of Christ as the Light of the World (Jn 8:12). We are warned to pay attention to teaching as to a light shining in the dark (Prv 6:23; 2 Pt 1:19). Both God and the spirit of man are symbolized as lamps (2 Sm 22:29; Prv 20:27), while in Proverbs 13:9 “lamp” is synonymous with the essence of life itself. Lamps, with or without stands, were also part of the Jewish ritual of death, mourning, and burial.<\/p>\nThe tabernacle housed an ornate golden lampstand, or menorah. On either side three branches came out from the main central stem, and seven lamps could be lighted in the flower-shaped holders. The menorah from the Jerusalem temple is represented in relief on the Arch of Titus in Rome. This particular seven-branched lampstand resembles the ten that were part of the furnishings of Solomon’s temple.<\/p>\nThe seven-branched lampstand has been a particular symbol of the Jewish faith from the time of its earliest appearance on a coin in the reign of Antigonus (40–37 BC<\/span>) up to the present day.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Menorah.<\/p>","summary_ro":"LAMP, LAMPSTAND Israelite lamps developed from those in general use among the Canaanites in the second millennium BC. Their shape was similar to a shell or saucer with a lip. Lamps of stone, metal, and shells were used, although the majority were made of pottery. A multitude of clay lamps, fashioned in a variety of designs, have been excavated in Palestine. The clay bowl was fashioned first, and the rim was folded over to help contain the oil. A spout was pinched in place at one end, into whi...","summary_en":"LAMP, LAMPSTAND Israelite lamps developed from those in general use among the Canaanites in the second millennium BC. Their shape was similar to a shell or saucer with a lip. Lamps of stone, metal, and shells were used, although the majority were made of pottery. A multitude of clay lamps, fashioned in a variety of designs, have been excavated in Palestine. The clay bowl was fashioned first, and the rim was folded over to help contain the oil. A spout was pinched in place at one end, into whi...","source":"Articles\/L.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":25389,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Messiah","title_en":"Messiah","content_ro":"<h3>MESSIAH<\/h3>\nTitle derived from the Hebrew, mashiach<\/span>,<\/em> a verbal adjective meaning “anointed one.” Along with its NT equivalent, christos<\/span> (Christ), it refers to an act of consecration whereby an individual is set apart to serve God and then anointed with oil. The verbal root (<\/em>mashach<\/span>)<\/em> conveys this idea as well.<\/p>\nIsrael’s practice of ceremonially anointing with oil is present in several contexts. Priests were regularly anointed prior to their divinely given service at the altar of sacrifice (Lv 4:3). While there is evidence for a literal anointing of prophets (1 Kgs 19:16), this does not appear to have been a standard practice. The anointing of Saul and David by Samuel established the act as a significant prerequisite for Hebrew kings before they assumed their positions of royal leadership. The king was especially considered to be the Lord’s anointed and as such was viewed to hold a secure position before men (1 Sm 12:14; 2 Sm 19:21) and God (Pss 2:2; 20:6). Along with numerous messianic prophecies, these proceedings helped inform the Jews of the Anointed One, par excellence, who would eventually come to bring salvation to Israel.<\/p>\nConcluding the 13 articles of Hebraic faith attributed to Moses Maimonides (13th century AD<\/span>) is the statement still found in many Hebrew prayer books: “I believe with a perfect heart that the Messiah will come; and although his coming be delayed, I will still wait patiently for his speedy appearance.”<\/p>\nMessiah in the Old Testament<\/p>\nJewish hope for the advent of the Messiah developed dynamically from the period of David’s reign, when it was prophesied that his kingdom would endure to the end of time (2 Sm 7:16). Israel was told that, through David’s descendants, his throne would exert a never-ending dominion over all the earth (2 Sm 22:48-51; Jer 33). It is with this aspect of messianic salvation that Jewish minds have traditionally been preoccupied (cf. Acts 1:6).<\/p>\nAmong Orthodox rabbis there has never been a lack of conjecture respecting the details of the Messiah’s ministry. At one time the rabbis applied no less than 456 passages of Scripture to his person and salvation. Preoccupation with the Messiah is evident in the tractate Sanhedrin<\/em> (Babylonian Talmud), where passages state that the world was created for him and that all the prophets prophesied of his days (Sanhedrin<\/em> 98b, 99a). By and large, Orthodoxy still retains its time-worn belief in the Messiah’s reign in Jerusalem, the rebuilding of the temple, and the reestablishment of both priesthood and sacrifice.<\/p>\nWhile later Judaism looked for the Messiah as an eschatological figure who will reign at the end of time, modern Jewish thought has largely jettisoned the traditional notion of a personal Messiah in favor of belief in a messianic age. Prevalent liberal Judaism envisions the world ultimately perfected through the influence of the twin Judaic ideals of justice and compassion. Such conviction, ignoring the plight of fallen humans and the teaching of Scripture, substitutes humanistic thinking for miraculous heavenly intervention.<\/p>\nWhile the Messiah’s origin is linked firmly to the house of David (2 Sm 7:14; Hos 3:5), the promise for a Messiah was given long before David lived. In fact, the hope for the Messiah is implicit in the first promise of the establishment of the kingdom of God. Addressed to Satan, Genesis 3:15 declares that God will place hostility between the serpent and the woman until, in the fullness of time, the “seed” of the woman inflicts a fatal blow to the head of the serpent.<\/p>\nThe nature of messianic prophecy is progressive; each prophecy casts more light on the subject. This occurs, for example, respecting the concept of the “seed”: Messiah is to be born of a woman (Gn 3:15), through the line of Shem (9:26) and specifically through Abraham (22:18). Yet even as late as Genesis 22:18, the “seed” is not clearly presented as a person, since zerah<\/span> (seed) may indicate a singular or plural object. Still less apparent in these early stages of messianic prophecy is the nature of the “bruising” that is to occur. Yet the idea of the Messiah being crushed for sin is implicit in the Genesis pronouncement, as is the violence associated with that act. Chief among the messianic prophets, Isaiah gives full range to the axiom that the Anointed One must endure extensive suffering (Is 53:1). Under the figure “the Servant of the Lord,” four “servant songs” delineate the mission of the future deliverer (Is 42:1-7; 49:1-9; 50:4-11; 52:13–53:12). While it is true that Isaiah does not explicitly link the title Messiah with the Servant of the Lord, identifying both figures as one and the same person is justifiable. Both figures are uniquely anointed (61:1); each brings light to the Gentiles (55:4; cf. 49:6); neither is pretentious in his first appearance (7:14-15; 11:1; cf. 42:3; 53:1); and the title of Davidic “branch” rests upon them both (11:1-4). Equally significant are the dual facts of their humiliation and exaltation (49:7; 52:13-15). Jewish scholars of the early Christian era in the Aramaic Targum on the prophets paraphrase Isaiah 42:1, “Behold my Servant Messiah” and begin Isaiah 53, “Behold my Servant Messiah will prosper.” While Cyrus may be spoken of as “anointed,” no final salvific work is attributed to him (45:1-5). Israel, although elect and loved by God (41:8), is ill-equipped as God’s servant to bring his redeeming work to mankind (42:18). The collapse of David’s dynasty points eloquently to Israel’s need for an anointed monarch who will heal the apostasy and disobedience (Ex 33:5; Hos 4:1). More and more, OT history presents Israel’s comprehensive moral failure. Her problem, which she shares with mankind, can only be solved by the making of a covenant whose surety and focal point is both a personal Savior and sovereign Lord (Jer 31:31-34). The advent of such a champion lives in the recorded promise of a shoot from the stump of Jesse’s fallen tree, who will bring the light of life to God’s benighted people (Is 9:2; 11:1).<\/p>\nIt is difficult to get away from the idea that the concept of servanthood and lowliness belongs within the sphere of royalty (Zec 9:9). The concept of the Messiah filling the complementary offices of priest and king is incontrovertible (Ps 110:1-4); a suffering priest-king is far less obvious. Some among the Talmudic writers apparently recognized the likelihood that the Messiah would have to suffer. In the Babylonian Talmud, tractate Sanhedrin<\/em> 98b, the Messiah is said to bear sicknesses and pain. Among the prayers for the Day of Atonement may be found the words of Eleazar ben Qalir (perhaps as late as AD<\/span> 1000): “Our righteous Messiah has departed from us; we are horror-stricken, and there is none to justify us. Our iniquities and the yoke of our transgressions he carries, and is wounded for our transgressions. He bears on his shoulders our sins to find pardon for our iniquities. May we be healed by his stripes.” In a similar vein Rabbi Eliyya de Vidas writes, “The meaning of ‘He was wounded for our transgressions, bruised for our iniquities,’ is that since the Messiah bears our iniquities, which produce the effect of His being bruised, it follows that whosoever will not admit that the Messiah thus suffers for our iniquities must endure and suffer for them himself.” For all this, it is highly doubtful that anyone imagined the Messiah would accomplish his salvational work by means of his own death (cf. Is 53:12). When rabbinic speculation failed to satisfactorily harmonize the paradoxical facts of humiliation and exaltation, some hypothesized that God would send a Messiah to suffer as well as a Messiah to reign. Biblically, it is evident that the Anointed One’s terrible ordeal of suffering is but the necessary prelude to infinite glory. He is pictured not only as a great king (52:13; 53:12) but also as humble (53:2), humiliated (52:14), rejected (53:3), and bearing the consequences of mankind’s rebellion (vv 5-6). Yet he is raised up to intercede for, and richly bless, his people (v 12). The Messiah, having accomplished that full obedience that Adam and Israel failed to achieve, will bring Israel and the nations back to God (42:18-19; 49:3, 6).<\/p>\nThe writings of Daniel contain important messianic data. Daniel is unique in that he boldly speaks of “Messiah the Prince” (Dn 9:25), identifies him as the “Son of Man” (7:13), and says he suffers (“cut off,” 9:26). This statement of the cutting off (i.e., death) of the Messiah makes possible his work of atonement (9:24). The doctrine of a vicarious substitutionary atonement is the only doctrine of atonement found in the Bible (cf. Lv 17:11). Israel understood that to bear sin meant enduring the consequences, or penalty, for sin (cf. Nm 14:33). The same penal substitution is evident in the working principle of the Messiah’s atoning sacrifice. He is the victim’s substitute to whom is transferred the suffering due the sinner. The penalty having been thus borne vicariously, the suppliant is fully pardoned.<\/p>\nPsalm 22:1 records the plaintive cry of the Messiah bearing man’s penalty for sin (cf. Mt 27:46) as he becomes sin on behalf of his people (2 Cor 5:21). Yet his cry, “My God,” indicates an intimate relationship that cannot be radically severed. Once again the motif of messianic humiliation prior to great exaltation is in view (Ps 22:27). In the so-called “royal psalms” (e.g., 2; 72; 110) it is the priestly intercessor who is also ordained to function as monarch and judge.<\/p>\nJeremiah brings the portrait a step further. The one who will enable humans to enter into a salvational covenant with God conveys God’s imputed righteousness: the Messiah, God’s righteous branch, becomes “the Lord our Righteousness.” Paradoxically, under the law no one could be crucified who was not guilty of sin (Dt 21:22). But it is Christ the righteous one who was crucified, thereby forever undermining any supposed legalistic confidence (Dt 21:23; Gal 3:13). More than forgiven, believers are deemed righteous in him (Jer 23:5-6).<\/p>\nWhile the birthplace of the Messiah was well established (Mi 5:2), his deity was a hotly contested matter. Although few in ancient Israel disputed the belief in a superhuman Messiah, it is doubtful that anyone imagined him to be “God with us” in the fullest sense of the expression (cf. Heb 1:3).<\/p>\nMessiah in the New Testament<\/p>\nThe NT writers present the picture that he who was the child of supernatural origins (Is 7:14; Mi 5:2) carried the full weight of divinity (Is 9:6; Phil 2:6; Col 1:19). He is the Son of God, worthy to receive the worship of all people (Ps 45:6-7; cf. Heb 1:8-9).<\/p>\nThe Jews of first-century Palestine knew that the messianic promise would be fulfilled in the coming of one like Moses (Dt 18:18). Parallels between Jesus and Moses are abundant. As mediators, innovators, and propagators of new phases of spiritual life for the people, they are unexcelled. Specifically, both are miraculously spared in infancy (Ex 2; Mt 2:13-23); both renounce a royal court for the sake of serving the people of God (Phil 2:5-8; Heb 11:24-28); both exhibit intense compassion for others (Nm 27:17; Mt 9:36); both commune “face to face” with God (Ex 34:29-30; 2 Cor 3:7); and each mediates a covenant of redemption (Dt 29:1; Heb 8:6-7). But, as Luther observes, “Christ is no Moses.” In the final analysis Moses is but a household servant; the Messiah is the maker and master of all things (Heb 3:3-6; cf. Jn 1:1-2, 18).<\/p>\nFamily genealogies are important in Scripture. Rabbis agreed upon the absolute necessity of the Messiah’s Davidic lineage based on Hosea 3:5 and Jeremiah 30:9. The angelic announcement immediately establishes the correct lineage for Jesus (Lk 1:32-33; cf. 2:4), as does Matthew’s (Mt 1:1-17). The Lukan list, like that of Matthew, sets forth the exclusive kingly descent verifying Jesus as Messiah (Lk 3:23-38). Although variations occur between the two genealogies, there is a firm solidarity emphasizing an ancestry within the unique messianic stock. Fully aware of the messianic focus of Scripture (Jn 5:46; 8:56), Jesus acknowledged himself to be the Christ on numerous occasions. He accepted the title from blind Bartimaeus (Mk 10:46-48); from the crowds when he entered Jerusalem (Mt 21:9); from the children at the temple (v 15); and in other contexts as well (Mt 16:16-18; Mk 14:61-62; Lk 4:21; Jn 4:25-26). Nonetheless, he warned his disciples not to broadcast his mighty acts as Messiah prior to his resurrection (Mt 17:9; cf. Lk 9:20-21). Owing to the commonly held (but false) notion that the Messiah’s role was primarily that of a political liberator, Jesus actually avoided use of that term and preferred to identify himself as “the Son of Man.” It was by no means assumed that both designations referred to the same person (cf. Mk 14:61-62). Borrowing essentially from Daniel’s vision of a heavenly conqueror (Dn 7:13-14), Jesus consistently employed this less-known title and filled it with the true character and scope of messianic salvation. Jesus’ teaching in this regard enabled his disciples to correct their erroneous views concerning his mission (Mt 16:21-23). In the fullness of time they would come to see him not only as Messiah but also as the theme of the entire OT (Mt 5:17; Lk 24:27, 44; Jn 5:39; cf. Heb 10:7). When Jesus expounded the Scriptures beginning with the Torah (Lk 24:27), he did so as the living exegesis of God, the Word made flesh (Jn 1:14, 18). Legitimate messianic exposition is found in a host of texts, such as Psalms 2; 16; 22; 40; 110; Isaiah 7:14; 9:6; 11:1; 40:10-11; 50:6; 52:13–53:12; 61:1; 63:1-6; Jeremiah 23:5-6; 33:14-16; Ezekiel 34:23; 37:25; Daniel 9:24-27; Hosea 11:1; Micah 5:2; Zechariah 9:9; 11:13; 12:10; 13:7; Malachi 3:1; 4:2.<\/p>\nThe messiahship of Jesus is firmly proclaimed by all four evangelists (Mt 1:1; Mk 1:1; Lk 24:26; Jn 20:31). Peter on Pentecost, Philip before the Ethiopian eunuch, and Apollos in open debate all argue convincingly that Jesus is the Messiah (Acts 2:36; 8:35; 28:28). Peter says he was “made” both Lord and Christ (2:36), signifying that the resurrection rightfully confirms him as such. Similarly, the apostle Paul speaks of Jesus’ resurrection as a patent declaration of his inalienable right to the title (Rom 1:4). For the ex-Pharisee and former persecutor of the church, “Jesus the Christ” is the very heart and soul of Paul’s preaching. Nothing is worthy to be compared to the glory of the Messiah; everything pales by comparison (Phil 3:5-10). The apostle’s all-consuming passion is for others to know the fullness of God in the person of his only Son (Eph 3:14-19).<\/p>\nThe Holy Spirit in Scripture speaks of Jesus with wide-ranging appellatives—Holy One, Judge, Righteous One, King, Son of God, and Lord—but these are not exhaustive. In him all the lines of messianic prediction converge; he is the touchstone whereby their validity is firmly established. The Lord Jesus Christ is himself the heart and substance of that covenant through which sinful people may be reconciled to a holy God (Is 42:6; Jn 14:6). That Jesus is the Messiah of Israel, God incarnate, exhaustively fulfills prophecy, type, and symbol—all shadows of his coming. Therefore, all should trust in him, the source of all grace, the only abiding treasure (Mt 12:21; Jn 1:16-17; Col 2:3). Anointed as prophet, he leads us into all truth (Jn 6:14; 7:16); as priest he intercedes for us (Heb 7:21); and as king he reigns over us (Phil 2:9-10).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Atonement; Branch; Christology; Jesus Christ, Life and Teachings of; Redeemer, Redemption; Son of God; Son of Man.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>MESSIAH<\/h3>\nTitle derived from the Hebrew, mashiach<\/span>,<\/em> a verbal adjective meaning “anointed one.” Along with its NT equivalent, christos<\/span> (Christ), it refers to an act of consecration whereby an individual is set apart to serve God and then anointed with oil. The verbal root (<\/em>mashach<\/span>)<\/em> conveys this idea as well.<\/p>\nIsrael’s practice of ceremonially anointing with oil is present in several contexts. Priests were regularly anointed prior to their divinely given service at the altar of sacrifice (Lv 4:3). While there is evidence for a literal anointing of prophets (1 Kgs 19:16), this does not appear to have been a standard practice. The anointing of Saul and David by Samuel established the act as a significant prerequisite for Hebrew kings before they assumed their positions of royal leadership. The king was especially considered to be the Lord’s anointed and as such was viewed to hold a secure position before men (1 Sm 12:14; 2 Sm 19:21) and God (Pss 2:2; 20:6). Along with numerous messianic prophecies, these proceedings helped inform the Jews of the Anointed One, par excellence, who would eventually come to bring salvation to Israel.<\/p>\nConcluding the 13 articles of Hebraic faith attributed to Moses Maimonides (13th century AD<\/span>) is the statement still found in many Hebrew prayer books: “I believe with a perfect heart that the Messiah will come; and although his coming be delayed, I will still wait patiently for his speedy appearance.”<\/p>\nMessiah in the Old Testament<\/p>\nJewish hope for the advent of the Messiah developed dynamically from the period of David’s reign, when it was prophesied that his kingdom would endure to the end of time (2 Sm 7:16). Israel was told that, through David’s descendants, his throne would exert a never-ending dominion over all the earth (2 Sm 22:48-51; Jer 33). It is with this aspect of messianic salvation that Jewish minds have traditionally been preoccupied (cf. Acts 1:6).<\/p>\nAmong Orthodox rabbis there has never been a lack of conjecture respecting the details of the Messiah’s ministry. At one time the rabbis applied no less than 456 passages of Scripture to his person and salvation. Preoccupation with the Messiah is evident in the tractate Sanhedrin<\/em> (Babylonian Talmud), where passages state that the world was created for him and that all the prophets prophesied of his days (Sanhedrin<\/em> 98b, 99a). By and large, Orthodoxy still retains its time-worn belief in the Messiah’s reign in Jerusalem, the rebuilding of the temple, and the reestablishment of both priesthood and sacrifice.<\/p>\nWhile later Judaism looked for the Messiah as an eschatological figure who will reign at the end of time, modern Jewish thought has largely jettisoned the traditional notion of a personal Messiah in favor of belief in a messianic age. Prevalent liberal Judaism envisions the world ultimately perfected through the influence of the twin Judaic ideals of justice and compassion. Such conviction, ignoring the plight of fallen humans and the teaching of Scripture, substitutes humanistic thinking for miraculous heavenly intervention.<\/p>\nWhile the Messiah’s origin is linked firmly to the house of David (2 Sm 7:14; Hos 3:5), the promise for a Messiah was given long before David lived. In fact, the hope for the Messiah is implicit in the first promise of the establishment of the kingdom of God. Addressed to Satan, Genesis 3:15 declares that God will place hostility between the serpent and the woman until, in the fullness of time, the “seed” of the woman inflicts a fatal blow to the head of the serpent.<\/p>\nThe nature of messianic prophecy is progressive; each prophecy casts more light on the subject. This occurs, for example, respecting the concept of the “seed”: Messiah is to be born of a woman (Gn 3:15), through the line of Shem (9:26) and specifically through Abraham (22:18). Yet even as late as Genesis 22:18, the “seed” is not clearly presented as a person, since zerah<\/span> (seed) may indicate a singular or plural object. Still less apparent in these early stages of messianic prophecy is the nature of the “bruising” that is to occur. Yet the idea of the Messiah being crushed for sin is implicit in the Genesis pronouncement, as is the violence associated with that act. Chief among the messianic prophets, Isaiah gives full range to the axiom that the Anointed One must endure extensive suffering (Is 53:1). Under the figure “the Servant of the Lord,” four “servant songs” delineate the mission of the future deliverer (Is 42:1-7; 49:1-9; 50:4-11; 52:13–53:12). While it is true that Isaiah does not explicitly link the title Messiah with the Servant of the Lord, identifying both figures as one and the same person is justifiable. Both figures are uniquely anointed (61:1); each brings light to the Gentiles (55:4; cf. 49:6); neither is pretentious in his first appearance (7:14-15; 11:1; cf. 42:3; 53:1); and the title of Davidic “branch” rests upon them both (11:1-4). Equally significant are the dual facts of their humiliation and exaltation (49:7; 52:13-15). Jewish scholars of the early Christian era in the Aramaic Targum on the prophets paraphrase Isaiah 42:1, “Behold my Servant Messiah” and begin Isaiah 53, “Behold my Servant Messiah will prosper.” While Cyrus may be spoken of as “anointed,” no final salvific work is attributed to him (45:1-5). Israel, although elect and loved by God (41:8), is ill-equipped as God’s servant to bring his redeeming work to mankind (42:18). The collapse of David’s dynasty points eloquently to Israel’s need for an anointed monarch who will heal the apostasy and disobedience (Ex 33:5; Hos 4:1). More and more, OT history presents Israel’s comprehensive moral failure. Her problem, which she shares with mankind, can only be solved by the making of a covenant whose surety and focal point is both a personal Savior and sovereign Lord (Jer 31:31-34). The advent of such a champion lives in the recorded promise of a shoot from the stump of Jesse’s fallen tree, who will bring the light of life to God’s benighted people (Is 9:2; 11:1).<\/p>\nIt is difficult to get away from the idea that the concept of servanthood and lowliness belongs within the sphere of royalty (Zec 9:9). The concept of the Messiah filling the complementary offices of priest and king is incontrovertible (Ps 110:1-4); a suffering priest-king is far less obvious. Some among the Talmudic writers apparently recognized the likelihood that the Messiah would have to suffer. In the Babylonian Talmud, tractate Sanhedrin<\/em> 98b, the Messiah is said to bear sicknesses and pain. Among the prayers for the Day of Atonement may be found the words of Eleazar ben Qalir (perhaps as late as AD<\/span> 1000): “Our righteous Messiah has departed from us; we are horror-stricken, and there is none to justify us. Our iniquities and the yoke of our transgressions he carries, and is wounded for our transgressions. He bears on his shoulders our sins to find pardon for our iniquities. May we be healed by his stripes.” In a similar vein Rabbi Eliyya de Vidas writes, “The meaning of ‘He was wounded for our transgressions, bruised for our iniquities,’ is that since the Messiah bears our iniquities, which produce the effect of His being bruised, it follows that whosoever will not admit that the Messiah thus suffers for our iniquities must endure and suffer for them himself.” For all this, it is highly doubtful that anyone imagined the Messiah would accomplish his salvational work by means of his own death (cf. Is 53:12). When rabbinic speculation failed to satisfactorily harmonize the paradoxical facts of humiliation and exaltation, some hypothesized that God would send a Messiah to suffer as well as a Messiah to reign. Biblically, it is evident that the Anointed One’s terrible ordeal of suffering is but the necessary prelude to infinite glory. He is pictured not only as a great king (52:13; 53:12) but also as humble (53:2), humiliated (52:14), rejected (53:3), and bearing the consequences of mankind’s rebellion (vv 5-6). Yet he is raised up to intercede for, and richly bless, his people (v 12). The Messiah, having accomplished that full obedience that Adam and Israel failed to achieve, will bring Israel and the nations back to God (42:18-19; 49:3, 6).<\/p>\nThe writings of Daniel contain important messianic data. Daniel is unique in that he boldly speaks of “Messiah the Prince” (Dn 9:25), identifies him as the “Son of Man” (7:13), and says he suffers (“cut off,” 9:26). This statement of the cutting off (i.e., death) of the Messiah makes possible his work of atonement (9:24). The doctrine of a vicarious substitutionary atonement is the only doctrine of atonement found in the Bible (cf. Lv 17:11). Israel understood that to bear sin meant enduring the consequences, or penalty, for sin (cf. Nm 14:33). The same penal substitution is evident in the working principle of the Messiah’s atoning sacrifice. He is the victim’s substitute to whom is transferred the suffering due the sinner. The penalty having been thus borne vicariously, the suppliant is fully pardoned.<\/p>\nPsalm 22:1 records the plaintive cry of the Messiah bearing man’s penalty for sin (cf. Mt 27:46) as he becomes sin on behalf of his people (2 Cor 5:21). Yet his cry, “My God,” indicates an intimate relationship that cannot be radically severed. Once again the motif of messianic humiliation prior to great exaltation is in view (Ps 22:27). In the so-called “royal psalms” (e.g., 2; 72; 110) it is the priestly intercessor who is also ordained to function as monarch and judge.<\/p>\nJeremiah brings the portrait a step further. The one who will enable humans to enter into a salvational covenant with God conveys God’s imputed righteousness: the Messiah, God’s righteous branch, becomes “the Lord our Righteousness.” Paradoxically, under the law no one could be crucified who was not guilty of sin (Dt 21:22). But it is Christ the righteous one who was crucified, thereby forever undermining any supposed legalistic confidence (Dt 21:23; Gal 3:13). More than forgiven, believers are deemed righteous in him (Jer 23:5-6).<\/p>\nWhile the birthplace of the Messiah was well established (Mi 5:2), his deity was a hotly contested matter. Although few in ancient Israel disputed the belief in a superhuman Messiah, it is doubtful that anyone imagined him to be “God with us” in the fullest sense of the expression (cf. Heb 1:3).<\/p>\nMessiah in the New Testament<\/p>\nThe NT writers present the picture that he who was the child of supernatural origins (Is 7:14; Mi 5:2) carried the full weight of divinity (Is 9:6; Phil 2:6; Col 1:19). He is the Son of God, worthy to receive the worship of all people (Ps 45:6-7; cf. Heb 1:8-9).<\/p>\nThe Jews of first-century Palestine knew that the messianic promise would be fulfilled in the coming of one like Moses (Dt 18:18). Parallels between Jesus and Moses are abundant. As mediators, innovators, and propagators of new phases of spiritual life for the people, they are unexcelled. Specifically, both are miraculously spared in infancy (Ex 2; Mt 2:13-23); both renounce a royal court for the sake of serving the people of God (Phil 2:5-8; Heb 11:24-28); both exhibit intense compassion for others (Nm 27:17; Mt 9:36); both commune “face to face” with God (Ex 34:29-30; 2 Cor 3:7); and each mediates a covenant of redemption (Dt 29:1; Heb 8:6-7). But, as Luther observes, “Christ is no Moses.” In the final analysis Moses is but a household servant; the Messiah is the maker and master of all things (Heb 3:3-6; cf. Jn 1:1-2, 18).<\/p>\nFamily genealogies are important in Scripture. Rabbis agreed upon the absolute necessity of the Messiah’s Davidic lineage based on Hosea 3:5 and Jeremiah 30:9. The angelic announcement immediately establishes the correct lineage for Jesus (Lk 1:32-33; cf. 2:4), as does Matthew’s (Mt 1:1-17). The Lukan list, like that of Matthew, sets forth the exclusive kingly descent verifying Jesus as Messiah (Lk 3:23-38). Although variations occur between the two genealogies, there is a firm solidarity emphasizing an ancestry within the unique messianic stock. Fully aware of the messianic focus of Scripture (Jn 5:46; 8:56), Jesus acknowledged himself to be the Christ on numerous occasions. He accepted the title from blind Bartimaeus (Mk 10:46-48); from the crowds when he entered Jerusalem (Mt 21:9); from the children at the temple (v 15); and in other contexts as well (Mt 16:16-18; Mk 14:61-62; Lk 4:21; Jn 4:25-26). Nonetheless, he warned his disciples not to broadcast his mighty acts as Messiah prior to his resurrection (Mt 17:9; cf. Lk 9:20-21). Owing to the commonly held (but false) notion that the Messiah’s role was primarily that of a political liberator, Jesus actually avoided use of that term and preferred to identify himself as “the Son of Man.” It was by no means assumed that both designations referred to the same person (cf. Mk 14:61-62). Borrowing essentially from Daniel’s vision of a heavenly conqueror (Dn 7:13-14), Jesus consistently employed this less-known title and filled it with the true character and scope of messianic salvation. Jesus’ teaching in this regard enabled his disciples to correct their erroneous views concerning his mission (Mt 16:21-23). In the fullness of time they would come to see him not only as Messiah but also as the theme of the entire OT (Mt 5:17; Lk 24:27, 44; Jn 5:39; cf. Heb 10:7). When Jesus expounded the Scriptures beginning with the Torah (Lk 24:27), he did so as the living exegesis of God, the Word made flesh (Jn 1:14, 18). Legitimate messianic exposition is found in a host of texts, such as Psalms 2; 16; 22; 40; 110; Isaiah 7:14; 9:6; 11:1; 40:10-11; 50:6; 52:13–53:12; 61:1; 63:1-6; Jeremiah 23:5-6; 33:14-16; Ezekiel 34:23; 37:25; Daniel 9:24-27; Hosea 11:1; Micah 5:2; Zechariah 9:9; 11:13; 12:10; 13:7; Malachi 3:1; 4:2.<\/p>\nThe messiahship of Jesus is firmly proclaimed by all four evangelists (Mt 1:1; Mk 1:1; Lk 24:26; Jn 20:31). Peter on Pentecost, Philip before the Ethiopian eunuch, and Apollos in open debate all argue convincingly that Jesus is the Messiah (Acts 2:36; 8:35; 28:28). Peter says he was “made” both Lord and Christ (2:36), signifying that the resurrection rightfully confirms him as such. Similarly, the apostle Paul speaks of Jesus’ resurrection as a patent declaration of his inalienable right to the title (Rom 1:4). For the ex-Pharisee and former persecutor of the church, “Jesus the Christ” is the very heart and soul of Paul’s preaching. Nothing is worthy to be compared to the glory of the Messiah; everything pales by comparison (Phil 3:5-10). The apostle’s all-consuming passion is for others to know the fullness of God in the person of his only Son (Eph 3:14-19).<\/p>\nThe Holy Spirit in Scripture speaks of Jesus with wide-ranging appellatives—Holy One, Judge, Righteous One, King, Son of God, and Lord—but these are not exhaustive. In him all the lines of messianic prediction converge; he is the touchstone whereby their validity is firmly established. The Lord Jesus Christ is himself the heart and substance of that covenant through which sinful people may be reconciled to a holy God (Is 42:6; Jn 14:6). That Jesus is the Messiah of Israel, God incarnate, exhaustively fulfills prophecy, type, and symbol—all shadows of his coming. Therefore, all should trust in him, the source of all grace, the only abiding treasure (Mt 12:21; Jn 1:16-17; Col 2:3). Anointed as prophet, he leads us into all truth (Jn 6:14; 7:16); as priest he intercedes for us (Heb 7:21); and as king he reigns over us (Phil 2:9-10).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Atonement; Branch; Christology; Jesus Christ, Life and Teachings of; Redeemer, Redemption; Son of God; Son of Man.<\/p>","summary_ro":"MESSIAH Title derived from the Hebrew, mashiach, a verbal adjective meaning “anointed one.” Along with its NT equivalent, christos (Christ), it refers to an act of consecration whereby an individual is set apart to serve God and then anointed with oil. The verbal root (mashach) conveys this idea as well. Israel’s practice of ceremonially anointing with oil is present in several contexts. Priests were regularly anointed prior to their divinely given service at the altar of sacrifice (Lv 4:3). ...","summary_en":"MESSIAH Title derived from the Hebrew, mashiach, a verbal adjective meaning “anointed one.” Along with its NT equivalent, christos (Christ), it refers to an act of consecration whereby an individual is set apart to serve God and then anointed with oil. The verbal root (mashach) conveys this idea as well. Israel’s practice of ceremonially anointing with oil is present in several contexts. Priests were regularly anointed prior to their divinely given service at the altar of sacrifice (Lv 4:3). ...","source":"Articles\/M.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":28375,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Oil","title_en":"Oil","content_ro":"<h3>OIL<\/h3>\nSubstance most commonly produced from the olive berry, although the word could also apply to oil of myrrh (Est 2:12). Oil was used primarily in cooking, but additionally as a cosmetic for anointing the body, for medicinal purposes, as a source of light, for anointing kings and priests, and in religious offerings.<\/p>\nThe growth of olive trees was widespread, and the Israelites took advantage of this major crop to establish a thriving trade in oil with Tyre and Egypt. Like precious metals and animals, oil became an established medium of exchange. Solomon used it as part of the payment to Hiram for construction expenses connected with the temple (1 Kgs 5:11; Ez 27:17).<\/p>\nBecause oil was essential for everyday life, it was an effective and acceptable medium of barter. Oil was used in the preparation of most food (1 Kgs 17:12-16). The common cake or patty of grain, which formed the basis of the noon meal, would be cooked on a griddle with a little oil.<\/p>\nAs a cosmetic, oil was used for anointing the body after a bath (Ru 3:3; 2 Sm 12:20). It was frequently used on festive occasions, and at Egyptian banquets the heads of both the guests and the female entertainers were anointed. In the NT, the anointing of the sick is mentioned (Jas 5:14). Olive oil could also be taken internally as a medicine for the relief of gastric disorders. It had a soothing effect and was also used as a mild laxative. It was applied externally as an ointment for bruises, burns, cuts, and abrasions (Is 1:6; Mk 6:13; Lk 10:34).<\/p>\nAs soon as the sun set, the only source of light was the oil lamp. Often the small portable one could be placed easily on a shelf, but in large homes, palaces, synagogues, or temples, the lamp could rest on a tall metal base like a standard lamp. The wick of flax (Is 42:3) or hemp was placed in the oil that gave out a flame until it was extinguished or the supply of fuel ran out. Torches were used in the streets both to light the way and for additional security. They added immeasurably to the festive atmosphere of evening processions. Torches were an essential part of the wedding procession, and normally those carrying the torches brought a quantity of oil in a container in case there was a delay and their supply was exhausted. This scene is vividly portrayed in Jesus’ parable of the wise and foolish virgins (Mt 25:1-13).<\/p>\nIn other ceremonial events, oil had a special meaning when used for the anointing of kings (1 Sm 10:1; 1 Kgs 1:39) and priests (Ex 29:7). It was symbolic of the office and of the recognition of God’s blessing on the officeholder.<\/p>\nQuantities of oil were used in the temple. It was donated as part of the firstfruit offering (Ex 22:29) and was also subject to tithing (Dt 12:17). Oil was frequently used for the ceremonial aspect of temple life or as part of the offering. The grain offering was mixed with oil (Lv 8:26; Nm 7:19), and the oil in the lamp that burned in the sanctuary constantly needed replenishing (Lv 24:2). The daily sacrifice required the use of oil (Ex 29:40), although the sin offering (Lv 5:11) and the jealousy offering (Nm 5:15) specifically did not use oil.<\/p>\nA pestle and mortar, or a stone press, pressed oil from the olives (Ex 27:20). Where the latter was used, the pulp initially produced by the press was often trodden out or subjected to further extensive pressing. Stone presses were set up to process the quantities of berries available at the Mt of Olives. The word for “oil press” was gatt-semen,<\/em> hence the name Gethsemane.<\/p>\nOil was symbolically associated with joy, festivity, ceremony, honor, light, and health (both spiritual and physical), while its absence spelled sorrow (Jl 1:10) and the withdrawal of all that is good in life.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Anoint; Food and Food Preparation; Medicine and Medical Practice; Ointment; Plants (Olive, Olive Tree).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>OIL<\/h3>\nSubstance most commonly produced from the olive berry, although the word could also apply to oil of myrrh (Est 2:12). Oil was used primarily in cooking, but additionally as a cosmetic for anointing the body, for medicinal purposes, as a source of light, for anointing kings and priests, and in religious offerings.<\/p>\nThe growth of olive trees was widespread, and the Israelites took advantage of this major crop to establish a thriving trade in oil with Tyre and Egypt. Like precious metals and animals, oil became an established medium of exchange. Solomon used it as part of the payment to Hiram for construction expenses connected with the temple (1 Kgs 5:11; Ez 27:17).<\/p>\nBecause oil was essential for everyday life, it was an effective and acceptable medium of barter. Oil was used in the preparation of most food (1 Kgs 17:12-16). The common cake or patty of grain, which formed the basis of the noon meal, would be cooked on a griddle with a little oil.<\/p>\nAs a cosmetic, oil was used for anointing the body after a bath (Ru 3:3; 2 Sm 12:20). It was frequently used on festive occasions, and at Egyptian banquets the heads of both the guests and the female entertainers were anointed. In the NT, the anointing of the sick is mentioned (Jas 5:14). Olive oil could also be taken internally as a medicine for the relief of gastric disorders. It had a soothing effect and was also used as a mild laxative. It was applied externally as an ointment for bruises, burns, cuts, and abrasions (Is 1:6; Mk 6:13; Lk 10:34).<\/p>\nAs soon as the sun set, the only source of light was the oil lamp. Often the small portable one could be placed easily on a shelf, but in large homes, palaces, synagogues, or temples, the lamp could rest on a tall metal base like a standard lamp. The wick of flax (Is 42:3) or hemp was placed in the oil that gave out a flame until it was extinguished or the supply of fuel ran out. Torches were used in the streets both to light the way and for additional security. They added immeasurably to the festive atmosphere of evening processions. Torches were an essential part of the wedding procession, and normally those carrying the torches brought a quantity of oil in a container in case there was a delay and their supply was exhausted. This scene is vividly portrayed in Jesus’ parable of the wise and foolish virgins (Mt 25:1-13).<\/p>\nIn other ceremonial events, oil had a special meaning when used for the anointing of kings (1 Sm 10:1; 1 Kgs 1:39) and priests (Ex 29:7). It was symbolic of the office and of the recognition of God’s blessing on the officeholder.<\/p>\nQuantities of oil were used in the temple. It was donated as part of the firstfruit offering (Ex 22:29) and was also subject to tithing (Dt 12:17). Oil was frequently used for the ceremonial aspect of temple life or as part of the offering. The grain offering was mixed with oil (Lv 8:26; Nm 7:19), and the oil in the lamp that burned in the sanctuary constantly needed replenishing (Lv 24:2). The daily sacrifice required the use of oil (Ex 29:40), although the sin offering (Lv 5:11) and the jealousy offering (Nm 5:15) specifically did not use oil.<\/p>\nA pestle and mortar, or a stone press, pressed oil from the olives (Ex 27:20). Where the latter was used, the pulp initially produced by the press was often trodden out or subjected to further extensive pressing. Stone presses were set up to process the quantities of berries available at the Mt of Olives. The word for “oil press” was gatt-semen,<\/em> hence the name Gethsemane.<\/p>\nOil was symbolically associated with joy, festivity, ceremony, honor, light, and health (both spiritual and physical), while its absence spelled sorrow (Jl 1:10) and the withdrawal of all that is good in life.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Anoint; Food and Food Preparation; Medicine and Medical Practice; Ointment; Plants (Olive, Olive Tree).<\/p>","summary_ro":"OIL Substance most commonly produced from the olive berry, although the word could also apply to oil of myrrh (Est 2:12). Oil was used primarily in cooking, but additionally as a cosmetic for anointing the body, for medicinal purposes, as a source of light, for anointing kings and priests, and in religious offerings. The growth of olive trees was widespread, and the Israelites took advantage of this major crop to establish a thriving trade in oil with Tyre and Egypt. Like precious metals and ...","summary_en":"OIL Substance most commonly produced from the olive berry, although the word could also apply to oil of myrrh (Est 2:12). Oil was used primarily in cooking, but additionally as a cosmetic for anointing the body, for medicinal purposes, as a source of light, for anointing kings and priests, and in religious offerings. The growth of olive trees was widespread, and the Israelites took advantage of this major crop to establish a thriving trade in oil with Tyre and Egypt. Like precious metals and ...","source":"Articles\/O.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":30614,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Plants","title_en":"Plants","content_ro":"<h3>PLANTS<\/h3>\nIdentifying biblical plants has always been a difficult task, partly because people continue to identify the biblical elm, sycamore, lily, rose, and vine with modern plants, and also because they assume that all the plants now growing in the Holy Land were there in ancient biblical days, or that the plants referred to in the Bible are still to be found there today. Unfortunately, many plants now quite common in the Holy Land were not there in biblical days. Many plants that once grew in abundance in the Holy Land are now extinct. Some have been driven out by foreign invaders; others have been exterminated or nearly exterminated by overcultivation of the land, the destruction of forests, and the resulting changes in climatic and other environmental conditions. At one time the Holy Land was a land of palm trees, with the date palm as abundant and characteristic there as it was in Egypt, but today the date palm is much less common. Similarly, in antiquity, the towering cedars clothed the slopes of Lebanon and other mountain ranges. Now the few remaining specimens must be carefully fenced in to protect them against trampling and the ravages of goats.<\/p>\nPreview<\/p>\n• Acacia<\/p>\n• Acanthus<\/p>\n• Algum<\/p>\n• Almond<\/p>\n• Almug<\/p>\n• Aloe<\/p>\n• Apple<\/p>\n• Apricot<\/p>\n• Ash<\/p>\n• Aspen<\/p>\n• Balm<\/p>\n• Barley<\/p>\n• Bdellium<\/p>\n• Bean<\/p>\n• Bitter Herbs<\/p>\n• Boxthorn, European<\/p>\n• Box Tree<\/p>\n• Bramble<\/p>\n• Broom<\/p>\n• Buckthorn<\/p>\n• Bush<\/p>\n• Buttercup<\/p>\n• Calamus<\/p>\n• Cane<\/p>\n• Caper Plant<\/p>\n• Carob Tree<\/p>\n• Cassia<\/p>\n• Castor Oil Plant<\/p>\n• Cedar<\/p>\n• Chicory<\/p>\n• Cinnamon<\/p>\n• Citron Tree<\/p>\n• Coriander<\/p>\n• Cotton<\/p>\n• Cucumber<\/p>\n• Cummin<\/p>\n• Cypress<\/p>\n• Dandelion<\/p>\n• Darnel Grass<\/p>\n• Dill<\/p>\n• Ebony<\/p>\n• Endive<\/p>\n• Fig, Fig Tree<\/p>\n• Fir Tree<\/p>\n• Flax<\/p>\n• Frankincense<\/p>\n• Galbanum<\/p>\n• Garlic<\/p>\n• Gourd, Wild<\/p>\n• Hedge<\/p>\n• Henna<\/p>\n• Hyacinth<\/p>\n• Hyssop<\/p>\n• Juniper<\/p>\n• Laurel or Sweet Bay<\/p>\n• Leek<\/p>\n• Lentil<\/p>\n• Lettuce<\/p>\n• Lily<\/p>\n• Lotus Bush<\/p>\n• Mallow<\/p>\n• Mandrake<\/p>\n• Melon<\/p>\n• Millet<\/p>\n• Mint<\/p>\n• Mulberry<\/p>\n• Mustard<\/p>\n• Myrrh<\/p>\n• Myrtle<\/p>\n• Narcissus<\/p>\n• Nard<\/p>\n• Nettle<\/p>\n• Nutmeg Flower<\/p>\n• Oak<\/p>\n• Oil Tree, Oleaster<\/p>\n• Oleander<\/p>\n• Olive, Olive Tree<\/p>\n• Onion<\/p>\n• Palm<\/p>\n• Papyrus<\/p>\n• Pine Tree<\/p>\n• Pistachio<\/p>\n• Plane Tree<\/p>\n• Pomegranate<\/p>\n• Poplar<\/p>\n• Quince<\/p>\n• Reed<\/p>\n• Rue<\/p>\n• Rush<\/p>\n• Saffron<\/p>\n• Sage<\/p>\n• Spelt<\/p>\n• Storax Tree<\/p>\n• Sycamore<\/p>\n• Tamarisk<\/p>\n• Terebinth<\/p>\n• Thistle, Thorn<\/p>\n• Tulip<\/p>\n• Tumbleweed<\/p>\n• Vegetable<\/p>\n• Vine<\/p>\n• Walnut<\/p>\n• Water Lily<\/p>\n• Wheat<\/p>\n• Wormwood<\/p>\nAcacia (Acacia tortilis<\/em> and A. seyal)<\/em><\/p>\nAny tree or shrub of the mimosa family of plants growing in warm regions. The plant referred to in the kjv<\/span> as “shittah” (singular) or “shittim” (plural) is undoubtedly the acacia tree, the only timber tree of any considerable size in the Arabian desert. Acacia tortilis<\/em> is by far the largest and most common tree in the desert in which the Israelites wandered for 40 years. It is especially conspicuous on Mt Sinai and was probably the species used for the tabernacle furnishings. A. seyal<\/em> is less common, at least today. It can grow as high as 25 feet (7.6 meters), and bears yellow flowers on twisted branches. The wood is close grained, heavy and hard, orange-brown in color, and much valued in cabinetwork. The ancient Egyptians clamped shut mummy coffins with acacia wood.<\/p>\nAcanthus (Acanthus syriacus)<\/em><\/p>\nThe acanthus, perhaps referred to in Job 30:7 and Zephaniah 2:9, is a perennial thistlelike herb or small shrub about three feet (.9 meter) tall, and is a common weed in all Eastern countries. It has been used since time immemorial as a model for the leaf or scroll decorations in art.<\/p>\nAlgum (Juniperus excelsa Bieb)<\/em><\/p>\nThe timber from Lebanon referred to in 2 Chronicles 2:8 is probably the juniper. Some translators hold, however, that algum and almug are Hebrew variants for the same tree (see nlt<\/span> mg, 2 Chr 2:8).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Almug (below).<\/p>\nAlmond (Amygdalus communis)<\/em><\/p>\nThe almond is a peachlike tree with saw-toothed pointed leaves and gray bark. It grows to a height of from 10 to 25 feet (3 to 7.6 meters). It blooms very early in the year; its Hebrew name has its roots in “watch for.” To the Jews it was a welcome harbinger of spring (Jer 1:11).<\/p>\n\nAlmug (Pterocarpus santalinus)<\/em><\/p>\nThe precious wood imported by King Solomon and used in making the pillars for the temple and for making harps and psalteries (1 Kgs 10:11-12). This timber was brought by sea from Ophir to Ezion-geber, near Elath. Modern authorities suggest that Ophir was either in Arabia, India, or East Africa near Mozambique. The reference to “algum“ in 2 Chronicles 2:8 is possibly to this tree. See<\/em> Algum (above).<\/p>\nAloe (Aloe succotrina, Aquilaria agallocha)<\/em><\/p>\nChiefly African, lilylike plant of the genus Aloes,<\/em> certain species of which yield a drug and a fiber. Aloe is an aromatic substance mentioned in the Bible, together with myrrh, balm, and other fragrant plants (Ps 45:8; Prv 7:17; Sg 4:14; Jn 19:39). Most scholars think these passages refer to two different plants. The OT plant is likely to have been Aquilaria agallocha,<\/em> the eaglewood, a large tree growing up to 120 feet (36.6 meters) tall with a trunk 12 feet (3.7 meters) in circumference. It is native to northern India, Malaya, and Indochina. The decaying wood is highly fragrant, and as such is highly valued as perfume and incense and for fumigation.<\/p>\nThe aloe of John 19:39 is thought to be the true aloe (Aloe succotrina),<\/em> the juice of which was used by the Egyptians in embalming. Its smell, however, is not very agreeable, and it has a bitter taste. It is sometimes used by veterinarians as a horse medicine.<\/p>\nApple (Malus sylvestris)<\/em><\/p>\nThe identity of the fruit identified by the Hebrew word tappuach<\/span> (Prv 25:11; Sg 2:3, 5; 7:8; 8:5) continues to be debated. In most English translations it has been rendered “apple” because of its close linguistic tie to the Arabic word tuffah.<\/em> Many scholars identify this tree as the apricot, questioning whether apples fit the biblical description “apples of gold” and whether the apple tree was cultivated in ancient Palestine. Recent excavations at Kadesh-barnea, however, have uncovered carbonized apples, probably a crab apple (Malus sylvestris),<\/em> dating to the ninth century BC<\/span>. This would certainly allow for this ornamental apple’s cultivation in Solomon’s gardens.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Apricot (below).<\/p>\nApricot (Prunus armeniaca)<\/em><\/p>\nThe identification of the Hebrew word tappuach<\/span> with the apricot continues to be debated. The apricot tree produces yellow-orange peachlike edible fruit and is native to western Asia and Africa. It is abundant in the Holy Land and probably has been so since early biblical times. The tree is a round-headed reddish-barked tree growing 30 feet (9.1 meters) tall. Most translations render this Hebrew word “apple,” though many scholars identify it with the apricot because of its descriptions in the biblical text (see Prv 25:11; Sg 2:3, 5; 7:8; 8:5; Jl 1:12).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Apple (above).<\/p>\nAsh (Alhagi maurorum, Fraxinus ornus, Tamarix mannifera)<\/em><\/p>\nThere are several ash trees found in the Near East. One of these, the prickly alhagi (Alhagi maurorum),<\/em> is a member of the pea family. It is a low, many-stemmed, much-branched shrub growing about three feet (.9 meter) tall with somewhat hairy twigs and pealike flowers. During the heat of the day, leaves exude a sweet, gummy substance that hardens in the air and is collected by shaking the bushes over a spread-out cloth.<\/p>\nThe manna tamarisk (Tamarix mannifera)<\/em> is a multibranched shrub or a small tree 9 to 15 feet (2.7 to 4.6 meters) tall with rigid branches that have tiny pink flowers. It is found on deserts from the Holy Land to Arabia and the Sinai.<\/p>\nThe flowering or manna ash (Fraxinus ornus)<\/em> is a tree that grows from 15 to 50 feet (4.6 to 15.2 meters) tall. The fruits are very similar to those produced by our species of ash. The ash of Isaiah 44:14 (kjv<\/span>) is believed to be the Aleppo pine.<\/p>\nAspen (Populus euphratica<\/em> or P. tremula)<\/em><\/p>\nAny of several trees of the genus Populus<\/em> with leaves attached by flattened leafstalks so that they tremble or “quake” in the wind.<\/p>\nBalm (Balanites aegyptiaca, Pistacia lentiscus, Commiphora opobalsamum<\/em>)<\/em><\/p>\nAn oily aromatic resin exuded by chiefly tropical trees and shrubs and used medicinally; trees and shrubs producing this substance. References in Genesis 37:25, Jeremiah 8:22, 46:11, and 51:8 are thought to be either the Jericho balsam (Balanites aegyptiaca)<\/em> or the lentisk or mastic tree (Pistacia lentiscus).<\/em> The Jericho balsam is very common in Egypt, North Africa, the plains of Jericho, and the hot plains bordering on the Dead Sea. It is a small desert-loving plant, 9 to 15 feet (2.7 to 4.6 meters) tall, with slender, thorny branches and small clusters of green flowers.<\/p>\nThe lentisk or mastic tree is native to the Holy Land, and the reference in Genesis 43:11 is probably to this plant, since the implication is that this is a native product of the Holy Land unknown in Egypt at the time. This tree is a shrubby or bushy tree 3 to 10 feet (.9 to 3 meters) tall with evergreen leaves. The “balm” is a fragrant gummy exudation of the sap secured by making incisions in the stems and branches, usually in August. The best grades are in the form of yellow-white translucent tears or drops; they are employed in medicine as an astringent. The poorer grades are used extensively as a varnish. Children in the East use it as chewing gum.<\/p>\nReferences to spices in 1 Kings 10:10, 2 Kings 20:13, Song of Songs 3:6, Isaiah 39:2, and Ezekiel 27:17 are thought to be the balm of Gilead (Commiphora opobalsamum),<\/em> which in spite of its name is not a native of Gilead or even of the Holy Land but is indigenous to Arabia, especially the mountainous regions of Yemen. The trees were still in existence on the plain of Jericho at the time of the Roman conquest. The Roman conquerors carried branches to Rome as trophies of their victory over the Jews.<\/p>\nThis tree is a small, stiff-branched evergreen tree seldom more than 15 feet (4.6 meters) high with straggling branches. The “balm” is obtained by making incisions in the stem and branches of the tree. The sap soon hardens into small irregular nodules that are collected. Gum is also procured from green and ripe fruit.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Myrrh (below).<\/p>\nBarley (Hordeum distichon)<\/em><\/p>\nA cereal grass bearing bearded flower spikes and edible seeds. The common barley (Hordeum distichon),<\/em> the winter barley (H. hex<\/em>astichon),<\/em> and the spring barley (H. vulgare)<\/em> have been cultivated in temperate regions of the world since time immemorial and today still constitute one of the principal grain foods. Barley and wheat were the two staple cereal crops of Egypt and the Holy Land. Being less expensive, barley was mostly used for feeding cattle, although it was also used by itself or mixed with wheat and other seed as food for man (Ez 4:9-12). Barley is mentioned in the Bible over 30 times, either as a plant growing in the fields or in reference to products made from it, such as barley meal, barley bread, barley cakes, and barley loaves. As the common food of the poor, barley was also regarded as a symbol of poverty and cheapness or worthlessness (Hos 3:2).<\/p>\nBdellium (Commiphora africana)<\/em><\/p>\nAromatic gum resin similar to myrrh, produced by various trees of the genus Commiphora<\/em> of Africa and western Asia. The reference in Genesis 2:12 and Numbers 11:7 to bdellium is thought by most scholars today to refer to a gum resin, obtained from a shrub, Commiphora africana<\/em>, that grows in south Arabia and northeastern Africa. The resin is yellowish, transparent, and fragrant, and looks like a pearl.<\/p>\nBean (Faba vulgaris)<\/em><\/p>\nThe references in 2 Samuel 17:27-28 and Ezekiel 4:9 are generally regarded as referring to the broad bean. This species, an annual plant, is thought originally to have grown in northern Persia, but it was extensively cultivated in western Asia in very early times as a food plant. Beans have been found in the mummy coffins of Egyptian tombs, and they were also cultivated by the Greeks and Romans.<\/p>\nBitter Herbs (Cichorium endivia, Taraxacum officinale, Lactuca sativa)<\/em><\/p>\nThe “bitter herbs” of Exodus 12:8 and Numbers 9:11 seem to have been plants like endive (Cichorium endivia),<\/em> the common chicory (Cichorium intybus),<\/em> lettuce (Lactuca sativa),<\/em> or the common dandelion (Taraxacum officinale).<\/em> These are all weedy plants common in modern Egypt and western Asia and are still eaten by people living there. The leaves of the ordinary garden lettuce are intensely bitter when bleached. This is also true of the common dandelion. Others suggest that the bitter herbs were derived from thorns and thistles.<\/p>\nBoxthorn, European (Lycium europaeum)<\/em><\/p>\nVarious thorny shrubs, some species of which bear purplish flowers and brightly colored berries. The reference in Judges 9:14-15 is thought to be to the European boxthorn or desert-thorn. It is a thorny shrub 6 to 12 feet (1.8 to 3.7 meters) tall with clustered leaves and small violet flowers eventually producing small globular red berries. It is native to and common throughout the Holy Land, especially in the region from Lebanon to the Dead Sea.<\/p>\nBox Tree (Buxus longifolia)<\/em><\/p>\nThe long-leaved box tree is a hardy evergreen tree found in the mountainous regions of the northern part of the Holy Land, the Galilean hills, and Lebanon. It grows to a height of about 20 feet (6.1 meters) with a slender trunk seldom more than six to eight inches (15.2 to 20.3 centimeters) in diameter. Its wood is very hard and takes a fine polish. It was cultivated by the Romans for its hard wood, which they inlaid with ivory for cabinets and jewel caskets. Scriptural references include Isaiah 41:19 and 60:13.<\/p>\nBramble (Rubus sanctus, R. ulmifolius)<\/em><\/p>\nThe Palestinian bramble (Rubus sanctus)<\/em> and the closely related elm-leaf bramble (R. ulmifolius)<\/em> are prickly evergreen shrubs that spread by means of suckers. The stems and young shoots are covered with a characteristic bloom or whitish powder and short hairs. The prickles are strong, erect, and hairy. The flowers are white, pink, rose, or purple in color, and the fruit is round and black.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Thistle, Thorn (below).<\/p>\nBroom (Retama raetam)<\/em><\/p>\nA shrub native to Eurasia. The word translated “juniper” in the kjv<\/span> has nothing to do with the true junipers but refers rather to a species of broom, known as the white broom (Retama raetam).<\/em> Its branches are longer and flexible, forming an erect, dense bush 3 to 12 feet (.9 to 3.7 meters) tall. The leaves are small and sparse, yet it forms an agreeable shade in a desert region. The white pealike flowers are sweet and very fragrant and are borne in clusters along the twigs. It is a beautiful shrub that grows in the desert regions of Palestine, Syria, and Persia. In many desert areas it is the only bush that affords any shade (1 Kgs 19:4-5).<\/p>\nThe “juniper roots” of Job 30:4 are not the roots of either the juniper or white broom. The roots of the latter are very nauseating and could not be eaten in the manner described by Job. Job’s “juniper roots” were probably an edible parasitic plant (Cynomorium coccineum).<\/em> This plant grows in salt marshes and maritime sands. It is frequently eaten in times of food scarcity and at one time was highly prized for its supposed medicinal value in the treatment of dysentery.<\/p>\nBuckthorn (Rhamnus palaestina)<\/em><\/p>\nThe Palestinian buckthorn is a shrub or small tree attaining a height of three to six feet (.9 to 1.8 meters) with velvety, thorny branches, evergreen leaves, and clusters of small flowers blooming in March or April. It grows in thickets and on hillsides from Syria and Lebanon through the Holy Land to Arabia and the Sinai.<\/p>\nBush (Acacia nilotica, Loranthus acaciae)<\/em><\/p>\nLow, branching, woody plant, usually smaller than a tree. There are differences of opinion in regard to the bush out of which the Lord appeared to Moses (Ex 3:2-4). From the biblical account, it seems most likely that the event was a miraculous one. However, some seek a natural explanation and believe that the burning bush may have been the crimson-flowered mistletoe or acacia strap flower (Loranthus acaciae),<\/em> which grows in great profusion as a partial parasite on the various acacia shrubs, such as the thorny acacia (Acacia nilotica),<\/em> in the Holy Land and Sinai. When in full bloom, the mistletoe imparts to the shrub or tree the appearance of being on fire because its brilliant flame-colored blossoms stand out against the green foliage and yellow flowers of the host plants.<\/p>\nButtercup (Ranunculus asiaticus)<\/em><\/p>\nThe Persian buttercup is one of the flowers or grasses of the field (Mt 6:28-30). It is a showy plant blooming in all brilliant colors except blue, with double flowers sometimes measuring two inches (5.1 centimeters) across.<\/p>\nCalamus (Acorus calamus, Andropogon aroma<\/em>ticus)<\/em><\/p>\nA plant, or its aromatic root; any of a variety of tropical Asiatic palms. One of the plants that grew in Solomon’s garden (Sg 4:14). The sweet flag (Acorus<\/em> calamus)<\/em> and the beardgrass (Andropogon aromaticus)<\/em> have been suggested as the plants from which calamus came. The sweet flag is highly aromatic and grows in Europe and Asia, but it is not known in the Holy Land. Indigenous to India, beardgrass is highly odoriferous when bruised and is thought to have furnished the calamus of the Bible. It yields an oil known as ginger-grass oil.<\/p>\nCane (Saccharum officinarum)<\/em><\/p>\nIt is thought that there were two species of sugarcane indigenous to and growing wild in the Holy Land. One of these, Saccharum sara,<\/em> is known to be only from Lebanon. The other native species is S. biflorum,<\/em> which grows on the banks of ditches and streams from Syria and Lebanon through the Holy Land south to Stony Arabia and the Sinai. This may be the wild cane familiar to the Jews. Most authorities, however, think that the “sweet cane” of Isaiah 43:24 was the true sugarcane (S. officinarum).<\/em> This plant is thought to have originated in the tropics of the eastern hemisphere. It has been cultivated by people since time immemorial and is not now known in the wild state anywhere. It is a tall, stout perennial grass, maizelike in aspect with many jointed stems and a large plumelike terminal cluster of flowers.<\/p>\nCaper Plant (Capparis sincula)<\/em><\/p>\nSpiny, trailing shrub of Mediterranean region; the flower bud of this shrub. The word “desire” in Ecclesiastes 12:5 may actually refer to the caper berry. The common caper or caper berry grows profusely in Syria, Lebanon, the Holy Land, and in the mountain valleys of Sinai. The plant may sometimes grow upright but more generally spreads itself weakly over the ground like a vine, covering rocks, ruins, and old walls like ivy. The young flower buds, pickled in vinegar, were used by the ancients as a condiment for meat. The berries were also used in cooking.<\/p>\nCarob Tree (Ceratonia siliqua)<\/em><\/p>\nEvergreen of the Mediterranean region having edible pods. Scholars generally agree that the pods of the carob or locust tree were the “husks” of Jesus’ parable of the prodigal son (Lk 15:16). The carob is an attractive evergreen leguminous tree that is very common throughout the Holy Land, Syria, and Egypt. The pods are most abundant in April and May and contain numerous pealike seeds embedded in an agreeably flavored mucilaginous sweetish pulp. The pods are also used abundantly now as they were in antiquity for feeding cattle, horses, and pigs. In time of scarcity, they are used as human food and perhaps even regularly by the very poor. The carob is frequently mentioned in the Talmud as a source of good food for domestic animals. The seeds of the carob were formerly employed as a standard of weight and are the source of the term “carat.” Some commentators suggest that the “locusts” eaten by John the Baptist (Mt 3:4) were not insects but the fruit of the carob tree.<\/p>\nCassia (Cinnamomum cassia, Saussurea lappa)<\/em><\/p>\nTree of tropical Asia with bark similar but inferior to cinnamon. The “cassia” of Exodus 30:24 and Ezekiel 27:19 is the cassia bark tree, Cinnamomum cassia.<\/em> In Psalm 45:8 the reference seems to be to the Indian orris, Saussurea lappa.<\/em><\/p>\nCastor Oil Plant (Ricinus communis)<\/em><\/p>\nLarge plant, native to tropical Africa and Asia, cultivated for ornamental reasons and for extraction of oil from its seeds. The gourd of Jonah 4:6-7 was probably the ordinary castor bean. The castor bean is a tender shrub, growing 3 to 12 or more feet (.9 to 3.7 meters) tall with huge leaves that resemble the outstretched human hand. The castor bean plant is found in waste places, especially near water, in both Lebanon and the Holy Land and often is cultivated. In hot climates it becomes treelike and affords a dense shade by the abundance of its huge, umbrella-like leaves. It is known in the Orient for the rapidity of its growth. The oil extracted from the seeds of the castor bean was used by the Jews in ceremonial rites and is mentioned among the five kinds of oil that rabbinical tradition sanctioned for such use. The seeds themselves are poisonous when eaten.<\/p>\nCedar (Cedrus libani)<\/em><\/p>\nAny of several coniferous evergreen trees of the genus native to the Old World. With few exceptions, the references to “cedar” are to the well-known cedar of Lebanon. This is a noble tree, the tallest and most massive with which the Israelites were acquainted. It grows quite rapidly, attaining a height of up to 120 feet (36.6 meters) with a trunk diameter of as much as 8 feet (2.4 meters). In Solomon’s day these trees were obviously abundant on the mountains of Lebanon, but now, because of excessive lumbering, they are very rare. The cedar of Lebanon was held in high esteem not only for its vigor, beauty, and age but also for the fragrance and remarkable lasting qualities of the wood. It symbolizes grandeur, might, majesty, dignity, lofty stature, and wide expansion. References in Ezekiel 17:3, 22-24, and 31:3-18 beautifully illustrate how these lofty kings of the forest symbolize and typify worldly strength, power, and glory.<\/p>\nChicory (Cichorium intybus)<\/em><\/p>\nSee<\/em> Bitter Herbs (above).<\/p>\nCinnamon (Cinnamomum zeylanicum)<\/em><\/p>\nTwo varieties of trees of this genus, native to tropical Asia, with aromatic bark that, when ground, is used as a spice. The cinnamon of Exodus 30:23, Proverbs 7:17, Song of Songs 4:14, and Revelation 18:13 is undoubtedly Cinnamomum zeylanicum.<\/em> The tree is a rather low-growing one, never getting more than 30 feet (9.1 meters) high, with a smooth, ash-colored bark and widespread branches and white flowers. Its shiny, beautifully veined evergreen leaves grow about nine inches (22.9 centimeters) long and two inches (5.1 centimeters) wide.<\/p>\nThe Jews always regarded cinnamon as a deliciously fragrant substance and valued it highly as a spice and a perfume. It was one of the principal ingredients used in the manufacture of the precious ointments, or “holy oil,” that Moses was commanded to use in the tabernacle for anointing the sacred vessels and officiating priests. It was undoubtedly very costly and precious.<\/p>\nCitron Tree (Tetraclinis articulata)<\/em><\/p>\nTree native to Asia bearing lemonlike fruit with a thick, fragrant rind. It seldom exceeds a height of 30 feet (9.1 meters) and has hard, dark-colored, durable, fragrant wood that takes a fine polish. The wood was one of the most highly prized woods of the ancients, who employed it extensively for cabinetwork. It was commonly referred to as being worth its weight in gold. The wood, owing to its resinous properties, is slow to decay and remains practically uninjured by insects.<\/p>\nCoriander (Coriandrum sativum)<\/em><\/p>\nThe references in Exodus 16:31 and Numbers 11:7 are clearly to the common coriander plant. The coriander was found quite commonly growing along with grain in cultivated fields throughout the Holy Land. It grows wild in Egypt and was used by the ancients both as condiment and as a medicine. The leaves are quite aromatic and are used in soups and for flavoring puddings, curries, and wines. The coriander is still used today as a spice by the Arabs. In Scripture it is mentioned only in connection with manna, which was said to resemble coriander seeds in size, shape, and color.<\/p>\nCotton (Gossypium herbaceum)<\/em><\/p>\nAny of various plants or shrubs of this genus grown in warm climates for the soft white fiber attached to their seeds and the oil from these seeds. The “green” of the kjv<\/span> in Esther 1:6 is undoubtedly a reference to the Levant cotton (Gossypium herbaceum)<\/em> that was cultivated since time immemorial in the Far East. Alexander the Great brought it back from India. It is probable that the Jews became acquainted with cotton during the period of their Persian captivity under King Ahasuerus.<\/p>\nCucumber (Cucumis chate, C. sativus)<\/em><\/p>\nThe cucumber is an annual climbing or trailing vine, the origin of which is unknown. It has been cultivated in all the warm countries of the Old World since prehistoric times. Cucumbers are usually eaten raw; a cucumber and a barley cake or some other kind of bread often constitute a meal. The reference to “a lodge in a garden of cucumbers” (Is 1:8) refers to the crudely built small house or lodge often set up in Palestinian cucumber fields and vineyards.<\/p>\nCummin (Cuminum cyminum)<\/em><\/p>\nThe references in Isaiah 28:25-27 and Matthew 23:23 are clearly to the cummin—a common, annual plant of the carrot family said to be native to Egypt and the region of the eastern Mediterranean. It has long been cultivated for its powerfully aromatic and pungent seeds, which are similar to caraway seeds but larger. They do not have as agreeable a taste as caraway seeds but nevertheless were used extensively as a flavor or spice and sometimes were even mixed with flour in making bread. Cummin was also used medicinally and as a condiment with fish and meats.<\/p>\nCypress (Cupressus sempervirens horizontalis)<\/em><\/p>\nThe cypress is a massive, tall-growing evergreen with scalelike leaves and is widely distributed in the mountainous regions of the Holy Land. On Mt Lebanon and Mt Hermon it grows together with the cedar and oak. Its usual height is 50 to 60 feet (15.2 to 18.3 meters), but it may grow as tall as 80 feet (24.2 meters). It is said to have been used extensively in shipbuilding by the Phoenicians, Cretans, and Greeks. There is general agreement that the “gopher wood” of Genesis 6:14 is cypress because the wood is very durable.<\/p>\nDandelion (Taraxacum officinale)<\/em><\/p>\nSee<\/em> Bitter Herbs (above).<\/p>\nDarnel Grass (Lolium temulentum)<\/em><\/p>\nIt is generally agreed that the “tares” of the kjv<\/span> (Mt 13:24-30) are the annual or bearded darnel grass. It is a strong grass closely resembling wheat or rye in appearance. The seeds are much smaller than those of wheat or rye, but it is extremely difficult to distinguish it from wheat or rye in its early stages. If it is not eradicated early but is left until the time of harvest, it is cut down with the wheat and the two are subsequently very difficult to separate. The seeds are poisonous, either due to some chemicals naturally present or because of a fungus that grows within the seeds.<\/p>\nDill (Anethum graveolens)<\/em><\/p>\nDill is a weedy annual plant resembling parsley and fennel, 12 to 20 inches (30.5 to 50.8 centimeters) tall with yellow flowers. The reference in Matthew 23:23 (kjv<\/span>) to anise is probably a reference to dill. This plant is widely cultivated for seeds that are aromatic and carminative.<\/p>\nEbony (Diospyros ebenaster, D. ebenum, D. mela<\/em>noxylon)<\/em><\/p>\nChiefly tropical tree of southern Asia with hard, dark-colored heartwood. Ebony comes from the date plum or date tree (Diospyros ebenaster<\/em> and D. melanoxylon)<\/em> of India and is quite different from the date palm. It was sent by Phoenician ships across the Arabian Sea and up the Red Sea to the market in Tyre, from which it was carried overland by camel caravans. The outer wood of these trees is white and soft, but when old, the interior wood becomes hard, black, heavy, and durable and still constitutes most of the costly ebony of commerce. Ebony takes on a fine polish and is highly valued for cabinetwork, for turnery, for the manufacture of fancy ornamental articles and instruments, and as a veneer for other woods.<\/p>\nEzekiel mentions ivory and ebony together (Ez 27:15). Ebony was and still is frequently inlaid with ivory, with which it contrasts so strikingly in color.<\/p>\nEndive (Cichorium endivia)<\/em><\/p>\nSee<\/em> Bitter Herbs (above).<\/p>\nFig, Fig Tree (Ficus carica)<\/em><\/p>\nAny of several trees or shrubs of this genus, native to the Mediterranean region; its edible fruit. The common fig, mentioned some 60 times in the Bible, is one of the most important Bible plants. Its leaves are spoken of first in Genesis 3:7. The fig is generally regarded as native to southwestern Asia and Syria, but already in early times it was also cultivated extensively in Egypt and the Holy Land, where it was one of the principal foods. First Samuel 25:18 states that a part of the gift sent by Abigail to David consisted of 200 cakes of figs.<\/p>\nThe fig tree has a very peculiar type of fruit called a syconium, which is actually a very much enlarged and fleshy receptacle. It is pollinated by a wasp, without which it cannot get its fruit; this was discovered when it was first transplanted to California.<\/p>\nThe fig puts out its earliest fruit buds before its leaves, the former in February and the latter in April or May. When the leaves are out, the fruit ought to be ripe (Mt 21:19).<\/p>\nWhenever the prophets of old berated the people for their wickedness, they often threatened that the vine and the fig crops would be destroyed. And when they held out the promise of great rewards, they said that the vine and fig crop would be restored (Jer 8:13; Hos 2:12; Jl 1:7, 12; Mi 4:4; Zec 3:10).<\/p>\nFir Tree (Abies cilicica)<\/em><\/p>\nThis a generic term for various evergreen trees having flat needles and erect cones. In all probability, most of the references in Scripture to the fir are references to the pine, cypress, or juniper. The only true fir in the Holy Land grows in the higher parts of Lebanon and the mountains northward. It attains a height of 30 to 75 feet (9.1 to 22.9 meters) and is widely cultivated.<\/p>\nFlax (Linum usitatissimum)<\/em><\/p>\nAny of several plants of this genus, one particularly being widely cultivated for the linseed oil from its seeds and the fine textile fibers from its stems. Flax is the oldest known of the textile fibers. Cotton is identified only once in the Bible (Est 1:6). There is no mention of any other fiber plant being cultivated in Egypt or the Holy Land in biblical days, and for that reason it is thought that linen was the material out of which clothes other than woolen ones were made. Linen was also used for domestic purposes such as towels (Jn 13:4-5), napkins (11:44), girdles and undergarments (Is 3:23; Mk 14:51), nets (Is 19:8-9), and measuring lines (Ez 40:3). The priests serving in the temple were to wear nothing but linen clothes; a mixed cloth of wool and flax together was strictly forbidden to the Jews (Lv 19:19; Dt 22:11).<\/p>\nAt least three kinds of linen were used in biblical times, and apparently there were particular uses for each kind. Ordinary linen of coarsest texture is mentioned in Leviticus 6:10, Ezekiel 9:2, Daniel 10:5, and Revelation 15:6. The second type of linen of superior quality is mentioned in Exodus 26:1 and 39:27. A third type of linen of finest texture and high cost is mentioned in 1 Chronicles 15:27, Esther 8:15, and Revelation 19:8.<\/p>\nThe common flax plant grows from one to four feet (.3 to 1.2 meters) tall with a simple, slender, wirelike stem and numerous small, pale, lancelike green leaves. The failure of the flax crop is listed as one of God’s punishments (Hos 2:9). The manufacture of linen from flax fibers was a domestic industry of Jewish women (Prv 31:13, 19), ranging from ordinary clothing to the robes and aprons worn by the priest and temple attendants. Linen was also used for wicks in lamps (Is 42:3).<\/p>\nFrankincense (Boswellia)<\/em><\/p>\nAromatic genus resin used chiefly as incense. Frankincense is obtained from three species of a single genus of plants that grow in southern Arabia, Ethiopia, Somaliland, India, and the East Indies. The trees are large in size, related to the turpentine or terebinth tree and to those that produce balsam and myrrh. The gum has a bitter taste and gives off a strong odor in the form of a volatile oil when warmed or burned. It is obtained by successive incisions in the bark of the trunk and in the branches of living trees. It is thought that the Hebrews imported all their frankincense from Arabia, especially from the region about Sheba.<\/p>\nFrankincense is mentioned 21 times in the Bible (e.g., Ex 30:34; 1 Chr 9:29; Neh 13:9; Sg 3:6; 4:6, 14; Mt 2:11; Rv 18:13) and was probably employed almost exclusively in the sacrificial services of the tabernacle and temple until the time of Solomon. It has always been the most important incense resin in the world.<\/p>\nGalbanum (Ferula galbaniflua)<\/em><\/p>\nGalbanum is a malodorous yellowish or brownish gum resin containing the chemical substance umbelliferone, obtained from several species of plants related to the fennel, native to Syria and Persia. The gum is a natural exudation of the stem or is obtained by making a transverse incision in the young stem a few inches above the ground. The milky juice soon hardens and forms one of the kinds of commercial galbanum. Its odor is strongly balsamic, pungent, and disagreeable when burned. Galbanum was one of the ingredients used to form the “holy incense” (Ex 30:34).<\/p>\nGarlic (Allium sativum)<\/em><\/p>\nSee<\/em> Onion (below).<\/p>\nGourd, Wild (Citrullus colocynthis)<\/em><\/p>\nThere has been considerable difference of opinion regarding the meaning of the words translated “wild gourds” (2 Kgs 4:39) or “gall” (Dt 29:18; 32:32; Ps 69:21; Jer 8:14; 9:15; 23:15; Lam 3:5, 19; Am 6:12; Mt 27:34; Acts 8:23). Most scholars today believe the plant referred to was the colocynth, a cucumber-like vine that trails on the ground or climbs over shrubs and fences. The fruit contains a soft spongy pulp, which is intensely bitter, strongly cathartic, and sometimes poisonous.<\/p>\nHedge (Rhamnus palaestina, Balanites aegyptiaca, Lycium europaeum)<\/em><\/p>\nRow of closely planted shrubs or low-growing trees forming a fence or boundary. A number of plants were used to provide hedges in Bible times. One of these was the Palestine buckthorn, Rhamnus palaestina.<\/em> This plant is a shrub or a small tree growing from three to six feet (.9 to 1.8 meters) tall with velvety, thorny branches, evergreen leaves, and clusters of small flowers blooming in March and April. It grows in thickets and on hillsides from Syria through the Holy Land to Arabia and the Sinai. The Jericho balsam (Balanites aegyptiaca)<\/em> and the European boxthorn (Lycium europaeum)<\/em> are also prickly shrubs widely used as hedges in the Holy Land and may be the plants referred to in Proverbs 15:19 and Hosea 2:6.<\/p>\nHenna (Lawsonia inermis)<\/em><\/p>\nTree or shrub of Asia and northern Africa with fragrant reddish or white flowers and leaves from which a reddish dye is made. The plant referred to in Song of Songs 1:14 and 4:13 and translated as “camphire” (kjv<\/span>) is thought by scholars today to refer to the henna plant. It is a native of northern India and grows wild in the Sudan, Egypt, Arabia, Syria, Lebanon, and the Holy Land. It grows from 4 to 12 feet (1.2 to 3.7 meters) tall, and its scent is similar to that of roses.<\/p>\nHenna leaves are dried, crushed into a powder, mixed with water, and made into a paste that has been used since time immemorial as a cosmetic. A number of mummies have been found decorated with henna. Henna was used to provide a bright yellow, orange, or red color to the fingernails, toenails, the tips of the fingers, the palms of the hand, and the soles of the feet of young girls. Men also used it for coloring their beards and the manes and tails of horses. The dye had to be renewed once every two or three weeks. This use of henna as a cosmetic was common in Egypt at the time the children of Israel were there as slaves; they were undoubtedly familiar with it.<\/p>\nHyacinth (Hyacinthus orientalis)<\/em><\/p>\nThe lily referred to in Song of Songs 2:1-2, 16; 4:5; and 6:2-4 may well be the garden hyacinth. It is native to, and very common in, the fields and rocky places in the Holy Land, Lebanon, and northward. Its flowers in the wild form are always deep blue and very fragrant.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Lily (below).<\/p>\nHyssop (Origanum maru)<\/em><\/p>\nWoody plant native to Asia with spikes of small blue flowers and aromatic leaves used as a condiment and in perfumery. There is little agreement among botanists as to the exact identity of the biblical “hyssop.” Some have suggested Hyssopus offici<\/em>nalis,<\/em> the well-known garden herb now called hyssop. However, this plant is not native either to the Holy Land or Egypt, being found only in southern Europe. Moreover, it does not fit the requirements of the biblical plant.<\/p>\nThe “hyssop” of the OT is likely the Syrian or Egyptian marjoram (Origanum maru).<\/em> It is referred to in Exodus 12:22; Leviticus 14:4-6, 52; Numbers 19:6, 18; 1 Kings 4:33; Psalm 51:7; and Hebrews 9:19. The marjorams are mints growing (under favorable conditions) about two or three feet (.6 to .9 meter) tall, but more often are dwarfed when growing in rock crevices and walls (cf. 1 Kgs 4:33). An aromatic substance is obtained from the crushed and dried leaves. If gathered together in a bunch with leaves and flowers, the hairy stems of the marjoram would hold liquid very well and would make an excellent sprinkler.<\/p>\n\nThe hyssop of the crucifixion passage in the NT (Jn 19:29) is probably the sorghum, a tall cereal plant grown primarily for food but also used for brushes and mops.<\/p>\nJuniper (Juniperus)<\/em><\/p>\nVariety of evergreen tree or shrub. The plant referred to in Jeremiah 17:6 and 48:6 and translated in the kjv<\/span> “heath” is probably the savin or Phoenician juniper. The Phoenician juniper, Juniperus phoenicia,<\/em> is found in the hills and rocky places of Arabia. The savin juniper, J. sabina,<\/em> is common throughout the deserts, plains, and rocky places of Syria and Palestine. These references are to the brown-berried cedar, or sharp cedar.<\/p>\nLaurel or Sweet Bay (Laurus nobilis)<\/em><\/p>\nShrub or tree native to the Mediterranean region. While the reference in Psalm 37:35 may be to the cedar of Lebanon, most scholars refer the “green bay tree” (kjv<\/span>) of the psalmist to the sweet bay, a native of the Holy Land, inhabiting thickets and woods from the coast to the middle montane zone. It is an evergreen tree attaining a height from 40 to 60 feet (12.2 to 18.3 meters).<\/p>\nEven though the tree is abundant on Mt Carmel and around Hebron, it is generally not common in the Holy Land. Its leaves are still used as a condiment, and its fruit, leaves, and bark have long been used in medicine.<\/p>\nLeek (Allium porrum)<\/em><\/p>\nSee<\/em> Onion (below).<\/p>\nLentil (Lens esculenta)<\/em><\/p>\nThe lentil plant to which Genesis 25:29-34, 2 Samuel 17:27-29, 23:11, and Ezekiel 4:9 refer is a small, erect, annual, vetchlike plant with slender stems and tendril-bearing leaves. It produces small, white, violet-striped flowers with flat, pealike pods in which the lentils are borne.<\/p>\nLettuce (Lactuca sativa)<\/em><\/p>\nSee<\/em> Bitter Herbs (above).<\/p>\nLily (Lilium)<\/em><\/p>\nAny of various plants of the genus Lilium<\/em> having large, variously colored, trumpet-shaped flowers; and related plants. The lily is one of the most famous of all the plants in the Bible, but it is also one about which there has been considerable difference of opinion. It seems probable that several kinds of plants, perhaps five or six, are called lilies in the kjv<\/span>. Most authorities regard the Palestine anemone or wind flower, Anemone coronaria,<\/em> as the “lily of the field” (Mt 6:28, kjv<\/span>) that surpassed Solomon in all his glory. These flowers are found in every part of the Holy Land in profusion; the most common forms are scarlet or yellow, but the Palestine anemone may also be blue, purple, rose, or white in color. The flower attains a diameter of two and three-quarter inches (7 centimeters).<\/p>\nAn alternative suggestion is the Palestinian chamomile, Anthemis palaestina,<\/em> a common, white, daisylike plant. The chamomile is gathered like dry grass and thrown into the furnace when it dries up.<\/p>\nAnother proposed plant is Lilium chalcedonicum,<\/em> the scarlet or Martagon lily. The statement in Song of Songs 5:13—“his lips like lilies”—would better fit this plant than the Palestine anemone. The reference is apparently to a rare plant of exceptional beauty. The scarlet lily is rare in the Holy Land; indeed, some botanists doubt that it lives there.<\/p>\nThe references in 1 Kings 7:19, 22, 26 and 2 Chronicles 4:5 are probably to the water lily, Nymphaea alba,<\/em> which served as the pattern. The water lily is quite common in Europe and also in the Holy Land and northern Africa.<\/p>\nLotus Bush (Zizyphus lotus)<\/em><\/p>\nThe “shady trees” of Job 40:21-22 (kjv<\/span>; cf. nlt<\/span> “lotus plants”) may refer to the lotus bush of the Middle East, Zizyphus lotus,<\/em> a shrub or low tree that grows to a height of about five feet (1.5 meters) with smooth, zigzag, whitish branches.<\/p>\nOther commentators believe that the shady trees of Job are large-leafed trees such as the plane tree, Platanus orientalis,<\/em> or the oleander, Nerium oleander.<\/em> This suggestion is based on the assumption that the animal described in Job 40 is the hippopotamus, and it seems unlikely that the hippopotamus would live under a lotus bush or even be found in places where this shrub grows. These individuals regard the plane tree or the oleander as more likely.<\/p>\nMallow (Atriplex)<\/em><\/p>\nThe Hebrew word used in Job 30:4 implies saltiness, and for this reason botanists believe that it refers to one of the species of the saltwort or orach. Twenty-one species of saltwort occur in the Holy Land, almost all of which are common and could well meet the requirements of the text. Atriplex halimus<\/em> is the species usually suggested, a strong-growing bushy shrub related to the spinach.<\/p>\nMandrake (Mandragora officinarum)<\/em><\/p>\nThe mandrake or love apple is a stemless herbaceous perennial related to the nightshade, potato, and tomato. It has a large, beetlike, often forked taproot from the top of which arise many dark leaves about a foot (30.5 centimeters) long and four inches (10.2 centimeters) wide. The plant is slightly poisonous, and the thick taproots have some resemblance in shape to the lower parts of the human body. For this reason certain aphrodisiac properties were ascribed to it (cf. Gn 30:14-16).<\/p>\nThe love apple was a common plant in deserted fields throughout the Holy Land. It is native to the entire Mediterranean region, southern Europe, and Asia Minor. The mandrake is mentioned in Song of Songs 7:13, though some scholars believe the writer may actually have been referring to the citron or to the common edible field mushroom, Agaricus campestris.<\/em><\/p>\nMelon (Cucumis melo, Citrullus vulgaris)<\/em><\/p>\nAny of several varieties of these two related vines having a hard rind and juicy flesh. The melons of Numbers 11:5 may be either the muskmelon (Cucumis melo)<\/em> or the watermelon (Citrullus vulgaris).<\/em> It may be that both fruits are referred to.<\/p>\n\nMillet (Panicum miliaceum)<\/em><\/p>\nA grass grown in Eurasia for its edible seed. Millet seeds are the smallest of all the grass seeds cultivated as food but are produced profusely. Millet is an annual grass seldom more that two feet (.6 meter) tall. The small seeds of the millet are used on cakes and eaten uncooked by the poor of the land.<\/p>\nMint (Mentha)<\/em><\/p>\nAny of various plants of this family with aromatic foliage that is processed for flavoring. Quite a few mints are common in the Holy Land, but the horse mint (Mentha longifolia)<\/em> is probably the one referred to in Matthew 23:23 and Luke 11:42. Mints were employed by the ancient Hebrews, Greeks, and Romans for flavoring, as a carminative in medicine, and as a condiment in cooking.<\/p>\nMulberry (Morus nigra)<\/em><\/p>\nAny tree of this family, some bearing dark-purple fruit and one bearing white fruit, having leaves used as food for silkworms. The sycamine tree of Luke 17:6 (kjv<\/span>) is evidently the black mulberry, Morus nigra.<\/em> It is a low-growing, thick-crowned, stiff-branched tree standing from 24 to 35 feet (7.3 to 10.7 meters) tall, though rarely more than 30 feet (9.1 meters) tall. Originally native to northern Persia, it is now cultivated throughout the Middle East for its fruit. The Chinese or Indian species, M. alba,<\/em> was until recently widely cultivated in Syria and the Holy Land but is not indigenous.<\/p>\nMustard (Brassica nigra, B. arvensis)<\/em><\/p>\nVarious plants of this genus are native to Eurasia, some of which are cultivated for their edible seeds. While there is disagreement about the identity of the “mustard” of Matthew 13:31-32, 17:20, Mark 4:31, Luke 13:19, and 17:6, it is generally thought to be the ordinary black mustard, Brassica nigra.<\/em><\/p>\nThe mustard Jesus referred to may be the charlock or wild mustard, B. arvensis,<\/em> which normally grows from one to three feet (.3 to .9 meter) tall. Some have suggested that it was actually Salvadora persica,<\/em> found in thickets around the Dead Sea. The plant has a pleasant aromatic taste resembling that of mustard, and if taken in considerable quantity, it will produce an irritation of the nose and eyes similar to that of mustard. However, this plant does not grow as far north as Galilee, and the fruits are rather large and stony, thus hardly fitting the description of the parable.<\/p>\nWhile the seeds of the mustard are not the smallest known, they were probably the smallest familiar to the common people who comprised Jesus’ audience in Galilee.<\/p>\nMyrrh (Commiphora myrrha, C. kataf)<\/em><\/p>\nShrub or tree exuding an aromatic gum resin used in perfume and incense. Most of the references in Scripture to myrrh are to Commiphora myrrha,<\/em> although C. kataf<\/em> may also be involved since it grows in the same region and is similar. The two trees are native to Arabia, Ethiopia, and the Somali coast of east Africa. They yield a gummy exudation that constitutes most of the myrrh of commerce. Both species are low, scrubby, thick- and stiff-branched thorny shrubs or small trees that grow in rocky places, especially on limestone hills. In the East it is highly regarded as an aromatic substance, perfume, and medicine. The ancient Egyptians burned it in their temples and embalmed their dead with it; the Jews also used it for embalming (Jn 19:39). The Hebrews held it in high regard as a perfume (Ps 45:8).<\/p>\n\nMyrtle (Myrtus communis)<\/em><\/p>\nThe myrtle tree is common in the Holy Land, especially around Bethlehem, Lebanon, Hebron, and the slopes of Mt Carmel and Mt Tabor. It is native to western Asia and in good environments grows into a small evergreen tree 20 to 30 feet (6.2 to 9.1 meters) tall. More often, however, it is a straggling bush 1½ to 4 feet (.5 to 1.2 meters) tall.<\/p>\nIn the Bible, myrtle is referred to chiefly as a symbol of God’s generosity. Branches of myrtle trees were included among those that Nehemiah ordered to be gathered for the Feast of Tabernacles (Neh 8:15). The myrtle was symbolic not only of peace but also of justice.<\/p>\n\nNarcissus (Narcissus tazetta)<\/em><\/p>\nWidely cultivated plant of this family with narrow leaves and usually white or yellow flowers with a cup-crown or trumpet-shaped crown. The polyanthus narcissus (Narcissus tazetta)<\/em> appears to be the plant referred to in Isaiah 35:1. This narcissus grows abundantly on the plains of Sharon and elsewhere in Palestine. Being sweet-smelling, it is a great favorite.<\/p>\nNard (Nardostachys jatamansi)<\/em><\/p>\nThe nard is a perennial herb with strong, pleasantly scented roots. It is native to high altitudes in the Himalayas, and its range extends from there into western Asia. The roots and spikelike wooly young stems are dried before the leaves unfold and are used for making perfume. It is still used in India as a perfume for the hair, and there is every reason to believe that the spikenard of Scripture (Sg 1:12; 4:13-14; Mk 14:3; Jn 12:3) came originally from India.<\/p>\nNettle (Urtica)<\/em><\/p>\nPlant of this genus having toothed leaves covered with hairs that exude a stinging flush. Four species of nettle are found in the Holy Land: the common or great nettle, Urtica dioica;<\/em> the Roman nettle, U. pilulifera;<\/em> the small nettle, U. urens;<\/em> and U. caudata,<\/em> which is similar to the small nettle. Some nettles attain a height of five to six feet (1.5 to 1.8 meters). They are common pests of waste places and fields. They are often seen occupying ground that was once cultivated but has since been neglected (Is 34:13; Hos 9:6).<\/p>\nNutmeg Flower (Nigella sativa)<\/em><\/p>\nThe “fitches” of Isaiah 28:25-27 (kjv<\/span>) are probably the nutmeg flower, an annual plant of the buttercup family. The plant grows wild in southern Europe, Syria, Egypt, north Africa, and other Mediterranean lands, where it is extensively cultivated for its strongly pungent, pepperlike aromatic seeds. These are sprinkled over some kinds of bread and cakes in the East and are used for flavoring curries and other dishes in the Holy Land and Egypt. Cummin and nutmeg flowers are still gathered in the Holy Land in the same way described by Isaiah.<\/p>\nOak (Quercus)<\/em><\/p>\nAt least five species of oaks are found in Palestine. One of these is the kermes oak (Quercus coccifera),<\/em> the host of the insect Coccus ilicis,<\/em> which produces the scarlet dye used in coloring linen and wool (Gn 38:28-30; Ex 25:4; 26:1; 28:33; 35:23; 39:24; Lv 14:4-6, 51-52; Nm 19:6; 2 Chr 2:7, 14; 3:14; Is 1:18; Heb 9:19; Rv 18:12). The kermes oak grows from 6 to 35 feet (1.8 to 10.7 meters) tall and is found in the mountainous regions of Syria, Lebanon, and the Holy Land. When it grows alone, the kermes oak often becomes a large tree. It was regularly planted by tombs in the East. The oak was always respected and even venerated in biblical times for its large size and strength, and great men were usually buried in its shade. Abraham’s oak in Hebron is an example.<\/p>\nA second oak is the valonia oak (Q. aegilops),<\/em> perhaps the oak of Isaiah 2:13 and 44:14. It is common in the middle montane zones and probably was abundant in the area around Bashan. The oak of Genesis 35:4, 8 is thought to have been the holm oak (Q. ilex),<\/em> an evergreen oak that grows to a height of 60 feet (18.3 meters). Still another oak is Q. lusitanica,<\/em> the cypress oak, a small deciduous tree seldom more than 20 feet (6.1 meters) tall. The very large acorns of this tree were sometimes eaten.<\/p>\nThe word translated “plain” (kjv<\/span>) in Genesis 12:6, 13:18, 14:13, and 18:1 should probably be translated “oak.”<\/p>\nThe many references to “groves” in the OT, usually in connection with the worship of Baal or other heathen gods (Ex 34:13; Dt 16:21; Jgs 3:7; 1 Kgs 14:23; 18:19; 2 Kgs 17:16—all kjv<\/span>), were probably groves of sacred oak trees.<\/p>\nOil Tree, Oleaster (Elaeagnus angustifolia)<\/em><\/p>\nSmall Eurasian tree with oblong silvery leaves, greenish flowers, and olivelike fruit. There is question as to which tree is referred to when 1 Kings 6:23, 31-33 and 1 Chronicles 27:28 refer to “olive trees.” The same word occurs in Isaiah 41:19 and Micah 6:7. The plant referred to is probably the narrow-leaved oleaster (Elaeagnus angustifolia),<\/em> a small stiff-branched tree or graceful shrub growing from 15 to 20 feet (4.6 to 6.1 meters) tall, common in all parts of the Holy Land except in the Jordan Valley. At one time it was particularly common on Mt Tabor and at Hebron and Samaria. The wood is hard and fine-grained and therefore well suited for carving of images and figures. The oil that it yields is a rather inferior type used in medication but not for food; this may be the oil of Micah 6:7.<\/p>\nOleander (Nerium oleander)<\/em><\/p>\nAny poisonous evergreen shrub of this genus growing in warm climates. One of the suggestions for the plants identified as “roses” in various translations (Ecclus 24:14, kjv<\/span>) is the oleander. This plant, originally native to the East Indies, has been cultivated throughout the warm regions of the world for centuries. It flourishes in the Holy Land today and forms dense thickets in some parts of the Jordan Valley. It is usually a shrub from 3 to 12 feet (.9 to 3.7 meters) tall. Every part of the plant is dangerously poisonous.<\/p>\nOlive, Olive Tree (Olea europaea)<\/em><\/p>\nOld world semitropical evergreen tree bearing edible fruit. The olive, Olea europaea,<\/em> was unquestionably one of the most valuable trees known to the Jews. There are innumerable references to it in Scripture, as well as to olive oil, which was used for anointing. The tree is quite common in the Holy Land, and in many places it is the only tree of any substantial size. The branches of the wild olive are rather stiff and spinescent, and the typical cultivated tree is a multi-branched evergreen, 20 or more feet (6.1 meters) tall, with a gnarled trunk and smooth, ash-colored bark. The leaves are leathery and the flowers are small, yellow or white. The fruits are large, black or violet, ripening in September, and it is the outer fleshy parts of the fruit that yield the valuable olive oil of commerce. Thirty-one percent of the ripe fruit is oil. The ripe fruit is eaten raw, as is the green, unripe fruit. The wood of the trunk and limbs is hard, rich yellow or amber in color, and fine-grained, often handsomely variegated. It is still used today for the finest cabinetwork and turnery. The tree grows very slowly, but it attains a great age. It is difficult to kill the olive tree by cutting it down, because new sprouts are sent up from the root and all around the margins of the old stump, often forming a grove of two to five trunks, all from a single root that originally supported only one tree.<\/p>\nOnion (Allium)<\/em><\/p>\nThe onions referred to in Numbers 11:5 are undoubtedly Allium cepa,<\/em> the Egyptian onion, which is made up of a compact coated bulb formed of layers consisting of broad fleshy bases of closely overlapping leaves. The leaves are slender and hollow. The entire plant has a characteristic pungent taste and odor.<\/p>\n\nClosely related to the onion is the garlic, A. sativum.<\/em> The common garlic is a hardy, bulbous perennial plant that is cultivated in Europe, western Asia, and Egypt. The leaves are narrow, flat, and ribbonlike. It is extremely popular with people of the Mediterranean region.<\/p>\nStill another one of the onions is the leek, A. porrum.<\/em> The bulb of the leek differs from that of the onion and garlic in that it is slender, cylindrical, and more than six inches (15.2 centimeters) in length. The flavor resembles that of the onion but is more pungent. The leaves are eaten as a relish or are cooked in soups. The bulbs are cut into small pieces and employed as seasoning for meat.<\/p>\nPalm (Phoenix dactylifera)<\/em><\/p>\nThe palm tree of the Bible is undoubtedly the date palm. At one time it was as characteristic of the Holy Land as it is still today of Egypt. It is characterized by a branchless, tapering stem of up to 80 feet (24.2 meters) or more in height and a large terminal cluster of feathery leaves, each six to nine feet (1.8 to 2.7 meters) or more long. Because of its height and unusual structure, it was natural that it should be used as a form of ornamentation in Eastern architecture. The stem and leaves were favorite subjects of architectural embellishment. The immense, branchlike leaves that are referred to as branches in the Bible were symbols of triumph and were used on occasions of great rejoicing (Jn 12:13; Rv 7:9). The large leaves are still used to cover the roofs and sides of houses and to give solidity to reed fences. Mats, baskets, and even dishes are made of them. Small leaves are used as dusters, and the wood of the trunk is used for timber. Rope is made from the weblike integument in the crown. The fruit, borne in an immense drooping cluster, which may weigh from 30 to 50 pounds (13.6 to 22.7 kilograms), is the chief food of many natives of Arabia and north Africa. A single tree may yield up to 200 pounds (90.7 kilograms) of dates a year. They may be dried for future use.<\/p>\nPapyrus (Cyperus papyrus)<\/em><\/p>\nThe Egyptian bulrush or papyrus (Ex 2:3-5; Jb 8:11; Is 18:2; 19:6-7; 35:7; 58:5) has smooth three-sided stems ordinarily attaining a height of 8 to 10 feet (2.4 to 3 meters), but sometimes even 16 feet (4.9 meters), and a thickness of two to three inches (5.1 to 7.6 centimeters) at the base with a large tuft of florets at the end. The papyrus formerly grew in great abundance along the banks of the Nile, forming what was almost a dense jungle. Today it is practically extinct in lower Egypt, although it is still found along the White Nile and in the Sudan. The papyrus still grows in parts of the Holy Land, especially around the north end of the plain of Galilee and the Huleh swamps.<\/p>\n\nIn addition to being used for making small vessels to float in water (Ex 2:3), for mats, and for various other domestic purposes, it is best known as the source of ancient paper. In manufacturing paper from papyrus, the stems of the plant were first peeled and the pitch then cut longitudinally into thin slices that were laid side by side. These were then sprinkled with water and pressed to unite the whole into one piece. The sheet was then dried and cut into pieces of the required size. In the better grades of papyrus paper, several layers of stem slices were laid crosswise on each other.<\/p>\nThe pale, fawn-colored, tassel-like inflorescences at the summit of the stems were used to adorn Egyptian temples and to crown the statues of gods. They were also worn as crowns by famous men and national heroes.<\/p>\nPine Tree (Pinus brutia, P. halepensis)<\/em><\/p>\nVarious evergreen trees of this family with needle-shaped leaves in clusters and seed-bearing cones. While there is considerable confusion concerning the conifers of the Bible, it seems apparent that pines are referred to in such passages as Leviticus 23:40; Nehemiah 8:15; Isaiah 41:19; and 60:13. One of the Holy Land’s pines is the Brutian pine (Pinus brutia),<\/em> a mountain-inhabiting species of the northern regions of Palestine. It attains a height of 10 to 35 feet (3 to 10.7 meters) with a rather diffuse growth and branches in whorls.<\/p>\nAnother of the pines is the Aleppo pine, Pinus halepensis.<\/em> Most of the instances of the occurrence of “fir” or “fir tree” in the kjv<\/span> probably refer to the Aleppo pine (2 Sm 6:5; 1 Kgs 5:8, 10; 6:34; 2 Kgs 19:23; 2 Chr 2:8; Ps 104:17; Sg 1:17; Is 14:8; 37:24; 55:13; 60:13; Ez 27:5; 31:8; Hos 14:8; Na 2:3; Zec 11:2). It grows from 9 to 60 feet (2.7 to 18.3 meters) tall with diffuse ascending branches and yellowish or brownish branchlets.<\/p>\nPistachio (Pistacia terebinthus, P. vera)<\/em><\/p>\nThe Palestine terebinth or turpentine tree is a large deciduous tree with straggling boughs. In the winter, without its leaves, it looks much like the oak. It grows from 12 to 25 feet (3.7 to 7.6 meters) tall. Every part of the tree contains a fragrant, resinous juice. It is common on the lower slopes of the hills throughout Syria, Lebanon, Palestine, and Arabia, generally growing as a solitary tree and found mostly in localities too warm or too dry for the oak that it generally replaces. Since it is native to Gilead, it is quite probable that its resinous juice formed part of the spicery that the Israelites carried to Egypt from Gilead (Gn 37:25).<\/p>\nThe nuts of Genesis 43:11 are apparently pistachio nuts from the pistachio tree, Pistacia vera,<\/em> closely related to the terebinth. It attains a height of 10 to 30 feet (3 to 9.1 meters) with a spreading top. It is found wild in many rocky parts of Lebanon and the Holy Land. The nut has a light-colored shell and the kernel has a sweet delicate flavor much relished wherever it grows.<\/p>\nPlane Tree (Platanus orientalis)<\/em><\/p>\nAny of several trees of this family with bell-shaped fruit clusters and usually an outer bark that flakes off in patches or strips. The references in Genesis 30:37 and Ezekiel 31:8 are apparently not to the chestnut tree, which is not indigenous to Palestine, but to the oriental plane tree, Platanus orientalis.<\/em><\/p>\nThe plane tree is a massive tree 60 feet (18.3 meters) or more tall with a trunk often of vast circumference, sometimes as much as 40 feet (12.2 meters). The outer bark peels off in sheets or scales, thus exposing a smooth whitish or yellowish inner bark. The tree is common throughout Lebanon, Syria, and the Holy Land, growing even in subalpine regions. However, it is primarily a tree of the plains and lowlands, growing on the edges of streams and lakes and in marshy places.<\/p>\nPomegranate (Punica granatum)<\/em><\/p>\nThe pomegranate is usually a small, bushlike tree but may occasionally become a large, branching shrub or small tree reaching a height of 20 to 30 feet (6.1 to 9.1 meters). The branches are often thorny. The showy bell-like flowers are usually scarlet, though sometimes yellow or white. The globular fruit is as large as an orange or medium-size apple. It has a hard rind of a bright red or yellowish color when ripe and is surmounted by the dry sepals that resemble a crown. The fruit itself is a crimson juicy pulp in which many red seeds are imbedded. The flowers of the pomegranate undoubtedly served as a pattern for the golden bells referred to in Exodus 28:33-34 and 39:24-26, and the open flowers of 1 Kings 6:32. The erect calyx lobes on the fruit served as a model for crowns of kings.<\/p>\nThe pomegranate is native to Asia, but it has been cultivated since prehistoric times and is now quite common in the Holy Land, in Egypt, and along the shores of the Mediterranean. It is listed as one of the pleasant fruits of Egypt (Nm 20:5) and one of the promised blessings of the Holy Land (Dt 8:8).<\/p>\nPoplar (Populus euphratica, P. alba)<\/em><\/p>\nFast-growing deciduous tree of the same genus as the aspen and cottonwood. The kjv<\/span> references in 2 Samuel 5:23-24 and 1 Chronicles 14:14-15 to mulberry trees are more probably to the Euphrates poplar or aspen, Populus euphratica.<\/em> This tree grows to a height of 30 to 45 feet (9.1 to 13.7 meters) with spreading branches. The Euphrates aspen is found only on rivers and stream banks throughout the area from Syria through the Holy Land to Stony Arabia. It is especially common in the Jordan Valley.<\/p>\nThe white poplar (Populus alba)<\/em> is common in wet places in Syria, Lebanon, the Holy Land, and Sinai. It attains a height of 30 to 60 feet (9.1 to 18.3 meters) with spreading branches. Some suggest that the altars of various pagan religions were usually erected on the top of a hill and in the shade of a poplar grove.<\/p>\nQuince (Cydonia oblonga)<\/em><\/p>\nTree native to western Asia, having white flowers and applelike fruit that is edible when cooked. Some believe that the “apples” of the OT were quinces, Cydonia oblonga.<\/em> The quince tree is quite common in the Holy Land, though chiefly as a cultivated tree. It may occur wild in the northern parts of Syria. It is native to northern Persia and Asia Minor. The fruit is yellowish and highly fragrant, and it is the fragrance that caused it to be held in high regard by the ancients.<\/p>\nReed (Juncus, Scirpus, Typha angustata, Arundo donax)<\/em><\/p>\nNumerous species of the rush and bulrush grow in the Holy Land. There are at least 21 varieties of rushes. The common soft rush or bog rush (Juncus effusus)<\/em> is found in wet places, even in the Sinai and other deserts. The sea or hard rush (J. maritimus)<\/em> is found in damp places throughout the Holy Land and even in Sinai.<\/p>\nAt least 15 kinds of bulrushes (Scirpus)<\/em> are known in the Holy Land. The cluster-headed club rush (Scirpus holoschoenus)<\/em> is common in damp places throughout the Holy Land to the Sinai. The lake club rush or tall bulrush (S. lacustris)<\/em> is found in swamps and ditches throughout northern Africa to the Dead Sea. The sea club rush or salt marsh club rush (S. maritimus)<\/em> is found in ditches and swamps in many places of the Holy Land. Any of these species may be the one referred to in Job 8:11; Isaiah 9:14; 19:6, 15.<\/p>\nThe reference in Genesis 41:2 to the feeding of cattle in the meadow seems to be to the tall reed (Arundo donax),<\/em> which grows 18 feet (5.5 meters) or more in height. This plant is also known as the Persian reed and is common throughout the Holy Land, Syria, and the Sinai peninsula. It is a gigantic grass that may have a stem diameter of two or three inches (5.1 to 7.6 centimeters) at the base and is terminated by a plume of white flowers similar to those of the sugarcane or pampas grass. The plant was used for many purposes by the ancients: for walking sticks, fishing rods, measuring rods, and musical pipes. It is, therefore, quite possible that the “reed” of Matthew 27:48 and Mark 15:36 was a carpenter’s reed or measuring rod.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Papyrus.<\/p>\nRue (Ruta chalepensis, R. graveolens)<\/em><\/p>\nAromatic Eurasian plant with evergreen leaves that yield an acrid, volatile oil once used in medicine. There is little question as to the correctness of the translation of “rue” in Luke 11:42, but there is some doubt as to the exact species. Most writers think that it was the common rue (Rue graveolens),<\/em> a perennial shrubby plant with erect stems two to three feet (.6 to .9 meter) tall and deeply cut leaves. A very strong odor emanates from the foliage. This species is native to the Mediterranean region and grows wild in the Holy Land, especially on Mt Tabor.<\/p>\nRue was highly thought of by the ancients as a medicinal, supposed to prevent dizziness, dumbness, epilepsy, eye inflammations, insanity, and the “evil eye.” Rue was also used for seasoning dishes.<\/p>\nRush (Butomus umbellatus)<\/em><\/p>\nGeneric term for any of various grasslike marsh plants having pliant, hollow, or pithy stems. There is considerable uncertainty about the identification of the plant referred to in Genesis 41:2 translated in the kjv<\/span> as “meadow,” and in Job 8:11 as “flag.” Since it is mentioned along with the papyrus in the Job passage, it seems that it refers to a specific kind of plant rather than to an aggregate of plants in a meadow. From the description in Genesis as being a plant on which Pharaoh’s cattle might feed along the banks of the Nile and yet not the papyrus, it may refer to the flowering rush or water gladiola (Butomus umbellatus),<\/em> which flourishes both in Egypt and in the Holy Land, along with the papyrus.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Reed.<\/p>\nSaffron (Crocus sativus)<\/em><\/p>\nSaffron, referred to in Song of Songs 4:14, is the product of several species of Crocus,<\/em> especially of the blue-flowered saffron crocus (C. sativus),<\/em> which is native to Greece and Asia Minor. The commercial product consists of the stigma and upper portions of the style, the top parts of the flower ovary, which are collected shortly after the flower opens. It requires at least 4,000 stigmas to make an ounce of saffron. After being gathered, the stigmas are dried in the sun, pounded, and made into small cakes. Saffron is used principally as a yellow dye and also as a fruit coloring for curries and stews.<\/p>\nAnother, entirely different kind of dye-producing plant (Carthamus tinctorius)<\/em> called carthamine, bastard saffron, or safflower is a member of the thistle family. Its red florets yield a dye used extensively for coloring silk, in cooking, and for adulterating genuine saffron. It is an annual spiny plant three to four and a half feet (1.4 meters) tall, native to Syria and Egypt. In Egypt the grave clothes of mummies were dyed with this material, and it is quite possible that this plant may also have been the saffron of the Bible.<\/p>\nSage (Salvia judaica)<\/em><\/p>\nThe Judean sage grows to three feet (.9 meter) tall in the mountains and hills of Palestine. Its stems are four-angled, stiff, and rough. The plant grows from Syria south through Nazareth, Hebron, Tiberius, Samaria, and Judea.<\/p>\nThis plant is the origin of the design of the seven-branched lampstand of Exodus 37:17-18, which is known as the menorah, the traditional Jewish symbol. The inflorescence of the plant, when pressed flat, has almost exactly the same shape and form as the seven-branched candlestick, with its central spike and three pairs of side branches each bending upward and inward in a symmetrical fashion. On each branch of the plant’s inflorescence are whorls or buds that perhaps give the idea for the “knops” (kjv<\/span>) or “knobs” on the biblical golden candlesticks.<\/p>\nSpelt (Triticum aestivum)<\/em><\/p>\nHardy member of the wheat family. The rye of Exodus 9:32 and Isaiah 28:25, as well as the fitches of Ezekiel 4:9 (all kjv<\/span>) are thought to be spelt. It is a hard-grained species of wheat with loose ears and grains triangular in cross-section, and was the most common form of wheat in early times. It has a stouter stem than wheat and strong spikes of grain. Bread made of its flour is much inferior to that made from wheat, but spelt will thrive in almost any kind of soil and will yield a crop on land that is unfit for wheat. The ancients preferred it to barley for bread.<\/p>\nStorax Tree (Styrax officinalis)<\/em><\/p>\nVarious trees of this genus yielding an aromatic resin. Today it is thought that the stacte of Exodus 30:34 was derived from the storax tree. It is an irregularly stiff-branched shrub or small tree 9 to 20 feet (2.7 to 6.1 meters) tall. This tree is abundant on low hills and rocky places from Lebanon through the Holy Land. Its gum is obtained by making incisions in the stems and branches. It is highly perfumed and is still prized today as a perfume.<\/p>\nSycamore-fig (Ficus sycomorus)<\/em><\/p>\nTree of northeastern Africa and adjacent Asia, related to the fig. The word translated “sycamore” in 1 Kings 10:27; 1 Chronicles 27:28; 2 Chronicles 1:15; 9:27; Psalm 78:47; Isaiah 9:10; Amos 7:14; and Luke 19:4 undoubtedly refers to the well-known sycamore-fig, which is also known as the mulberry-fig or fig-mulberry. It should not be confused with the common sycamore of the North American continent, which is actually a plane tree. The sycamore-fig of the Bible is a strong-growing, robust, wide-spreading tree growing 30 to 40 feet (9.1 to 12.2 meters) tall and sometimes attaining a trunk circumference of 20 feet (6.1 meters) or more with a crown 120 feet (36.6 meters) in diameter. It is a tree that is easily climbed and is frequently planted along roadsides, which accounts for the reference in Luke 19:4. It produces an abundant amount of fruit in clusters on all parts of the tree, on both young and old branches and even on the trunk itself. It is very similar to the common fig, only smaller and much inferior in quality. In David’s day it was so valuable that he appointed a special overseer for the sycamore trees (1 Chr 27:28). It is thought that Amos was not a gatherer of sycamore fruit but rather a dresser of sycamore trees.<\/p>\nTamarisk (Tamarix)<\/em><\/p>\nThe references in Genesis 21:33 and 1 Samuel 22:6 and 31:13 seem to be to the tamarisk. These trees or shrubs are small and fast-growing with a durable wood. They are abundant in deserts, dunes, and salt marshes. Tamarix aphylla<\/em> is leafless and has small white flowers. These trees or shrubs often provide a soothing touch of green foliage and a promise of cooling shade to the traveler. Tamarisks are able to survive because they either have small, scalelike leaves, which lose little moisture by transpiration, or no leaves at all. The larger of the tamarisks are valued for their wood in a region where wood is scarce. The wood was used for building and also as a source of an excellent type of charcoal.<\/p>\nTerebinth (Pistacia terebinthus)<\/em><\/p>\nSee<\/em> Pistachio (above).<\/p>\nThistle, Thorn (Lycium europaeum, Solanum incanum, Centaurea, Silybum marianum, Ruscus aculeatus, Agrostemma githago, Paliurus spina-christi, Zizyphus spina-christi)<\/em><\/p>\nThere are 22 different Hebrew and Greek words used in Scripture to refer to spiny or prickly shrubs or weeds, and these are translated as “bramble,” “brier,” “cockle,” “thorn,” and “thistle.” At present, there are about 125 species of thorns and thistles that grow in the Holy Land.<\/p>\nThe bramble in the allegory of Judges 9:14-15 is believed to refer to the European boxthorn or desert-thorn, Lycium europaeum.<\/em><\/p>\nThe general consensus is that the “briers” of Isaiah 10:17, 55:13, Micah 7:4, and Hebrews 6:8 are the Palestine nightshade (Solanum incanum),<\/em> or “Jericho potato.”<\/p>\nThe thistles of Genesis 3:17-18, 2 Kings 14:9, 2 Chronicles 25:18, Hosea 10:8, and Matthew 7:16, as well as the thorns of Matthew 13:7 and Hebrews 6:8, are thought to be one of the species of the thistle, Centaurea.<\/em> Among the more common thistles in the Holy Land are the true star-thistle (Centaurea calcitrapa),<\/em> the dwarf centaury (C. verutum),<\/em> the Iberian centaury (C. iberica),<\/em> and the lady’s thistle (Silybum marianum).<\/em> Some thistles attain a height of five to six feet (.9 to 1.8 meters). Thistles are characteristic of an area that is uncultivated and neglected. Many have beautiful flowers, but all are covered with sharp spines.<\/p>\nThe references in Ezekiel 2:6 to “briers” and Ezekiel 28:24 to a “pricking brier” may be to the prickly butchers-broom or knee-holly, Ruscus aculeatus.<\/em> The plant is common in rocky woods in the northern regions of the Holy Land, especially around Mt Tabor and Mt Carmel.<\/p>\nThe cockle of Job 31:40 (nlt<\/span> “weeds”) perhaps refers to the corn cockle, Agrostemma githago.<\/em> This plant is common in grainfields throughout the Holy Land. It is a strong-growing and troublesome weed in grainfields, growing from one to three feet (.3 to .9 meter) tall.<\/p>\nMany commentators think that the “thorns” out of which the crown of thorns (Mt 27:29; Jn 19:2) was made were from the Christ-thorn (Paliurus spina-christi).<\/em> This belief has led to its specific name; the Christ-thorn is a spiny plant that ordinarily grows as a straggling shrub three to nine feet (.9 to 2.7 meters) tall. The flexible branches are armed at the base of each leaf with a pair of unequal, stiff, sharp spines. The unusual pliable texture of the young branches renders it particularly easy to plait into a crownlike wreath.<\/p>\nThe thorns of Judges 8:7, Isaiah 7:19, 9:18, 55:13, and Matthew 7:16 may refer to the Syrian Christ-thorn (Zizyphus spina-christi),<\/em> a shrub or small tree 9 to 15 feet (2.7 to 4.6 meters) tall, sometimes growing into a 40-foot (12.2-meter) tree with smooth white branches bearing a pair of stout, unequal, recurved spines at the back of each leaf.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Bramble; Buckthorn (above).<\/p>\nTulip (Tulipa montana, T. sharonensis)<\/em><\/p>\nAny of several bulbous plants of this family native to Asia. The rose of Sharon in Song of Songs 2:1 may be the mountain tulip, Tulipa montana,<\/em> or the closely related Sharon tulip, T. sharonensis.<\/em> The former is an attractive plant that grows from a bulb and has leaves that are often wavy-margined. The species is common in the mountainous regions of Syria, Lebanon, and the Anti-Lebanon. It is primarily a mountainous species. The Sharon tulip (T. sharonensis)<\/em> is found in sandy places on the Sharon coastal plains.<\/p>\nTumbleweed (Gundelia tournefortii, Anastatica hierochuntica)<\/em><\/p>\nThe references in Psalm 83:13 to “whirling dust” and in Isaiah 17:13 to “wheel” or “rolling thing” (niv<\/span> “tumbleweed”) seem to be to the Palestinian tumbleweed (Gundelia tournefortii),<\/em> a member of the thistle family. It is a prickly herb with milky juice. It rolls over the land and gathers in tremendous heaps in hollows.<\/p>\nVegetable<\/p>\nScriptural references to vegetables are probably, in most cases, to the dried leguminous seeds of beans and lentils.<\/p>\nVine (Vitis vinifera)<\/em><\/p>\nAny plant with a flexible stem that climbs, twines, or creeps along a surface or support. The common grapevine (Vitis vinifera)<\/em> is mentioned throughout the Bible. The fruitful vine (Ez 17:5-10) and the vine brought out of Egypt (Ps 80:8) were symbolic of the Jewish people. Jesus compares himself to the true vine, of which his disciples were the branches (Jn 15:1-6).<\/p>\nThe grapevine of the Old World sometimes assumes the characteristics of a tree, with stems up to a foot and a half (45.7 centimeters) in diameter, the branches then being trained on a trellis and bearing bunches of grapes 10 to 12 pounds (4.5 to 5.4 kilograms) in weight, with the individual grapes the size of small plums. Bunches have been produced weighing as much as 26 pounds (11.8 kilograms). The vines of the Holy Land were always renowned both for the luxuriance of their growth and for the immense clusters of grapes they produced. Thus it does not seem improbable that the spies sent to the Promised Land should have employed a pole to transport some of the clusters home (Nm 13:23-24).<\/p>\nThe wild grape (Vitis orientalis)<\/em> is referred to in Isaiah 5:2-4, Jeremiah 2:21, and Ezekiel 15:2-6. It is known as the native wild fox grape and has small, black, acidic berries about the size of currants with little juice.<\/p>\nWalnut (Juglans regia)<\/em><\/p>\nAny of several trees of this genus having round, sticky fruit enclosing an edible nut. The reference in Song of Songs 6:11 to “nuts” is thought to refer to the Persian or common walnut, Juglans regia.<\/em> The tree is believed to have been indigenous to northern Persia, but it is actually found wild in many parts of northern India, eastward as far as China, and westward through Persia. At the time of Solomon, it was widely cultivated for its fruit throughout the East. Perhaps Solomon’s garden of nuts was a part of his extensive gardens at Etham, six miles (9.7 kilometers) from Jerusalem.<\/p>\nWater Lily (Nymphaea)<\/em><\/p>\nAny of numerous aquatic plants of this genus with floating leaves and showy flowers. The carved lily ornamentation of 1 Kings 7:19-26 and 2 Chronicles 4:5 was probably patterned after the flowers of the water lily. Few flowers can equal the Egyptian lotus or water lily (Nymphaea lotus)<\/em> in beauty. It looks very much like a large white rose and at one time floated in profusion on the waters of the Nile.<\/p>\nThe common European white water lily (N. alba)<\/em> was also familiar to the children of Israel. It grows not only in Europe but also in the Holy Land and North Africa. It is, however, not as common in Egypt as is the white lotus.<\/p>\nAnother water lily with which the Israelites were probably familiar is the blue lotus, N. caerulea.<\/em> Its leaves are 12 to 16 inches (30.5 to 40.6 centimeters) across and it has light-blue flowers that are three to six inches (7.6 to 15.2 centimeters) in diameter.<\/p>\nWheat (Triticum aestivum, T. compositum)<\/em><\/p>\nVarious cereal grasses of this family widely cultivated for its edible grain. Five kinds of wheat are native to—and still wild in—the Holy Land, and at least eight others are cultivated there today; probably most, if not all, were known in Bible times. The wild varieties were probably more abundant then than they are today. Among these are the einkorn (T. monococcum),<\/em> the thaoudar (T. thaoudar),<\/em> and the wild emmer (T. dicoccoides).<\/em> The composite wheat (T. compositum),<\/em> with its branched spikes, often bearing as many as seven heads per stalk, is definitely referred to in Genesis 41:5-57. It is depicted on numerous Egyptian monuments and on inscriptions and is still commonly seen in the Nile Delta, where it is known as “mummy wheat.” It is also cultivated in the Holy Land.<\/p>\nThe most frequently mentioned wheat of the Bible is undoubtedly the commonly cultivated summer and winter wheat, Triticum aestivum.<\/em> It is an abundant annual grass cultivated in Egypt and other Eastern lands since earliest times. The exact place of its origin is unknown. Grains of wheat have been found in the most ancient Egyptian tombs and in the remains of prehistoric lake dwellings in Switzerland. It was certainly the chief grain of Mesopotamia in Jacob’s time (Gn 30:14).<\/p>\nCorn in biblical days often included a mixture of peas, beans, lentils, cummin, barley, millet, and spelt, but wheat was always its main constituent. Egypt was a great grain-producing country, and Abram (Gn 12:10) and Joseph’s brothers (ch 42) naturally turned to Egypt for wheat when famine visited Canaan.<\/p>\nThe mills, millstones, granaries, and threshing floors mentioned in the Bible all refer to equipment employed in processing grain to produce flour. The fine flour of which the showbread loaves were made (Lv 24:5) was unquestionably wheat flour. Wheat intended for home consumption was often stored in the central part of the house; this explains the story told in 2 Samuel 4:6. It was also sometimes stored in dry wells (2 Sm 17:19).<\/p>\nWormwood (Artemisia judaica, A. herba-alba)<\/em><\/p>\nWormwood is a general name given to a group of woody plants with a strong aromatic odor. Wormwood plants have a strong, bitter taste, and their young shoots and branch tips furnish the “wormwood” of commerce. Its bitter taste accounts for its being spoken of with gall—as being symbolic of bitter calamity and sorrow (Prv 5:4; Jer 9:15; 23:15; Lam 3:15, 19). Artemisia herba-alba<\/em> is the common species of wormwood in the Holy Land today. It is strongly aromatic, smelling like camphor, and bitter. A. judaica<\/em> occurs only in the Sinai.<\/p>\nAbsinthe is made from species of this group. It first leads to greater activity and pleasant sensations and fills the mind with grandiose ideas (Lam 3:15). The habitual use of it, however, brings on a stupor and gradual diminution of intellectual faculties, ending in delirium and even death. Perhaps the hemlock of Amos 6:12 was wormwood.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>PLANTS<\/h3>\nIdentifying biblical plants has always been a difficult task, partly because people continue to identify the biblical elm, sycamore, lily, rose, and vine with modern plants, and also because they assume that all the plants now growing in the Holy Land were there in ancient biblical days, or that the plants referred to in the Bible are still to be found there today. Unfortunately, many plants now quite common in the Holy Land were not there in biblical days. Many plants that once grew in abundance in the Holy Land are now extinct. Some have been driven out by foreign invaders; others have been exterminated or nearly exterminated by overcultivation of the land, the destruction of forests, and the resulting changes in climatic and other environmental conditions. At one time the Holy Land was a land of palm trees, with the date palm as abundant and characteristic there as it was in Egypt, but today the date palm is much less common. Similarly, in antiquity, the towering cedars clothed the slopes of Lebanon and other mountain ranges. Now the few remaining specimens must be carefully fenced in to protect them against trampling and the ravages of goats.<\/p>\nPreview<\/p>\n• Acacia<\/p>\n• Acanthus<\/p>\n• Algum<\/p>\n• Almond<\/p>\n• Almug<\/p>\n• Aloe<\/p>\n• Apple<\/p>\n• Apricot<\/p>\n• Ash<\/p>\n• Aspen<\/p>\n• Balm<\/p>\n• Barley<\/p>\n• Bdellium<\/p>\n• Bean<\/p>\n• Bitter Herbs<\/p>\n• Boxthorn, European<\/p>\n• Box Tree<\/p>\n• Bramble<\/p>\n• Broom<\/p>\n• Buckthorn<\/p>\n• Bush<\/p>\n• Buttercup<\/p>\n• Calamus<\/p>\n• Cane<\/p>\n• Caper Plant<\/p>\n• Carob Tree<\/p>\n• Cassia<\/p>\n• Castor Oil Plant<\/p>\n• Cedar<\/p>\n• Chicory<\/p>\n• Cinnamon<\/p>\n• Citron Tree<\/p>\n• Coriander<\/p>\n• Cotton<\/p>\n• Cucumber<\/p>\n• Cummin<\/p>\n• Cypress<\/p>\n• Dandelion<\/p>\n• Darnel Grass<\/p>\n• Dill<\/p>\n• Ebony<\/p>\n• Endive<\/p>\n• Fig, Fig Tree<\/p>\n• Fir Tree<\/p>\n• Flax<\/p>\n• Frankincense<\/p>\n• Galbanum<\/p>\n• Garlic<\/p>\n• Gourd, Wild<\/p>\n• Hedge<\/p>\n• Henna<\/p>\n• Hyacinth<\/p>\n• Hyssop<\/p>\n• Juniper<\/p>\n• Laurel or Sweet Bay<\/p>\n• Leek<\/p>\n• Lentil<\/p>\n• Lettuce<\/p>\n• Lily<\/p>\n• Lotus Bush<\/p>\n• Mallow<\/p>\n• Mandrake<\/p>\n• Melon<\/p>\n• Millet<\/p>\n• Mint<\/p>\n• Mulberry<\/p>\n• Mustard<\/p>\n• Myrrh<\/p>\n• Myrtle<\/p>\n• Narcissus<\/p>\n• Nard<\/p>\n• Nettle<\/p>\n• Nutmeg Flower<\/p>\n• Oak<\/p>\n• Oil Tree, Oleaster<\/p>\n• Oleander<\/p>\n• Olive, Olive Tree<\/p>\n• Onion<\/p>\n• Palm<\/p>\n• Papyrus<\/p>\n• Pine Tree<\/p>\n• Pistachio<\/p>\n• Plane Tree<\/p>\n• Pomegranate<\/p>\n• Poplar<\/p>\n• Quince<\/p>\n• Reed<\/p>\n• Rue<\/p>\n• Rush<\/p>\n• Saffron<\/p>\n• Sage<\/p>\n• Spelt<\/p>\n• Storax Tree<\/p>\n• Sycamore<\/p>\n• Tamarisk<\/p>\n• Terebinth<\/p>\n• Thistle, Thorn<\/p>\n• Tulip<\/p>\n• Tumbleweed<\/p>\n• Vegetable<\/p>\n• Vine<\/p>\n• Walnut<\/p>\n• Water Lily<\/p>\n• Wheat<\/p>\n• Wormwood<\/p>\nAcacia (Acacia tortilis<\/em> and A. seyal)<\/em><\/p>\nAny tree or shrub of the mimosa family of plants growing in warm regions. The plant referred to in the kjv<\/span> as “shittah” (singular) or “shittim” (plural) is undoubtedly the acacia tree, the only timber tree of any considerable size in the Arabian desert. Acacia tortilis<\/em> is by far the largest and most common tree in the desert in which the Israelites wandered for 40 years. It is especially conspicuous on Mt Sinai and was probably the species used for the tabernacle furnishings. A. seyal<\/em> is less common, at least today. It can grow as high as 25 feet (7.6 meters), and bears yellow flowers on twisted branches. The wood is close grained, heavy and hard, orange-brown in color, and much valued in cabinetwork. The ancient Egyptians clamped shut mummy coffins with acacia wood.<\/p>\nAcanthus (Acanthus syriacus)<\/em><\/p>\nThe acanthus, perhaps referred to in Job 30:7 and Zephaniah 2:9, is a perennial thistlelike herb or small shrub about three feet (.9 meter) tall, and is a common weed in all Eastern countries. It has been used since time immemorial as a model for the leaf or scroll decorations in art.<\/p>\nAlgum (Juniperus excelsa Bieb)<\/em><\/p>\nThe timber from Lebanon referred to in 2 Chronicles 2:8 is probably the juniper. Some translators hold, however, that algum and almug are Hebrew variants for the same tree (see nlt<\/span> mg, 2 Chr 2:8).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Almug (below).<\/p>\nAlmond (Amygdalus communis)<\/em><\/p>\nThe almond is a peachlike tree with saw-toothed pointed leaves and gray bark. It grows to a height of from 10 to 25 feet (3 to 7.6 meters). It blooms very early in the year; its Hebrew name has its roots in “watch for.” To the Jews it was a welcome harbinger of spring (Jer 1:11).<\/p>\n\nAlmug (Pterocarpus santalinus)<\/em><\/p>\nThe precious wood imported by King Solomon and used in making the pillars for the temple and for making harps and psalteries (1 Kgs 10:11-12). This timber was brought by sea from Ophir to Ezion-geber, near Elath. Modern authorities suggest that Ophir was either in Arabia, India, or East Africa near Mozambique. The reference to “algum“ in 2 Chronicles 2:8 is possibly to this tree. See<\/em> Algum (above).<\/p>\nAloe (Aloe succotrina, Aquilaria agallocha)<\/em><\/p>\nChiefly African, lilylike plant of the genus Aloes,<\/em> certain species of which yield a drug and a fiber. Aloe is an aromatic substance mentioned in the Bible, together with myrrh, balm, and other fragrant plants (Ps 45:8; Prv 7:17; Sg 4:14; Jn 19:39). Most scholars think these passages refer to two different plants. The OT plant is likely to have been Aquilaria agallocha,<\/em> the eaglewood, a large tree growing up to 120 feet (36.6 meters) tall with a trunk 12 feet (3.7 meters) in circumference. It is native to northern India, Malaya, and Indochina. The decaying wood is highly fragrant, and as such is highly valued as perfume and incense and for fumigation.<\/p>\nThe aloe of John 19:39 is thought to be the true aloe (Aloe succotrina),<\/em> the juice of which was used by the Egyptians in embalming. Its smell, however, is not very agreeable, and it has a bitter taste. It is sometimes used by veterinarians as a horse medicine.<\/p>\nApple (Malus sylvestris)<\/em><\/p>\nThe identity of the fruit identified by the Hebrew word tappuach<\/span> (Prv 25:11; Sg 2:3, 5; 7:8; 8:5) continues to be debated. In most English translations it has been rendered “apple” because of its close linguistic tie to the Arabic word tuffah.<\/em> Many scholars identify this tree as the apricot, questioning whether apples fit the biblical description “apples of gold” and whether the apple tree was cultivated in ancient Palestine. Recent excavations at Kadesh-barnea, however, have uncovered carbonized apples, probably a crab apple (Malus sylvestris),<\/em> dating to the ninth century BC<\/span>. This would certainly allow for this ornamental apple’s cultivation in Solomon’s gardens.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Apricot (below).<\/p>\nApricot (Prunus armeniaca)<\/em><\/p>\nThe identification of the Hebrew word tappuach<\/span> with the apricot continues to be debated. The apricot tree produces yellow-orange peachlike edible fruit and is native to western Asia and Africa. It is abundant in the Holy Land and probably has been so since early biblical times. The tree is a round-headed reddish-barked tree growing 30 feet (9.1 meters) tall. Most translations render this Hebrew word “apple,” though many scholars identify it with the apricot because of its descriptions in the biblical text (see Prv 25:11; Sg 2:3, 5; 7:8; 8:5; Jl 1:12).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Apple (above).<\/p>\nAsh (Alhagi maurorum, Fraxinus ornus, Tamarix mannifera)<\/em><\/p>\nThere are several ash trees found in the Near East. One of these, the prickly alhagi (Alhagi maurorum),<\/em> is a member of the pea family. It is a low, many-stemmed, much-branched shrub growing about three feet (.9 meter) tall with somewhat hairy twigs and pealike flowers. During the heat of the day, leaves exude a sweet, gummy substance that hardens in the air and is collected by shaking the bushes over a spread-out cloth.<\/p>\nThe manna tamarisk (Tamarix mannifera)<\/em> is a multibranched shrub or a small tree 9 to 15 feet (2.7 to 4.6 meters) tall with rigid branches that have tiny pink flowers. It is found on deserts from the Holy Land to Arabia and the Sinai.<\/p>\nThe flowering or manna ash (Fraxinus ornus)<\/em> is a tree that grows from 15 to 50 feet (4.6 to 15.2 meters) tall. The fruits are very similar to those produced by our species of ash. The ash of Isaiah 44:14 (kjv<\/span>) is believed to be the Aleppo pine.<\/p>\nAspen (Populus euphratica<\/em> or P. tremula)<\/em><\/p>\nAny of several trees of the genus Populus<\/em> with leaves attached by flattened leafstalks so that they tremble or “quake” in the wind.<\/p>\nBalm (Balanites aegyptiaca, Pistacia lentiscus, Commiphora opobalsamum<\/em>)<\/em><\/p>\nAn oily aromatic resin exuded by chiefly tropical trees and shrubs and used medicinally; trees and shrubs producing this substance. References in Genesis 37:25, Jeremiah 8:22, 46:11, and 51:8 are thought to be either the Jericho balsam (Balanites aegyptiaca)<\/em> or the lentisk or mastic tree (Pistacia lentiscus).<\/em> The Jericho balsam is very common in Egypt, North Africa, the plains of Jericho, and the hot plains bordering on the Dead Sea. It is a small desert-loving plant, 9 to 15 feet (2.7 to 4.6 meters) tall, with slender, thorny branches and small clusters of green flowers.<\/p>\nThe lentisk or mastic tree is native to the Holy Land, and the reference in Genesis 43:11 is probably to this plant, since the implication is that this is a native product of the Holy Land unknown in Egypt at the time. This tree is a shrubby or bushy tree 3 to 10 feet (.9 to 3 meters) tall with evergreen leaves. The “balm” is a fragrant gummy exudation of the sap secured by making incisions in the stems and branches, usually in August. The best grades are in the form of yellow-white translucent tears or drops; they are employed in medicine as an astringent. The poorer grades are used extensively as a varnish. Children in the East use it as chewing gum.<\/p>\nReferences to spices in 1 Kings 10:10, 2 Kings 20:13, Song of Songs 3:6, Isaiah 39:2, and Ezekiel 27:17 are thought to be the balm of Gilead (Commiphora opobalsamum),<\/em> which in spite of its name is not a native of Gilead or even of the Holy Land but is indigenous to Arabia, especially the mountainous regions of Yemen. The trees were still in existence on the plain of Jericho at the time of the Roman conquest. The Roman conquerors carried branches to Rome as trophies of their victory over the Jews.<\/p>\nThis tree is a small, stiff-branched evergreen tree seldom more than 15 feet (4.6 meters) high with straggling branches. The “balm” is obtained by making incisions in the stem and branches of the tree. The sap soon hardens into small irregular nodules that are collected. Gum is also procured from green and ripe fruit.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Myrrh (below).<\/p>\nBarley (Hordeum distichon)<\/em><\/p>\nA cereal grass bearing bearded flower spikes and edible seeds. The common barley (Hordeum distichon),<\/em> the winter barley (H. hex<\/em>astichon),<\/em> and the spring barley (H. vulgare)<\/em> have been cultivated in temperate regions of the world since time immemorial and today still constitute one of the principal grain foods. Barley and wheat were the two staple cereal crops of Egypt and the Holy Land. Being less expensive, barley was mostly used for feeding cattle, although it was also used by itself or mixed with wheat and other seed as food for man (Ez 4:9-12). Barley is mentioned in the Bible over 30 times, either as a plant growing in the fields or in reference to products made from it, such as barley meal, barley bread, barley cakes, and barley loaves. As the common food of the poor, barley was also regarded as a symbol of poverty and cheapness or worthlessness (Hos 3:2).<\/p>\nBdellium (Commiphora africana)<\/em><\/p>\nAromatic gum resin similar to myrrh, produced by various trees of the genus Commiphora<\/em> of Africa and western Asia. The reference in Genesis 2:12 and Numbers 11:7 to bdellium is thought by most scholars today to refer to a gum resin, obtained from a shrub, Commiphora africana<\/em>, that grows in south Arabia and northeastern Africa. The resin is yellowish, transparent, and fragrant, and looks like a pearl.<\/p>\nBean (Faba vulgaris)<\/em><\/p>\nThe references in 2 Samuel 17:27-28 and Ezekiel 4:9 are generally regarded as referring to the broad bean. This species, an annual plant, is thought originally to have grown in northern Persia, but it was extensively cultivated in western Asia in very early times as a food plant. Beans have been found in the mummy coffins of Egyptian tombs, and they were also cultivated by the Greeks and Romans.<\/p>\nBitter Herbs (Cichorium endivia, Taraxacum officinale, Lactuca sativa)<\/em><\/p>\nThe “bitter herbs” of Exodus 12:8 and Numbers 9:11 seem to have been plants like endive (Cichorium endivia),<\/em> the common chicory (Cichorium intybus),<\/em> lettuce (Lactuca sativa),<\/em> or the common dandelion (Taraxacum officinale).<\/em> These are all weedy plants common in modern Egypt and western Asia and are still eaten by people living there. The leaves of the ordinary garden lettuce are intensely bitter when bleached. This is also true of the common dandelion. Others suggest that the bitter herbs were derived from thorns and thistles.<\/p>\nBoxthorn, European (Lycium europaeum)<\/em><\/p>\nVarious thorny shrubs, some species of which bear purplish flowers and brightly colored berries. The reference in Judges 9:14-15 is thought to be to the European boxthorn or desert-thorn. It is a thorny shrub 6 to 12 feet (1.8 to 3.7 meters) tall with clustered leaves and small violet flowers eventually producing small globular red berries. It is native to and common throughout the Holy Land, especially in the region from Lebanon to the Dead Sea.<\/p>\nBox Tree (Buxus longifolia)<\/em><\/p>\nThe long-leaved box tree is a hardy evergreen tree found in the mountainous regions of the northern part of the Holy Land, the Galilean hills, and Lebanon. It grows to a height of about 20 feet (6.1 meters) with a slender trunk seldom more than six to eight inches (15.2 to 20.3 centimeters) in diameter. Its wood is very hard and takes a fine polish. It was cultivated by the Romans for its hard wood, which they inlaid with ivory for cabinets and jewel caskets. Scriptural references include Isaiah 41:19 and 60:13.<\/p>\nBramble (Rubus sanctus, R. ulmifolius)<\/em><\/p>\nThe Palestinian bramble (Rubus sanctus)<\/em> and the closely related elm-leaf bramble (R. ulmifolius)<\/em> are prickly evergreen shrubs that spread by means of suckers. The stems and young shoots are covered with a characteristic bloom or whitish powder and short hairs. The prickles are strong, erect, and hairy. The flowers are white, pink, rose, or purple in color, and the fruit is round and black.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Thistle, Thorn (below).<\/p>\nBroom (Retama raetam)<\/em><\/p>\nA shrub native to Eurasia. The word translated “juniper” in the kjv<\/span> has nothing to do with the true junipers but refers rather to a species of broom, known as the white broom (Retama raetam).<\/em> Its branches are longer and flexible, forming an erect, dense bush 3 to 12 feet (.9 to 3.7 meters) tall. The leaves are small and sparse, yet it forms an agreeable shade in a desert region. The white pealike flowers are sweet and very fragrant and are borne in clusters along the twigs. It is a beautiful shrub that grows in the desert regions of Palestine, Syria, and Persia. In many desert areas it is the only bush that affords any shade (1 Kgs 19:4-5).<\/p>\nThe “juniper roots” of Job 30:4 are not the roots of either the juniper or white broom. The roots of the latter are very nauseating and could not be eaten in the manner described by Job. Job’s “juniper roots” were probably an edible parasitic plant (Cynomorium coccineum).<\/em> This plant grows in salt marshes and maritime sands. It is frequently eaten in times of food scarcity and at one time was highly prized for its supposed medicinal value in the treatment of dysentery.<\/p>\nBuckthorn (Rhamnus palaestina)<\/em><\/p>\nThe Palestinian buckthorn is a shrub or small tree attaining a height of three to six feet (.9 to 1.8 meters) with velvety, thorny branches, evergreen leaves, and clusters of small flowers blooming in March or April. It grows in thickets and on hillsides from Syria and Lebanon through the Holy Land to Arabia and the Sinai.<\/p>\nBush (Acacia nilotica, Loranthus acaciae)<\/em><\/p>\nLow, branching, woody plant, usually smaller than a tree. There are differences of opinion in regard to the bush out of which the Lord appeared to Moses (Ex 3:2-4). From the biblical account, it seems most likely that the event was a miraculous one. However, some seek a natural explanation and believe that the burning bush may have been the crimson-flowered mistletoe or acacia strap flower (Loranthus acaciae),<\/em> which grows in great profusion as a partial parasite on the various acacia shrubs, such as the thorny acacia (Acacia nilotica),<\/em> in the Holy Land and Sinai. When in full bloom, the mistletoe imparts to the shrub or tree the appearance of being on fire because its brilliant flame-colored blossoms stand out against the green foliage and yellow flowers of the host plants.<\/p>\nButtercup (Ranunculus asiaticus)<\/em><\/p>\nThe Persian buttercup is one of the flowers or grasses of the field (Mt 6:28-30). It is a showy plant blooming in all brilliant colors except blue, with double flowers sometimes measuring two inches (5.1 centimeters) across.<\/p>\nCalamus (Acorus calamus, Andropogon aroma<\/em>ticus)<\/em><\/p>\nA plant, or its aromatic root; any of a variety of tropical Asiatic palms. One of the plants that grew in Solomon’s garden (Sg 4:14). The sweet flag (Acorus<\/em> calamus)<\/em> and the beardgrass (Andropogon aromaticus)<\/em> have been suggested as the plants from which calamus came. The sweet flag is highly aromatic and grows in Europe and Asia, but it is not known in the Holy Land. Indigenous to India, beardgrass is highly odoriferous when bruised and is thought to have furnished the calamus of the Bible. It yields an oil known as ginger-grass oil.<\/p>\nCane (Saccharum officinarum)<\/em><\/p>\nIt is thought that there were two species of sugarcane indigenous to and growing wild in the Holy Land. One of these, Saccharum sara,<\/em> is known to be only from Lebanon. The other native species is S. biflorum,<\/em> which grows on the banks of ditches and streams from Syria and Lebanon through the Holy Land south to Stony Arabia and the Sinai. This may be the wild cane familiar to the Jews. Most authorities, however, think that the “sweet cane” of Isaiah 43:24 was the true sugarcane (S. officinarum).<\/em> This plant is thought to have originated in the tropics of the eastern hemisphere. It has been cultivated by people since time immemorial and is not now known in the wild state anywhere. It is a tall, stout perennial grass, maizelike in aspect with many jointed stems and a large plumelike terminal cluster of flowers.<\/p>\nCaper Plant (Capparis sincula)<\/em><\/p>\nSpiny, trailing shrub of Mediterranean region; the flower bud of this shrub. The word “desire” in Ecclesiastes 12:5 may actually refer to the caper berry. The common caper or caper berry grows profusely in Syria, Lebanon, the Holy Land, and in the mountain valleys of Sinai. The plant may sometimes grow upright but more generally spreads itself weakly over the ground like a vine, covering rocks, ruins, and old walls like ivy. The young flower buds, pickled in vinegar, were used by the ancients as a condiment for meat. The berries were also used in cooking.<\/p>\nCarob Tree (Ceratonia siliqua)<\/em><\/p>\nEvergreen of the Mediterranean region having edible pods. Scholars generally agree that the pods of the carob or locust tree were the “husks” of Jesus’ parable of the prodigal son (Lk 15:16). The carob is an attractive evergreen leguminous tree that is very common throughout the Holy Land, Syria, and Egypt. The pods are most abundant in April and May and contain numerous pealike seeds embedded in an agreeably flavored mucilaginous sweetish pulp. The pods are also used abundantly now as they were in antiquity for feeding cattle, horses, and pigs. In time of scarcity, they are used as human food and perhaps even regularly by the very poor. The carob is frequently mentioned in the Talmud as a source of good food for domestic animals. The seeds of the carob were formerly employed as a standard of weight and are the source of the term “carat.” Some commentators suggest that the “locusts” eaten by John the Baptist (Mt 3:4) were not insects but the fruit of the carob tree.<\/p>\nCassia (Cinnamomum cassia, Saussurea lappa)<\/em><\/p>\nTree of tropical Asia with bark similar but inferior to cinnamon. The “cassia” of Exodus 30:24 and Ezekiel 27:19 is the cassia bark tree, Cinnamomum cassia.<\/em> In Psalm 45:8 the reference seems to be to the Indian orris, Saussurea lappa.<\/em><\/p>\nCastor Oil Plant (Ricinus communis)<\/em><\/p>\nLarge plant, native to tropical Africa and Asia, cultivated for ornamental reasons and for extraction of oil from its seeds. The gourd of Jonah 4:6-7 was probably the ordinary castor bean. The castor bean is a tender shrub, growing 3 to 12 or more feet (.9 to 3.7 meters) tall with huge leaves that resemble the outstretched human hand. The castor bean plant is found in waste places, especially near water, in both Lebanon and the Holy Land and often is cultivated. In hot climates it becomes treelike and affords a dense shade by the abundance of its huge, umbrella-like leaves. It is known in the Orient for the rapidity of its growth. The oil extracted from the seeds of the castor bean was used by the Jews in ceremonial rites and is mentioned among the five kinds of oil that rabbinical tradition sanctioned for such use. The seeds themselves are poisonous when eaten.<\/p>\nCedar (Cedrus libani)<\/em><\/p>\nAny of several coniferous evergreen trees of the genus native to the Old World. With few exceptions, the references to “cedar” are to the well-known cedar of Lebanon. This is a noble tree, the tallest and most massive with which the Israelites were acquainted. It grows quite rapidly, attaining a height of up to 120 feet (36.6 meters) with a trunk diameter of as much as 8 feet (2.4 meters). In Solomon’s day these trees were obviously abundant on the mountains of Lebanon, but now, because of excessive lumbering, they are very rare. The cedar of Lebanon was held in high esteem not only for its vigor, beauty, and age but also for the fragrance and remarkable lasting qualities of the wood. It symbolizes grandeur, might, majesty, dignity, lofty stature, and wide expansion. References in Ezekiel 17:3, 22-24, and 31:3-18 beautifully illustrate how these lofty kings of the forest symbolize and typify worldly strength, power, and glory.<\/p>\nChicory (Cichorium intybus)<\/em><\/p>\nSee<\/em> Bitter Herbs (above).<\/p>\nCinnamon (Cinnamomum zeylanicum)<\/em><\/p>\nTwo varieties of trees of this genus, native to tropical Asia, with aromatic bark that, when ground, is used as a spice. The cinnamon of Exodus 30:23, Proverbs 7:17, Song of Songs 4:14, and Revelation 18:13 is undoubtedly Cinnamomum zeylanicum.<\/em> The tree is a rather low-growing one, never getting more than 30 feet (9.1 meters) high, with a smooth, ash-colored bark and widespread branches and white flowers. Its shiny, beautifully veined evergreen leaves grow about nine inches (22.9 centimeters) long and two inches (5.1 centimeters) wide.<\/p>\nThe Jews always regarded cinnamon as a deliciously fragrant substance and valued it highly as a spice and a perfume. It was one of the principal ingredients used in the manufacture of the precious ointments, or “holy oil,” that Moses was commanded to use in the tabernacle for anointing the sacred vessels and officiating priests. It was undoubtedly very costly and precious.<\/p>\nCitron Tree (Tetraclinis articulata)<\/em><\/p>\nTree native to Asia bearing lemonlike fruit with a thick, fragrant rind. It seldom exceeds a height of 30 feet (9.1 meters) and has hard, dark-colored, durable, fragrant wood that takes a fine polish. The wood was one of the most highly prized woods of the ancients, who employed it extensively for cabinetwork. It was commonly referred to as being worth its weight in gold. The wood, owing to its resinous properties, is slow to decay and remains practically uninjured by insects.<\/p>\nCoriander (Coriandrum sativum)<\/em><\/p>\nThe references in Exodus 16:31 and Numbers 11:7 are clearly to the common coriander plant. The coriander was found quite commonly growing along with grain in cultivated fields throughout the Holy Land. It grows wild in Egypt and was used by the ancients both as condiment and as a medicine. The leaves are quite aromatic and are used in soups and for flavoring puddings, curries, and wines. The coriander is still used today as a spice by the Arabs. In Scripture it is mentioned only in connection with manna, which was said to resemble coriander seeds in size, shape, and color.<\/p>\nCotton (Gossypium herbaceum)<\/em><\/p>\nAny of various plants or shrubs of this genus grown in warm climates for the soft white fiber attached to their seeds and the oil from these seeds. The “green” of the kjv<\/span> in Esther 1:6 is undoubtedly a reference to the Levant cotton (Gossypium herbaceum)<\/em> that was cultivated since time immemorial in the Far East. Alexander the Great brought it back from India. It is probable that the Jews became acquainted with cotton during the period of their Persian captivity under King Ahasuerus.<\/p>\nCucumber (Cucumis chate, C. sativus)<\/em><\/p>\nThe cucumber is an annual climbing or trailing vine, the origin of which is unknown. It has been cultivated in all the warm countries of the Old World since prehistoric times. Cucumbers are usually eaten raw; a cucumber and a barley cake or some other kind of bread often constitute a meal. The reference to “a lodge in a garden of cucumbers” (Is 1:8) refers to the crudely built small house or lodge often set up in Palestinian cucumber fields and vineyards.<\/p>\nCummin (Cuminum cyminum)<\/em><\/p>\nThe references in Isaiah 28:25-27 and Matthew 23:23 are clearly to the cummin—a common, annual plant of the carrot family said to be native to Egypt and the region of the eastern Mediterranean. It has long been cultivated for its powerfully aromatic and pungent seeds, which are similar to caraway seeds but larger. They do not have as agreeable a taste as caraway seeds but nevertheless were used extensively as a flavor or spice and sometimes were even mixed with flour in making bread. Cummin was also used medicinally and as a condiment with fish and meats.<\/p>\nCypress (Cupressus sempervirens horizontalis)<\/em><\/p>\nThe cypress is a massive, tall-growing evergreen with scalelike leaves and is widely distributed in the mountainous regions of the Holy Land. On Mt Lebanon and Mt Hermon it grows together with the cedar and oak. Its usual height is 50 to 60 feet (15.2 to 18.3 meters), but it may grow as tall as 80 feet (24.2 meters). It is said to have been used extensively in shipbuilding by the Phoenicians, Cretans, and Greeks. There is general agreement that the “gopher wood” of Genesis 6:14 is cypress because the wood is very durable.<\/p>\nDandelion (Taraxacum officinale)<\/em><\/p>\nSee<\/em> Bitter Herbs (above).<\/p>\nDarnel Grass (Lolium temulentum)<\/em><\/p>\nIt is generally agreed that the “tares” of the kjv<\/span> (Mt 13:24-30) are the annual or bearded darnel grass. It is a strong grass closely resembling wheat or rye in appearance. The seeds are much smaller than those of wheat or rye, but it is extremely difficult to distinguish it from wheat or rye in its early stages. If it is not eradicated early but is left until the time of harvest, it is cut down with the wheat and the two are subsequently very difficult to separate. The seeds are poisonous, either due to some chemicals naturally present or because of a fungus that grows within the seeds.<\/p>\nDill (Anethum graveolens)<\/em><\/p>\nDill is a weedy annual plant resembling parsley and fennel, 12 to 20 inches (30.5 to 50.8 centimeters) tall with yellow flowers. The reference in Matthew 23:23 (kjv<\/span>) to anise is probably a reference to dill. This plant is widely cultivated for seeds that are aromatic and carminative.<\/p>\nEbony (Diospyros ebenaster, D. ebenum, D. mela<\/em>noxylon)<\/em><\/p>\nChiefly tropical tree of southern Asia with hard, dark-colored heartwood. Ebony comes from the date plum or date tree (Diospyros ebenaster<\/em> and D. melanoxylon)<\/em> of India and is quite different from the date palm. It was sent by Phoenician ships across the Arabian Sea and up the Red Sea to the market in Tyre, from which it was carried overland by camel caravans. The outer wood of these trees is white and soft, but when old, the interior wood becomes hard, black, heavy, and durable and still constitutes most of the costly ebony of commerce. Ebony takes on a fine polish and is highly valued for cabinetwork, for turnery, for the manufacture of fancy ornamental articles and instruments, and as a veneer for other woods.<\/p>\nEzekiel mentions ivory and ebony together (Ez 27:15). Ebony was and still is frequently inlaid with ivory, with which it contrasts so strikingly in color.<\/p>\nEndive (Cichorium endivia)<\/em><\/p>\nSee<\/em> Bitter Herbs (above).<\/p>\nFig, Fig Tree (Ficus carica)<\/em><\/p>\nAny of several trees or shrubs of this genus, native to the Mediterranean region; its edible fruit. The common fig, mentioned some 60 times in the Bible, is one of the most important Bible plants. Its leaves are spoken of first in Genesis 3:7. The fig is generally regarded as native to southwestern Asia and Syria, but already in early times it was also cultivated extensively in Egypt and the Holy Land, where it was one of the principal foods. First Samuel 25:18 states that a part of the gift sent by Abigail to David consisted of 200 cakes of figs.<\/p>\nThe fig tree has a very peculiar type of fruit called a syconium, which is actually a very much enlarged and fleshy receptacle. It is pollinated by a wasp, without which it cannot get its fruit; this was discovered when it was first transplanted to California.<\/p>\nThe fig puts out its earliest fruit buds before its leaves, the former in February and the latter in April or May. When the leaves are out, the fruit ought to be ripe (Mt 21:19).<\/p>\nWhenever the prophets of old berated the people for their wickedness, they often threatened that the vine and the fig crops would be destroyed. And when they held out the promise of great rewards, they said that the vine and fig crop would be restored (Jer 8:13; Hos 2:12; Jl 1:7, 12; Mi 4:4; Zec 3:10).<\/p>\nFir Tree (Abies cilicica)<\/em><\/p>\nThis a generic term for various evergreen trees having flat needles and erect cones. In all probability, most of the references in Scripture to the fir are references to the pine, cypress, or juniper. The only true fir in the Holy Land grows in the higher parts of Lebanon and the mountains northward. It attains a height of 30 to 75 feet (9.1 to 22.9 meters) and is widely cultivated.<\/p>\nFlax (Linum usitatissimum)<\/em><\/p>\nAny of several plants of this genus, one particularly being widely cultivated for the linseed oil from its seeds and the fine textile fibers from its stems. Flax is the oldest known of the textile fibers. Cotton is identified only once in the Bible (Est 1:6). There is no mention of any other fiber plant being cultivated in Egypt or the Holy Land in biblical days, and for that reason it is thought that linen was the material out of which clothes other than woolen ones were made. Linen was also used for domestic purposes such as towels (Jn 13:4-5), napkins (11:44), girdles and undergarments (Is 3:23; Mk 14:51), nets (Is 19:8-9), and measuring lines (Ez 40:3). The priests serving in the temple were to wear nothing but linen clothes; a mixed cloth of wool and flax together was strictly forbidden to the Jews (Lv 19:19; Dt 22:11).<\/p>\nAt least three kinds of linen were used in biblical times, and apparently there were particular uses for each kind. Ordinary linen of coarsest texture is mentioned in Leviticus 6:10, Ezekiel 9:2, Daniel 10:5, and Revelation 15:6. The second type of linen of superior quality is mentioned in Exodus 26:1 and 39:27. A third type of linen of finest texture and high cost is mentioned in 1 Chronicles 15:27, Esther 8:15, and Revelation 19:8.<\/p>\nThe common flax plant grows from one to four feet (.3 to 1.2 meters) tall with a simple, slender, wirelike stem and numerous small, pale, lancelike green leaves. The failure of the flax crop is listed as one of God’s punishments (Hos 2:9). The manufacture of linen from flax fibers was a domestic industry of Jewish women (Prv 31:13, 19), ranging from ordinary clothing to the robes and aprons worn by the priest and temple attendants. Linen was also used for wicks in lamps (Is 42:3).<\/p>\nFrankincense (Boswellia)<\/em><\/p>\nAromatic genus resin used chiefly as incense. Frankincense is obtained from three species of a single genus of plants that grow in southern Arabia, Ethiopia, Somaliland, India, and the East Indies. The trees are large in size, related to the turpentine or terebinth tree and to those that produce balsam and myrrh. The gum has a bitter taste and gives off a strong odor in the form of a volatile oil when warmed or burned. It is obtained by successive incisions in the bark of the trunk and in the branches of living trees. It is thought that the Hebrews imported all their frankincense from Arabia, especially from the region about Sheba.<\/p>\nFrankincense is mentioned 21 times in the Bible (e.g., Ex 30:34; 1 Chr 9:29; Neh 13:9; Sg 3:6; 4:6, 14; Mt 2:11; Rv 18:13) and was probably employed almost exclusively in the sacrificial services of the tabernacle and temple until the time of Solomon. It has always been the most important incense resin in the world.<\/p>\nGalbanum (Ferula galbaniflua)<\/em><\/p>\nGalbanum is a malodorous yellowish or brownish gum resin containing the chemical substance umbelliferone, obtained from several species of plants related to the fennel, native to Syria and Persia. The gum is a natural exudation of the stem or is obtained by making a transverse incision in the young stem a few inches above the ground. The milky juice soon hardens and forms one of the kinds of commercial galbanum. Its odor is strongly balsamic, pungent, and disagreeable when burned. Galbanum was one of the ingredients used to form the “holy incense” (Ex 30:34).<\/p>\nGarlic (Allium sativum)<\/em><\/p>\nSee<\/em> Onion (below).<\/p>\nGourd, Wild (Citrullus colocynthis)<\/em><\/p>\nThere has been considerable difference of opinion regarding the meaning of the words translated “wild gourds” (2 Kgs 4:39) or “gall” (Dt 29:18; 32:32; Ps 69:21; Jer 8:14; 9:15; 23:15; Lam 3:5, 19; Am 6:12; Mt 27:34; Acts 8:23). Most scholars today believe the plant referred to was the colocynth, a cucumber-like vine that trails on the ground or climbs over shrubs and fences. The fruit contains a soft spongy pulp, which is intensely bitter, strongly cathartic, and sometimes poisonous.<\/p>\nHedge (Rhamnus palaestina, Balanites aegyptiaca, Lycium europaeum)<\/em><\/p>\nRow of closely planted shrubs or low-growing trees forming a fence or boundary. A number of plants were used to provide hedges in Bible times. One of these was the Palestine buckthorn, Rhamnus palaestina.<\/em> This plant is a shrub or a small tree growing from three to six feet (.9 to 1.8 meters) tall with velvety, thorny branches, evergreen leaves, and clusters of small flowers blooming in March and April. It grows in thickets and on hillsides from Syria through the Holy Land to Arabia and the Sinai. The Jericho balsam (Balanites aegyptiaca)<\/em> and the European boxthorn (Lycium europaeum)<\/em> are also prickly shrubs widely used as hedges in the Holy Land and may be the plants referred to in Proverbs 15:19 and Hosea 2:6.<\/p>\nHenna (Lawsonia inermis)<\/em><\/p>\nTree or shrub of Asia and northern Africa with fragrant reddish or white flowers and leaves from which a reddish dye is made. The plant referred to in Song of Songs 1:14 and 4:13 and translated as “camphire” (kjv<\/span>) is thought by scholars today to refer to the henna plant. It is a native of northern India and grows wild in the Sudan, Egypt, Arabia, Syria, Lebanon, and the Holy Land. It grows from 4 to 12 feet (1.2 to 3.7 meters) tall, and its scent is similar to that of roses.<\/p>\nHenna leaves are dried, crushed into a powder, mixed with water, and made into a paste that has been used since time immemorial as a cosmetic. A number of mummies have been found decorated with henna. Henna was used to provide a bright yellow, orange, or red color to the fingernails, toenails, the tips of the fingers, the palms of the hand, and the soles of the feet of young girls. Men also used it for coloring their beards and the manes and tails of horses. The dye had to be renewed once every two or three weeks. This use of henna as a cosmetic was common in Egypt at the time the children of Israel were there as slaves; they were undoubtedly familiar with it.<\/p>\nHyacinth (Hyacinthus orientalis)<\/em><\/p>\nThe lily referred to in Song of Songs 2:1-2, 16; 4:5; and 6:2-4 may well be the garden hyacinth. It is native to, and very common in, the fields and rocky places in the Holy Land, Lebanon, and northward. Its flowers in the wild form are always deep blue and very fragrant.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Lily (below).<\/p>\nHyssop (Origanum maru)<\/em><\/p>\nWoody plant native to Asia with spikes of small blue flowers and aromatic leaves used as a condiment and in perfumery. There is little agreement among botanists as to the exact identity of the biblical “hyssop.” Some have suggested Hyssopus offici<\/em>nalis,<\/em> the well-known garden herb now called hyssop. However, this plant is not native either to the Holy Land or Egypt, being found only in southern Europe. Moreover, it does not fit the requirements of the biblical plant.<\/p>\nThe “hyssop” of the OT is likely the Syrian or Egyptian marjoram (Origanum maru).<\/em> It is referred to in Exodus 12:22; Leviticus 14:4-6, 52; Numbers 19:6, 18; 1 Kings 4:33; Psalm 51:7; and Hebrews 9:19. The marjorams are mints growing (under favorable conditions) about two or three feet (.6 to .9 meter) tall, but more often are dwarfed when growing in rock crevices and walls (cf. 1 Kgs 4:33). An aromatic substance is obtained from the crushed and dried leaves. If gathered together in a bunch with leaves and flowers, the hairy stems of the marjoram would hold liquid very well and would make an excellent sprinkler.<\/p>\n\nThe hyssop of the crucifixion passage in the NT (Jn 19:29) is probably the sorghum, a tall cereal plant grown primarily for food but also used for brushes and mops.<\/p>\nJuniper (Juniperus)<\/em><\/p>\nVariety of evergreen tree or shrub. The plant referred to in Jeremiah 17:6 and 48:6 and translated in the kjv<\/span> “heath” is probably the savin or Phoenician juniper. The Phoenician juniper, Juniperus phoenicia,<\/em> is found in the hills and rocky places of Arabia. The savin juniper, J. sabina,<\/em> is common throughout the deserts, plains, and rocky places of Syria and Palestine. These references are to the brown-berried cedar, or sharp cedar.<\/p>\nLaurel or Sweet Bay (Laurus nobilis)<\/em><\/p>\nShrub or tree native to the Mediterranean region. While the reference in Psalm 37:35 may be to the cedar of Lebanon, most scholars refer the “green bay tree” (kjv<\/span>) of the psalmist to the sweet bay, a native of the Holy Land, inhabiting thickets and woods from the coast to the middle montane zone. It is an evergreen tree attaining a height from 40 to 60 feet (12.2 to 18.3 meters).<\/p>\nEven though the tree is abundant on Mt Carmel and around Hebron, it is generally not common in the Holy Land. Its leaves are still used as a condiment, and its fruit, leaves, and bark have long been used in medicine.<\/p>\nLeek (Allium porrum)<\/em><\/p>\nSee<\/em> Onion (below).<\/p>\nLentil (Lens esculenta)<\/em><\/p>\nThe lentil plant to which Genesis 25:29-34, 2 Samuel 17:27-29, 23:11, and Ezekiel 4:9 refer is a small, erect, annual, vetchlike plant with slender stems and tendril-bearing leaves. It produces small, white, violet-striped flowers with flat, pealike pods in which the lentils are borne.<\/p>\nLettuce (Lactuca sativa)<\/em><\/p>\nSee<\/em> Bitter Herbs (above).<\/p>\nLily (Lilium)<\/em><\/p>\nAny of various plants of the genus Lilium<\/em> having large, variously colored, trumpet-shaped flowers; and related plants. The lily is one of the most famous of all the plants in the Bible, but it is also one about which there has been considerable difference of opinion. It seems probable that several kinds of plants, perhaps five or six, are called lilies in the kjv<\/span>. Most authorities regard the Palestine anemone or wind flower, Anemone coronaria,<\/em> as the “lily of the field” (Mt 6:28, kjv<\/span>) that surpassed Solomon in all his glory. These flowers are found in every part of the Holy Land in profusion; the most common forms are scarlet or yellow, but the Palestine anemone may also be blue, purple, rose, or white in color. The flower attains a diameter of two and three-quarter inches (7 centimeters).<\/p>\nAn alternative suggestion is the Palestinian chamomile, Anthemis palaestina,<\/em> a common, white, daisylike plant. The chamomile is gathered like dry grass and thrown into the furnace when it dries up.<\/p>\nAnother proposed plant is Lilium chalcedonicum,<\/em> the scarlet or Martagon lily. The statement in Song of Songs 5:13—“his lips like lilies”—would better fit this plant than the Palestine anemone. The reference is apparently to a rare plant of exceptional beauty. The scarlet lily is rare in the Holy Land; indeed, some botanists doubt that it lives there.<\/p>\nThe references in 1 Kings 7:19, 22, 26 and 2 Chronicles 4:5 are probably to the water lily, Nymphaea alba,<\/em> which served as the pattern. The water lily is quite common in Europe and also in the Holy Land and northern Africa.<\/p>\nLotus Bush (Zizyphus lotus)<\/em><\/p>\nThe “shady trees” of Job 40:21-22 (kjv<\/span>; cf. nlt<\/span> “lotus plants”) may refer to the lotus bush of the Middle East, Zizyphus lotus,<\/em> a shrub or low tree that grows to a height of about five feet (1.5 meters) with smooth, zigzag, whitish branches.<\/p>\nOther commentators believe that the shady trees of Job are large-leafed trees such as the plane tree, Platanus orientalis,<\/em> or the oleander, Nerium oleander.<\/em> This suggestion is based on the assumption that the animal described in Job 40 is the hippopotamus, and it seems unlikely that the hippopotamus would live under a lotus bush or even be found in places where this shrub grows. These individuals regard the plane tree or the oleander as more likely.<\/p>\nMallow (Atriplex)<\/em><\/p>\nThe Hebrew word used in Job 30:4 implies saltiness, and for this reason botanists believe that it refers to one of the species of the saltwort or orach. Twenty-one species of saltwort occur in the Holy Land, almost all of which are common and could well meet the requirements of the text. Atriplex halimus<\/em> is the species usually suggested, a strong-growing bushy shrub related to the spinach.<\/p>\nMandrake (Mandragora officinarum)<\/em><\/p>\nThe mandrake or love apple is a stemless herbaceous perennial related to the nightshade, potato, and tomato. It has a large, beetlike, often forked taproot from the top of which arise many dark leaves about a foot (30.5 centimeters) long and four inches (10.2 centimeters) wide. The plant is slightly poisonous, and the thick taproots have some resemblance in shape to the lower parts of the human body. For this reason certain aphrodisiac properties were ascribed to it (cf. Gn 30:14-16).<\/p>\nThe love apple was a common plant in deserted fields throughout the Holy Land. It is native to the entire Mediterranean region, southern Europe, and Asia Minor. The mandrake is mentioned in Song of Songs 7:13, though some scholars believe the writer may actually have been referring to the citron or to the common edible field mushroom, Agaricus campestris.<\/em><\/p>\nMelon (Cucumis melo, Citrullus vulgaris)<\/em><\/p>\nAny of several varieties of these two related vines having a hard rind and juicy flesh. The melons of Numbers 11:5 may be either the muskmelon (Cucumis melo)<\/em> or the watermelon (Citrullus vulgaris).<\/em> It may be that both fruits are referred to.<\/p>\n\nMillet (Panicum miliaceum)<\/em><\/p>\nA grass grown in Eurasia for its edible seed. Millet seeds are the smallest of all the grass seeds cultivated as food but are produced profusely. Millet is an annual grass seldom more that two feet (.6 meter) tall. The small seeds of the millet are used on cakes and eaten uncooked by the poor of the land.<\/p>\nMint (Mentha)<\/em><\/p>\nAny of various plants of this family with aromatic foliage that is processed for flavoring. Quite a few mints are common in the Holy Land, but the horse mint (Mentha longifolia)<\/em> is probably the one referred to in Matthew 23:23 and Luke 11:42. Mints were employed by the ancient Hebrews, Greeks, and Romans for flavoring, as a carminative in medicine, and as a condiment in cooking.<\/p>\nMulberry (Morus nigra)<\/em><\/p>\nAny tree of this family, some bearing dark-purple fruit and one bearing white fruit, having leaves used as food for silkworms. The sycamine tree of Luke 17:6 (kjv<\/span>) is evidently the black mulberry, Morus nigra.<\/em> It is a low-growing, thick-crowned, stiff-branched tree standing from 24 to 35 feet (7.3 to 10.7 meters) tall, though rarely more than 30 feet (9.1 meters) tall. Originally native to northern Persia, it is now cultivated throughout the Middle East for its fruit. The Chinese or Indian species, M. alba,<\/em> was until recently widely cultivated in Syria and the Holy Land but is not indigenous.<\/p>\nMustard (Brassica nigra, B. arvensis)<\/em><\/p>\nVarious plants of this genus are native to Eurasia, some of which are cultivated for their edible seeds. While there is disagreement about the identity of the “mustard” of Matthew 13:31-32, 17:20, Mark 4:31, Luke 13:19, and 17:6, it is generally thought to be the ordinary black mustard, Brassica nigra.<\/em><\/p>\nThe mustard Jesus referred to may be the charlock or wild mustard, B. arvensis,<\/em> which normally grows from one to three feet (.3 to .9 meter) tall. Some have suggested that it was actually Salvadora persica,<\/em> found in thickets around the Dead Sea. The plant has a pleasant aromatic taste resembling that of mustard, and if taken in considerable quantity, it will produce an irritation of the nose and eyes similar to that of mustard. However, this plant does not grow as far north as Galilee, and the fruits are rather large and stony, thus hardly fitting the description of the parable.<\/p>\nWhile the seeds of the mustard are not the smallest known, they were probably the smallest familiar to the common people who comprised Jesus’ audience in Galilee.<\/p>\nMyrrh (Commiphora myrrha, C. kataf)<\/em><\/p>\nShrub or tree exuding an aromatic gum resin used in perfume and incense. Most of the references in Scripture to myrrh are to Commiphora myrrha,<\/em> although C. kataf<\/em> may also be involved since it grows in the same region and is similar. The two trees are native to Arabia, Ethiopia, and the Somali coast of east Africa. They yield a gummy exudation that constitutes most of the myrrh of commerce. Both species are low, scrubby, thick- and stiff-branched thorny shrubs or small trees that grow in rocky places, especially on limestone hills. In the East it is highly regarded as an aromatic substance, perfume, and medicine. The ancient Egyptians burned it in their temples and embalmed their dead with it; the Jews also used it for embalming (Jn 19:39). The Hebrews held it in high regard as a perfume (Ps 45:8).<\/p>\n\nMyrtle (Myrtus communis)<\/em><\/p>\nThe myrtle tree is common in the Holy Land, especially around Bethlehem, Lebanon, Hebron, and the slopes of Mt Carmel and Mt Tabor. It is native to western Asia and in good environments grows into a small evergreen tree 20 to 30 feet (6.2 to 9.1 meters) tall. More often, however, it is a straggling bush 1½ to 4 feet (.5 to 1.2 meters) tall.<\/p>\nIn the Bible, myrtle is referred to chiefly as a symbol of God’s generosity. Branches of myrtle trees were included among those that Nehemiah ordered to be gathered for the Feast of Tabernacles (Neh 8:15). The myrtle was symbolic not only of peace but also of justice.<\/p>\n\nNarcissus (Narcissus tazetta)<\/em><\/p>\nWidely cultivated plant of this family with narrow leaves and usually white or yellow flowers with a cup-crown or trumpet-shaped crown. The polyanthus narcissus (Narcissus tazetta)<\/em> appears to be the plant referred to in Isaiah 35:1. This narcissus grows abundantly on the plains of Sharon and elsewhere in Palestine. Being sweet-smelling, it is a great favorite.<\/p>\nNard (Nardostachys jatamansi)<\/em><\/p>\nThe nard is a perennial herb with strong, pleasantly scented roots. It is native to high altitudes in the Himalayas, and its range extends from there into western Asia. The roots and spikelike wooly young stems are dried before the leaves unfold and are used for making perfume. It is still used in India as a perfume for the hair, and there is every reason to believe that the spikenard of Scripture (Sg 1:12; 4:13-14; Mk 14:3; Jn 12:3) came originally from India.<\/p>\nNettle (Urtica)<\/em><\/p>\nPlant of this genus having toothed leaves covered with hairs that exude a stinging flush. Four species of nettle are found in the Holy Land: the common or great nettle, Urtica dioica;<\/em> the Roman nettle, U. pilulifera;<\/em> the small nettle, U. urens;<\/em> and U. caudata,<\/em> which is similar to the small nettle. Some nettles attain a height of five to six feet (1.5 to 1.8 meters). They are common pests of waste places and fields. They are often seen occupying ground that was once cultivated but has since been neglected (Is 34:13; Hos 9:6).<\/p>\nNutmeg Flower (Nigella sativa)<\/em><\/p>\nThe “fitches” of Isaiah 28:25-27 (kjv<\/span>) are probably the nutmeg flower, an annual plant of the buttercup family. The plant grows wild in southern Europe, Syria, Egypt, north Africa, and other Mediterranean lands, where it is extensively cultivated for its strongly pungent, pepperlike aromatic seeds. These are sprinkled over some kinds of bread and cakes in the East and are used for flavoring curries and other dishes in the Holy Land and Egypt. Cummin and nutmeg flowers are still gathered in the Holy Land in the same way described by Isaiah.<\/p>\nOak (Quercus)<\/em><\/p>\nAt least five species of oaks are found in Palestine. One of these is the kermes oak (Quercus coccifera),<\/em> the host of the insect Coccus ilicis,<\/em> which produces the scarlet dye used in coloring linen and wool (Gn 38:28-30; Ex 25:4; 26:1; 28:33; 35:23; 39:24; Lv 14:4-6, 51-52; Nm 19:6; 2 Chr 2:7, 14; 3:14; Is 1:18; Heb 9:19; Rv 18:12). The kermes oak grows from 6 to 35 feet (1.8 to 10.7 meters) tall and is found in the mountainous regions of Syria, Lebanon, and the Holy Land. When it grows alone, the kermes oak often becomes a large tree. It was regularly planted by tombs in the East. The oak was always respected and even venerated in biblical times for its large size and strength, and great men were usually buried in its shade. Abraham’s oak in Hebron is an example.<\/p>\nA second oak is the valonia oak (Q. aegilops),<\/em> perhaps the oak of Isaiah 2:13 and 44:14. It is common in the middle montane zones and probably was abundant in the area around Bashan. The oak of Genesis 35:4, 8 is thought to have been the holm oak (Q. ilex),<\/em> an evergreen oak that grows to a height of 60 feet (18.3 meters). Still another oak is Q. lusitanica,<\/em> the cypress oak, a small deciduous tree seldom more than 20 feet (6.1 meters) tall. The very large acorns of this tree were sometimes eaten.<\/p>\nThe word translated “plain” (kjv<\/span>) in Genesis 12:6, 13:18, 14:13, and 18:1 should probably be translated “oak.”<\/p>\nThe many references to “groves” in the OT, usually in connection with the worship of Baal or other heathen gods (Ex 34:13; Dt 16:21; Jgs 3:7; 1 Kgs 14:23; 18:19; 2 Kgs 17:16—all kjv<\/span>), were probably groves of sacred oak trees.<\/p>\nOil Tree, Oleaster (Elaeagnus angustifolia)<\/em><\/p>\nSmall Eurasian tree with oblong silvery leaves, greenish flowers, and olivelike fruit. There is question as to which tree is referred to when 1 Kings 6:23, 31-33 and 1 Chronicles 27:28 refer to “olive trees.” The same word occurs in Isaiah 41:19 and Micah 6:7. The plant referred to is probably the narrow-leaved oleaster (Elaeagnus angustifolia),<\/em> a small stiff-branched tree or graceful shrub growing from 15 to 20 feet (4.6 to 6.1 meters) tall, common in all parts of the Holy Land except in the Jordan Valley. At one time it was particularly common on Mt Tabor and at Hebron and Samaria. The wood is hard and fine-grained and therefore well suited for carving of images and figures. The oil that it yields is a rather inferior type used in medication but not for food; this may be the oil of Micah 6:7.<\/p>\nOleander (Nerium oleander)<\/em><\/p>\nAny poisonous evergreen shrub of this genus growing in warm climates. One of the suggestions for the plants identified as “roses” in various translations (Ecclus 24:14, kjv<\/span>) is the oleander. This plant, originally native to the East Indies, has been cultivated throughout the warm regions of the world for centuries. It flourishes in the Holy Land today and forms dense thickets in some parts of the Jordan Valley. It is usually a shrub from 3 to 12 feet (.9 to 3.7 meters) tall. Every part of the plant is dangerously poisonous.<\/p>\nOlive, Olive Tree (Olea europaea)<\/em><\/p>\nOld world semitropical evergreen tree bearing edible fruit. The olive, Olea europaea,<\/em> was unquestionably one of the most valuable trees known to the Jews. There are innumerable references to it in Scripture, as well as to olive oil, which was used for anointing. The tree is quite common in the Holy Land, and in many places it is the only tree of any substantial size. The branches of the wild olive are rather stiff and spinescent, and the typical cultivated tree is a multi-branched evergreen, 20 or more feet (6.1 meters) tall, with a gnarled trunk and smooth, ash-colored bark. The leaves are leathery and the flowers are small, yellow or white. The fruits are large, black or violet, ripening in September, and it is the outer fleshy parts of the fruit that yield the valuable olive oil of commerce. Thirty-one percent of the ripe fruit is oil. The ripe fruit is eaten raw, as is the green, unripe fruit. The wood of the trunk and limbs is hard, rich yellow or amber in color, and fine-grained, often handsomely variegated. It is still used today for the finest cabinetwork and turnery. The tree grows very slowly, but it attains a great age. It is difficult to kill the olive tree by cutting it down, because new sprouts are sent up from the root and all around the margins of the old stump, often forming a grove of two to five trunks, all from a single root that originally supported only one tree.<\/p>\nOnion (Allium)<\/em><\/p>\nThe onions referred to in Numbers 11:5 are undoubtedly Allium cepa,<\/em> the Egyptian onion, which is made up of a compact coated bulb formed of layers consisting of broad fleshy bases of closely overlapping leaves. The leaves are slender and hollow. The entire plant has a characteristic pungent taste and odor.<\/p>\n\nClosely related to the onion is the garlic, A. sativum.<\/em> The common garlic is a hardy, bulbous perennial plant that is cultivated in Europe, western Asia, and Egypt. The leaves are narrow, flat, and ribbonlike. It is extremely popular with people of the Mediterranean region.<\/p>\nStill another one of the onions is the leek, A. porrum.<\/em> The bulb of the leek differs from that of the onion and garlic in that it is slender, cylindrical, and more than six inches (15.2 centimeters) in length. The flavor resembles that of the onion but is more pungent. The leaves are eaten as a relish or are cooked in soups. The bulbs are cut into small pieces and employed as seasoning for meat.<\/p>\nPalm (Phoenix dactylifera)<\/em><\/p>\nThe palm tree of the Bible is undoubtedly the date palm. At one time it was as characteristic of the Holy Land as it is still today of Egypt. It is characterized by a branchless, tapering stem of up to 80 feet (24.2 meters) or more in height and a large terminal cluster of feathery leaves, each six to nine feet (1.8 to 2.7 meters) or more long. Because of its height and unusual structure, it was natural that it should be used as a form of ornamentation in Eastern architecture. The stem and leaves were favorite subjects of architectural embellishment. The immense, branchlike leaves that are referred to as branches in the Bible were symbols of triumph and were used on occasions of great rejoicing (Jn 12:13; Rv 7:9). The large leaves are still used to cover the roofs and sides of houses and to give solidity to reed fences. Mats, baskets, and even dishes are made of them. Small leaves are used as dusters, and the wood of the trunk is used for timber. Rope is made from the weblike integument in the crown. The fruit, borne in an immense drooping cluster, which may weigh from 30 to 50 pounds (13.6 to 22.7 kilograms), is the chief food of many natives of Arabia and north Africa. A single tree may yield up to 200 pounds (90.7 kilograms) of dates a year. They may be dried for future use.<\/p>\nPapyrus (Cyperus papyrus)<\/em><\/p>\nThe Egyptian bulrush or papyrus (Ex 2:3-5; Jb 8:11; Is 18:2; 19:6-7; 35:7; 58:5) has smooth three-sided stems ordinarily attaining a height of 8 to 10 feet (2.4 to 3 meters), but sometimes even 16 feet (4.9 meters), and a thickness of two to three inches (5.1 to 7.6 centimeters) at the base with a large tuft of florets at the end. The papyrus formerly grew in great abundance along the banks of the Nile, forming what was almost a dense jungle. Today it is practically extinct in lower Egypt, although it is still found along the White Nile and in the Sudan. The papyrus still grows in parts of the Holy Land, especially around the north end of the plain of Galilee and the Huleh swamps.<\/p>\n\nIn addition to being used for making small vessels to float in water (Ex 2:3), for mats, and for various other domestic purposes, it is best known as the source of ancient paper. In manufacturing paper from papyrus, the stems of the plant were first peeled and the pitch then cut longitudinally into thin slices that were laid side by side. These were then sprinkled with water and pressed to unite the whole into one piece. The sheet was then dried and cut into pieces of the required size. In the better grades of papyrus paper, several layers of stem slices were laid crosswise on each other.<\/p>\nThe pale, fawn-colored, tassel-like inflorescences at the summit of the stems were used to adorn Egyptian temples and to crown the statues of gods. They were also worn as crowns by famous men and national heroes.<\/p>\nPine Tree (Pinus brutia, P. halepensis)<\/em><\/p>\nVarious evergreen trees of this family with needle-shaped leaves in clusters and seed-bearing cones. While there is considerable confusion concerning the conifers of the Bible, it seems apparent that pines are referred to in such passages as Leviticus 23:40; Nehemiah 8:15; Isaiah 41:19; and 60:13. One of the Holy Land’s pines is the Brutian pine (Pinus brutia),<\/em> a mountain-inhabiting species of the northern regions of Palestine. It attains a height of 10 to 35 feet (3 to 10.7 meters) with a rather diffuse growth and branches in whorls.<\/p>\nAnother of the pines is the Aleppo pine, Pinus halepensis.<\/em> Most of the instances of the occurrence of “fir” or “fir tree” in the kjv<\/span> probably refer to the Aleppo pine (2 Sm 6:5; 1 Kgs 5:8, 10; 6:34; 2 Kgs 19:23; 2 Chr 2:8; Ps 104:17; Sg 1:17; Is 14:8; 37:24; 55:13; 60:13; Ez 27:5; 31:8; Hos 14:8; Na 2:3; Zec 11:2). It grows from 9 to 60 feet (2.7 to 18.3 meters) tall with diffuse ascending branches and yellowish or brownish branchlets.<\/p>\nPistachio (Pistacia terebinthus, P. vera)<\/em><\/p>\nThe Palestine terebinth or turpentine tree is a large deciduous tree with straggling boughs. In the winter, without its leaves, it looks much like the oak. It grows from 12 to 25 feet (3.7 to 7.6 meters) tall. Every part of the tree contains a fragrant, resinous juice. It is common on the lower slopes of the hills throughout Syria, Lebanon, Palestine, and Arabia, generally growing as a solitary tree and found mostly in localities too warm or too dry for the oak that it generally replaces. Since it is native to Gilead, it is quite probable that its resinous juice formed part of the spicery that the Israelites carried to Egypt from Gilead (Gn 37:25).<\/p>\nThe nuts of Genesis 43:11 are apparently pistachio nuts from the pistachio tree, Pistacia vera,<\/em> closely related to the terebinth. It attains a height of 10 to 30 feet (3 to 9.1 meters) with a spreading top. It is found wild in many rocky parts of Lebanon and the Holy Land. The nut has a light-colored shell and the kernel has a sweet delicate flavor much relished wherever it grows.<\/p>\nPlane Tree (Platanus orientalis)<\/em><\/p>\nAny of several trees of this family with bell-shaped fruit clusters and usually an outer bark that flakes off in patches or strips. The references in Genesis 30:37 and Ezekiel 31:8 are apparently not to the chestnut tree, which is not indigenous to Palestine, but to the oriental plane tree, Platanus orientalis.<\/em><\/p>\nThe plane tree is a massive tree 60 feet (18.3 meters) or more tall with a trunk often of vast circumference, sometimes as much as 40 feet (12.2 meters). The outer bark peels off in sheets or scales, thus exposing a smooth whitish or yellowish inner bark. The tree is common throughout Lebanon, Syria, and the Holy Land, growing even in subalpine regions. However, it is primarily a tree of the plains and lowlands, growing on the edges of streams and lakes and in marshy places.<\/p>\nPomegranate (Punica granatum)<\/em><\/p>\nThe pomegranate is usually a small, bushlike tree but may occasionally become a large, branching shrub or small tree reaching a height of 20 to 30 feet (6.1 to 9.1 meters). The branches are often thorny. The showy bell-like flowers are usually scarlet, though sometimes yellow or white. The globular fruit is as large as an orange or medium-size apple. It has a hard rind of a bright red or yellowish color when ripe and is surmounted by the dry sepals that resemble a crown. The fruit itself is a crimson juicy pulp in which many red seeds are imbedded. The flowers of the pomegranate undoubtedly served as a pattern for the golden bells referred to in Exodus 28:33-34 and 39:24-26, and the open flowers of 1 Kings 6:32. The erect calyx lobes on the fruit served as a model for crowns of kings.<\/p>\nThe pomegranate is native to Asia, but it has been cultivated since prehistoric times and is now quite common in the Holy Land, in Egypt, and along the shores of the Mediterranean. It is listed as one of the pleasant fruits of Egypt (Nm 20:5) and one of the promised blessings of the Holy Land (Dt 8:8).<\/p>\nPoplar (Populus euphratica, P. alba)<\/em><\/p>\nFast-growing deciduous tree of the same genus as the aspen and cottonwood. The kjv<\/span> references in 2 Samuel 5:23-24 and 1 Chronicles 14:14-15 to mulberry trees are more probably to the Euphrates poplar or aspen, Populus euphratica.<\/em> This tree grows to a height of 30 to 45 feet (9.1 to 13.7 meters) with spreading branches. The Euphrates aspen is found only on rivers and stream banks throughout the area from Syria through the Holy Land to Stony Arabia. It is especially common in the Jordan Valley.<\/p>\nThe white poplar (Populus alba)<\/em> is common in wet places in Syria, Lebanon, the Holy Land, and Sinai. It attains a height of 30 to 60 feet (9.1 to 18.3 meters) with spreading branches. Some suggest that the altars of various pagan religions were usually erected on the top of a hill and in the shade of a poplar grove.<\/p>\nQuince (Cydonia oblonga)<\/em><\/p>\nTree native to western Asia, having white flowers and applelike fruit that is edible when cooked. Some believe that the “apples” of the OT were quinces, Cydonia oblonga.<\/em> The quince tree is quite common in the Holy Land, though chiefly as a cultivated tree. It may occur wild in the northern parts of Syria. It is native to northern Persia and Asia Minor. The fruit is yellowish and highly fragrant, and it is the fragrance that caused it to be held in high regard by the ancients.<\/p>\nReed (Juncus, Scirpus, Typha angustata, Arundo donax)<\/em><\/p>\nNumerous species of the rush and bulrush grow in the Holy Land. There are at least 21 varieties of rushes. The common soft rush or bog rush (Juncus effusus)<\/em> is found in wet places, even in the Sinai and other deserts. The sea or hard rush (J. maritimus)<\/em> is found in damp places throughout the Holy Land and even in Sinai.<\/p>\nAt least 15 kinds of bulrushes (Scirpus)<\/em> are known in the Holy Land. The cluster-headed club rush (Scirpus holoschoenus)<\/em> is common in damp places throughout the Holy Land to the Sinai. The lake club rush or tall bulrush (S. lacustris)<\/em> is found in swamps and ditches throughout northern Africa to the Dead Sea. The sea club rush or salt marsh club rush (S. maritimus)<\/em> is found in ditches and swamps in many places of the Holy Land. Any of these species may be the one referred to in Job 8:11; Isaiah 9:14; 19:6, 15.<\/p>\nThe reference in Genesis 41:2 to the feeding of cattle in the meadow seems to be to the tall reed (Arundo donax),<\/em> which grows 18 feet (5.5 meters) or more in height. This plant is also known as the Persian reed and is common throughout the Holy Land, Syria, and the Sinai peninsula. It is a gigantic grass that may have a stem diameter of two or three inches (5.1 to 7.6 centimeters) at the base and is terminated by a plume of white flowers similar to those of the sugarcane or pampas grass. The plant was used for many purposes by the ancients: for walking sticks, fishing rods, measuring rods, and musical pipes. It is, therefore, quite possible that the “reed” of Matthew 27:48 and Mark 15:36 was a carpenter’s reed or measuring rod.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Papyrus.<\/p>\nRue (Ruta chalepensis, R. graveolens)<\/em><\/p>\nAromatic Eurasian plant with evergreen leaves that yield an acrid, volatile oil once used in medicine. There is little question as to the correctness of the translation of “rue” in Luke 11:42, but there is some doubt as to the exact species. Most writers think that it was the common rue (Rue graveolens),<\/em> a perennial shrubby plant with erect stems two to three feet (.6 to .9 meter) tall and deeply cut leaves. A very strong odor emanates from the foliage. This species is native to the Mediterranean region and grows wild in the Holy Land, especially on Mt Tabor.<\/p>\nRue was highly thought of by the ancients as a medicinal, supposed to prevent dizziness, dumbness, epilepsy, eye inflammations, insanity, and the “evil eye.” Rue was also used for seasoning dishes.<\/p>\nRush (Butomus umbellatus)<\/em><\/p>\nGeneric term for any of various grasslike marsh plants having pliant, hollow, or pithy stems. There is considerable uncertainty about the identification of the plant referred to in Genesis 41:2 translated in the kjv<\/span> as “meadow,” and in Job 8:11 as “flag.” Since it is mentioned along with the papyrus in the Job passage, it seems that it refers to a specific kind of plant rather than to an aggregate of plants in a meadow. From the description in Genesis as being a plant on which Pharaoh’s cattle might feed along the banks of the Nile and yet not the papyrus, it may refer to the flowering rush or water gladiola (Butomus umbellatus),<\/em> which flourishes both in Egypt and in the Holy Land, along with the papyrus.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Reed.<\/p>\nSaffron (Crocus sativus)<\/em><\/p>\nSaffron, referred to in Song of Songs 4:14, is the product of several species of Crocus,<\/em> especially of the blue-flowered saffron crocus (C. sativus),<\/em> which is native to Greece and Asia Minor. The commercial product consists of the stigma and upper portions of the style, the top parts of the flower ovary, which are collected shortly after the flower opens. It requires at least 4,000 stigmas to make an ounce of saffron. After being gathered, the stigmas are dried in the sun, pounded, and made into small cakes. Saffron is used principally as a yellow dye and also as a fruit coloring for curries and stews.<\/p>\nAnother, entirely different kind of dye-producing plant (Carthamus tinctorius)<\/em> called carthamine, bastard saffron, or safflower is a member of the thistle family. Its red florets yield a dye used extensively for coloring silk, in cooking, and for adulterating genuine saffron. It is an annual spiny plant three to four and a half feet (1.4 meters) tall, native to Syria and Egypt. In Egypt the grave clothes of mummies were dyed with this material, and it is quite possible that this plant may also have been the saffron of the Bible.<\/p>\nSage (Salvia judaica)<\/em><\/p>\nThe Judean sage grows to three feet (.9 meter) tall in the mountains and hills of Palestine. Its stems are four-angled, stiff, and rough. The plant grows from Syria south through Nazareth, Hebron, Tiberius, Samaria, and Judea.<\/p>\nThis plant is the origin of the design of the seven-branched lampstand of Exodus 37:17-18, which is known as the menorah, the traditional Jewish symbol. The inflorescence of the plant, when pressed flat, has almost exactly the same shape and form as the seven-branched candlestick, with its central spike and three pairs of side branches each bending upward and inward in a symmetrical fashion. On each branch of the plant’s inflorescence are whorls or buds that perhaps give the idea for the “knops” (kjv<\/span>) or “knobs” on the biblical golden candlesticks.<\/p>\nSpelt (Triticum aestivum)<\/em><\/p>\nHardy member of the wheat family. The rye of Exodus 9:32 and Isaiah 28:25, as well as the fitches of Ezekiel 4:9 (all kjv<\/span>) are thought to be spelt. It is a hard-grained species of wheat with loose ears and grains triangular in cross-section, and was the most common form of wheat in early times. It has a stouter stem than wheat and strong spikes of grain. Bread made of its flour is much inferior to that made from wheat, but spelt will thrive in almost any kind of soil and will yield a crop on land that is unfit for wheat. The ancients preferred it to barley for bread.<\/p>\nStorax Tree (Styrax officinalis)<\/em><\/p>\nVarious trees of this genus yielding an aromatic resin. Today it is thought that the stacte of Exodus 30:34 was derived from the storax tree. It is an irregularly stiff-branched shrub or small tree 9 to 20 feet (2.7 to 6.1 meters) tall. This tree is abundant on low hills and rocky places from Lebanon through the Holy Land. Its gum is obtained by making incisions in the stems and branches. It is highly perfumed and is still prized today as a perfume.<\/p>\nSycamore-fig (Ficus sycomorus)<\/em><\/p>\nTree of northeastern Africa and adjacent Asia, related to the fig. The word translated “sycamore” in 1 Kings 10:27; 1 Chronicles 27:28; 2 Chronicles 1:15; 9:27; Psalm 78:47; Isaiah 9:10; Amos 7:14; and Luke 19:4 undoubtedly refers to the well-known sycamore-fig, which is also known as the mulberry-fig or fig-mulberry. It should not be confused with the common sycamore of the North American continent, which is actually a plane tree. The sycamore-fig of the Bible is a strong-growing, robust, wide-spreading tree growing 30 to 40 feet (9.1 to 12.2 meters) tall and sometimes attaining a trunk circumference of 20 feet (6.1 meters) or more with a crown 120 feet (36.6 meters) in diameter. It is a tree that is easily climbed and is frequently planted along roadsides, which accounts for the reference in Luke 19:4. It produces an abundant amount of fruit in clusters on all parts of the tree, on both young and old branches and even on the trunk itself. It is very similar to the common fig, only smaller and much inferior in quality. In David’s day it was so valuable that he appointed a special overseer for the sycamore trees (1 Chr 27:28). It is thought that Amos was not a gatherer of sycamore fruit but rather a dresser of sycamore trees.<\/p>\nTamarisk (Tamarix)<\/em><\/p>\nThe references in Genesis 21:33 and 1 Samuel 22:6 and 31:13 seem to be to the tamarisk. These trees or shrubs are small and fast-growing with a durable wood. They are abundant in deserts, dunes, and salt marshes. Tamarix aphylla<\/em> is leafless and has small white flowers. These trees or shrubs often provide a soothing touch of green foliage and a promise of cooling shade to the traveler. Tamarisks are able to survive because they either have small, scalelike leaves, which lose little moisture by transpiration, or no leaves at all. The larger of the tamarisks are valued for their wood in a region where wood is scarce. The wood was used for building and also as a source of an excellent type of charcoal.<\/p>\nTerebinth (Pistacia terebinthus)<\/em><\/p>\nSee<\/em> Pistachio (above).<\/p>\nThistle, Thorn (Lycium europaeum, Solanum incanum, Centaurea, Silybum marianum, Ruscus aculeatus, Agrostemma githago, Paliurus spina-christi, Zizyphus spina-christi)<\/em><\/p>\nThere are 22 different Hebrew and Greek words used in Scripture to refer to spiny or prickly shrubs or weeds, and these are translated as “bramble,” “brier,” “cockle,” “thorn,” and “thistle.” At present, there are about 125 species of thorns and thistles that grow in the Holy Land.<\/p>\nThe bramble in the allegory of Judges 9:14-15 is believed to refer to the European boxthorn or desert-thorn, Lycium europaeum.<\/em><\/p>\nThe general consensus is that the “briers” of Isaiah 10:17, 55:13, Micah 7:4, and Hebrews 6:8 are the Palestine nightshade (Solanum incanum),<\/em> or “Jericho potato.”<\/p>\nThe thistles of Genesis 3:17-18, 2 Kings 14:9, 2 Chronicles 25:18, Hosea 10:8, and Matthew 7:16, as well as the thorns of Matthew 13:7 and Hebrews 6:8, are thought to be one of the species of the thistle, Centaurea.<\/em> Among the more common thistles in the Holy Land are the true star-thistle (Centaurea calcitrapa),<\/em> the dwarf centaury (C. verutum),<\/em> the Iberian centaury (C. iberica),<\/em> and the lady’s thistle (Silybum marianum).<\/em> Some thistles attain a height of five to six feet (.9 to 1.8 meters). Thistles are characteristic of an area that is uncultivated and neglected. Many have beautiful flowers, but all are covered with sharp spines.<\/p>\nThe references in Ezekiel 2:6 to “briers” and Ezekiel 28:24 to a “pricking brier” may be to the prickly butchers-broom or knee-holly, Ruscus aculeatus.<\/em> The plant is common in rocky woods in the northern regions of the Holy Land, especially around Mt Tabor and Mt Carmel.<\/p>\nThe cockle of Job 31:40 (nlt<\/span> “weeds”) perhaps refers to the corn cockle, Agrostemma githago.<\/em> This plant is common in grainfields throughout the Holy Land. It is a strong-growing and troublesome weed in grainfields, growing from one to three feet (.3 to .9 meter) tall.<\/p>\nMany commentators think that the “thorns” out of which the crown of thorns (Mt 27:29; Jn 19:2) was made were from the Christ-thorn (Paliurus spina-christi).<\/em> This belief has led to its specific name; the Christ-thorn is a spiny plant that ordinarily grows as a straggling shrub three to nine feet (.9 to 2.7 meters) tall. The flexible branches are armed at the base of each leaf with a pair of unequal, stiff, sharp spines. The unusual pliable texture of the young branches renders it particularly easy to plait into a crownlike wreath.<\/p>\nThe thorns of Judges 8:7, Isaiah 7:19, 9:18, 55:13, and Matthew 7:16 may refer to the Syrian Christ-thorn (Zizyphus spina-christi),<\/em> a shrub or small tree 9 to 15 feet (2.7 to 4.6 meters) tall, sometimes growing into a 40-foot (12.2-meter) tree with smooth white branches bearing a pair of stout, unequal, recurved spines at the back of each leaf.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Bramble; Buckthorn (above).<\/p>\nTulip (Tulipa montana, T. sharonensis)<\/em><\/p>\nAny of several bulbous plants of this family native to Asia. The rose of Sharon in Song of Songs 2:1 may be the mountain tulip, Tulipa montana,<\/em> or the closely related Sharon tulip, T. sharonensis.<\/em> The former is an attractive plant that grows from a bulb and has leaves that are often wavy-margined. The species is common in the mountainous regions of Syria, Lebanon, and the Anti-Lebanon. It is primarily a mountainous species. The Sharon tulip (T. sharonensis)<\/em> is found in sandy places on the Sharon coastal plains.<\/p>\nTumbleweed (Gundelia tournefortii, Anastatica hierochuntica)<\/em><\/p>\nThe references in Psalm 83:13 to “whirling dust” and in Isaiah 17:13 to “wheel” or “rolling thing” (niv<\/span> “tumbleweed”) seem to be to the Palestinian tumbleweed (Gundelia tournefortii),<\/em> a member of the thistle family. It is a prickly herb with milky juice. It rolls over the land and gathers in tremendous heaps in hollows.<\/p>\nVegetable<\/p>\nScriptural references to vegetables are probably, in most cases, to the dried leguminous seeds of beans and lentils.<\/p>\nVine (Vitis vinifera)<\/em><\/p>\nAny plant with a flexible stem that climbs, twines, or creeps along a surface or support. The common grapevine (Vitis vinifera)<\/em> is mentioned throughout the Bible. The fruitful vine (Ez 17:5-10) and the vine brought out of Egypt (Ps 80:8) were symbolic of the Jewish people. Jesus compares himself to the true vine, of which his disciples were the branches (Jn 15:1-6).<\/p>\nThe grapevine of the Old World sometimes assumes the characteristics of a tree, with stems up to a foot and a half (45.7 centimeters) in diameter, the branches then being trained on a trellis and bearing bunches of grapes 10 to 12 pounds (4.5 to 5.4 kilograms) in weight, with the individual grapes the size of small plums. Bunches have been produced weighing as much as 26 pounds (11.8 kilograms). The vines of the Holy Land were always renowned both for the luxuriance of their growth and for the immense clusters of grapes they produced. Thus it does not seem improbable that the spies sent to the Promised Land should have employed a pole to transport some of the clusters home (Nm 13:23-24).<\/p>\nThe wild grape (Vitis orientalis)<\/em> is referred to in Isaiah 5:2-4, Jeremiah 2:21, and Ezekiel 15:2-6. It is known as the native wild fox grape and has small, black, acidic berries about the size of currants with little juice.<\/p>\nWalnut (Juglans regia)<\/em><\/p>\nAny of several trees of this genus having round, sticky fruit enclosing an edible nut. The reference in Song of Songs 6:11 to “nuts” is thought to refer to the Persian or common walnut, Juglans regia.<\/em> The tree is believed to have been indigenous to northern Persia, but it is actually found wild in many parts of northern India, eastward as far as China, and westward through Persia. At the time of Solomon, it was widely cultivated for its fruit throughout the East. Perhaps Solomon’s garden of nuts was a part of his extensive gardens at Etham, six miles (9.7 kilometers) from Jerusalem.<\/p>\nWater Lily (Nymphaea)<\/em><\/p>\nAny of numerous aquatic plants of this genus with floating leaves and showy flowers. The carved lily ornamentation of 1 Kings 7:19-26 and 2 Chronicles 4:5 was probably patterned after the flowers of the water lily. Few flowers can equal the Egyptian lotus or water lily (Nymphaea lotus)<\/em> in beauty. It looks very much like a large white rose and at one time floated in profusion on the waters of the Nile.<\/p>\nThe common European white water lily (N. alba)<\/em> was also familiar to the children of Israel. It grows not only in Europe but also in the Holy Land and North Africa. It is, however, not as common in Egypt as is the white lotus.<\/p>\nAnother water lily with which the Israelites were probably familiar is the blue lotus, N. caerulea.<\/em> Its leaves are 12 to 16 inches (30.5 to 40.6 centimeters) across and it has light-blue flowers that are three to six inches (7.6 to 15.2 centimeters) in diameter.<\/p>\nWheat (Triticum aestivum, T. compositum)<\/em><\/p>\nVarious cereal grasses of this family widely cultivated for its edible grain. Five kinds of wheat are native to—and still wild in—the Holy Land, and at least eight others are cultivated there today; probably most, if not all, were known in Bible times. The wild varieties were probably more abundant then than they are today. Among these are the einkorn (T. monococcum),<\/em> the thaoudar (T. thaoudar),<\/em> and the wild emmer (T. dicoccoides).<\/em> The composite wheat (T. compositum),<\/em> with its branched spikes, often bearing as many as seven heads per stalk, is definitely referred to in Genesis 41:5-57. It is depicted on numerous Egyptian monuments and on inscriptions and is still commonly seen in the Nile Delta, where it is known as “mummy wheat.” It is also cultivated in the Holy Land.<\/p>\nThe most frequently mentioned wheat of the Bible is undoubtedly the commonly cultivated summer and winter wheat, Triticum aestivum.<\/em> It is an abundant annual grass cultivated in Egypt and other Eastern lands since earliest times. The exact place of its origin is unknown. Grains of wheat have been found in the most ancient Egyptian tombs and in the remains of prehistoric lake dwellings in Switzerland. It was certainly the chief grain of Mesopotamia in Jacob’s time (Gn 30:14).<\/p>\nCorn in biblical days often included a mixture of peas, beans, lentils, cummin, barley, millet, and spelt, but wheat was always its main constituent. Egypt was a great grain-producing country, and Abram (Gn 12:10) and Joseph’s brothers (ch 42) naturally turned to Egypt for wheat when famine visited Canaan.<\/p>\nThe mills, millstones, granaries, and threshing floors mentioned in the Bible all refer to equipment employed in processing grain to produce flour. The fine flour of which the showbread loaves were made (Lv 24:5) was unquestionably wheat flour. Wheat intended for home consumption was often stored in the central part of the house; this explains the story told in 2 Samuel 4:6. It was also sometimes stored in dry wells (2 Sm 17:19).<\/p>\nWormwood (Artemisia judaica, A. herba-alba)<\/em><\/p>\nWormwood is a general name given to a group of woody plants with a strong aromatic odor. Wormwood plants have a strong, bitter taste, and their young shoots and branch tips furnish the “wormwood” of commerce. Its bitter taste accounts for its being spoken of with gall—as being symbolic of bitter calamity and sorrow (Prv 5:4; Jer 9:15; 23:15; Lam 3:15, 19). Artemisia herba-alba<\/em> is the common species of wormwood in the Holy Land today. It is strongly aromatic, smelling like camphor, and bitter. A. judaica<\/em> occurs only in the Sinai.<\/p>\nAbsinthe is made from species of this group. It first leads to greater activity and pleasant sensations and fills the mind with grandiose ideas (Lam 3:15). The habitual use of it, however, brings on a stupor and gradual diminution of intellectual faculties, ending in delirium and even death. Perhaps the hemlock of Amos 6:12 was wormwood.<\/p>","summary_ro":"PLANTS Identifying biblical plants has always been a difficult task, partly because people continue to identify the biblical elm, sycamore, lily, rose, and vine with modern plants, and also because they assume that all the plants now growing in the Holy Land were there in ancient biblical days, or that the plants referred to in the Bible are still to be found there today. Unfortunately, many plants now quite common in the Holy Land were not there in biblical days. Many plants that once grew i...","summary_en":"PLANTS Identifying biblical plants has always been a difficult task, partly because people continue to identify the biblical elm, sycamore, lily, rose, and vine with modern plants, and also because they assume that all the plants now growing in the Holy Land were there in ancient biblical days, or that the plants referred to in the Bible are still to be found there today. Unfortunately, many plants now quite common in the Holy Land were not there in biblical days. Many plants that once grew i...","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":51657,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 42:3","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 42:3","content_ro":"42:3<\/strong> The royal servant will be gentle with the oppressed and discouraged (see 3:15; 41:17).<\/p>","content_en":"42:3<\/strong> The royal servant will be gentle with the oppressed and discouraged (see 3:15; 41:17).<\/p>","summary_ro":"42:3 The royal servant will be gentle with the oppressed and discouraged (see 3:15; 41:17).","summary_en":"42:3 The royal servant will be gentle with the oppressed and discouraged (see 3:15; 41:17).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":79283,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 42:3","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 42:3","content_ro":"42:3<\/strong> The royal servant will be gentle with the oppressed and discouraged (see 3:15; 41:17).<\/p>","content_en":"42:3<\/strong> The royal servant will be gentle with the oppressed and discouraged (see 3:15; 41:17).<\/p>","summary_ro":"42:3 The royal servant will be gentle with the oppressed and discouraged (see 3:15; 41:17).","summary_en":"42:3 The royal servant will be gentle with the oppressed and discouraged (see 3:15; 41:17).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":106909,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 42:3","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 42:3","content_ro":"42:3<\/strong> The royal servant will be gentle with the oppressed and discouraged (see 3:15; 41:17).<\/p>","content_en":"42:3<\/strong> The royal servant will be gentle with the oppressed and discouraged (see 3:15; 41:17).<\/p>","summary_ro":"42:3 The royal servant will be gentle with the oppressed and discouraged (see 3:15; 41:17).","summary_en":"42:3 The royal servant will be gentle with the oppressed and discouraged (see 3:15; 41:17).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":134535,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 42:3","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 42:3","content_ro":"42:3<\/strong> The royal servant will be gentle with the oppressed and discouraged (see 3:15; 41:17).<\/p>","content_en":"42:3<\/strong> The royal servant will be gentle with the oppressed and discouraged (see 3:15; 41:17).<\/p>","summary_ro":"42:3 The royal servant will be gentle with the oppressed and discouraged (see 3:15; 41:17).","summary_en":"42:3 The royal servant will be gentle with the oppressed and discouraged (see 3:15; 41:17).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":63989,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God’s Servant","title_en":"God’s Servant","content_ro":"<h3>God’s Servant<\/h3>\nIn Isaiah 40–66 the figure of God’s servant features prominently. The servant proclaims a new order of justice and righteousness to the world (42:3-4) and serves as God’s instrument to prepare the world for God’s coming (52:7).<\/p>\nWho is the Lord’s servant? Isaiah identifies the servant with Israel (41:8; 44:1-2), who serves as God’s witness (43:10) and as a light to the Gentiles. Yet Israel could not fully complete this mission: Israel was deaf, blind, and in need of God’s forgiveness (42:19; 44:21-22). Israel failed again and again. By contrast, God’s servant is faithful and waits for the coming redemption (see 61:1-3; 62:1-5). The servant thus represents the godly in Israel. The servant is God’s faithful witness to humanity, and he stands in opposition to the idolatrous practices of paganism.<\/p>\nIsaiah portrays the servant as an obedient individual who suffers. The notion of the “suffering servant” found fulfillment in one particular Israelite who was perfectly faithful and suffered on behalf of others: Jesus Christ. By his suffering, God’s blessings came to many, including other nations (see Acts 26:22-23). In union and fellowship with Christ, the apostles ministered as his servants to both Jews and Gentiles (Acts 13:47; 26:14-18). All those who have faith in Christ share in the mission of the servant and fulfill the role of God’s servants in the world (e.g., Col 1:7; 4:12; 1 Tim 4:6; 2 Tim 2:24).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nLev 25:42, 55; 1 Kgs 11:36; 2 Kgs 9:7; Pss 89:20-29; 113:1; Isa 41:8-10; 42:1-4, 19-20; 43:10; 44:1-5, 21-22; 49:1-7; 52:7, 13–53:12; 61:1-3; Jer 30:10; 33:20-22, 26; 46:27-28; Ezek 28:25; 34:23-24; 37:24-25; Zech 3:8; Matt 12:15-21; Acts 2:18; 2 Tim 2:24<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God’s Servant<\/h3>\nIn Isaiah 40–66 the figure of God’s servant features prominently. The servant proclaims a new order of justice and righteousness to the world (42:3-4) and serves as God’s instrument to prepare the world for God’s coming (52:7).<\/p>\nWho is the Lord’s servant? Isaiah identifies the servant with Israel (41:8; 44:1-2), who serves as God’s witness (43:10) and as a light to the Gentiles. Yet Israel could not fully complete this mission: Israel was deaf, blind, and in need of God’s forgiveness (42:19; 44:21-22). Israel failed again and again. By contrast, God’s servant is faithful and waits for the coming redemption (see 61:1-3; 62:1-5). The servant thus represents the godly in Israel. The servant is God’s faithful witness to humanity, and he stands in opposition to the idolatrous practices of paganism.<\/p>\nIsaiah portrays the servant as an obedient individual who suffers. The notion of the “suffering servant” found fulfillment in one particular Israelite who was perfectly faithful and suffered on behalf of others: Jesus Christ. By his suffering, God’s blessings came to many, including other nations (see Acts 26:22-23). In union and fellowship with Christ, the apostles ministered as his servants to both Jews and Gentiles (Acts 13:47; 26:14-18). All those who have faith in Christ share in the mission of the servant and fulfill the role of God’s servants in the world (e.g., Col 1:7; 4:12; 1 Tim 4:6; 2 Tim 2:24).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nLev 25:42, 55; 1 Kgs 11:36; 2 Kgs 9:7; Pss 89:20-29; 113:1; Isa 41:8-10; 42:1-4, 19-20; 43:10; 44:1-5, 21-22; 49:1-7; 52:7, 13–53:12; 61:1-3; Jer 30:10; 33:20-22, 26; 46:27-28; Ezek 28:25; 34:23-24; 37:24-25; Zech 3:8; Matt 12:15-21; Acts 2:18; 2 Tim 2:24<\/p>","summary_ro":"God’s Servant In Isaiah 40–66 the figure of God’s servant features prominently. The servant proclaims a new order of justice and righteousness to the world (42:3-4) and serves as God’s instrument to prepare the world for God’s coming (52:7). Who is the Lord’s servant? Isaiah identifies the servant with Israel (41:8; 44:1-2), who serves as God’s witness (43:10) and as a light to the Gentiles. Yet Israel could not fully complete this mission: Israel was deaf, blind, and in need of God’s forgive...","summary_en":"God’s Servant In Isaiah 40–66 the figure of God’s servant features prominently. The servant proclaims a new order of justice and righteousness to the world (42:3-4) and serves as God’s instrument to prepare the world for God’s coming (52:7). Who is the Lord’s servant? Isaiah identifies the servant with Israel (41:8; 44:1-2), who serves as God’s witness (43:10) and as a light to the Gentiles. Yet Israel could not fully complete this mission: Israel was deaf, blind, and in need of God’s forgive...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":91615,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God’s Servant","title_en":"God’s Servant","content_ro":"<h3>God’s Servant<\/h3>\nIn Isaiah 40–66 the figure of God’s servant features prominently. The servant proclaims a new order of justice and righteousness to the world (42:3-4) and serves as God’s instrument to prepare the world for God’s coming (52:7).<\/p>\nWho is the Lord’s servant? Isaiah identifies the servant with Israel (41:8; 44:1-2), who serves as God’s witness (43:10) and as a light to the Gentiles. Yet Israel could not fully complete this mission: Israel was deaf, blind, and in need of God’s forgiveness (42:19; 44:21-22). Israel failed again and again. By contrast, God’s servant is faithful and waits for the coming redemption (see 61:1-3; 62:1-5). The servant thus represents the godly in Israel. The servant is God’s faithful witness to humanity, and he stands in opposition to the idolatrous practices of paganism.<\/p>\nIsaiah portrays the servant as an obedient individual who suffers. The notion of the “suffering servant” found fulfillment in one particular Israelite who was perfectly faithful and suffered on behalf of others: Jesus Christ. By his suffering, God’s blessings came to many, including other nations (see Acts 26:22-23). In union and fellowship with Christ, the apostles ministered as his servants to both Jews and Gentiles (Acts 13:47; 26:14-18). All those who have faith in Christ share in the mission of the servant and fulfill the role of God’s servants in the world (e.g., Col 1:7; 4:12; 1 Tim 4:6; 2 Tim 2:24).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nLev 25:42, 55; 1 Kgs 11:36; 2 Kgs 9:7; Pss 89:20-29; 113:1; Isa 41:8-10; 42:1-4, 19-20; 43:10; 44:1-5, 21-22; 49:1-7; 52:7, 13–53:12; 61:1-3; Jer 30:10; 33:20-22, 26; 46:27-28; Ezek 28:25; 34:23-24; 37:24-25; Zech 3:8; Matt 12:15-21; Acts 2:18; 2 Tim 2:24<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God’s Servant<\/h3>\nIn Isaiah 40–66 the figure of God’s servant features prominently. The servant proclaims a new order of justice and righteousness to the world (42:3-4) and serves as God’s instrument to prepare the world for God’s coming (52:7).<\/p>\nWho is the Lord’s servant? Isaiah identifies the servant with Israel (41:8; 44:1-2), who serves as God’s witness (43:10) and as a light to the Gentiles. Yet Israel could not fully complete this mission: Israel was deaf, blind, and in need of God’s forgiveness (42:19; 44:21-22). Israel failed again and again. By contrast, God’s servant is faithful and waits for the coming redemption (see 61:1-3; 62:1-5). The servant thus represents the godly in Israel. The servant is God’s faithful witness to humanity, and he stands in opposition to the idolatrous practices of paganism.<\/p>\nIsaiah portrays the servant as an obedient individual who suffers. The notion of the “suffering servant” found fulfillment in one particular Israelite who was perfectly faithful and suffered on behalf of others: Jesus Christ. By his suffering, God’s blessings came to many, including other nations (see Acts 26:22-23). In union and fellowship with Christ, the apostles ministered as his servants to both Jews and Gentiles (Acts 13:47; 26:14-18). All those who have faith in Christ share in the mission of the servant and fulfill the role of God’s servants in the world (e.g., Col 1:7; 4:12; 1 Tim 4:6; 2 Tim 2:24).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nLev 25:42, 55; 1 Kgs 11:36; 2 Kgs 9:7; Pss 89:20-29; 113:1; Isa 41:8-10; 42:1-4, 19-20; 43:10; 44:1-5, 21-22; 49:1-7; 52:7, 13–53:12; 61:1-3; Jer 30:10; 33:20-22, 26; 46:27-28; Ezek 28:25; 34:23-24; 37:24-25; Zech 3:8; Matt 12:15-21; Acts 2:18; 2 Tim 2:24<\/p>","summary_ro":"God’s Servant In Isaiah 40–66 the figure of God’s servant features prominently. The servant proclaims a new order of justice and righteousness to the world (42:3-4) and serves as God’s instrument to prepare the world for God’s coming (52:7). Who is the Lord’s servant? Isaiah identifies the servant with Israel (41:8; 44:1-2), who serves as God’s witness (43:10) and as a light to the Gentiles. Yet Israel could not fully complete this mission: Israel was deaf, blind, and in need of God’s forgive...","summary_en":"God’s Servant In Isaiah 40–66 the figure of God’s servant features prominently. The servant proclaims a new order of justice and righteousness to the world (42:3-4) and serves as God’s instrument to prepare the world for God’s coming (52:7). Who is the Lord’s servant? Isaiah identifies the servant with Israel (41:8; 44:1-2), who serves as God’s witness (43:10) and as a light to the Gentiles. Yet Israel could not fully complete this mission: Israel was deaf, blind, and in need of God’s forgive...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":119241,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God’s Servant","title_en":"God’s Servant","content_ro":"<h3>God’s Servant<\/h3>\nIn Isaiah 40–66 the figure of God’s servant features prominently. The servant proclaims a new order of justice and righteousness to the world (42:3-4) and serves as God’s instrument to prepare the world for God’s coming (52:7).<\/p>\nWho is the Lord’s servant? Isaiah identifies the servant with Israel (41:8; 44:1-2), who serves as God’s witness (43:10) and as a light to the Gentiles. Yet Israel could not fully complete this mission: Israel was deaf, blind, and in need of God’s forgiveness (42:19; 44:21-22). Israel failed again and again. By contrast, God’s servant is faithful and waits for the coming redemption (see 61:1-3; 62:1-5). The servant thus represents the godly in Israel. The servant is God’s faithful witness to humanity, and he stands in opposition to the idolatrous practices of paganism.<\/p>\nIsaiah portrays the servant as an obedient individual who suffers. The notion of the “suffering servant” found fulfillment in one particular Israelite who was perfectly faithful and suffered on behalf of others: Jesus Christ. By his suffering, God’s blessings came to many, including other nations (see Acts 26:22-23). In union and fellowship with Christ, the apostles ministered as his servants to both Jews and Gentiles (Acts 13:47; 26:14-18). All those who have faith in Christ share in the mission of the servant and fulfill the role of God’s servants in the world (e.g., Col 1:7; 4:12; 1 Tim 4:6; 2 Tim 2:24).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nLev 25:42, 55; 1 Kgs 11:36; 2 Kgs 9:7; Pss 89:20-29; 113:1; Isa 41:8-10; 42:1-4, 19-20; 43:10; 44:1-5, 21-22; 49:1-7; 52:7, 13–53:12; 61:1-3; Jer 30:10; 33:20-22, 26; 46:27-28; Ezek 28:25; 34:23-24; 37:24-25; Zech 3:8; Matt 12:15-21; Acts 2:18; 2 Tim 2:24<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God’s Servant<\/h3>\nIn Isaiah 40–66 the figure of God’s servant features prominently. The servant proclaims a new order of justice and righteousness to the world (42:3-4) and serves as God’s instrument to prepare the world for God’s coming (52:7).<\/p>\nWho is the Lord’s servant? Isaiah identifies the servant with Israel (41:8; 44:1-2), who serves as God’s witness (43:10) and as a light to the Gentiles. Yet Israel could not fully complete this mission: Israel was deaf, blind, and in need of God’s forgiveness (42:19; 44:21-22). Israel failed again and again. By contrast, God’s servant is faithful and waits for the coming redemption (see 61:1-3; 62:1-5). The servant thus represents the godly in Israel. The servant is God’s faithful witness to humanity, and he stands in opposition to the idolatrous practices of paganism.<\/p>\nIsaiah portrays the servant as an obedient individual who suffers. The notion of the “suffering servant” found fulfillment in one particular Israelite who was perfectly faithful and suffered on behalf of others: Jesus Christ. By his suffering, God’s blessings came to many, including other nations (see Acts 26:22-23). In union and fellowship with Christ, the apostles ministered as his servants to both Jews and Gentiles (Acts 13:47; 26:14-18). All those who have faith in Christ share in the mission of the servant and fulfill the role of God’s servants in the world (e.g., Col 1:7; 4:12; 1 Tim 4:6; 2 Tim 2:24).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nLev 25:42, 55; 1 Kgs 11:36; 2 Kgs 9:7; Pss 89:20-29; 113:1; Isa 41:8-10; 42:1-4, 19-20; 43:10; 44:1-5, 21-22; 49:1-7; 52:7, 13–53:12; 61:1-3; Jer 30:10; 33:20-22, 26; 46:27-28; Ezek 28:25; 34:23-24; 37:24-25; Zech 3:8; Matt 12:15-21; Acts 2:18; 2 Tim 2:24<\/p>","summary_ro":"God’s Servant In Isaiah 40–66 the figure of God’s servant features prominently. The servant proclaims a new order of justice and righteousness to the world (42:3-4) and serves as God’s instrument to prepare the world for God’s coming (52:7). Who is the Lord’s servant? Isaiah identifies the servant with Israel (41:8; 44:1-2), who serves as God’s witness (43:10) and as a light to the Gentiles. Yet Israel could not fully complete this mission: Israel was deaf, blind, and in need of God’s forgive...","summary_en":"God’s Servant In Isaiah 40–66 the figure of God’s servant features prominently. The servant proclaims a new order of justice and righteousness to the world (42:3-4) and serves as God’s instrument to prepare the world for God’s coming (52:7). Who is the Lord’s servant? Isaiah identifies the servant with Israel (41:8; 44:1-2), who serves as God’s witness (43:10) and as a light to the Gentiles. Yet Israel could not fully complete this mission: Israel was deaf, blind, and in need of God’s forgive...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":146867,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God’s Servant","title_en":"God’s Servant","content_ro":"<h3>God’s Servant<\/h3>\nIn Isaiah 40–66 the figure of God’s servant features prominently. The servant proclaims a new order of justice and righteousness to the world (42:3-4) and serves as God’s instrument to prepare the world for God’s coming (52:7).<\/p>\nWho is the Lord’s servant? Isaiah identifies the servant with Israel (41:8; 44:1-2), who serves as God’s witness (43:10) and as a light to the Gentiles. Yet Israel could not fully complete this mission: Israel was deaf, blind, and in need of God’s forgiveness (42:19; 44:21-22). Israel failed again and again. By contrast, God’s servant is faithful and waits for the coming redemption (see 61:1-3; 62:1-5). The servant thus represents the godly in Israel. The servant is God’s faithful witness to humanity, and he stands in opposition to the idolatrous practices of paganism.<\/p>\nIsaiah portrays the servant as an obedient individual who suffers. The notion of the “suffering servant” found fulfillment in one particular Israelite who was perfectly faithful and suffered on behalf of others: Jesus Christ. By his suffering, God’s blessings came to many, including other nations (see Acts 26:22-23). In union and fellowship with Christ, the apostles ministered as his servants to both Jews and Gentiles (Acts 13:47; 26:14-18). All those who have faith in Christ share in the mission of the servant and fulfill the role of God’s servants in the world (e.g., Col 1:7; 4:12; 1 Tim 4:6; 2 Tim 2:24).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nLev 25:42, 55; 1 Kgs 11:36; 2 Kgs 9:7; Pss 89:20-29; 113:1; Isa 41:8-10; 42:1-4, 19-20; 43:10; 44:1-5, 21-22; 49:1-7; 52:7, 13–53:12; 61:1-3; Jer 30:10; 33:20-22, 26; 46:27-28; Ezek 28:25; 34:23-24; 37:24-25; Zech 3:8; Matt 12:15-21; Acts 2:18; 2 Tim 2:24<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God’s Servant<\/h3>\nIn Isaiah 40–66 the figure of God’s servant features prominently. The servant proclaims a new order of justice and righteousness to the world (42:3-4) and serves as God’s instrument to prepare the world for God’s coming (52:7).<\/p>\nWho is the Lord’s servant? Isaiah identifies the servant with Israel (41:8; 44:1-2), who serves as God’s witness (43:10) and as a light to the Gentiles. Yet Israel could not fully complete this mission: Israel was deaf, blind, and in need of God’s forgiveness (42:19; 44:21-22). Israel failed again and again. By contrast, God’s servant is faithful and waits for the coming redemption (see 61:1-3; 62:1-5). The servant thus represents the godly in Israel. The servant is God’s faithful witness to humanity, and he stands in opposition to the idolatrous practices of paganism.<\/p>\nIsaiah portrays the servant as an obedient individual who suffers. The notion of the “suffering servant” found fulfillment in one particular Israelite who was perfectly faithful and suffered on behalf of others: Jesus Christ. By his suffering, God’s blessings came to many, including other nations (see Acts 26:22-23). In union and fellowship with Christ, the apostles ministered as his servants to both Jews and Gentiles (Acts 13:47; 26:14-18). All those who have faith in Christ share in the mission of the servant and fulfill the role of God’s servants in the world (e.g., Col 1:7; 4:12; 1 Tim 4:6; 2 Tim 2:24).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nLev 25:42, 55; 1 Kgs 11:36; 2 Kgs 9:7; Pss 89:20-29; 113:1; Isa 41:8-10; 42:1-4, 19-20; 43:10; 44:1-5, 21-22; 49:1-7; 52:7, 13–53:12; 61:1-3; Jer 30:10; 33:20-22, 26; 46:27-28; Ezek 28:25; 34:23-24; 37:24-25; Zech 3:8; Matt 12:15-21; Acts 2:18; 2 Tim 2:24<\/p>","summary_ro":"God’s Servant In Isaiah 40–66 the figure of God’s servant features prominently. The servant proclaims a new order of justice and righteousness to the world (42:3-4) and serves as God’s instrument to prepare the world for God’s coming (52:7). Who is the Lord’s servant? Isaiah identifies the servant with Israel (41:8; 44:1-2), who serves as God’s witness (43:10) and as a light to the Gentiles. Yet Israel could not fully complete this mission: Israel was deaf, blind, and in need of God’s forgive...","summary_en":"God’s Servant In Isaiah 40–66 the figure of God’s servant features prominently. The servant proclaims a new order of justice and righteousness to the world (42:3-4) and serves as God’s instrument to prepare the world for God’s coming (52:7). Who is the Lord’s servant? Isaiah identifies the servant with Israel (41:8; 44:1-2), who serves as God’s witness (43:10) and as a light to the Gentiles. Yet Israel could not fully complete this mission: Israel was deaf, blind, and in need of God’s forgive...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"4":[{"id":51658,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 42:4","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 42:4","content_ro":"42:4<\/strong> distant lands:<\/em> The nations long for justice<\/em> and for instruction<\/em> on bringing it about. In this regard the servant is like Moses, to whom the law was given. However, the servant is greater in that he extends justice beyond Israel to all the nations.<\/p>","content_en":"42:4<\/strong> distant lands:<\/em> The nations long for justice<\/em> and for instruction<\/em> on bringing it about. In this regard the servant is like Moses, to whom the law was given. However, the servant is greater in that he extends justice beyond Israel to all the nations.<\/p>","summary_ro":"42:4 distant lands: The nations long for justice and for instruction on bringing it about. In this regard the servant is like Moses, to whom the law was given. However, the servant is greater in that he extends justice beyond Israel to all the nations.","summary_en":"42:4 distant lands: The nations long for justice and for instruction on bringing it about. In this regard the servant is like Moses, to whom the law was given. However, the servant is greater in that he extends justice beyond Israel to all the nations.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":79284,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 42:4","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 42:4","content_ro":"42:4<\/strong> distant lands:<\/em> The nations long for justice<\/em> and for instruction<\/em> on bringing it about. In this regard the servant is like Moses, to whom the law was given. However, the servant is greater in that he extends justice beyond Israel to all the nations.<\/p>","content_en":"42:4<\/strong> distant lands:<\/em> The nations long for justice<\/em> and for instruction<\/em> on bringing it about. In this regard the servant is like Moses, to whom the law was given. However, the servant is greater in that he extends justice beyond Israel to all the nations.<\/p>","summary_ro":"42:4 distant lands: The nations long for justice and for instruction on bringing it about. In this regard the servant is like Moses, to whom the law was given. However, the servant is greater in that he extends justice beyond Israel to all the nations.","summary_en":"42:4 distant lands: The nations long for justice and for instruction on bringing it about. In this regard the servant is like Moses, to whom the law was given. However, the servant is greater in that he extends justice beyond Israel to all the nations.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":106910,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 42:4","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 42:4","content_ro":"42:4<\/strong> distant lands:<\/em> The nations long for justice<\/em> and for instruction<\/em> on bringing it about. In this regard the servant is like Moses, to whom the law was given. However, the servant is greater in that he extends justice beyond Israel to all the nations.<\/p>","content_en":"42:4<\/strong> distant lands:<\/em> The nations long for justice<\/em> and for instruction<\/em> on bringing it about. In this regard the servant is like Moses, to whom the law was given. However, the servant is greater in that he extends justice beyond Israel to all the nations.<\/p>","summary_ro":"42:4 distant lands: The nations long for justice and for instruction on bringing it about. In this regard the servant is like Moses, to whom the law was given. However, the servant is greater in that he extends justice beyond Israel to all the nations.","summary_en":"42:4 distant lands: The nations long for justice and for instruction on bringing it about. In this regard the servant is like Moses, to whom the law was given. However, the servant is greater in that he extends justice beyond Israel to all the nations.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":134536,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 42:4","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 42:4","content_ro":"42:4<\/strong> distant lands:<\/em> The nations long for justice<\/em> and for instruction<\/em> on bringing it about. In this regard the servant is like Moses, to whom the law was given. However, the servant is greater in that he extends justice beyond Israel to all the nations.<\/p>","content_en":"42:4<\/strong> distant lands:<\/em> The nations long for justice<\/em> and for instruction<\/em> on bringing it about. In this regard the servant is like Moses, to whom the law was given. However, the servant is greater in that he extends justice beyond Israel to all the nations.<\/p>","summary_ro":"42:4 distant lands: The nations long for justice and for instruction on bringing it about. In this regard the servant is like Moses, to whom the law was given. However, the servant is greater in that he extends justice beyond Israel to all the nations.","summary_en":"42:4 distant lands: The nations long for justice and for instruction on bringing it about. In this regard the servant is like Moses, to whom the law was given. However, the servant is greater in that he extends justice beyond Israel to all the nations.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"5":[{"id":66531,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Unknown God","title_en":"The Unknown God","content_ro":"<h3>The Unknown God<\/h3>\nWhen Paul spoke to the Areopagus, the “high council of the city” of Athens (Acts 17:19), he was speaking to people who did not share his faith in the God of Abraham and Moses who had revealed himself “many times and in many ways to [his] ancestors through the prophets” (Heb 1:1). The members of his audience had a very different definition of the divine. A host of divinities inhabited their world, and the common people retained much of their belief in the ancient gods. But many of the cultural elite of Athens no longer believed in the gods in any literal sense. Instead, they held to either a form of materialism (the physical is everything) or pantheism (the divine inhabits everything).<\/p>\nWhat they all shared in common was the absence of the idea that there is one true God who is Lord of all. Their myths told of the activities of various gods, but they did not have faith that the ultimate reality, God himself, could be known. Instead, they reasoned and discussed “the latest ideas,” hoping for a better understanding of the nature of things.<\/p>\nThere were a wide variety of philosophical ideas current in Athens when Paul visited, but two main schools of thought dominated, Stoicism and Epicureanism (Acts 17:18).<\/p>\nZeno of Citium (334~262 BC<\/span>) founded Stoicism. Stoics studied nature’s laws and believed in the Logos, a pervasive organizing and sustaining force that gives all things their essential nature and so gives life and reason to humanity. The good life is one in which reason rules, and peace of mind and harmony with nature prevail. Many prominent statesmen were Stoics or influenced by Stoicism, including Cicero, Seneca, and Marcus Aurelius. Stoic ideas proved attractive to some Christians because of the similarities between the Stoic logos and the divine Logos (John 1:1-18), and between the idea of natural law and the law of God.<\/p>\nThose who followed Epicurus (341–270 BC<\/span>) were empiricists; they relied upon sense experience (as opposed to reason) for knowledge. Epicureans were concerned with natural evidence and were unenthusiastic about mathematics. Their focus was ethics, the study of right behavior; they judged the value of an action or thing in terms of the pleasure or pain it brought. Epicurus saw belief in gods (meddling and powerful beings who terrified ordinary mortals) as a serious threat to tranquility. For him and his followers, neither the gods nor death (which is the end) should be feared.<\/p>\nWhen Paul spoke in that context, he used their own poets to proclaim things that they could barely comprehend: That the God who made everything is both personal and knowable; that he revealed himself clearly, historically, and definitively in Jesus Christ; that death is not followed by either the cessation of existence or the migration of the soul, but by judgment; and that the proof of all of this is the resurrection of Christ from the dead.<\/p>\nWhat was foolishness to most of the Greeks of Athens turns out to be the ultimate truth: God is knowable, and can be known through Jesus Christ.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nPs 50:7-15; Isa 42:5-7; Acts 17:16-32; Rom 1:18-32; Col 1:15-23; 2:6-12; 1 Thes 1:9-10; Heb 1:1-4<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Unknown God<\/h3>\nWhen Paul spoke to the Areopagus, the “high council of the city” of Athens (Acts 17:19), he was speaking to people who did not share his faith in the God of Abraham and Moses who had revealed himself “many times and in many ways to [his] ancestors through the prophets” (Heb 1:1). The members of his audience had a very different definition of the divine. A host of divinities inhabited their world, and the common people retained much of their belief in the ancient gods. But many of the cultural elite of Athens no longer believed in the gods in any literal sense. Instead, they held to either a form of materialism (the physical is everything) or pantheism (the divine inhabits everything).<\/p>\nWhat they all shared in common was the absence of the idea that there is one true God who is Lord of all. Their myths told of the activities of various gods, but they did not have faith that the ultimate reality, God himself, could be known. Instead, they reasoned and discussed “the latest ideas,” hoping for a better understanding of the nature of things.<\/p>\nThere were a wide variety of philosophical ideas current in Athens when Paul visited, but two main schools of thought dominated, Stoicism and Epicureanism (Acts 17:18).<\/p>\nZeno of Citium (334~262 BC<\/span>) founded Stoicism. Stoics studied nature’s laws and believed in the Logos, a pervasive organizing and sustaining force that gives all things their essential nature and so gives life and reason to humanity. The good life is one in which reason rules, and peace of mind and harmony with nature prevail. Many prominent statesmen were Stoics or influenced by Stoicism, including Cicero, Seneca, and Marcus Aurelius. Stoic ideas proved attractive to some Christians because of the similarities between the Stoic logos and the divine Logos (John 1:1-18), and between the idea of natural law and the law of God.<\/p>\nThose who followed Epicurus (341–270 BC<\/span>) were empiricists; they relied upon sense experience (as opposed to reason) for knowledge. Epicureans were concerned with natural evidence and were unenthusiastic about mathematics. Their focus was ethics, the study of right behavior; they judged the value of an action or thing in terms of the pleasure or pain it brought. Epicurus saw belief in gods (meddling and powerful beings who terrified ordinary mortals) as a serious threat to tranquility. For him and his followers, neither the gods nor death (which is the end) should be feared.<\/p>\nWhen Paul spoke in that context, he used their own poets to proclaim things that they could barely comprehend: That the God who made everything is both personal and knowable; that he revealed himself clearly, historically, and definitively in Jesus Christ; that death is not followed by either the cessation of existence or the migration of the soul, but by judgment; and that the proof of all of this is the resurrection of Christ from the dead.<\/p>\nWhat was foolishness to most of the Greeks of Athens turns out to be the ultimate truth: God is knowable, and can be known through Jesus Christ.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nPs 50:7-15; Isa 42:5-7; Acts 17:16-32; Rom 1:18-32; Col 1:15-23; 2:6-12; 1 Thes 1:9-10; Heb 1:1-4<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Unknown God When Paul spoke to the Areopagus, the “high council of the city” of Athens (Acts 17:19), he was speaking to people who did not share his faith in the God of Abraham and Moses who had revealed himself “many times and in many ways to [his] ancestors through the prophets” (Heb 1:1). The members of his audience had a very different definition of the divine. A host of divinities inhabited their world, and the common people retained much of their belief in the ancient gods. But many...","summary_en":"The Unknown God When Paul spoke to the Areopagus, the “high council of the city” of Athens (Acts 17:19), he was speaking to people who did not share his faith in the God of Abraham and Moses who had revealed himself “many times and in many ways to [his] ancestors through the prophets” (Heb 1:1). The members of his audience had a very different definition of the divine. A host of divinities inhabited their world, and the common people retained much of their belief in the ancient gods. But many...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":94157,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Unknown God","title_en":"The Unknown God","content_ro":"<h3>The Unknown God<\/h3>\nWhen Paul spoke to the Areopagus, the “high council of the city” of Athens (Acts 17:19), he was speaking to people who did not share his faith in the God of Abraham and Moses who had revealed himself “many times and in many ways to [his] ancestors through the prophets” (Heb 1:1). The members of his audience had a very different definition of the divine. A host of divinities inhabited their world, and the common people retained much of their belief in the ancient gods. But many of the cultural elite of Athens no longer believed in the gods in any literal sense. Instead, they held to either a form of materialism (the physical is everything) or pantheism (the divine inhabits everything).<\/p>\nWhat they all shared in common was the absence of the idea that there is one true God who is Lord of all. Their myths told of the activities of various gods, but they did not have faith that the ultimate reality, God himself, could be known. Instead, they reasoned and discussed “the latest ideas,” hoping for a better understanding of the nature of things.<\/p>\nThere were a wide variety of philosophical ideas current in Athens when Paul visited, but two main schools of thought dominated, Stoicism and Epicureanism (Acts 17:18).<\/p>\nZeno of Citium (334~262 BC<\/span>) founded Stoicism. Stoics studied nature’s laws and believed in the Logos, a pervasive organizing and sustaining force that gives all things their essential nature and so gives life and reason to humanity. The good life is one in which reason rules, and peace of mind and harmony with nature prevail. Many prominent statesmen were Stoics or influenced by Stoicism, including Cicero, Seneca, and Marcus Aurelius. Stoic ideas proved attractive to some Christians because of the similarities between the Stoic logos and the divine Logos (John 1:1-18), and between the idea of natural law and the law of God.<\/p>\nThose who followed Epicurus (341–270 BC<\/span>) were empiricists; they relied upon sense experience (as opposed to reason) for knowledge. Epicureans were concerned with natural evidence and were unenthusiastic about mathematics. Their focus was ethics, the study of right behavior; they judged the value of an action or thing in terms of the pleasure or pain it brought. Epicurus saw belief in gods (meddling and powerful beings who terrified ordinary mortals) as a serious threat to tranquility. For him and his followers, neither the gods nor death (which is the end) should be feared.<\/p>\nWhen Paul spoke in that context, he used their own poets to proclaim things that they could barely comprehend: That the God who made everything is both personal and knowable; that he revealed himself clearly, historically, and definitively in Jesus Christ; that death is not followed by either the cessation of existence or the migration of the soul, but by judgment; and that the proof of all of this is the resurrection of Christ from the dead.<\/p>\nWhat was foolishness to most of the Greeks of Athens turns out to be the ultimate truth: God is knowable, and can be known through Jesus Christ.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nPs 50:7-15; Isa 42:5-7; Acts 17:16-32; Rom 1:18-32; Col 1:15-23; 2:6-12; 1 Thes 1:9-10; Heb 1:1-4<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Unknown God<\/h3>\nWhen Paul spoke to the Areopagus, the “high council of the city” of Athens (Acts 17:19), he was speaking to people who did not share his faith in the God of Abraham and Moses who had revealed himself “many times and in many ways to [his] ancestors through the prophets” (Heb 1:1). The members of his audience had a very different definition of the divine. A host of divinities inhabited their world, and the common people retained much of their belief in the ancient gods. But many of the cultural elite of Athens no longer believed in the gods in any literal sense. Instead, they held to either a form of materialism (the physical is everything) or pantheism (the divine inhabits everything).<\/p>\nWhat they all shared in common was the absence of the idea that there is one true God who is Lord of all. Their myths told of the activities of various gods, but they did not have faith that the ultimate reality, God himself, could be known. Instead, they reasoned and discussed “the latest ideas,” hoping for a better understanding of the nature of things.<\/p>\nThere were a wide variety of philosophical ideas current in Athens when Paul visited, but two main schools of thought dominated, Stoicism and Epicureanism (Acts 17:18).<\/p>\nZeno of Citium (334~262 BC<\/span>) founded Stoicism. Stoics studied nature’s laws and believed in the Logos, a pervasive organizing and sustaining force that gives all things their essential nature and so gives life and reason to humanity. The good life is one in which reason rules, and peace of mind and harmony with nature prevail. Many prominent statesmen were Stoics or influenced by Stoicism, including Cicero, Seneca, and Marcus Aurelius. Stoic ideas proved attractive to some Christians because of the similarities between the Stoic logos and the divine Logos (John 1:1-18), and between the idea of natural law and the law of God.<\/p>\nThose who followed Epicurus (341–270 BC<\/span>) were empiricists; they relied upon sense experience (as opposed to reason) for knowledge. Epicureans were concerned with natural evidence and were unenthusiastic about mathematics. Their focus was ethics, the study of right behavior; they judged the value of an action or thing in terms of the pleasure or pain it brought. Epicurus saw belief in gods (meddling and powerful beings who terrified ordinary mortals) as a serious threat to tranquility. For him and his followers, neither the gods nor death (which is the end) should be feared.<\/p>\nWhen Paul spoke in that context, he used their own poets to proclaim things that they could barely comprehend: That the God who made everything is both personal and knowable; that he revealed himself clearly, historically, and definitively in Jesus Christ; that death is not followed by either the cessation of existence or the migration of the soul, but by judgment; and that the proof of all of this is the resurrection of Christ from the dead.<\/p>\nWhat was foolishness to most of the Greeks of Athens turns out to be the ultimate truth: God is knowable, and can be known through Jesus Christ.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nPs 50:7-15; Isa 42:5-7; Acts 17:16-32; Rom 1:18-32; Col 1:15-23; 2:6-12; 1 Thes 1:9-10; Heb 1:1-4<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Unknown God When Paul spoke to the Areopagus, the “high council of the city” of Athens (Acts 17:19), he was speaking to people who did not share his faith in the God of Abraham and Moses who had revealed himself “many times and in many ways to [his] ancestors through the prophets” (Heb 1:1). The members of his audience had a very different definition of the divine. A host of divinities inhabited their world, and the common people retained much of their belief in the ancient gods. But many...","summary_en":"The Unknown God When Paul spoke to the Areopagus, the “high council of the city” of Athens (Acts 17:19), he was speaking to people who did not share his faith in the God of Abraham and Moses who had revealed himself “many times and in many ways to [his] ancestors through the prophets” (Heb 1:1). The members of his audience had a very different definition of the divine. A host of divinities inhabited their world, and the common people retained much of their belief in the ancient gods. But many...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":121783,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Unknown God","title_en":"The Unknown God","content_ro":"<h3>The Unknown God<\/h3>\nWhen Paul spoke to the Areopagus, the “high council of the city” of Athens (Acts 17:19), he was speaking to people who did not share his faith in the God of Abraham and Moses who had revealed himself “many times and in many ways to [his] ancestors through the prophets” (Heb 1:1). The members of his audience had a very different definition of the divine. A host of divinities inhabited their world, and the common people retained much of their belief in the ancient gods. But many of the cultural elite of Athens no longer believed in the gods in any literal sense. Instead, they held to either a form of materialism (the physical is everything) or pantheism (the divine inhabits everything).<\/p>\nWhat they all shared in common was the absence of the idea that there is one true God who is Lord of all. Their myths told of the activities of various gods, but they did not have faith that the ultimate reality, God himself, could be known. Instead, they reasoned and discussed “the latest ideas,” hoping for a better understanding of the nature of things.<\/p>\nThere were a wide variety of philosophical ideas current in Athens when Paul visited, but two main schools of thought dominated, Stoicism and Epicureanism (Acts 17:18).<\/p>\nZeno of Citium (334~262 BC<\/span>) founded Stoicism. Stoics studied nature’s laws and believed in the Logos, a pervasive organizing and sustaining force that gives all things their essential nature and so gives life and reason to humanity. The good life is one in which reason rules, and peace of mind and harmony with nature prevail. Many prominent statesmen were Stoics or influenced by Stoicism, including Cicero, Seneca, and Marcus Aurelius. Stoic ideas proved attractive to some Christians because of the similarities between the Stoic logos and the divine Logos (John 1:1-18), and between the idea of natural law and the law of God.<\/p>\nThose who followed Epicurus (341–270 BC<\/span>) were empiricists; they relied upon sense experience (as opposed to reason) for knowledge. Epicureans were concerned with natural evidence and were unenthusiastic about mathematics. Their focus was ethics, the study of right behavior; they judged the value of an action or thing in terms of the pleasure or pain it brought. Epicurus saw belief in gods (meddling and powerful beings who terrified ordinary mortals) as a serious threat to tranquility. For him and his followers, neither the gods nor death (which is the end) should be feared.<\/p>\nWhen Paul spoke in that context, he used their own poets to proclaim things that they could barely comprehend: That the God who made everything is both personal and knowable; that he revealed himself clearly, historically, and definitively in Jesus Christ; that death is not followed by either the cessation of existence or the migration of the soul, but by judgment; and that the proof of all of this is the resurrection of Christ from the dead.<\/p>\nWhat was foolishness to most of the Greeks of Athens turns out to be the ultimate truth: God is knowable, and can be known through Jesus Christ.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nPs 50:7-15; Isa 42:5-7; Acts 17:16-32; Rom 1:18-32; Col 1:15-23; 2:6-12; 1 Thes 1:9-10; Heb 1:1-4<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Unknown God<\/h3>\nWhen Paul spoke to the Areopagus, the “high council of the city” of Athens (Acts 17:19), he was speaking to people who did not share his faith in the God of Abraham and Moses who had revealed himself “many times and in many ways to [his] ancestors through the prophets” (Heb 1:1). The members of his audience had a very different definition of the divine. A host of divinities inhabited their world, and the common people retained much of their belief in the ancient gods. But many of the cultural elite of Athens no longer believed in the gods in any literal sense. Instead, they held to either a form of materialism (the physical is everything) or pantheism (the divine inhabits everything).<\/p>\nWhat they all shared in common was the absence of the idea that there is one true God who is Lord of all. Their myths told of the activities of various gods, but they did not have faith that the ultimate reality, God himself, could be known. Instead, they reasoned and discussed “the latest ideas,” hoping for a better understanding of the nature of things.<\/p>\nThere were a wide variety of philosophical ideas current in Athens when Paul visited, but two main schools of thought dominated, Stoicism and Epicureanism (Acts 17:18).<\/p>\nZeno of Citium (334~262 BC<\/span>) founded Stoicism. Stoics studied nature’s laws and believed in the Logos, a pervasive organizing and sustaining force that gives all things their essential nature and so gives life and reason to humanity. The good life is one in which reason rules, and peace of mind and harmony with nature prevail. Many prominent statesmen were Stoics or influenced by Stoicism, including Cicero, Seneca, and Marcus Aurelius. Stoic ideas proved attractive to some Christians because of the similarities between the Stoic logos and the divine Logos (John 1:1-18), and between the idea of natural law and the law of God.<\/p>\nThose who followed Epicurus (341–270 BC<\/span>) were empiricists; they relied upon sense experience (as opposed to reason) for knowledge. Epicureans were concerned with natural evidence and were unenthusiastic about mathematics. Their focus was ethics, the study of right behavior; they judged the value of an action or thing in terms of the pleasure or pain it brought. Epicurus saw belief in gods (meddling and powerful beings who terrified ordinary mortals) as a serious threat to tranquility. For him and his followers, neither the gods nor death (which is the end) should be feared.<\/p>\nWhen Paul spoke in that context, he used their own poets to proclaim things that they could barely comprehend: That the God who made everything is both personal and knowable; that he revealed himself clearly, historically, and definitively in Jesus Christ; that death is not followed by either the cessation of existence or the migration of the soul, but by judgment; and that the proof of all of this is the resurrection of Christ from the dead.<\/p>\nWhat was foolishness to most of the Greeks of Athens turns out to be the ultimate truth: God is knowable, and can be known through Jesus Christ.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nPs 50:7-15; Isa 42:5-7; Acts 17:16-32; Rom 1:18-32; Col 1:15-23; 2:6-12; 1 Thes 1:9-10; Heb 1:1-4<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Unknown God When Paul spoke to the Areopagus, the “high council of the city” of Athens (Acts 17:19), he was speaking to people who did not share his faith in the God of Abraham and Moses who had revealed himself “many times and in many ways to [his] ancestors through the prophets” (Heb 1:1). The members of his audience had a very different definition of the divine. A host of divinities inhabited their world, and the common people retained much of their belief in the ancient gods. But many...","summary_en":"The Unknown God When Paul spoke to the Areopagus, the “high council of the city” of Athens (Acts 17:19), he was speaking to people who did not share his faith in the God of Abraham and Moses who had revealed himself “many times and in many ways to [his] ancestors through the prophets” (Heb 1:1). The members of his audience had a very different definition of the divine. A host of divinities inhabited their world, and the common people retained much of their belief in the ancient gods. But many...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":149409,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Unknown God","title_en":"The Unknown God","content_ro":"<h3>The Unknown God<\/h3>\nWhen Paul spoke to the Areopagus, the “high council of the city” of Athens (Acts 17:19), he was speaking to people who did not share his faith in the God of Abraham and Moses who had revealed himself “many times and in many ways to [his] ancestors through the prophets” (Heb 1:1). The members of his audience had a very different definition of the divine. A host of divinities inhabited their world, and the common people retained much of their belief in the ancient gods. But many of the cultural elite of Athens no longer believed in the gods in any literal sense. Instead, they held to either a form of materialism (the physical is everything) or pantheism (the divine inhabits everything).<\/p>\nWhat they all shared in common was the absence of the idea that there is one true God who is Lord of all. Their myths told of the activities of various gods, but they did not have faith that the ultimate reality, God himself, could be known. Instead, they reasoned and discussed “the latest ideas,” hoping for a better understanding of the nature of things.<\/p>\nThere were a wide variety of philosophical ideas current in Athens when Paul visited, but two main schools of thought dominated, Stoicism and Epicureanism (Acts 17:18).<\/p>\nZeno of Citium (334~262 BC<\/span>) founded Stoicism. Stoics studied nature’s laws and believed in the Logos, a pervasive organizing and sustaining force that gives all things their essential nature and so gives life and reason to humanity. The good life is one in which reason rules, and peace of mind and harmony with nature prevail. Many prominent statesmen were Stoics or influenced by Stoicism, including Cicero, Seneca, and Marcus Aurelius. Stoic ideas proved attractive to some Christians because of the similarities between the Stoic logos and the divine Logos (John 1:1-18), and between the idea of natural law and the law of God.<\/p>\nThose who followed Epicurus (341–270 BC<\/span>) were empiricists; they relied upon sense experience (as opposed to reason) for knowledge. Epicureans were concerned with natural evidence and were unenthusiastic about mathematics. Their focus was ethics, the study of right behavior; they judged the value of an action or thing in terms of the pleasure or pain it brought. Epicurus saw belief in gods (meddling and powerful beings who terrified ordinary mortals) as a serious threat to tranquility. For him and his followers, neither the gods nor death (which is the end) should be feared.<\/p>\nWhen Paul spoke in that context, he used their own poets to proclaim things that they could barely comprehend: That the God who made everything is both personal and knowable; that he revealed himself clearly, historically, and definitively in Jesus Christ; that death is not followed by either the cessation of existence or the migration of the soul, but by judgment; and that the proof of all of this is the resurrection of Christ from the dead.<\/p>\nWhat was foolishness to most of the Greeks of Athens turns out to be the ultimate truth: God is knowable, and can be known through Jesus Christ.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nPs 50:7-15; Isa 42:5-7; Acts 17:16-32; Rom 1:18-32; Col 1:15-23; 2:6-12; 1 Thes 1:9-10; Heb 1:1-4<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Unknown God<\/h3>\nWhen Paul spoke to the Areopagus, the “high council of the city” of Athens (Acts 17:19), he was speaking to people who did not share his faith in the God of Abraham and Moses who had revealed himself “many times and in many ways to [his] ancestors through the prophets” (Heb 1:1). The members of his audience had a very different definition of the divine. A host of divinities inhabited their world, and the common people retained much of their belief in the ancient gods. But many of the cultural elite of Athens no longer believed in the gods in any literal sense. Instead, they held to either a form of materialism (the physical is everything) or pantheism (the divine inhabits everything).<\/p>\nWhat they all shared in common was the absence of the idea that there is one true God who is Lord of all. Their myths told of the activities of various gods, but they did not have faith that the ultimate reality, God himself, could be known. Instead, they reasoned and discussed “the latest ideas,” hoping for a better understanding of the nature of things.<\/p>\nThere were a wide variety of philosophical ideas current in Athens when Paul visited, but two main schools of thought dominated, Stoicism and Epicureanism (Acts 17:18).<\/p>\nZeno of Citium (334~262 BC<\/span>) founded Stoicism. Stoics studied nature’s laws and believed in the Logos, a pervasive organizing and sustaining force that gives all things their essential nature and so gives life and reason to humanity. The good life is one in which reason rules, and peace of mind and harmony with nature prevail. Many prominent statesmen were Stoics or influenced by Stoicism, including Cicero, Seneca, and Marcus Aurelius. Stoic ideas proved attractive to some Christians because of the similarities between the Stoic logos and the divine Logos (John 1:1-18), and between the idea of natural law and the law of God.<\/p>\nThose who followed Epicurus (341–270 BC<\/span>) were empiricists; they relied upon sense experience (as opposed to reason) for knowledge. Epicureans were concerned with natural evidence and were unenthusiastic about mathematics. Their focus was ethics, the study of right behavior; they judged the value of an action or thing in terms of the pleasure or pain it brought. Epicurus saw belief in gods (meddling and powerful beings who terrified ordinary mortals) as a serious threat to tranquility. For him and his followers, neither the gods nor death (which is the end) should be feared.<\/p>\nWhen Paul spoke in that context, he used their own poets to proclaim things that they could barely comprehend: That the God who made everything is both personal and knowable; that he revealed himself clearly, historically, and definitively in Jesus Christ; that death is not followed by either the cessation of existence or the migration of the soul, but by judgment; and that the proof of all of this is the resurrection of Christ from the dead.<\/p>\nWhat was foolishness to most of the Greeks of Athens turns out to be the ultimate truth: God is knowable, and can be known through Jesus Christ.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nPs 50:7-15; Isa 42:5-7; Acts 17:16-32; Rom 1:18-32; Col 1:15-23; 2:6-12; 1 Thes 1:9-10; Heb 1:1-4<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Unknown God When Paul spoke to the Areopagus, the “high council of the city” of Athens (Acts 17:19), he was speaking to people who did not share his faith in the God of Abraham and Moses who had revealed himself “many times and in many ways to [his] ancestors through the prophets” (Heb 1:1). The members of his audience had a very different definition of the divine. A host of divinities inhabited their world, and the common people retained much of their belief in the ancient gods. But many...","summary_en":"The Unknown God When Paul spoke to the Areopagus, the “high council of the city” of Athens (Acts 17:19), he was speaking to people who did not share his faith in the God of Abraham and Moses who had revealed himself “many times and in many ways to [his] ancestors through the prophets” (Heb 1:1). The members of his audience had a very different definition of the divine. A host of divinities inhabited their world, and the common people retained much of their belief in the ancient gods. But many...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"6":[{"id":17861,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Book of Isaiah","title_en":"Book of Isaiah","content_ro":"<h3>ISAIAH, Book of<\/h3>\nPreview<\/p>\n• Author<\/p>\n• Date<\/p>\n• Background<\/p>\n• Literary Unity<\/p>\n• Theological Teaching<\/p>\n• Content<\/p>\nAuthor<\/p>\nThe prophet Isaiah, whose name means “the Lord saves,” lived and ministered in Jerusalem. Because of his repeated contact with the kings of Judah, some scholars believed that Isaiah was related to the royal family, but this is not certain. According to chapters 7 and 8, Isaiah was married and had at least two sons, Shear-jashub and Maher-shalal-hash-baz, whose symbolic names illustrated God’s dealings with the nation as a whole. The “disciples” mentioned in 8:16 probably assisted Isaiah in his ministry and may have helped him record the book that bears his name.<\/p>\nWhen Isaiah saw the Lord in the famous temple vision described in chapter 6, he was willing to go wherever God sent him, even though he would face strong opposition (6:9-10). King Ahaz proved to be particularly resistant to Isaiah’s advice (7:4-17), and the people in general ridiculed his preaching (5:10-12; 28:9-10). During the reign of the godly Hezekiah, however, Isaiah’s ministry was much appreciated, and the king consulted him eagerly during times of crisis (37:1-7, 21-35).<\/p>\nIsaiah is usually regarded as the greatest of the writing prophets. Some of the chapters in his book display an unparalleled literary beauty and make use of poetic devices and a rich variety of symbols. Chapters 40–66 contain many powerful passages that underscore the grandeur of the book. It is ironic, then, that many scholars attribute these chapters to a “second” or “third” Isaiah, unknown authors who wrote much later than Isaiah in connection with the Babylonian exile. Yet elsewhere in the OT, the names of all who wrote the prophetic books are preserved, and it would be most unusual for the Jews not to know who wrote such magnificent prophecy as chapters 40–66.<\/p>\nDate<\/p>\nSince many of the events recorded in chapters 1–39 took place during the ministry of Isaiah, most of these chapters were probably written by about 700 BC<\/span> or shortly thereafter. The destruction of the Assyrian army in 701 BC<\/span> represents the climax of the first half of the book, fulfilling the prophecy of 10:16, 24-34 and 30:31-33. In 37:38 Isaiah refers to the death of King Sennacherib, which did not occur until 681 BC<\/span>. This means that some of the earlier chapters, along with 40–66, were probably written later, during Isaiah’s retirement years. A gap of several decades could help account for the change in subject matter that is found in the last half of the book. In these chapters Isaiah projects into the future as he addresses the Jews who would be in exile in Babylon about 550 BC<\/span>.<\/p>\nBackground<\/p>\nIsaiah’s public ministry occurred primarily from 740–700 BC<\/span>, a period marked by the rapid expansion of the nation of Assyria. Under King Tiglath-pileser III (745–727 BC<\/span>), the Assyrians moved to the west and south, and by 738 BC<\/span> the Assyrian monarch was demanding tribute from Damascus and Israel. About 734 BC<\/span> Rezin of Damascus (Syria) and Pekah of Israel organized a coalition to rebel against Assyria, and they tried to enlist the support of King Ahaz of Judah. But Ahaz refused to join, and when the kings of Damascus and Israel invaded Judah (see 7:1), Ahaz appealed directly to Tiglath-pileser for help (cf. 2 Kgs 16:7-9). With little hesitation the Assyrians returned to capture Damascus and to turn the northern kingdom of Israel into an Assyrian province.<\/p>\nThe puppet king Hoshea ruled over Israel from 732–723 BC but was imprisoned when he joined a revolt against Shalmaneser V, the new Assyrian king. Shalmaneser besieged the capital city of Samaria, which finally fell in 722 BC<\/span>, spelling the end of the northern kingdom. Sargon succeeded Shalmaneser in 722 and had to quell a number of revolts. In 711 BC<\/span> Sargon captured the Philistine city of Ashdod in a campaign that became the occasion of Isaiah’s prophecy of chapter 20.<\/p>\n\nEven more important was the widespread rebellion that broke out with the accession of Sennacherib in 705 BC<\/span>. King Hezekiah of Judah withheld his normal tribute payment, and by 701 BC<\/span> Sennacherib had invaded Palestine to punish the rebels. The details of this campaign are given in Isaiah 36–37 and tell how city after city was captured by the Assyrians before the invaders stood at the gates of Jerusalem and demanded total surrender. With almost no hope of survival, Hezekiah nevertheless was encouraged by Isaiah to trust God, and in one night the angel of the Lord struck down 185,000 Assyrian soldiers, virtually wiping out Sennacherib’s army (Is 37:36-37).<\/p>\nIn an effort to befriend the enemies of Assyria, Hezekiah showed his treasures to envoys of the king of Babylon (39:1-4). Isaiah warned that someday the Babylonian armies would conquer Jerusalem and carry off those very treasures, along with the residents of the city (vv 5-7). Not only did Isaiah predict the Babylonian captivity of 586–539 BC<\/span> (cf. 6:11-12), but he also foretold that Israel would be released from Babylon (48:20). The Chaldean kingdom led by Nebuchadnezzar would be God’s instrument of judgment upon Judah, but they too would suffer defeat. One of Isaiah’s most remarkable prophecies was the naming of Cyrus, king of Persia, the ruler who would conquer the Babylonians in 539 BC<\/span> and release Israel from exile (cf. 44:28). Along with the Medes (cf. 13:17), Cyrus won several important victories before sending his troops against Babylon. Isaiah hailed him as one anointed by the Lord to bring deliverance for Israel (45:1-5).<\/p>\nLiterary Unity<\/p>\nLargely because of the references to the later kingdoms of Babylon and Persia, the unity of Isaiah has been called into question. Chapters 40–66 move abruptly into the exilic period of 550 BC<\/span>, almost 150 years after Isaiah lived. Moreover, the Servant of the Lord plays a prominent role in these chapters and the messianic king fades into the background. Brilliant poetic passages are found in chapters 40, 53, 55, and 60, demonstrating remarkable depth and power.<\/p>\nAlthough these factors are sometimes cited as a sign of disunity, there are actually strong indications for unity in the book. For example, the historical interlude (chs 36–39) forms a hinge or bridge that links chapters 1–35 and 40–66. Chapters 36–37 complete the Assyrian section, and chapters 38–39 introduce the Babylonian material. Most of the linking chapters are written in prose, while the others (in some translations) are largely poetry. From the standpoint of verbal or stylistic unity, one can point to Isaiah’s favorite title for God, “the Holy One of Israel.” This title appears 12 times in chapters 1–39, and 14 times in chapters 40–66, but only seven times in the rest of the OT. A study of the famous Servant Songs of 52:13–53:12 reveals several ties with earlier passages, especially in chapters 1–6. The servant who is smitten and wounded (53:4-5) receives the same punishment as the beaten and injured nation of 1:5-6 (also cf. 52:13 with 2:12 and 6:1).<\/p>\nTheological Teaching<\/p>\nIsaiah is to the OT as the book of Romans is to the NT—a book filled with rich theological truth. Like Romans, Isaiah unveils the sinfulness of God’s rebellious people and his gracious provision of salvation. Because God is the Holy One of Israel (1:4; 6:3), he cannot ignore sin but must punish those who are guilty. Both Israel (5:30; 42:25) and the other nations (2:11, 17, 20) experience a time of judgment known as the Day of the Lord. In anger God raises his hand against his people (cf. 5:25), but ultimately his wrath is poured out upon Babylon and the nations (cf. 13:3-5; 34:2).<\/p>\nWith the fall of Assyria and Babylon, the Day of the Lord becomes a day of joyous victory (10:27; 61:2). According to Isaiah 63:4, it is the year of the Lord’s redemption. Earlier, Israel had been redeemed from slavery in Egypt; now the return from the Babylonian captivity brings equal joy (52:9; 61:1). The ultimate redemption is to be accomplished through the death of Christ, and Isaiah 53 describes our Lord’s suffering and death in graphic terms. His ministry as the Suffering Servant is also introduced in 49:4 and 50:6-7; meanwhile, 49:6 states that the servant will be “a light for the Gentiles.” Looking ahead to the Second Coming, Isaiah predicts a messianic age of peace and righteousness. Nations will “beat their swords into plowshares” (2:4) and the “Prince of Peace” will rule forever (9:6-7).<\/p>\nThroughout the book God is pictured as the all-powerful Creator (48:13)—the sovereign One seated on a throne, high and exalted; the King, the Lord Almighty (6:1, 5). He controls the armies of the earth (13:4) and removes rulers as he wills (40:23-24). Before him, nations “are but a drop in the bucket” (40:15, nlt<\/span>), and compared with him all idols are worthless and without power (41:29; 44:6). This is the God who shows his fury to his foes and his love to his servants (66:14).<\/p>\n\nContent<\/p>\n<h5>Messages of Judgment and Hope (1–12)<\/h5>\nIn the opening chapter Isaiah characterizes Israel (including Judah) as “a sinful nation” that has rebelled against God. Although the people regularly bring offerings to him, their worship is hypocritical, an attempt to mask their oppression of the poor and helpless. The Lord encourages the nation to repent of their sin or face the fires of judgment. After this introduction, Isaiah turns to describe the peace of the messianic age in 2:1-4. The day will come when all nations will obey God’s word and live at peace. “The mountain of the Lord<\/span>”—Jerusalem—will be raised up “and all the nations shall flow to it” (2:2-3, rsv<\/span>). In the meantime, however, both Israel and the nations have exalted themselves against the Lord, and he will judge them in an awesome display of power. For Israel, God’s judgment will bring great upheaval, including the loss of its leaders. Defiant and ruthless, the rulers will face either death or deportation. Chapter 3 ends by denouncing the pride and vanity of the women of Zion; they, too, will suffer disgrace. After Jerusalem is cleansed of its sin, the remnant will enjoy the rule of “the branch of the Lord<\/span>,” who will protect and shield his people (4:2-6).<\/p>\nIn 5:1-7 Isaiah presents a short song about Israel as God’s vineyard. The Lord did everything possible to ensure a yield of good grapes, but the vineyard produced nothing but bad fruit and had to be destroyed. Isaiah then pronounces six woes against Israel, and announces that the Assyrian army will invade the land. Against the backdrop of Israel’s sin, Isaiah (ch 6) gives an account of the vision through which he was called as a prophet. Overwhelmed by the holiness of God and by his own sinfulness, Isaiah thought he was ruined, but when he was assured that his sins were forgiven, he responded positively to God’s call in spite of the stubbornness of the nation to which he was sent.<\/p>\nOne of the most stubborn individuals in all the nation was King Ahaz of Judah, and chapter 7 describes Isaiah’s encounter with this godless ruler. When Ahaz was threatened by Damascus and the northern kingdom, he refused to believe Isaiah’s promise that God would protect him. This was the occasion on which Isaiah gave Ahaz the sign of Immanuel (7:14). The “virgin” refers ultimately to Mary and “Immanuel” to Christ (Mt 1:23), but in the near fulfillment the child could be Isaiah’s own son Maher-shalal-hash-baz (Is 8:3). (See<\/em> four interpretations of this passage in Virgin Birth of Jesus.) This name (meaning “swift to plunder and quick to spoil,” v 1, nlt<\/span> mg) would be a sign that soon Judah’s enemies would fall; “Immanuel” signified that God would be with Judah (v 10, nlt<\/span> mg). However, if Ahaz appealed for help to the king of Assyria, Isaiah warned him, Assyria’s powerful armies would one day invade Judah also (cf. 7:17-25; 8:6-8). The destruction brought by Assyria would plunge Judah into a time of famine and distress (8:21-22).<\/p>\nNevertheless, the gloom and darkness associated with the Assyrian invasion would not last indefinitely, and 9:1-5 speaks of a time of peace and joy. Verses 6-7 introduce a child who would become a righteous King and would rule forever. This “Prince of Peace” is the Messiah, the “Mighty God” whose kingdom is described in 2:2-4.<\/p>\nFor the immediate future, however, both Israel and Judah will suffer the agony of war as punishment for their sins. God is angry with his people because they are proud and arrogant, and their leaders disregard the pleas of the poor and needy. Civil war and foreign invasion will crush the hapless nation (9:8–10:4). But once Israel has been judged, God will turn his hand against Assyria, the instrument he has used to judge other nations. Because of her string of victories, Assyria is filled with pride and is eager for more triumph. Yet even at the moment when Jerusalem is about to succumb, God will cut down the Assyrian army like a cedar in Lebanon and spare his people (10:26-34).<\/p>\nAfter Assyria’s defeat, Isaiah describes the restoration of Israel and the powerful rule of the Messiah (ch 11). Both Jews and Gentiles will be attracted to Jerusalem to enjoy an era of peace and justice. Like David, the Messiah will have the Spirit of God resting upon him as he judges the wicked and protects the needy. To conclude these opening messages, Isaiah offers two short songs of praise that celebrate God’s past deliverance and his promise of future blessing (ch 12).<\/p>\n<h5>Oracles against the Nations (13–23)<\/h5>\nAlthough Babylon is not the major power of the day, Isaiah begins his announcements of judgment with two chapters about the destruction of Assyria’s neighbor to the south. Babylon will eventually conquer Jerusalem (between 605 and 586 BC<\/span>), but the Medes (13:17) along with the Elamites will capture Babylon (539 BC<\/span>). In spite of the glory to be achieved by future kings of Babylon, God will bring their pomp down to the grave (14:9-10). The chapter ends with short prophecies against Assyria and the Philistines.<\/p>\nOne of Israel’s oldest enemies was the nation of Moab, situated east of the Dead Sea. Even though it was a small country, Isaiah devotes two chapters to these descendants of Lot. Chapter 15 describes the extensive mourning that will overwhelm their cities. After a brief interlude urging the Moabites to submit to Israel and to her God (16:1-5), Isaiah notes that pride will lead to Moab’s downfall. Sounds of weeping fill the land as the vines and fields wither and are trampled.<\/p>\nIn chapter 17 the fourth oracle is directed against Damascus and Ephraim (the northern kingdom of Israel), probably reflecting their alliance against Judah about 734 BC<\/span>. Both nations will face ruin, and Ephraim is condemned for abandoning the Lord, her “Savior” and “Rock” (17:10).<\/p>\nIn chapters 18 and 19 Isaiah turns to the south and addresses Ethiopia and Egypt, countries that had strong links from 715–633 BC<\/span>, when an Ethiopian named Shabako became pharaoh in Egypt. But Egypt is plagued with disunity and suffers greatly at the hands of Assyrian kings. In spite of the supposed wisdom of her leaders, Egypt faces economic and political ruin (19:5-15). Yet the time is coming when the Egyptians will be restored and will worship the God of Israel. Along with Assyria and Israel, Egypt will become a blessing (19:24). Some interpreters think this is a prophecy of the salvation of Gentiles during the church age, but others relate this day to the peace of the millennial age (cf. 2:2-4; 11:6-9). For the immediate future, however, Isaiah announces that Assyria will take many Egyptians and Ethiopians into captivity (ch 20).<\/p>\nA second oracle about Babylon (cf. 13:1–14:23) is contained in chapter 21, and Isaiah is staggered as he considers the impact of Babylon’s fall (21:3-4). When Babylon collapses, the world will know that her gods were powerless (21:9; cf. Rv 14:8; 18:2).<\/p>\nAlthough it seems out of place among these oracles against the nations, chapter 22 condemns the city of Jerusalem. Like the nations, Jerusalem is full of revelry (22:2) but will soon experience the terrors of a siege. Since the people no longer rely on the Lord (v 11), he will hand them over to the enemy. Jerusalem’s unfaithfulness is exemplified by Shebna, a high official guilty of pride and materialism whose position will be taken by the godly Eliakim (vv 15-23).<\/p>\nThe last oracle (ch 23) is directed against the city of Tyre, which resisted capture until Alexander the Great conquered the island fortress in 332 BC<\/span>. When Tyre fell, the economy of the entire Mediterranean world was shaken, for her ships had carried the goods of the nations far and wide.<\/p>\n<h5>Final Judgment and Blessing (24–27)<\/h5>\nThis section functions as a grand finale to chapters 13–23 in that it anticipates God’s judgment upon the nations and the inauguration of the kingdom of God. A defiled earth must bear its punishment (24:5-6) and even the forces of Satan face judgment (vv 21-22).<\/p>\nIn chapter 25 Isaiah rejoices over God’s great triumph and looks ahead to a day when death will be swallowed up and tears will be wiped from all faces (25:8). Israel’s longtime enemies, symbolized by Moab, will be laid low (vv 10-12), but Jerusalem will be a stronghold for the righteous (26:1-3). In 26:7-19 the nation prays that these promises will become a reality. Verses 20-21 indicate that the Lord will indeed respond, pouring out his wrath upon a sin-cursed earth and upon Satan himself (27:1). When that takes place, Israel will be a fruitful vineyard, a blessing to the whole world (27:2-6; contrast 5:1-7). First, however, Israel will have to endure war and exile, and then the remnant will return to Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<h5>A Series of Woes (28–33)<\/h5>\nReturning to his own historical period, Isaiah pronounces a series of woes upon both the northern and southern kingdoms, as well as one upon Assyria (ch 33). Chapter 28 begins with a description of the fading power of Samaria, the capital of the northern kingdom. Verses 7-10 portray the leaders of Judah in the same light; they have disregarded Isaiah’s message and are out of touch with God. Judgment is on the way, and their false preparation (vv 15, 18) will be of no avail. God will fight against Israel (vv 21-22), and even Jerusalem will be put under siege until God in his mercy intervenes (29:1-8). Because of their hypocritical worship, the people deserve to be punished, but in the future Israel will again acknowledge the Lord and be made physically and spiritually whole (29:17-24).<\/p>\nChapters 30 and 31 denounce Judah’s proposed alliance with Egypt in the effort to thwart Assyria. God wants his people to trust him, not their unreliable neighbors to the south. The Lord promises to protect Jerusalem (30:18; 31:5) and defeat the invading Assyrian army (30:31-33; 31:8-9). None can stand before his mighty sword.<\/p>\nContinuing on this positive note, Isaiah goes on to emphasize the righteous rule of the messianic king in chapters 32 and 33. Zion will enjoy peace and security at last (32:2, 17-18; 33:6), a great change from Isaiah’s own time. In eighth-century BC<\/span> Judah the women might feel secure (32:9), but the Assyrian troops will devastate the crops and precipitate widespread mourning. However, the lamenting will soon end, as the prophet pronounces woe upon Assyria in 33:1. After Isaiah prays for the destruction of Assyria (33:2-9), God promises to take action (vv 10-12). Gone will be the enemy soldiers and officials, for the Lord will save his people and bring them justice and security.<\/p>\n<h5>More Judgment and Blessing (34–35)<\/h5>\nThis section forms a climax to chapters 28–33. Once more, cataclysmic judgment precedes a time of blessing and restoration. In chapter 34 Isaiah depicts a judgment of cosmic dimensions as he moves to a consideration of the last days. Heaven and earth endure the wrath of God that is poured out upon the nations, and verse 4 provides the basis for John’s description of the great tribulation in Revelation 6:13-14. Edom (like Moab; see Is 25:10-12) represents a world judged by the sword of the Lord in his day of vengeance.<\/p>\nChapter 35, on the other hand, speaks of joy and restoration in a passage that pulsates with life. A blooming desert corresponds to the physical and spiritual age when God will come to redeem his people. Both the return of the Israelites from the Babylonian captivity and the second coming of Christ fit this glorious scene.<\/p>\n<h5>Historical Interlude (36–39)<\/h5>\nThese chapters form the hinge that connects the two halves of the book. Chapters 36 and 37 contain the fulfillment of Isaiah’s prophecies about Assyria’s collapse, and chapters 38 and 39 introduce the Babylonian captivity that forms the backdrop for chapters 40–66. In 701 BC<\/span> King Sennacherib of Assyria demands the unconditional surrender of Jerusalem. He sends his field commander to address the people and try to gain their submission. With persuasive words, the commander tries to convince the city that surrender is the best policy. Amazingly the people do not panic, and King Hezekiah asks Isaiah to pray for the beleaguered city. The prophet does so and announces that the proud Assyrians will not triumph. Instead, they suffer a terrible disaster as the angel of the Lord strikes down 185,000 men.<\/p>\nChapters 38 and 39 relate another crisis in Hezekiah’s life when he becomes desperately ill. Miraculously, God heals him, and Hezekiah praises the Lord for his gracious intervention. When the king of Babylon sends envoys to congratulate Hezekiah on his recovery, Hezekiah foolishly shows these messengers his royal treasures. Isaiah solemnly announces that someday the armies of Babylon will capture Jerusalem, plunder the land, and take away these treasures.<\/p>\n<h5>The Return from Babylon (40–48)<\/h5>\nThe Babylonian captivity eventually comes, but Isaiah promises that it will end. God, the incomparably powerful Creator, is far greater than any king, nation, or god, and he will bring his people back to Jerusalem. To accomplish this return from exile, God raises up Cyrus, the king of Persia (41:2, 25). The Lord does not forget his people, and he encourages them to take heart and to rejoice.<\/p>\nIn chapter 42 we are introduced to a person even more significant than Cyrus the Persian. Verses 1-7 (the first of four Servant Songs) describe the servant of the Lord, who will bring justice to the nations and will be “a light for the Gentiles” (42:6). This is the Messiah, and the redemption he will accomplish on Calvary (cf. ch 53) is greater than the release from Babylon. In light of the good news associated with the servant, Isaiah praises the Lord for punishing the wicked and rescuing his wayward people. Chapter 43 declares that nothing will stand in the way of Israel’s return, and the Lord will remember their sins no more. In fact, he will pour out his Spirit on their descendants (44:3).<\/p>\nA God so great is far more powerful than any idol. In 44:6-20 Isaiah makes use of satire to show the worthlessness of man-made images. God alone has the power to create and to restore, and he will bring Cyrus on the scene to effect the release of the exiles and to begin the rebuilding of Jerusalem. Chapters 46 and 47 contrast the God of Israel and the idols of Babylon. When God raises up Cyrus, Babylon’s idols will be unable to save their nation, and the queen of kingdoms (47:5) will collapse along with her sorcerers and astrologers. The final chapter in this section (ch 48) restates God’s purpose of gaining release of the Israelites from Babylon through his chosen ally, Cyrus of Persia.<\/p>\n<h5>Salvation through the Servant of the Lord (49–57)<\/h5>\nChapters 49–53 contain the final three Servant Songs (cf. also 42:1-7), culminating in the death of the servant for the sins of the world (52:13–53:12). In the second Servant Song (49:1-7), Isaiah describes the call and ministry of the servant, noting that he will face strong opposition as he accomplishes salvation for Israel and the nations. The rest of chapter 49 deals primarily with the way God will bring Israel back from exile. Soon the land will be filled with a mighty throng (vv 19-21), and the Gentiles will acknowledge Israel and her God (vv 22-23).<\/p>\nAlthough Israel has fully deserved the exile because of her sins (50:1-3), the suffering endured by the servant (vv 4-11; the third Servant Song) is wholly undeserved. The beating and mocking of verse 6 are prophetic of Christ’s experience (cf. Mt 27:26, 30; Mk 15:19). In verses 10-11 of Isaiah 50 the whole nation is challenged to trust in the Lord, as the servant did. There is, in fact, a believing remnant who obey the Lord (51:1-8), and the Lord promises that he will restore them to their homeland. Israel has drunk the cup of God’s wrath (vv 17, 22), but the good news of release from exile causes even the ruins of Jerusalem to burst into songs of joy (52:7-10).<\/p>\nYet the best news of all is salvation from sin; the final Servant Song (52:13–53:12) tells how Christ wins freedom for those held in bondage to sin. In this brief passage we learn how Christ suffers rejection (53:3) and even disfigurement (52:14). Led like a lamb to the slaughter (53:7), he carries our sins in his body as he dies in ignominy. The people think he is suffering for his own sins (v 4), but he is “pierced” and “crushed for our iniquities” (v 5). The first and last paragraphs of this section (52:13-15; 53:10-12) state that through his suffering the servant is highly exalted. What seems like a terrible defeat is actually victory over death and Satan and brings salvation for many.<\/p>\nAs a direct result of the servant’s death, great joy comes to all people. In chapter 54 this joy is reflected in Jerusalem’s new status as the Lord’s wife. Her descendants will be numerous and eager to learn from the Lord. For the first time the plural “servants of the Lord<\/span>” appears (54:17), apparently including all believers, whether Jew or Gentile (cf. 65:8-9, 13-15). Joy and prosperity also characterize chapter 55, an invitation to a great spiritual banquet. All people are urged to turn to the Lord who keeps his promises to Israel. In 56:1-8, foreigners are invited to come to God’s “holy mountain” in Jerusalem, for the temple will be a house of prayer for all the nations (56:7; cf. Mt 21:13).<\/p>\nBelieving Gentiles are contrasted sharply with unbelieving Jews, and in 56:9–57:13 Isaiah returns again to the theme of judgment. Israel suffers because her leaders are wicked and because the people are guilty of idolatry. Spiritual healing is available, but unless individuals repent, they cannot be part of the remnant who will return from exile and enjoy peace in the Promised Land.<\/p>\n<h5>Ultimate Blessing and Final Judgment (58–66)<\/h5>\nThe last nine chapters of Isaiah emphasize redemption and glory, but the reality of judgment is also very much in evidence. In fact, chapters 58 and 59 bemoan the sins of Israel. The people are hypocritical in their worship; they are selfish and fail to keep the Sabbath. Lying, oppression, and murder separate the people from God. When Isaiah openly confesses these sins (59:12-13), the Lord suddenly takes action on behalf of his people. Like a mighty warrior, he rescues the believing remnant from Babylon and brings them back to Jerusalem.<\/p>\nIn chapter 60 the glory and wealth of Jerusalem reach new heights. Both the city and the sanctuary are adorned with splendor, matching the prosperity of Solomon’s reign. Just as the nations treated Solomon with honor, so earth’s leaders will assist and strengthen the returning exiles. While it is true that the Persian government did help the Jews repeatedly, the conditions described here will have their ultimate fulfillment during the Millennium and in connection with the new Jerusalem (cf. Rv 21:23; 22:5). The ancient ruins will be rebuilt (Is 61:4), and the Lord will fulfill the covenant made with Abraham and David (Is 61:8; cf. Gn 12:1-3; Is 55:3). Jerusalem will be the city of the holy people, the redeemed of the Lord (Is 62:12), and the Lord will take delight in her (v 4).<\/p>\nIn order to accomplish salvation for his people, God will have to judge the ungodly first. The great trampling of the winepress (63:2-3) graphically portrays the judgment process and is linked with the Day of the Lord (cf. 13:3; 34:2). Since God has promised to intervene on behalf of his people, Isaiah prays for the realization of that promise (63:7–64:12). He recalls God’s faithfulness in the past and pleads that he will again have mercy upon his suffering people.<\/p>\nThe answer to Isaiah’s prayer is found in chapter 65. God does promise to give the Holy Land back to his servants, to those who worship him and obey him. But for that segment of the nation that continues in its obstinacy, God promises anguish and destruction. The ultimate joy of God’s servants is contained in a description of new heavens and a new earth (65:17-25). Peace, long life, and prosperity will be among the blessings enjoyed in an era that seems to combine features of the Millennium and the eternal state (cf. ch 60).<\/p>\nIn a fitting summary, chapter 66 ties together the themes of salvation and judgment. God will comfort Jerusalem and abundantly bless her, but sinners are the objects of his wrath. Those who honor him will endure forever, but those who rebel will suffer everlasting rejection.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Isaiah (Person); Israel, History of; Messiah; Prophecy; Prophet, Prophetess; Servant of the Lord; Virgin Birth of Jesus.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ISAIAH, Book of<\/h3>\nPreview<\/p>\n• Author<\/p>\n• Date<\/p>\n• Background<\/p>\n• Literary Unity<\/p>\n• Theological Teaching<\/p>\n• Content<\/p>\nAuthor<\/p>\nThe prophet Isaiah, whose name means “the Lord saves,” lived and ministered in Jerusalem. Because of his repeated contact with the kings of Judah, some scholars believed that Isaiah was related to the royal family, but this is not certain. According to chapters 7 and 8, Isaiah was married and had at least two sons, Shear-jashub and Maher-shalal-hash-baz, whose symbolic names illustrated God’s dealings with the nation as a whole. The “disciples” mentioned in 8:16 probably assisted Isaiah in his ministry and may have helped him record the book that bears his name.<\/p>\nWhen Isaiah saw the Lord in the famous temple vision described in chapter 6, he was willing to go wherever God sent him, even though he would face strong opposition (6:9-10). King Ahaz proved to be particularly resistant to Isaiah’s advice (7:4-17), and the people in general ridiculed his preaching (5:10-12; 28:9-10). During the reign of the godly Hezekiah, however, Isaiah’s ministry was much appreciated, and the king consulted him eagerly during times of crisis (37:1-7, 21-35).<\/p>\nIsaiah is usually regarded as the greatest of the writing prophets. Some of the chapters in his book display an unparalleled literary beauty and make use of poetic devices and a rich variety of symbols. Chapters 40–66 contain many powerful passages that underscore the grandeur of the book. It is ironic, then, that many scholars attribute these chapters to a “second” or “third” Isaiah, unknown authors who wrote much later than Isaiah in connection with the Babylonian exile. Yet elsewhere in the OT, the names of all who wrote the prophetic books are preserved, and it would be most unusual for the Jews not to know who wrote such magnificent prophecy as chapters 40–66.<\/p>\nDate<\/p>\nSince many of the events recorded in chapters 1–39 took place during the ministry of Isaiah, most of these chapters were probably written by about 700 BC<\/span> or shortly thereafter. The destruction of the Assyrian army in 701 BC<\/span> represents the climax of the first half of the book, fulfilling the prophecy of 10:16, 24-34 and 30:31-33. In 37:38 Isaiah refers to the death of King Sennacherib, which did not occur until 681 BC<\/span>. This means that some of the earlier chapters, along with 40–66, were probably written later, during Isaiah’s retirement years. A gap of several decades could help account for the change in subject matter that is found in the last half of the book. In these chapters Isaiah projects into the future as he addresses the Jews who would be in exile in Babylon about 550 BC<\/span>.<\/p>\nBackground<\/p>\nIsaiah’s public ministry occurred primarily from 740–700 BC<\/span>, a period marked by the rapid expansion of the nation of Assyria. Under King Tiglath-pileser III (745–727 BC<\/span>), the Assyrians moved to the west and south, and by 738 BC<\/span> the Assyrian monarch was demanding tribute from Damascus and Israel. About 734 BC<\/span> Rezin of Damascus (Syria) and Pekah of Israel organized a coalition to rebel against Assyria, and they tried to enlist the support of King Ahaz of Judah. But Ahaz refused to join, and when the kings of Damascus and Israel invaded Judah (see 7:1), Ahaz appealed directly to Tiglath-pileser for help (cf. 2 Kgs 16:7-9). With little hesitation the Assyrians returned to capture Damascus and to turn the northern kingdom of Israel into an Assyrian province.<\/p>\nThe puppet king Hoshea ruled over Israel from 732–723 BC but was imprisoned when he joined a revolt against Shalmaneser V, the new Assyrian king. Shalmaneser besieged the capital city of Samaria, which finally fell in 722 BC<\/span>, spelling the end of the northern kingdom. Sargon succeeded Shalmaneser in 722 and had to quell a number of revolts. In 711 BC<\/span> Sargon captured the Philistine city of Ashdod in a campaign that became the occasion of Isaiah’s prophecy of chapter 20.<\/p>\n\nEven more important was the widespread rebellion that broke out with the accession of Sennacherib in 705 BC<\/span>. King Hezekiah of Judah withheld his normal tribute payment, and by 701 BC<\/span> Sennacherib had invaded Palestine to punish the rebels. The details of this campaign are given in Isaiah 36–37 and tell how city after city was captured by the Assyrians before the invaders stood at the gates of Jerusalem and demanded total surrender. With almost no hope of survival, Hezekiah nevertheless was encouraged by Isaiah to trust God, and in one night the angel of the Lord struck down 185,000 Assyrian soldiers, virtually wiping out Sennacherib’s army (Is 37:36-37).<\/p>\nIn an effort to befriend the enemies of Assyria, Hezekiah showed his treasures to envoys of the king of Babylon (39:1-4). Isaiah warned that someday the Babylonian armies would conquer Jerusalem and carry off those very treasures, along with the residents of the city (vv 5-7). Not only did Isaiah predict the Babylonian captivity of 586–539 BC<\/span> (cf. 6:11-12), but he also foretold that Israel would be released from Babylon (48:20). The Chaldean kingdom led by Nebuchadnezzar would be God’s instrument of judgment upon Judah, but they too would suffer defeat. One of Isaiah’s most remarkable prophecies was the naming of Cyrus, king of Persia, the ruler who would conquer the Babylonians in 539 BC<\/span> and release Israel from exile (cf. 44:28). Along with the Medes (cf. 13:17), Cyrus won several important victories before sending his troops against Babylon. Isaiah hailed him as one anointed by the Lord to bring deliverance for Israel (45:1-5).<\/p>\nLiterary Unity<\/p>\nLargely because of the references to the later kingdoms of Babylon and Persia, the unity of Isaiah has been called into question. Chapters 40–66 move abruptly into the exilic period of 550 BC<\/span>, almost 150 years after Isaiah lived. Moreover, the Servant of the Lord plays a prominent role in these chapters and the messianic king fades into the background. Brilliant poetic passages are found in chapters 40, 53, 55, and 60, demonstrating remarkable depth and power.<\/p>\nAlthough these factors are sometimes cited as a sign of disunity, there are actually strong indications for unity in the book. For example, the historical interlude (chs 36–39) forms a hinge or bridge that links chapters 1–35 and 40–66. Chapters 36–37 complete the Assyrian section, and chapters 38–39 introduce the Babylonian material. Most of the linking chapters are written in prose, while the others (in some translations) are largely poetry. From the standpoint of verbal or stylistic unity, one can point to Isaiah’s favorite title for God, “the Holy One of Israel.” This title appears 12 times in chapters 1–39, and 14 times in chapters 40–66, but only seven times in the rest of the OT. A study of the famous Servant Songs of 52:13–53:12 reveals several ties with earlier passages, especially in chapters 1–6. The servant who is smitten and wounded (53:4-5) receives the same punishment as the beaten and injured nation of 1:5-6 (also cf. 52:13 with 2:12 and 6:1).<\/p>\nTheological Teaching<\/p>\nIsaiah is to the OT as the book of Romans is to the NT—a book filled with rich theological truth. Like Romans, Isaiah unveils the sinfulness of God’s rebellious people and his gracious provision of salvation. Because God is the Holy One of Israel (1:4; 6:3), he cannot ignore sin but must punish those who are guilty. Both Israel (5:30; 42:25) and the other nations (2:11, 17, 20) experience a time of judgment known as the Day of the Lord. In anger God raises his hand against his people (cf. 5:25), but ultimately his wrath is poured out upon Babylon and the nations (cf. 13:3-5; 34:2).<\/p>\nWith the fall of Assyria and Babylon, the Day of the Lord becomes a day of joyous victory (10:27; 61:2). According to Isaiah 63:4, it is the year of the Lord’s redemption. Earlier, Israel had been redeemed from slavery in Egypt; now the return from the Babylonian captivity brings equal joy (52:9; 61:1). The ultimate redemption is to be accomplished through the death of Christ, and Isaiah 53 describes our Lord’s suffering and death in graphic terms. His ministry as the Suffering Servant is also introduced in 49:4 and 50:6-7; meanwhile, 49:6 states that the servant will be “a light for the Gentiles.” Looking ahead to the Second Coming, Isaiah predicts a messianic age of peace and righteousness. Nations will “beat their swords into plowshares” (2:4) and the “Prince of Peace” will rule forever (9:6-7).<\/p>\nThroughout the book God is pictured as the all-powerful Creator (48:13)—the sovereign One seated on a throne, high and exalted; the King, the Lord Almighty (6:1, 5). He controls the armies of the earth (13:4) and removes rulers as he wills (40:23-24). Before him, nations “are but a drop in the bucket” (40:15, nlt<\/span>), and compared with him all idols are worthless and without power (41:29; 44:6). This is the God who shows his fury to his foes and his love to his servants (66:14).<\/p>\n\nContent<\/p>\n<h5>Messages of Judgment and Hope (1–12)<\/h5>\nIn the opening chapter Isaiah characterizes Israel (including Judah) as “a sinful nation” that has rebelled against God. Although the people regularly bring offerings to him, their worship is hypocritical, an attempt to mask their oppression of the poor and helpless. The Lord encourages the nation to repent of their sin or face the fires of judgment. After this introduction, Isaiah turns to describe the peace of the messianic age in 2:1-4. The day will come when all nations will obey God’s word and live at peace. “The mountain of the Lord<\/span>”—Jerusalem—will be raised up “and all the nations shall flow to it” (2:2-3, rsv<\/span>). In the meantime, however, both Israel and the nations have exalted themselves against the Lord, and he will judge them in an awesome display of power. For Israel, God’s judgment will bring great upheaval, including the loss of its leaders. Defiant and ruthless, the rulers will face either death or deportation. Chapter 3 ends by denouncing the pride and vanity of the women of Zion; they, too, will suffer disgrace. After Jerusalem is cleansed of its sin, the remnant will enjoy the rule of “the branch of the Lord<\/span>,” who will protect and shield his people (4:2-6).<\/p>\nIn 5:1-7 Isaiah presents a short song about Israel as God’s vineyard. The Lord did everything possible to ensure a yield of good grapes, but the vineyard produced nothing but bad fruit and had to be destroyed. Isaiah then pronounces six woes against Israel, and announces that the Assyrian army will invade the land. Against the backdrop of Israel’s sin, Isaiah (ch 6) gives an account of the vision through which he was called as a prophet. Overwhelmed by the holiness of God and by his own sinfulness, Isaiah thought he was ruined, but when he was assured that his sins were forgiven, he responded positively to God’s call in spite of the stubbornness of the nation to which he was sent.<\/p>\nOne of the most stubborn individuals in all the nation was King Ahaz of Judah, and chapter 7 describes Isaiah’s encounter with this godless ruler. When Ahaz was threatened by Damascus and the northern kingdom, he refused to believe Isaiah’s promise that God would protect him. This was the occasion on which Isaiah gave Ahaz the sign of Immanuel (7:14). The “virgin” refers ultimately to Mary and “Immanuel” to Christ (Mt 1:23), but in the near fulfillment the child could be Isaiah’s own son Maher-shalal-hash-baz (Is 8:3). (See<\/em> four interpretations of this passage in Virgin Birth of Jesus.) This name (meaning “swift to plunder and quick to spoil,” v 1, nlt<\/span> mg) would be a sign that soon Judah’s enemies would fall; “Immanuel” signified that God would be with Judah (v 10, nlt<\/span> mg). However, if Ahaz appealed for help to the king of Assyria, Isaiah warned him, Assyria’s powerful armies would one day invade Judah also (cf. 7:17-25; 8:6-8). The destruction brought by Assyria would plunge Judah into a time of famine and distress (8:21-22).<\/p>\nNevertheless, the gloom and darkness associated with the Assyrian invasion would not last indefinitely, and 9:1-5 speaks of a time of peace and joy. Verses 6-7 introduce a child who would become a righteous King and would rule forever. This “Prince of Peace” is the Messiah, the “Mighty God” whose kingdom is described in 2:2-4.<\/p>\nFor the immediate future, however, both Israel and Judah will suffer the agony of war as punishment for their sins. God is angry with his people because they are proud and arrogant, and their leaders disregard the pleas of the poor and needy. Civil war and foreign invasion will crush the hapless nation (9:8–10:4). But once Israel has been judged, God will turn his hand against Assyria, the instrument he has used to judge other nations. Because of her string of victories, Assyria is filled with pride and is eager for more triumph. Yet even at the moment when Jerusalem is about to succumb, God will cut down the Assyrian army like a cedar in Lebanon and spare his people (10:26-34).<\/p>\nAfter Assyria’s defeat, Isaiah describes the restoration of Israel and the powerful rule of the Messiah (ch 11). Both Jews and Gentiles will be attracted to Jerusalem to enjoy an era of peace and justice. Like David, the Messiah will have the Spirit of God resting upon him as he judges the wicked and protects the needy. To conclude these opening messages, Isaiah offers two short songs of praise that celebrate God’s past deliverance and his promise of future blessing (ch 12).<\/p>\n<h5>Oracles against the Nations (13–23)<\/h5>\nAlthough Babylon is not the major power of the day, Isaiah begins his announcements of judgment with two chapters about the destruction of Assyria’s neighbor to the south. Babylon will eventually conquer Jerusalem (between 605 and 586 BC<\/span>), but the Medes (13:17) along with the Elamites will capture Babylon (539 BC<\/span>). In spite of the glory to be achieved by future kings of Babylon, God will bring their pomp down to the grave (14:9-10). The chapter ends with short prophecies against Assyria and the Philistines.<\/p>\nOne of Israel’s oldest enemies was the nation of Moab, situated east of the Dead Sea. Even though it was a small country, Isaiah devotes two chapters to these descendants of Lot. Chapter 15 describes the extensive mourning that will overwhelm their cities. After a brief interlude urging the Moabites to submit to Israel and to her God (16:1-5), Isaiah notes that pride will lead to Moab’s downfall. Sounds of weeping fill the land as the vines and fields wither and are trampled.<\/p>\nIn chapter 17 the fourth oracle is directed against Damascus and Ephraim (the northern kingdom of Israel), probably reflecting their alliance against Judah about 734 BC<\/span>. Both nations will face ruin, and Ephraim is condemned for abandoning the Lord, her “Savior” and “Rock” (17:10).<\/p>\nIn chapters 18 and 19 Isaiah turns to the south and addresses Ethiopia and Egypt, countries that had strong links from 715–633 BC<\/span>, when an Ethiopian named Shabako became pharaoh in Egypt. But Egypt is plagued with disunity and suffers greatly at the hands of Assyrian kings. In spite of the supposed wisdom of her leaders, Egypt faces economic and political ruin (19:5-15). Yet the time is coming when the Egyptians will be restored and will worship the God of Israel. Along with Assyria and Israel, Egypt will become a blessing (19:24). Some interpreters think this is a prophecy of the salvation of Gentiles during the church age, but others relate this day to the peace of the millennial age (cf. 2:2-4; 11:6-9). For the immediate future, however, Isaiah announces that Assyria will take many Egyptians and Ethiopians into captivity (ch 20).<\/p>\nA second oracle about Babylon (cf. 13:1–14:23) is contained in chapter 21, and Isaiah is staggered as he considers the impact of Babylon’s fall (21:3-4). When Babylon collapses, the world will know that her gods were powerless (21:9; cf. Rv 14:8; 18:2).<\/p>\nAlthough it seems out of place among these oracles against the nations, chapter 22 condemns the city of Jerusalem. Like the nations, Jerusalem is full of revelry (22:2) but will soon experience the terrors of a siege. Since the people no longer rely on the Lord (v 11), he will hand them over to the enemy. Jerusalem’s unfaithfulness is exemplified by Shebna, a high official guilty of pride and materialism whose position will be taken by the godly Eliakim (vv 15-23).<\/p>\nThe last oracle (ch 23) is directed against the city of Tyre, which resisted capture until Alexander the Great conquered the island fortress in 332 BC<\/span>. When Tyre fell, the economy of the entire Mediterranean world was shaken, for her ships had carried the goods of the nations far and wide.<\/p>\n<h5>Final Judgment and Blessing (24–27)<\/h5>\nThis section functions as a grand finale to chapters 13–23 in that it anticipates God’s judgment upon the nations and the inauguration of the kingdom of God. A defiled earth must bear its punishment (24:5-6) and even the forces of Satan face judgment (vv 21-22).<\/p>\nIn chapter 25 Isaiah rejoices over God’s great triumph and looks ahead to a day when death will be swallowed up and tears will be wiped from all faces (25:8). Israel’s longtime enemies, symbolized by Moab, will be laid low (vv 10-12), but Jerusalem will be a stronghold for the righteous (26:1-3). In 26:7-19 the nation prays that these promises will become a reality. Verses 20-21 indicate that the Lord will indeed respond, pouring out his wrath upon a sin-cursed earth and upon Satan himself (27:1). When that takes place, Israel will be a fruitful vineyard, a blessing to the whole world (27:2-6; contrast 5:1-7). First, however, Israel will have to endure war and exile, and then the remnant will return to Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<h5>A Series of Woes (28–33)<\/h5>\nReturning to his own historical period, Isaiah pronounces a series of woes upon both the northern and southern kingdoms, as well as one upon Assyria (ch 33). Chapter 28 begins with a description of the fading power of Samaria, the capital of the northern kingdom. Verses 7-10 portray the leaders of Judah in the same light; they have disregarded Isaiah’s message and are out of touch with God. Judgment is on the way, and their false preparation (vv 15, 18) will be of no avail. God will fight against Israel (vv 21-22), and even Jerusalem will be put under siege until God in his mercy intervenes (29:1-8). Because of their hypocritical worship, the people deserve to be punished, but in the future Israel will again acknowledge the Lord and be made physically and spiritually whole (29:17-24).<\/p>\nChapters 30 and 31 denounce Judah’s proposed alliance with Egypt in the effort to thwart Assyria. God wants his people to trust him, not their unreliable neighbors to the south. The Lord promises to protect Jerusalem (30:18; 31:5) and defeat the invading Assyrian army (30:31-33; 31:8-9). None can stand before his mighty sword.<\/p>\nContinuing on this positive note, Isaiah goes on to emphasize the righteous rule of the messianic king in chapters 32 and 33. Zion will enjoy peace and security at last (32:2, 17-18; 33:6), a great change from Isaiah’s own time. In eighth-century BC<\/span> Judah the women might feel secure (32:9), but the Assyrian troops will devastate the crops and precipitate widespread mourning. However, the lamenting will soon end, as the prophet pronounces woe upon Assyria in 33:1. After Isaiah prays for the destruction of Assyria (33:2-9), God promises to take action (vv 10-12). Gone will be the enemy soldiers and officials, for the Lord will save his people and bring them justice and security.<\/p>\n<h5>More Judgment and Blessing (34–35)<\/h5>\nThis section forms a climax to chapters 28–33. Once more, cataclysmic judgment precedes a time of blessing and restoration. In chapter 34 Isaiah depicts a judgment of cosmic dimensions as he moves to a consideration of the last days. Heaven and earth endure the wrath of God that is poured out upon the nations, and verse 4 provides the basis for John’s description of the great tribulation in Revelation 6:13-14. Edom (like Moab; see Is 25:10-12) represents a world judged by the sword of the Lord in his day of vengeance.<\/p>\nChapter 35, on the other hand, speaks of joy and restoration in a passage that pulsates with life. A blooming desert corresponds to the physical and spiritual age when God will come to redeem his people. Both the return of the Israelites from the Babylonian captivity and the second coming of Christ fit this glorious scene.<\/p>\n<h5>Historical Interlude (36–39)<\/h5>\nThese chapters form the hinge that connects the two halves of the book. Chapters 36 and 37 contain the fulfillment of Isaiah’s prophecies about Assyria’s collapse, and chapters 38 and 39 introduce the Babylonian captivity that forms the backdrop for chapters 40–66. In 701 BC<\/span> King Sennacherib of Assyria demands the unconditional surrender of Jerusalem. He sends his field commander to address the people and try to gain their submission. With persuasive words, the commander tries to convince the city that surrender is the best policy. Amazingly the people do not panic, and King Hezekiah asks Isaiah to pray for the beleaguered city. The prophet does so and announces that the proud Assyrians will not triumph. Instead, they suffer a terrible disaster as the angel of the Lord strikes down 185,000 men.<\/p>\nChapters 38 and 39 relate another crisis in Hezekiah’s life when he becomes desperately ill. Miraculously, God heals him, and Hezekiah praises the Lord for his gracious intervention. When the king of Babylon sends envoys to congratulate Hezekiah on his recovery, Hezekiah foolishly shows these messengers his royal treasures. Isaiah solemnly announces that someday the armies of Babylon will capture Jerusalem, plunder the land, and take away these treasures.<\/p>\n<h5>The Return from Babylon (40–48)<\/h5>\nThe Babylonian captivity eventually comes, but Isaiah promises that it will end. God, the incomparably powerful Creator, is far greater than any king, nation, or god, and he will bring his people back to Jerusalem. To accomplish this return from exile, God raises up Cyrus, the king of Persia (41:2, 25). The Lord does not forget his people, and he encourages them to take heart and to rejoice.<\/p>\nIn chapter 42 we are introduced to a person even more significant than Cyrus the Persian. Verses 1-7 (the first of four Servant Songs) describe the servant of the Lord, who will bring justice to the nations and will be “a light for the Gentiles” (42:6). This is the Messiah, and the redemption he will accomplish on Calvary (cf. ch 53) is greater than the release from Babylon. In light of the good news associated with the servant, Isaiah praises the Lord for punishing the wicked and rescuing his wayward people. Chapter 43 declares that nothing will stand in the way of Israel’s return, and the Lord will remember their sins no more. In fact, he will pour out his Spirit on their descendants (44:3).<\/p>\nA God so great is far more powerful than any idol. In 44:6-20 Isaiah makes use of satire to show the worthlessness of man-made images. God alone has the power to create and to restore, and he will bring Cyrus on the scene to effect the release of the exiles and to begin the rebuilding of Jerusalem. Chapters 46 and 47 contrast the God of Israel and the idols of Babylon. When God raises up Cyrus, Babylon’s idols will be unable to save their nation, and the queen of kingdoms (47:5) will collapse along with her sorcerers and astrologers. The final chapter in this section (ch 48) restates God’s purpose of gaining release of the Israelites from Babylon through his chosen ally, Cyrus of Persia.<\/p>\n<h5>Salvation through the Servant of the Lord (49–57)<\/h5>\nChapters 49–53 contain the final three Servant Songs (cf. also 42:1-7), culminating in the death of the servant for the sins of the world (52:13–53:12). In the second Servant Song (49:1-7), Isaiah describes the call and ministry of the servant, noting that he will face strong opposition as he accomplishes salvation for Israel and the nations. The rest of chapter 49 deals primarily with the way God will bring Israel back from exile. Soon the land will be filled with a mighty throng (vv 19-21), and the Gentiles will acknowledge Israel and her God (vv 22-23).<\/p>\nAlthough Israel has fully deserved the exile because of her sins (50:1-3), the suffering endured by the servant (vv 4-11; the third Servant Song) is wholly undeserved. The beating and mocking of verse 6 are prophetic of Christ’s experience (cf. Mt 27:26, 30; Mk 15:19). In verses 10-11 of Isaiah 50 the whole nation is challenged to trust in the Lord, as the servant did. There is, in fact, a believing remnant who obey the Lord (51:1-8), and the Lord promises that he will restore them to their homeland. Israel has drunk the cup of God’s wrath (vv 17, 22), but the good news of release from exile causes even the ruins of Jerusalem to burst into songs of joy (52:7-10).<\/p>\nYet the best news of all is salvation from sin; the final Servant Song (52:13–53:12) tells how Christ wins freedom for those held in bondage to sin. In this brief passage we learn how Christ suffers rejection (53:3) and even disfigurement (52:14). Led like a lamb to the slaughter (53:7), he carries our sins in his body as he dies in ignominy. The people think he is suffering for his own sins (v 4), but he is “pierced” and “crushed for our iniquities” (v 5). The first and last paragraphs of this section (52:13-15; 53:10-12) state that through his suffering the servant is highly exalted. What seems like a terrible defeat is actually victory over death and Satan and brings salvation for many.<\/p>\nAs a direct result of the servant’s death, great joy comes to all people. In chapter 54 this joy is reflected in Jerusalem’s new status as the Lord’s wife. Her descendants will be numerous and eager to learn from the Lord. For the first time the plural “servants of the Lord<\/span>” appears (54:17), apparently including all believers, whether Jew or Gentile (cf. 65:8-9, 13-15). Joy and prosperity also characterize chapter 55, an invitation to a great spiritual banquet. All people are urged to turn to the Lord who keeps his promises to Israel. In 56:1-8, foreigners are invited to come to God’s “holy mountain” in Jerusalem, for the temple will be a house of prayer for all the nations (56:7; cf. Mt 21:13).<\/p>\nBelieving Gentiles are contrasted sharply with unbelieving Jews, and in 56:9–57:13 Isaiah returns again to the theme of judgment. Israel suffers because her leaders are wicked and because the people are guilty of idolatry. Spiritual healing is available, but unless individuals repent, they cannot be part of the remnant who will return from exile and enjoy peace in the Promised Land.<\/p>\n<h5>Ultimate Blessing and Final Judgment (58–66)<\/h5>\nThe last nine chapters of Isaiah emphasize redemption and glory, but the reality of judgment is also very much in evidence. In fact, chapters 58 and 59 bemoan the sins of Israel. The people are hypocritical in their worship; they are selfish and fail to keep the Sabbath. Lying, oppression, and murder separate the people from God. When Isaiah openly confesses these sins (59:12-13), the Lord suddenly takes action on behalf of his people. Like a mighty warrior, he rescues the believing remnant from Babylon and brings them back to Jerusalem.<\/p>\nIn chapter 60 the glory and wealth of Jerusalem reach new heights. Both the city and the sanctuary are adorned with splendor, matching the prosperity of Solomon’s reign. Just as the nations treated Solomon with honor, so earth’s leaders will assist and strengthen the returning exiles. While it is true that the Persian government did help the Jews repeatedly, the conditions described here will have their ultimate fulfillment during the Millennium and in connection with the new Jerusalem (cf. Rv 21:23; 22:5). The ancient ruins will be rebuilt (Is 61:4), and the Lord will fulfill the covenant made with Abraham and David (Is 61:8; cf. Gn 12:1-3; Is 55:3). Jerusalem will be the city of the holy people, the redeemed of the Lord (Is 62:12), and the Lord will take delight in her (v 4).<\/p>\nIn order to accomplish salvation for his people, God will have to judge the ungodly first. The great trampling of the winepress (63:2-3) graphically portrays the judgment process and is linked with the Day of the Lord (cf. 13:3; 34:2). Since God has promised to intervene on behalf of his people, Isaiah prays for the realization of that promise (63:7–64:12). He recalls God’s faithfulness in the past and pleads that he will again have mercy upon his suffering people.<\/p>\nThe answer to Isaiah’s prayer is found in chapter 65. God does promise to give the Holy Land back to his servants, to those who worship him and obey him. But for that segment of the nation that continues in its obstinacy, God promises anguish and destruction. The ultimate joy of God’s servants is contained in a description of new heavens and a new earth (65:17-25). Peace, long life, and prosperity will be among the blessings enjoyed in an era that seems to combine features of the Millennium and the eternal state (cf. ch 60).<\/p>\nIn a fitting summary, chapter 66 ties together the themes of salvation and judgment. God will comfort Jerusalem and abundantly bless her, but sinners are the objects of his wrath. Those who honor him will endure forever, but those who rebel will suffer everlasting rejection.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Isaiah (Person); Israel, History of; Messiah; Prophecy; Prophet, Prophetess; Servant of the Lord; Virgin Birth of Jesus.<\/p>","summary_ro":"ISAIAH, Book of Preview • Author • Date • Background • Literary Unity • Theological Teaching • Content Author The prophet Isaiah, whose name means “the Lord saves,” lived and ministered in Jerusalem. Because of his repeated contact with the kings of Judah, some scholars believed that Isaiah was related to the royal family, but this is not certain. According to chapters 7 and 8, Isaiah was married and had at least two sons, Shear-jashub and Maher-shalal-hash-baz, whose symbolic names illustrat...","summary_en":"ISAIAH, Book of Preview • Author • Date • Background • Literary Unity • Theological Teaching • Content Author The prophet Isaiah, whose name means “the Lord saves,” lived and ministered in Jerusalem. Because of his repeated contact with the kings of Judah, some scholars believed that Isaiah was related to the royal family, but this is not certain. According to chapters 7 and 8, Isaiah was married and had at least two sons, Shear-jashub and Maher-shalal-hash-baz, whose symbolic names illustrat...","source":"Articles\/I.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":23279,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Light","title_en":"Light","content_ro":"<h3>LIGHT<\/h3>\nIllumination that makes sight possible.<\/p>\nIn the Old Testament<\/p>\nLight is a many-sided concept in the OT. The term is often used of ordinary, sensible light, but it also speaks of communicating spiritual truth. Light was the first thing God created after the heavens and earth (Gn 1:3). God also made individual lights such as the sun, moon, and stars (v 16). Sometimes light is personified, as when its inaccessibility is indicated by saying that it is impossible to reach the place where it lives (Jb 38:19; cf. v 24). There are also manufactured light sources, such as those used in the tabernacle (Ex 25:37).<\/p>\nLight is a natural symbol for what is pleasant, good, or uplifting, or what is associated with important people and more especially with God. “Light is pleasant,” says the preacher (Eccl 11:7). During one of the plagues in Egypt, the Egyptians were in thick darkness while the Israelites had light (Ex 10:23). When the Israelites left Egypt, they were led in the wilderness by a pillar of cloud by day and of fire by night (13:21). The pillar gave them light when their enemies were in darkness (14:20). In later days Israel remembered that God did not abandon his people even when they sinned; the pillar of fire was always there to show them the right way (Neh 9:19; cf. Neh 9:12; Pss 78:14; 105:39).<\/p>\nLight symbolizes the blessing of the Lord. Job said, “He floods the darkness with light; he brings light to the deepest gloom” (Jb 12:22, nlt<\/span>). In his time of trouble Job recalled earlier, better days: “I long for the years gone by when God took care of me, when he lighted the way before me and I walked safely through the darkness” (Jb 29:2-3, nlt<\/span>). Similarly Eliphaz pictured the happiness that would befall Job if he would take Eliphaz’s advice: “Whatever you decide to do will be accomplished, and light will shine on the road ahead of you” (Jb 22:28, nlt<\/span>). Eliphaz’s use of that expression shows what is commonly conveyed in his day. The psalmist counted it a blessing when God himself lighted his lamp (Pss 18:28; 118:27; cf. 97:11; 112:4).<\/p>\nLight is closely linked with God; indeed, God can be said to be light: “No longer will you need the sun or moon to give you light, for the Lord<\/span> your God will be your everlasting light, and he will be your glory. The sun will never set; the moon will not go down. For the Lord<\/span> will be your everlasting light” (Is 60:19-20, nlt<\/span>). The psalmist exulted, “The Lord<\/span> is my light and my salvation” (Ps 27:1). God is said to be robed with light (104:2), and light dwells with him (Dn 2:22). Darkness is no problem to God; darkness and light are alike to him (Ps 139:12). Micah saw God as light and also as bringing his servants into the light (Mi 7:8-9). Both are ways of affirming that there is blessing and victory with God, so that a servant of God need never be dismayed.<\/p>\nGod’s blessing, described in terms of light, is also related to “the light of his presence.” Something of that expression’s meaning is seen from its use in Psalm 4:6: “Many people say, ‘Who will show us better times?’ Let the smile of your face shine on us, Lord<\/span>” (nlt<\/span>). The parallelism shows that “good” and the lifting up of the light of God’s countenance are much the same. Similarly, it was the light of God’s countenance that brought victory (Ps 44:3; here it is linked with God’s right hand and arm and his delight in his people). Those who walk in the light of God’s countenance are blessed (89:15). There is another side to that expression, for secret sins are exposed in his light (90:8). There is a close scrutiny from which no one and nothing can escape. But the predominant idea is that of the blessing that follows from God’s looking upon his people. On one occasion the phrase is used of a person showing favor to others (Jb 29:24). An extension of the Lord’s blessing is the light God gives to the world through his servants (Is 42:6; 49:6). God’s servants can guide others to the revelation and blessing of God.<\/p>\nLight is associated with justice when the Lord says, “A law will go forth from me, and my justice for a light to the peoples” (Is 51:4, rsv<\/span>). God’s light in that act of justice is a consuming fire. Sometimes light is connected with good behavior: “The path of the righteous is like the light of dawn, which shines brighter and brighter until full day” (Prv 4:18, rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\nThe OT uses the absence of light as a synonym for disaster. There are those who grope in the dark without light (Jb 12:25). Bildad saw the light of the wicked put out in punishment and death (18:5-17). The wicked will be “thrust from light into darkness” (v 18). In the aftermath of the Babylonian destruction of Jerusalem there came the lament “He has brought me into deep darkness, shutting out all light” (Lam 3:2, nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nIn the New Testament<\/p>\nNew Testament references to light are often figurative. Thus, on the Damascus road, Saul of Tarsus encountered “a light from heaven” (Acts 9:3; cf. 22:6-11; 26:13). Was that light as we know it or something else? Likewise, what quality of light shone in the apostle Peter’s cell (12:7)? The light in the heavenly city is not the kind of illumination seen on earth, “for the Lord God will be their light” (Rv 22:5; cf. 21:11, 23-24).<\/p>\nThe association of God with light is recurrent in the NT. The apostle John wrote that “God is light and there is no darkness in him at all” (1 Jn 1:5, nlt<\/span>). The apostle James referred to God as “the Father of lights” (Jas 1:17). Or God may be thought of as living in light, light that no person can approach (1 Tm 6:16; cf. 1 Jn 1:7). Jesus said, “I am the light of the world” (Jn 8:12; see also 9:5), and “I have come as light into the world, that whoever believes in me may not remain in darkness” (Jn 12:46, rsv<\/span>). Jesus told his followers to believe in the light while it was with them (v 35). Such passages emphasize that Christ brought a revelation from God, but he was more than a revealer. He was himself that revelation, according to the apostle John (Jn 1:1-10). John the Baptist came to bear witness to the light for the purpose of bringing people to believe (vv 7-8). Those who received Jesus, who believed in the light, received the right to become children of God (vv 9-12). Sometimes light is used to express the illumination that happens when people come to the knowledge of God and his salvation (Mt 4:16; Lk 2:32; Acts 13:47; 26:18).<\/p>\nPerhaps thinking of a then-popular concept of a war between light and darkness, John wrote that the light shines in the darkness and adds that the darkness has not overcome it (Jn 1:5; cf. 1 Jn 2:8). John tells us that “the light from heaven came into the world, but they loved the darkness more than the light, for their actions were evil” (Jn 3:19, nlt<\/span>). To love darkness brings condemnation, now and at the final judgment. John pointed out that evildoers keep away from the light; they do not want their evil exposed. But those who “do the truth” come to the light (vv 20-21). In John’s account of the raising of Lazarus, Jesus speaks of the possibility of walking without stumbling in the light of day, but then he goes on to the way a man stumbles in the night because he has no light (11:10). The lack of light “in” the man shows that it is a spiritual process with which Jesus is concerned and not with making physical progress by daylight. He who follows Jesus will have the light of life (8:12), which indicates what Jesus has in mind.<\/p>\nThose who respond to the light may be characterized as “sons of light” (Jn 12:36). Their allegiance is to the light and their conduct has been shaped by this fact. The concept is not confined to John’s Gospel, for we also see it in Luke (Lk 16:8). We find it in Paul’s affirmation that the Thessalonian Christians are children of light and of the day, not of the night or darkness (1 Thes 5:5). John speaks of walking in the light (1 Jn 1:7) and sees the conduct of the Christian as aptly symbolized by light.<\/p>\nThis way of looking at the Christian’s manner of life reaches its high point in the words of Jesus to his followers: “You are the light of the world” (Mt 5:14), thus applying to them words that are also applied to himself. Of course, we are not the world’s light in the same sense as he is. When light refers to Christ, there is a reference to him as Savior and not merely as one who reveals great truths. When believers are called the light of the world, there is clearly no saving significance in the description: they do not accomplish the world’s salvation. But they do point it out. It is their function to live as redeemed people. They are to show the quality of life proper to the people of God and in this way act as light to the people of the world. They are to let their light shine before the world in such a way that people will see their good deeds and so come to praise God (not, be it noted, those who do the deeds, Mt 5:16). It is important for those in this position to make full use of the light they have. It is tragic when the light that is in them is darkness (Mt 6:23; Lk 11:35).<\/p>\nThis metaphor is worked out in a way not congenial to modern men and women, but the basic lesson is clear. Christians have been illuminated by the light that is Christ, who dwells within his people. If they ignore the illumination he brings and live like those in the dark, then indeed they are in deep darkness. They are worse than others because they know what light is and what it can mean to them, and have turned away from it.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Darkness.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>LIGHT<\/h3>\nIllumination that makes sight possible.<\/p>\nIn the Old Testament<\/p>\nLight is a many-sided concept in the OT. The term is often used of ordinary, sensible light, but it also speaks of communicating spiritual truth. Light was the first thing God created after the heavens and earth (Gn 1:3). God also made individual lights such as the sun, moon, and stars (v 16). Sometimes light is personified, as when its inaccessibility is indicated by saying that it is impossible to reach the place where it lives (Jb 38:19; cf. v 24). There are also manufactured light sources, such as those used in the tabernacle (Ex 25:37).<\/p>\nLight is a natural symbol for what is pleasant, good, or uplifting, or what is associated with important people and more especially with God. “Light is pleasant,” says the preacher (Eccl 11:7). During one of the plagues in Egypt, the Egyptians were in thick darkness while the Israelites had light (Ex 10:23). When the Israelites left Egypt, they were led in the wilderness by a pillar of cloud by day and of fire by night (13:21). The pillar gave them light when their enemies were in darkness (14:20). In later days Israel remembered that God did not abandon his people even when they sinned; the pillar of fire was always there to show them the right way (Neh 9:19; cf. Neh 9:12; Pss 78:14; 105:39).<\/p>\nLight symbolizes the blessing of the Lord. Job said, “He floods the darkness with light; he brings light to the deepest gloom” (Jb 12:22, nlt<\/span>). In his time of trouble Job recalled earlier, better days: “I long for the years gone by when God took care of me, when he lighted the way before me and I walked safely through the darkness” (Jb 29:2-3, nlt<\/span>). Similarly Eliphaz pictured the happiness that would befall Job if he would take Eliphaz’s advice: “Whatever you decide to do will be accomplished, and light will shine on the road ahead of you” (Jb 22:28, nlt<\/span>). Eliphaz’s use of that expression shows what is commonly conveyed in his day. The psalmist counted it a blessing when God himself lighted his lamp (Pss 18:28; 118:27; cf. 97:11; 112:4).<\/p>\nLight is closely linked with God; indeed, God can be said to be light: “No longer will you need the sun or moon to give you light, for the Lord<\/span> your God will be your everlasting light, and he will be your glory. The sun will never set; the moon will not go down. For the Lord<\/span> will be your everlasting light” (Is 60:19-20, nlt<\/span>). The psalmist exulted, “The Lord<\/span> is my light and my salvation” (Ps 27:1). God is said to be robed with light (104:2), and light dwells with him (Dn 2:22). Darkness is no problem to God; darkness and light are alike to him (Ps 139:12). Micah saw God as light and also as bringing his servants into the light (Mi 7:8-9). Both are ways of affirming that there is blessing and victory with God, so that a servant of God need never be dismayed.<\/p>\nGod’s blessing, described in terms of light, is also related to “the light of his presence.” Something of that expression’s meaning is seen from its use in Psalm 4:6: “Many people say, ‘Who will show us better times?’ Let the smile of your face shine on us, Lord<\/span>” (nlt<\/span>). The parallelism shows that “good” and the lifting up of the light of God’s countenance are much the same. Similarly, it was the light of God’s countenance that brought victory (Ps 44:3; here it is linked with God’s right hand and arm and his delight in his people). Those who walk in the light of God’s countenance are blessed (89:15). There is another side to that expression, for secret sins are exposed in his light (90:8). There is a close scrutiny from which no one and nothing can escape. But the predominant idea is that of the blessing that follows from God’s looking upon his people. On one occasion the phrase is used of a person showing favor to others (Jb 29:24). An extension of the Lord’s blessing is the light God gives to the world through his servants (Is 42:6; 49:6). God’s servants can guide others to the revelation and blessing of God.<\/p>\nLight is associated with justice when the Lord says, “A law will go forth from me, and my justice for a light to the peoples” (Is 51:4, rsv<\/span>). God’s light in that act of justice is a consuming fire. Sometimes light is connected with good behavior: “The path of the righteous is like the light of dawn, which shines brighter and brighter until full day” (Prv 4:18, rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\nThe OT uses the absence of light as a synonym for disaster. There are those who grope in the dark without light (Jb 12:25). Bildad saw the light of the wicked put out in punishment and death (18:5-17). The wicked will be “thrust from light into darkness” (v 18). In the aftermath of the Babylonian destruction of Jerusalem there came the lament “He has brought me into deep darkness, shutting out all light” (Lam 3:2, nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nIn the New Testament<\/p>\nNew Testament references to light are often figurative. Thus, on the Damascus road, Saul of Tarsus encountered “a light from heaven” (Acts 9:3; cf. 22:6-11; 26:13). Was that light as we know it or something else? Likewise, what quality of light shone in the apostle Peter’s cell (12:7)? The light in the heavenly city is not the kind of illumination seen on earth, “for the Lord God will be their light” (Rv 22:5; cf. 21:11, 23-24).<\/p>\nThe association of God with light is recurrent in the NT. The apostle John wrote that “God is light and there is no darkness in him at all” (1 Jn 1:5, nlt<\/span>). The apostle James referred to God as “the Father of lights” (Jas 1:17). Or God may be thought of as living in light, light that no person can approach (1 Tm 6:16; cf. 1 Jn 1:7). Jesus said, “I am the light of the world” (Jn 8:12; see also 9:5), and “I have come as light into the world, that whoever believes in me may not remain in darkness” (Jn 12:46, rsv<\/span>). Jesus told his followers to believe in the light while it was with them (v 35). Such passages emphasize that Christ brought a revelation from God, but he was more than a revealer. He was himself that revelation, according to the apostle John (Jn 1:1-10). John the Baptist came to bear witness to the light for the purpose of bringing people to believe (vv 7-8). Those who received Jesus, who believed in the light, received the right to become children of God (vv 9-12). Sometimes light is used to express the illumination that happens when people come to the knowledge of God and his salvation (Mt 4:16; Lk 2:32; Acts 13:47; 26:18).<\/p>\nPerhaps thinking of a then-popular concept of a war between light and darkness, John wrote that the light shines in the darkness and adds that the darkness has not overcome it (Jn 1:5; cf. 1 Jn 2:8). John tells us that “the light from heaven came into the world, but they loved the darkness more than the light, for their actions were evil” (Jn 3:19, nlt<\/span>). To love darkness brings condemnation, now and at the final judgment. John pointed out that evildoers keep away from the light; they do not want their evil exposed. But those who “do the truth” come to the light (vv 20-21). In John’s account of the raising of Lazarus, Jesus speaks of the possibility of walking without stumbling in the light of day, but then he goes on to the way a man stumbles in the night because he has no light (11:10). The lack of light “in” the man shows that it is a spiritual process with which Jesus is concerned and not with making physical progress by daylight. He who follows Jesus will have the light of life (8:12), which indicates what Jesus has in mind.<\/p>\nThose who respond to the light may be characterized as “sons of light” (Jn 12:36). Their allegiance is to the light and their conduct has been shaped by this fact. The concept is not confined to John’s Gospel, for we also see it in Luke (Lk 16:8). We find it in Paul’s affirmation that the Thessalonian Christians are children of light and of the day, not of the night or darkness (1 Thes 5:5). John speaks of walking in the light (1 Jn 1:7) and sees the conduct of the Christian as aptly symbolized by light.<\/p>\nThis way of looking at the Christian’s manner of life reaches its high point in the words of Jesus to his followers: “You are the light of the world” (Mt 5:14), thus applying to them words that are also applied to himself. Of course, we are not the world’s light in the same sense as he is. When light refers to Christ, there is a reference to him as Savior and not merely as one who reveals great truths. When believers are called the light of the world, there is clearly no saving significance in the description: they do not accomplish the world’s salvation. But they do point it out. It is their function to live as redeemed people. They are to show the quality of life proper to the people of God and in this way act as light to the people of the world. They are to let their light shine before the world in such a way that people will see their good deeds and so come to praise God (not, be it noted, those who do the deeds, Mt 5:16). It is important for those in this position to make full use of the light they have. It is tragic when the light that is in them is darkness (Mt 6:23; Lk 11:35).<\/p>\nThis metaphor is worked out in a way not congenial to modern men and women, but the basic lesson is clear. Christians have been illuminated by the light that is Christ, who dwells within his people. If they ignore the illumination he brings and live like those in the dark, then indeed they are in deep darkness. They are worse than others because they know what light is and what it can mean to them, and have turned away from it.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Darkness.<\/p>","summary_ro":"LIGHT Illumination that makes sight possible. In the Old Testament Light is a many-sided concept in the OT. The term is often used of ordinary, sensible light, but it also speaks of communicating spiritual truth. Light was the first thing God created after the heavens and earth (Gn 1:3). God also made individual lights such as the sun, moon, and stars (v 16). Sometimes light is personified, as when its inaccessibility is indicated by saying that it is impossible to reach the place where it li...","summary_en":"LIGHT Illumination that makes sight possible. In the Old Testament Light is a many-sided concept in the OT. The term is often used of ordinary, sensible light, but it also speaks of communicating spiritual truth. Light was the first thing God created after the heavens and earth (Gn 1:3). God also made individual lights such as the sun, moon, and stars (v 16). Sometimes light is personified, as when its inaccessibility is indicated by saying that it is impossible to reach the place where it li...","source":"Articles\/L.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":25486,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Messiah","title_en":"Messiah","content_ro":"<h3>MESSIAH<\/h3>\nTitle derived from the Hebrew, mashiach<\/span>,<\/em> a verbal adjective meaning “anointed one.” Along with its NT equivalent, christos<\/span> (Christ), it refers to an act of consecration whereby an individual is set apart to serve God and then anointed with oil. The verbal root (<\/em>mashach<\/span>)<\/em> conveys this idea as well.<\/p>\nIsrael’s practice of ceremonially anointing with oil is present in several contexts. Priests were regularly anointed prior to their divinely given service at the altar of sacrifice (Lv 4:3). While there is evidence for a literal anointing of prophets (1 Kgs 19:16), this does not appear to have been a standard practice. The anointing of Saul and David by Samuel established the act as a significant prerequisite for Hebrew kings before they assumed their positions of royal leadership. The king was especially considered to be the Lord’s anointed and as such was viewed to hold a secure position before men (1 Sm 12:14; 2 Sm 19:21) and God (Pss 2:2; 20:6). Along with numerous messianic prophecies, these proceedings helped inform the Jews of the Anointed One, par excellence, who would eventually come to bring salvation to Israel.<\/p>\nConcluding the 13 articles of Hebraic faith attributed to Moses Maimonides (13th century AD<\/span>) is the statement still found in many Hebrew prayer books: “I believe with a perfect heart that the Messiah will come; and although his coming be delayed, I will still wait patiently for his speedy appearance.”<\/p>\nMessiah in the Old Testament<\/p>\nJewish hope for the advent of the Messiah developed dynamically from the period of David’s reign, when it was prophesied that his kingdom would endure to the end of time (2 Sm 7:16). Israel was told that, through David’s descendants, his throne would exert a never-ending dominion over all the earth (2 Sm 22:48-51; Jer 33). It is with this aspect of messianic salvation that Jewish minds have traditionally been preoccupied (cf. Acts 1:6).<\/p>\nAmong Orthodox rabbis there has never been a lack of conjecture respecting the details of the Messiah’s ministry. At one time the rabbis applied no less than 456 passages of Scripture to his person and salvation. Preoccupation with the Messiah is evident in the tractate Sanhedrin<\/em> (Babylonian Talmud), where passages state that the world was created for him and that all the prophets prophesied of his days (Sanhedrin<\/em> 98b, 99a). By and large, Orthodoxy still retains its time-worn belief in the Messiah’s reign in Jerusalem, the rebuilding of the temple, and the reestablishment of both priesthood and sacrifice.<\/p>\nWhile later Judaism looked for the Messiah as an eschatological figure who will reign at the end of time, modern Jewish thought has largely jettisoned the traditional notion of a personal Messiah in favor of belief in a messianic age. Prevalent liberal Judaism envisions the world ultimately perfected through the influence of the twin Judaic ideals of justice and compassion. Such conviction, ignoring the plight of fallen humans and the teaching of Scripture, substitutes humanistic thinking for miraculous heavenly intervention.<\/p>\nWhile the Messiah’s origin is linked firmly to the house of David (2 Sm 7:14; Hos 3:5), the promise for a Messiah was given long before David lived. In fact, the hope for the Messiah is implicit in the first promise of the establishment of the kingdom of God. Addressed to Satan, Genesis 3:15 declares that God will place hostility between the serpent and the woman until, in the fullness of time, the “seed” of the woman inflicts a fatal blow to the head of the serpent.<\/p>\nThe nature of messianic prophecy is progressive; each prophecy casts more light on the subject. This occurs, for example, respecting the concept of the “seed”: Messiah is to be born of a woman (Gn 3:15), through the line of Shem (9:26) and specifically through Abraham (22:18). Yet even as late as Genesis 22:18, the “seed” is not clearly presented as a person, since zerah<\/span> (seed) may indicate a singular or plural object. Still less apparent in these early stages of messianic prophecy is the nature of the “bruising” that is to occur. Yet the idea of the Messiah being crushed for sin is implicit in the Genesis pronouncement, as is the violence associated with that act. Chief among the messianic prophets, Isaiah gives full range to the axiom that the Anointed One must endure extensive suffering (Is 53:1). Under the figure “the Servant of the Lord,” four “servant songs” delineate the mission of the future deliverer (Is 42:1-7; 49:1-9; 50:4-11; 52:13–53:12). While it is true that Isaiah does not explicitly link the title Messiah with the Servant of the Lord, identifying both figures as one and the same person is justifiable. Both figures are uniquely anointed (61:1); each brings light to the Gentiles (55:4; cf. 49:6); neither is pretentious in his first appearance (7:14-15; 11:1; cf. 42:3; 53:1); and the title of Davidic “branch” rests upon them both (11:1-4). Equally significant are the dual facts of their humiliation and exaltation (49:7; 52:13-15). Jewish scholars of the early Christian era in the Aramaic Targum on the prophets paraphrase Isaiah 42:1, “Behold my Servant Messiah” and begin Isaiah 53, “Behold my Servant Messiah will prosper.” While Cyrus may be spoken of as “anointed,” no final salvific work is attributed to him (45:1-5). Israel, although elect and loved by God (41:8), is ill-equipped as God’s servant to bring his redeeming work to mankind (42:18). The collapse of David’s dynasty points eloquently to Israel’s need for an anointed monarch who will heal the apostasy and disobedience (Ex 33:5; Hos 4:1). More and more, OT history presents Israel’s comprehensive moral failure. Her problem, which she shares with mankind, can only be solved by the making of a covenant whose surety and focal point is both a personal Savior and sovereign Lord (Jer 31:31-34). The advent of such a champion lives in the recorded promise of a shoot from the stump of Jesse’s fallen tree, who will bring the light of life to God’s benighted people (Is 9:2; 11:1).<\/p>\nIt is difficult to get away from the idea that the concept of servanthood and lowliness belongs within the sphere of royalty (Zec 9:9). The concept of the Messiah filling the complementary offices of priest and king is incontrovertible (Ps 110:1-4); a suffering priest-king is far less obvious. Some among the Talmudic writers apparently recognized the likelihood that the Messiah would have to suffer. In the Babylonian Talmud, tractate Sanhedrin<\/em> 98b, the Messiah is said to bear sicknesses and pain. Among the prayers for the Day of Atonement may be found the words of Eleazar ben Qalir (perhaps as late as AD<\/span> 1000): “Our righteous Messiah has departed from us; we are horror-stricken, and there is none to justify us. Our iniquities and the yoke of our transgressions he carries, and is wounded for our transgressions. He bears on his shoulders our sins to find pardon for our iniquities. May we be healed by his stripes.” In a similar vein Rabbi Eliyya de Vidas writes, “The meaning of ‘He was wounded for our transgressions, bruised for our iniquities,’ is that since the Messiah bears our iniquities, which produce the effect of His being bruised, it follows that whosoever will not admit that the Messiah thus suffers for our iniquities must endure and suffer for them himself.” For all this, it is highly doubtful that anyone imagined the Messiah would accomplish his salvational work by means of his own death (cf. Is 53:12). When rabbinic speculation failed to satisfactorily harmonize the paradoxical facts of humiliation and exaltation, some hypothesized that God would send a Messiah to suffer as well as a Messiah to reign. Biblically, it is evident that the Anointed One’s terrible ordeal of suffering is but the necessary prelude to infinite glory. He is pictured not only as a great king (52:13; 53:12) but also as humble (53:2), humiliated (52:14), rejected (53:3), and bearing the consequences of mankind’s rebellion (vv 5-6). Yet he is raised up to intercede for, and richly bless, his people (v 12). The Messiah, having accomplished that full obedience that Adam and Israel failed to achieve, will bring Israel and the nations back to God (42:18-19; 49:3, 6).<\/p>\nThe writings of Daniel contain important messianic data. Daniel is unique in that he boldly speaks of “Messiah the Prince” (Dn 9:25), identifies him as the “Son of Man” (7:13), and says he suffers (“cut off,” 9:26). This statement of the cutting off (i.e., death) of the Messiah makes possible his work of atonement (9:24). The doctrine of a vicarious substitutionary atonement is the only doctrine of atonement found in the Bible (cf. Lv 17:11). Israel understood that to bear sin meant enduring the consequences, or penalty, for sin (cf. Nm 14:33). The same penal substitution is evident in the working principle of the Messiah’s atoning sacrifice. He is the victim’s substitute to whom is transferred the suffering due the sinner. The penalty having been thus borne vicariously, the suppliant is fully pardoned.<\/p>\nPsalm 22:1 records the plaintive cry of the Messiah bearing man’s penalty for sin (cf. Mt 27:46) as he becomes sin on behalf of his people (2 Cor 5:21). Yet his cry, “My God,” indicates an intimate relationship that cannot be radically severed. Once again the motif of messianic humiliation prior to great exaltation is in view (Ps 22:27). In the so-called “royal psalms” (e.g., 2; 72; 110) it is the priestly intercessor who is also ordained to function as monarch and judge.<\/p>\nJeremiah brings the portrait a step further. The one who will enable humans to enter into a salvational covenant with God conveys God’s imputed righteousness: the Messiah, God’s righteous branch, becomes “the Lord our Righteousness.” Paradoxically, under the law no one could be crucified who was not guilty of sin (Dt 21:22). But it is Christ the righteous one who was crucified, thereby forever undermining any supposed legalistic confidence (Dt 21:23; Gal 3:13). More than forgiven, believers are deemed righteous in him (Jer 23:5-6).<\/p>\nWhile the birthplace of the Messiah was well established (Mi 5:2), his deity was a hotly contested matter. Although few in ancient Israel disputed the belief in a superhuman Messiah, it is doubtful that anyone imagined him to be “God with us” in the fullest sense of the expression (cf. Heb 1:3).<\/p>\nMessiah in the New Testament<\/p>\nThe NT writers present the picture that he who was the child of supernatural origins (Is 7:14; Mi 5:2) carried the full weight of divinity (Is 9:6; Phil 2:6; Col 1:19). He is the Son of God, worthy to receive the worship of all people (Ps 45:6-7; cf. Heb 1:8-9).<\/p>\nThe Jews of first-century Palestine knew that the messianic promise would be fulfilled in the coming of one like Moses (Dt 18:18). Parallels between Jesus and Moses are abundant. As mediators, innovators, and propagators of new phases of spiritual life for the people, they are unexcelled. Specifically, both are miraculously spared in infancy (Ex 2; Mt 2:13-23); both renounce a royal court for the sake of serving the people of God (Phil 2:5-8; Heb 11:24-28); both exhibit intense compassion for others (Nm 27:17; Mt 9:36); both commune “face to face” with God (Ex 34:29-30; 2 Cor 3:7); and each mediates a covenant of redemption (Dt 29:1; Heb 8:6-7). But, as Luther observes, “Christ is no Moses.” In the final analysis Moses is but a household servant; the Messiah is the maker and master of all things (Heb 3:3-6; cf. Jn 1:1-2, 18).<\/p>\nFamily genealogies are important in Scripture. Rabbis agreed upon the absolute necessity of the Messiah’s Davidic lineage based on Hosea 3:5 and Jeremiah 30:9. The angelic announcement immediately establishes the correct lineage for Jesus (Lk 1:32-33; cf. 2:4), as does Matthew’s (Mt 1:1-17). The Lukan list, like that of Matthew, sets forth the exclusive kingly descent verifying Jesus as Messiah (Lk 3:23-38). Although variations occur between the two genealogies, there is a firm solidarity emphasizing an ancestry within the unique messianic stock. Fully aware of the messianic focus of Scripture (Jn 5:46; 8:56), Jesus acknowledged himself to be the Christ on numerous occasions. He accepted the title from blind Bartimaeus (Mk 10:46-48); from the crowds when he entered Jerusalem (Mt 21:9); from the children at the temple (v 15); and in other contexts as well (Mt 16:16-18; Mk 14:61-62; Lk 4:21; Jn 4:25-26). Nonetheless, he warned his disciples not to broadcast his mighty acts as Messiah prior to his resurrection (Mt 17:9; cf. Lk 9:20-21). Owing to the commonly held (but false) notion that the Messiah’s role was primarily that of a political liberator, Jesus actually avoided use of that term and preferred to identify himself as “the Son of Man.” It was by no means assumed that both designations referred to the same person (cf. Mk 14:61-62). Borrowing essentially from Daniel’s vision of a heavenly conqueror (Dn 7:13-14), Jesus consistently employed this less-known title and filled it with the true character and scope of messianic salvation. Jesus’ teaching in this regard enabled his disciples to correct their erroneous views concerning his mission (Mt 16:21-23). In the fullness of time they would come to see him not only as Messiah but also as the theme of the entire OT (Mt 5:17; Lk 24:27, 44; Jn 5:39; cf. Heb 10:7). When Jesus expounded the Scriptures beginning with the Torah (Lk 24:27), he did so as the living exegesis of God, the Word made flesh (Jn 1:14, 18). Legitimate messianic exposition is found in a host of texts, such as Psalms 2; 16; 22; 40; 110; Isaiah 7:14; 9:6; 11:1; 40:10-11; 50:6; 52:13–53:12; 61:1; 63:1-6; Jeremiah 23:5-6; 33:14-16; Ezekiel 34:23; 37:25; Daniel 9:24-27; Hosea 11:1; Micah 5:2; Zechariah 9:9; 11:13; 12:10; 13:7; Malachi 3:1; 4:2.<\/p>\nThe messiahship of Jesus is firmly proclaimed by all four evangelists (Mt 1:1; Mk 1:1; Lk 24:26; Jn 20:31). Peter on Pentecost, Philip before the Ethiopian eunuch, and Apollos in open debate all argue convincingly that Jesus is the Messiah (Acts 2:36; 8:35; 28:28). Peter says he was “made” both Lord and Christ (2:36), signifying that the resurrection rightfully confirms him as such. Similarly, the apostle Paul speaks of Jesus’ resurrection as a patent declaration of his inalienable right to the title (Rom 1:4). For the ex-Pharisee and former persecutor of the church, “Jesus the Christ” is the very heart and soul of Paul’s preaching. Nothing is worthy to be compared to the glory of the Messiah; everything pales by comparison (Phil 3:5-10). The apostle’s all-consuming passion is for others to know the fullness of God in the person of his only Son (Eph 3:14-19).<\/p>\nThe Holy Spirit in Scripture speaks of Jesus with wide-ranging appellatives—Holy One, Judge, Righteous One, King, Son of God, and Lord—but these are not exhaustive. In him all the lines of messianic prediction converge; he is the touchstone whereby their validity is firmly established. The Lord Jesus Christ is himself the heart and substance of that covenant through which sinful people may be reconciled to a holy God (Is 42:6; Jn 14:6). That Jesus is the Messiah of Israel, God incarnate, exhaustively fulfills prophecy, type, and symbol—all shadows of his coming. Therefore, all should trust in him, the source of all grace, the only abiding treasure (Mt 12:21; Jn 1:16-17; Col 2:3). Anointed as prophet, he leads us into all truth (Jn 6:14; 7:16); as priest he intercedes for us (Heb 7:21); and as king he reigns over us (Phil 2:9-10).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Atonement; Branch; Christology; Jesus Christ, Life and Teachings of; Redeemer, Redemption; Son of God; Son of Man.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>MESSIAH<\/h3>\nTitle derived from the Hebrew, mashiach<\/span>,<\/em> a verbal adjective meaning “anointed one.” Along with its NT equivalent, christos<\/span> (Christ), it refers to an act of consecration whereby an individual is set apart to serve God and then anointed with oil. The verbal root (<\/em>mashach<\/span>)<\/em> conveys this idea as well.<\/p>\nIsrael’s practice of ceremonially anointing with oil is present in several contexts. Priests were regularly anointed prior to their divinely given service at the altar of sacrifice (Lv 4:3). While there is evidence for a literal anointing of prophets (1 Kgs 19:16), this does not appear to have been a standard practice. The anointing of Saul and David by Samuel established the act as a significant prerequisite for Hebrew kings before they assumed their positions of royal leadership. The king was especially considered to be the Lord’s anointed and as such was viewed to hold a secure position before men (1 Sm 12:14; 2 Sm 19:21) and God (Pss 2:2; 20:6). Along with numerous messianic prophecies, these proceedings helped inform the Jews of the Anointed One, par excellence, who would eventually come to bring salvation to Israel.<\/p>\nConcluding the 13 articles of Hebraic faith attributed to Moses Maimonides (13th century AD<\/span>) is the statement still found in many Hebrew prayer books: “I believe with a perfect heart that the Messiah will come; and although his coming be delayed, I will still wait patiently for his speedy appearance.”<\/p>\nMessiah in the Old Testament<\/p>\nJewish hope for the advent of the Messiah developed dynamically from the period of David’s reign, when it was prophesied that his kingdom would endure to the end of time (2 Sm 7:16). Israel was told that, through David’s descendants, his throne would exert a never-ending dominion over all the earth (2 Sm 22:48-51; Jer 33). It is with this aspect of messianic salvation that Jewish minds have traditionally been preoccupied (cf. Acts 1:6).<\/p>\nAmong Orthodox rabbis there has never been a lack of conjecture respecting the details of the Messiah’s ministry. At one time the rabbis applied no less than 456 passages of Scripture to his person and salvation. Preoccupation with the Messiah is evident in the tractate Sanhedrin<\/em> (Babylonian Talmud), where passages state that the world was created for him and that all the prophets prophesied of his days (Sanhedrin<\/em> 98b, 99a). By and large, Orthodoxy still retains its time-worn belief in the Messiah’s reign in Jerusalem, the rebuilding of the temple, and the reestablishment of both priesthood and sacrifice.<\/p>\nWhile later Judaism looked for the Messiah as an eschatological figure who will reign at the end of time, modern Jewish thought has largely jettisoned the traditional notion of a personal Messiah in favor of belief in a messianic age. Prevalent liberal Judaism envisions the world ultimately perfected through the influence of the twin Judaic ideals of justice and compassion. Such conviction, ignoring the plight of fallen humans and the teaching of Scripture, substitutes humanistic thinking for miraculous heavenly intervention.<\/p>\nWhile the Messiah’s origin is linked firmly to the house of David (2 Sm 7:14; Hos 3:5), the promise for a Messiah was given long before David lived. In fact, the hope for the Messiah is implicit in the first promise of the establishment of the kingdom of God. Addressed to Satan, Genesis 3:15 declares that God will place hostility between the serpent and the woman until, in the fullness of time, the “seed” of the woman inflicts a fatal blow to the head of the serpent.<\/p>\nThe nature of messianic prophecy is progressive; each prophecy casts more light on the subject. This occurs, for example, respecting the concept of the “seed”: Messiah is to be born of a woman (Gn 3:15), through the line of Shem (9:26) and specifically through Abraham (22:18). Yet even as late as Genesis 22:18, the “seed” is not clearly presented as a person, since zerah<\/span> (seed) may indicate a singular or plural object. Still less apparent in these early stages of messianic prophecy is the nature of the “bruising” that is to occur. Yet the idea of the Messiah being crushed for sin is implicit in the Genesis pronouncement, as is the violence associated with that act. Chief among the messianic prophets, Isaiah gives full range to the axiom that the Anointed One must endure extensive suffering (Is 53:1). Under the figure “the Servant of the Lord,” four “servant songs” delineate the mission of the future deliverer (Is 42:1-7; 49:1-9; 50:4-11; 52:13–53:12). While it is true that Isaiah does not explicitly link the title Messiah with the Servant of the Lord, identifying both figures as one and the same person is justifiable. Both figures are uniquely anointed (61:1); each brings light to the Gentiles (55:4; cf. 49:6); neither is pretentious in his first appearance (7:14-15; 11:1; cf. 42:3; 53:1); and the title of Davidic “branch” rests upon them both (11:1-4). Equally significant are the dual facts of their humiliation and exaltation (49:7; 52:13-15). Jewish scholars of the early Christian era in the Aramaic Targum on the prophets paraphrase Isaiah 42:1, “Behold my Servant Messiah” and begin Isaiah 53, “Behold my Servant Messiah will prosper.” While Cyrus may be spoken of as “anointed,” no final salvific work is attributed to him (45:1-5). Israel, although elect and loved by God (41:8), is ill-equipped as God’s servant to bring his redeeming work to mankind (42:18). The collapse of David’s dynasty points eloquently to Israel’s need for an anointed monarch who will heal the apostasy and disobedience (Ex 33:5; Hos 4:1). More and more, OT history presents Israel’s comprehensive moral failure. Her problem, which she shares with mankind, can only be solved by the making of a covenant whose surety and focal point is both a personal Savior and sovereign Lord (Jer 31:31-34). The advent of such a champion lives in the recorded promise of a shoot from the stump of Jesse’s fallen tree, who will bring the light of life to God’s benighted people (Is 9:2; 11:1).<\/p>\nIt is difficult to get away from the idea that the concept of servanthood and lowliness belongs within the sphere of royalty (Zec 9:9). The concept of the Messiah filling the complementary offices of priest and king is incontrovertible (Ps 110:1-4); a suffering priest-king is far less obvious. Some among the Talmudic writers apparently recognized the likelihood that the Messiah would have to suffer. In the Babylonian Talmud, tractate Sanhedrin<\/em> 98b, the Messiah is said to bear sicknesses and pain. Among the prayers for the Day of Atonement may be found the words of Eleazar ben Qalir (perhaps as late as AD<\/span> 1000): “Our righteous Messiah has departed from us; we are horror-stricken, and there is none to justify us. Our iniquities and the yoke of our transgressions he carries, and is wounded for our transgressions. He bears on his shoulders our sins to find pardon for our iniquities. May we be healed by his stripes.” In a similar vein Rabbi Eliyya de Vidas writes, “The meaning of ‘He was wounded for our transgressions, bruised for our iniquities,’ is that since the Messiah bears our iniquities, which produce the effect of His being bruised, it follows that whosoever will not admit that the Messiah thus suffers for our iniquities must endure and suffer for them himself.” For all this, it is highly doubtful that anyone imagined the Messiah would accomplish his salvational work by means of his own death (cf. Is 53:12). When rabbinic speculation failed to satisfactorily harmonize the paradoxical facts of humiliation and exaltation, some hypothesized that God would send a Messiah to suffer as well as a Messiah to reign. Biblically, it is evident that the Anointed One’s terrible ordeal of suffering is but the necessary prelude to infinite glory. He is pictured not only as a great king (52:13; 53:12) but also as humble (53:2), humiliated (52:14), rejected (53:3), and bearing the consequences of mankind’s rebellion (vv 5-6). Yet he is raised up to intercede for, and richly bless, his people (v 12). The Messiah, having accomplished that full obedience that Adam and Israel failed to achieve, will bring Israel and the nations back to God (42:18-19; 49:3, 6).<\/p>\nThe writings of Daniel contain important messianic data. Daniel is unique in that he boldly speaks of “Messiah the Prince” (Dn 9:25), identifies him as the “Son of Man” (7:13), and says he suffers (“cut off,” 9:26). This statement of the cutting off (i.e., death) of the Messiah makes possible his work of atonement (9:24). The doctrine of a vicarious substitutionary atonement is the only doctrine of atonement found in the Bible (cf. Lv 17:11). Israel understood that to bear sin meant enduring the consequences, or penalty, for sin (cf. Nm 14:33). The same penal substitution is evident in the working principle of the Messiah’s atoning sacrifice. He is the victim’s substitute to whom is transferred the suffering due the sinner. The penalty having been thus borne vicariously, the suppliant is fully pardoned.<\/p>\nPsalm 22:1 records the plaintive cry of the Messiah bearing man’s penalty for sin (cf. Mt 27:46) as he becomes sin on behalf of his people (2 Cor 5:21). Yet his cry, “My God,” indicates an intimate relationship that cannot be radically severed. Once again the motif of messianic humiliation prior to great exaltation is in view (Ps 22:27). In the so-called “royal psalms” (e.g., 2; 72; 110) it is the priestly intercessor who is also ordained to function as monarch and judge.<\/p>\nJeremiah brings the portrait a step further. The one who will enable humans to enter into a salvational covenant with God conveys God’s imputed righteousness: the Messiah, God’s righteous branch, becomes “the Lord our Righteousness.” Paradoxically, under the law no one could be crucified who was not guilty of sin (Dt 21:22). But it is Christ the righteous one who was crucified, thereby forever undermining any supposed legalistic confidence (Dt 21:23; Gal 3:13). More than forgiven, believers are deemed righteous in him (Jer 23:5-6).<\/p>\nWhile the birthplace of the Messiah was well established (Mi 5:2), his deity was a hotly contested matter. Although few in ancient Israel disputed the belief in a superhuman Messiah, it is doubtful that anyone imagined him to be “God with us” in the fullest sense of the expression (cf. Heb 1:3).<\/p>\nMessiah in the New Testament<\/p>\nThe NT writers present the picture that he who was the child of supernatural origins (Is 7:14; Mi 5:2) carried the full weight of divinity (Is 9:6; Phil 2:6; Col 1:19). He is the Son of God, worthy to receive the worship of all people (Ps 45:6-7; cf. Heb 1:8-9).<\/p>\nThe Jews of first-century Palestine knew that the messianic promise would be fulfilled in the coming of one like Moses (Dt 18:18). Parallels between Jesus and Moses are abundant. As mediators, innovators, and propagators of new phases of spiritual life for the people, they are unexcelled. Specifically, both are miraculously spared in infancy (Ex 2; Mt 2:13-23); both renounce a royal court for the sake of serving the people of God (Phil 2:5-8; Heb 11:24-28); both exhibit intense compassion for others (Nm 27:17; Mt 9:36); both commune “face to face” with God (Ex 34:29-30; 2 Cor 3:7); and each mediates a covenant of redemption (Dt 29:1; Heb 8:6-7). But, as Luther observes, “Christ is no Moses.” In the final analysis Moses is but a household servant; the Messiah is the maker and master of all things (Heb 3:3-6; cf. Jn 1:1-2, 18).<\/p>\nFamily genealogies are important in Scripture. Rabbis agreed upon the absolute necessity of the Messiah’s Davidic lineage based on Hosea 3:5 and Jeremiah 30:9. The angelic announcement immediately establishes the correct lineage for Jesus (Lk 1:32-33; cf. 2:4), as does Matthew’s (Mt 1:1-17). The Lukan list, like that of Matthew, sets forth the exclusive kingly descent verifying Jesus as Messiah (Lk 3:23-38). Although variations occur between the two genealogies, there is a firm solidarity emphasizing an ancestry within the unique messianic stock. Fully aware of the messianic focus of Scripture (Jn 5:46; 8:56), Jesus acknowledged himself to be the Christ on numerous occasions. He accepted the title from blind Bartimaeus (Mk 10:46-48); from the crowds when he entered Jerusalem (Mt 21:9); from the children at the temple (v 15); and in other contexts as well (Mt 16:16-18; Mk 14:61-62; Lk 4:21; Jn 4:25-26). Nonetheless, he warned his disciples not to broadcast his mighty acts as Messiah prior to his resurrection (Mt 17:9; cf. Lk 9:20-21). Owing to the commonly held (but false) notion that the Messiah’s role was primarily that of a political liberator, Jesus actually avoided use of that term and preferred to identify himself as “the Son of Man.” It was by no means assumed that both designations referred to the same person (cf. Mk 14:61-62). Borrowing essentially from Daniel’s vision of a heavenly conqueror (Dn 7:13-14), Jesus consistently employed this less-known title and filled it with the true character and scope of messianic salvation. Jesus’ teaching in this regard enabled his disciples to correct their erroneous views concerning his mission (Mt 16:21-23). In the fullness of time they would come to see him not only as Messiah but also as the theme of the entire OT (Mt 5:17; Lk 24:27, 44; Jn 5:39; cf. Heb 10:7). When Jesus expounded the Scriptures beginning with the Torah (Lk 24:27), he did so as the living exegesis of God, the Word made flesh (Jn 1:14, 18). Legitimate messianic exposition is found in a host of texts, such as Psalms 2; 16; 22; 40; 110; Isaiah 7:14; 9:6; 11:1; 40:10-11; 50:6; 52:13–53:12; 61:1; 63:1-6; Jeremiah 23:5-6; 33:14-16; Ezekiel 34:23; 37:25; Daniel 9:24-27; Hosea 11:1; Micah 5:2; Zechariah 9:9; 11:13; 12:10; 13:7; Malachi 3:1; 4:2.<\/p>\nThe messiahship of Jesus is firmly proclaimed by all four evangelists (Mt 1:1; Mk 1:1; Lk 24:26; Jn 20:31). Peter on Pentecost, Philip before the Ethiopian eunuch, and Apollos in open debate all argue convincingly that Jesus is the Messiah (Acts 2:36; 8:35; 28:28). Peter says he was “made” both Lord and Christ (2:36), signifying that the resurrection rightfully confirms him as such. Similarly, the apostle Paul speaks of Jesus’ resurrection as a patent declaration of his inalienable right to the title (Rom 1:4). For the ex-Pharisee and former persecutor of the church, “Jesus the Christ” is the very heart and soul of Paul’s preaching. Nothing is worthy to be compared to the glory of the Messiah; everything pales by comparison (Phil 3:5-10). The apostle’s all-consuming passion is for others to know the fullness of God in the person of his only Son (Eph 3:14-19).<\/p>\nThe Holy Spirit in Scripture speaks of Jesus with wide-ranging appellatives—Holy One, Judge, Righteous One, King, Son of God, and Lord—but these are not exhaustive. In him all the lines of messianic prediction converge; he is the touchstone whereby their validity is firmly established. The Lord Jesus Christ is himself the heart and substance of that covenant through which sinful people may be reconciled to a holy God (Is 42:6; Jn 14:6). That Jesus is the Messiah of Israel, God incarnate, exhaustively fulfills prophecy, type, and symbol—all shadows of his coming. Therefore, all should trust in him, the source of all grace, the only abiding treasure (Mt 12:21; Jn 1:16-17; Col 2:3). Anointed as prophet, he leads us into all truth (Jn 6:14; 7:16); as priest he intercedes for us (Heb 7:21); and as king he reigns over us (Phil 2:9-10).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Atonement; Branch; Christology; Jesus Christ, Life and Teachings of; Redeemer, Redemption; Son of God; Son of Man.<\/p>","summary_ro":"MESSIAH Title derived from the Hebrew, mashiach, a verbal adjective meaning “anointed one.” Along with its NT equivalent, christos (Christ), it refers to an act of consecration whereby an individual is set apart to serve God and then anointed with oil. The verbal root (mashach) conveys this idea as well. Israel’s practice of ceremonially anointing with oil is present in several contexts. Priests were regularly anointed prior to their divinely given service at the altar of sacrifice (Lv 4:3). ...","summary_en":"MESSIAH Title derived from the Hebrew, mashiach, a verbal adjective meaning “anointed one.” Along with its NT equivalent, christos (Christ), it refers to an act of consecration whereby an individual is set apart to serve God and then anointed with oil. The verbal root (mashach) conveys this idea as well. Israel’s practice of ceremonially anointing with oil is present in several contexts. Priests were regularly anointed prior to their divinely given service at the altar of sacrifice (Lv 4:3). ...","source":"Articles\/M.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":51659,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 42:6","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 42:6","content_ro":"42:6<\/strong> my people, Israel . . . my covenant with them<\/em> (literally a covenant for the people<\/em>): It is also possible that “the people” referred to all the peoples\/nations of the earth (see 49:6). • light to guide the nations:<\/em> See also 51:4; Acts 13:47.<\/p>","content_en":"42:6<\/strong> my people, Israel . . . my covenant with them<\/em> (literally a covenant for the people<\/em>): It is also possible that “the people” referred to all the peoples\/nations of the earth (see 49:6). • light to guide the nations:<\/em> See also 51:4; Acts 13:47.<\/p>","summary_ro":"42:6 my people, Israel . . . my covenant with them (literally a covenant for the people): It is also possible that “the people” referred to all the peoples\/nations of the earth (see 49:6). • light to guide the nations: See also 51:4; Acts 13:47.","summary_en":"42:6 my people, Israel . . . my covenant with them (literally a covenant for the people): It is also possible that “the people” referred to all the peoples\/nations of the earth (see 49:6). • light to guide the nations: See also 51:4; Acts 13:47.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":79285,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 42:6","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 42:6","content_ro":"42:6<\/strong> my people, Israel . . . my covenant with them<\/em> (literally a covenant for the people<\/em>): It is also possible that “the people” referred to all the peoples\/nations of the earth (see 49:6). • light to guide the nations:<\/em> See also 51:4; Acts 13:47.<\/p>","content_en":"42:6<\/strong> my people, Israel . . . my covenant with them<\/em> (literally a covenant for the people<\/em>): It is also possible that “the people” referred to all the peoples\/nations of the earth (see 49:6). • light to guide the nations:<\/em> See also 51:4; Acts 13:47.<\/p>","summary_ro":"42:6 my people, Israel . . . my covenant with them (literally a covenant for the people): It is also possible that “the people” referred to all the peoples\/nations of the earth (see 49:6). • light to guide the nations: See also 51:4; Acts 13:47.","summary_en":"42:6 my people, Israel . . . my covenant with them (literally a covenant for the people): It is also possible that “the people” referred to all the peoples\/nations of the earth (see 49:6). • light to guide the nations: See also 51:4; Acts 13:47.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":106911,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 42:6","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 42:6","content_ro":"42:6<\/strong> my people, Israel . . . my covenant with them<\/em> (literally a covenant for the people<\/em>): It is also possible that “the people” referred to all the peoples\/nations of the earth (see 49:6). • light to guide the nations:<\/em> See also 51:4; Acts 13:47.<\/p>","content_en":"42:6<\/strong> my people, Israel . . . my covenant with them<\/em> (literally a covenant for the people<\/em>): It is also possible that “the people” referred to all the peoples\/nations of the earth (see 49:6). • light to guide the nations:<\/em> See also 51:4; Acts 13:47.<\/p>","summary_ro":"42:6 my people, Israel . . . my covenant with them (literally a covenant for the people): It is also possible that “the people” referred to all the peoples\/nations of the earth (see 49:6). • light to guide the nations: See also 51:4; Acts 13:47.","summary_en":"42:6 my people, Israel . . . my covenant with them (literally a covenant for the people): It is also possible that “the people” referred to all the peoples\/nations of the earth (see 49:6). • light to guide the nations: See also 51:4; Acts 13:47.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":134537,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 42:6","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 42:6","content_ro":"42:6<\/strong> my people, Israel . . . my covenant with them<\/em> (literally a covenant for the people<\/em>): It is also possible that “the people” referred to all the peoples\/nations of the earth (see 49:6). • light to guide the nations:<\/em> See also 51:4; Acts 13:47.<\/p>","content_en":"42:6<\/strong> my people, Israel . . . my covenant with them<\/em> (literally a covenant for the people<\/em>): It is also possible that “the people” referred to all the peoples\/nations of the earth (see 49:6). • light to guide the nations:<\/em> See also 51:4; Acts 13:47.<\/p>","summary_ro":"42:6 my people, Israel . . . my covenant with them (literally a covenant for the people): It is also possible that “the people” referred to all the peoples\/nations of the earth (see 49:6). • light to guide the nations: See also 51:4; Acts 13:47.","summary_en":"42:6 my people, Israel . . . my covenant with them (literally a covenant for the people): It is also possible that “the people” referred to all the peoples\/nations of the earth (see 49:6). • light to guide the nations: See also 51:4; Acts 13:47.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":63244,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Darkness and Light","title_en":"Darkness and Light","content_ro":"<h3>Darkness and Light<\/h3>\n<h5>Darkness<\/h5>\nDarkness is the absence of light. There was no light until God commanded that light appear. He then made a distinction between light and its absence (Gen 1:2, 4-5, 18). The ninth plague on Egypt was three days of intense darkness, a complete absence of light (Exod 10:21-23).<\/p>\nThere is a darkness surrounding God (Exod 20:21; Deut 4:11; 5:23; 2 Sam 22:12; Ps 18:11; 97:2); he dwells in thick darkness (1 Kgs 8:12 \/\/<\/em> 2 Chr 6:1), and thick darkness is under his feet (2 Sam 22:10 \/\/<\/em> Ps 18:9). God is unknowable unless he reveals himself.<\/p>\nDarkness often stands for distress and anxiety, or for the confusion and destruction experienced by the wicked (Gen 15:12; Job 12:25; 19:8; Pss 35:6; 107:10, 14; Eccl 5:17; Isa 5:30).<\/p>\nFor Job, darkness was like nothingness (Job 3:4-6). It points to death, a land of shadows and gloom, the dwelling place of the dead far from the light of day (Job 10:21-22; 17:12-13; Eccl 6:4).<\/p>\nEvil takes place under the cover of darkness (Job 24:16-17), but darkness cannot be a hiding place from God (Ps 139:11-12; Isa 29:15-16). Darkness often depicts ignorance of God’s will: Knowledge of God is “light,” so lack of knowledge is “darkness” (Job 12:24-25; Matt 4:16; John 1:5; 8:12; 12:35, 46; 1 Jn 1:5; 2:8-9, 11). Moral depravity is described as darkness (Prov 2:13; 4:19; Isa 5:20; 60:2). In the New Testament, darkness is also a metaphor for spiritual ignorance (Matt 4:16; 6:23; Luke 1:79; 11:35; Rom 2:19; Col 1:13). Those who come to know God come out of darkness (Isa 9:2).<\/p>\nA major theme of the Old Testament prophets was the Day of the Lord, which was often associated with darkness (Ezek 32:8; Joel 2:2, 31; Amos 5:18, 20; Zeph 1:15). The New Testament also links darkness with judgment (Matt 8:12; 22:13; 25:30; 2 Pet 2:17; Jude 1:6, 13).<\/p>\n<h5>Light<\/h5>\nLight was the first thing God created after the heavens and earth (Gen 1:3; see also 1:16). It is a natural symbol for what is pleasant, good, or uplifting (Eccl 11:7; Jas 1:17). When the Israelites left Egypt, they were led by a pillar of cloud and fire that gave them light (Exod 13:21; 14:20) and showed them the way to go (Neh 9:19). Light symbolizes the blessing of the Lord (Job 12:22; 29:2-3; Pss 4:6; 18:28; 44:3; 118:27). God’s servants can extend this blessing by being a light to guide others (Isa 42:6; 49:6). God’s light also exposes sin and brings justice (see Ps 90:8; Isa 51:4).<\/p>\nGod himself is described as light (Ps 27:1; Isa 60:19-20; Dan 2:22; 1 Jn 1:5), and he dwells in unapproachable light (see 1 Tim 6:16). Yet he brings his servants into the light (Mic 7:8-9; see also 1 Jn 1:7).<\/p>\nJesus said, “I am the light of the world” (John 8:12; 9:5; 12:46). He brought a revelation (light) from God, but he was more than a revealer—he was himself that revelation (John 1:1-10). Those who receive Jesus, who believe in the Light, receive the right to become children of God (John 1:9-12). They are illumined by his light and come to know God and his salvation (Matt 4:16; Luke 2:32; Acts 13:47; 26:18). They are “children of the light” (John 12:36; 1 Thes 5:5), their allegiance is to the light (1 Jn 1:7), and their conduct is characterized by light—by “what is good and right and true” (Eph 5:8-9).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nGen 1:3-5, 14-18; 15:12; Exod 10:21-23; 14:20; 20:21; 2 Sam 22:10-13; 1 Kgs 8:12; Job 3:3-7; 12:22-25; 15:22; 17:12-13; 34:22; Pss 18:11, 28; 27:1; 97:2-6; 139:11-12; Prov 2:13; 4:18-19; Eccl 11:7-8; Isa 5:20; 9:2; 29:15; 51:4; 60:2-3, 19-20; Dan 2:22; Mic 7:8-9; Matt 4:16; 6:22-23; 8:12; Luke 1:78-79; 2:32; John 1:4-9; 8:12; 9:5; 12:35-36, 46; Acts 13:47; 26:18; Rom 2:19-20; Eph 5:7-14; 1 Thes 5:5-8; 1 Tim 6:16; Jas 1:17; 2 Pet 2:17; 1 Jn 1:5-7; 2:7-11<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Darkness and Light<\/h3>\n<h5>Darkness<\/h5>\nDarkness is the absence of light. There was no light until God commanded that light appear. He then made a distinction between light and its absence (Gen 1:2, 4-5, 18). The ninth plague on Egypt was three days of intense darkness, a complete absence of light (Exod 10:21-23).<\/p>\nThere is a darkness surrounding God (Exod 20:21; Deut 4:11; 5:23; 2 Sam 22:12; Ps 18:11; 97:2); he dwells in thick darkness (1 Kgs 8:12 \/\/<\/em> 2 Chr 6:1), and thick darkness is under his feet (2 Sam 22:10 \/\/<\/em> Ps 18:9). God is unknowable unless he reveals himself.<\/p>\nDarkness often stands for distress and anxiety, or for the confusion and destruction experienced by the wicked (Gen 15:12; Job 12:25; 19:8; Pss 35:6; 107:10, 14; Eccl 5:17; Isa 5:30).<\/p>\nFor Job, darkness was like nothingness (Job 3:4-6). It points to death, a land of shadows and gloom, the dwelling place of the dead far from the light of day (Job 10:21-22; 17:12-13; Eccl 6:4).<\/p>\nEvil takes place under the cover of darkness (Job 24:16-17), but darkness cannot be a hiding place from God (Ps 139:11-12; Isa 29:15-16). Darkness often depicts ignorance of God’s will: Knowledge of God is “light,” so lack of knowledge is “darkness” (Job 12:24-25; Matt 4:16; John 1:5; 8:12; 12:35, 46; 1 Jn 1:5; 2:8-9, 11). Moral depravity is described as darkness (Prov 2:13; 4:19; Isa 5:20; 60:2). In the New Testament, darkness is also a metaphor for spiritual ignorance (Matt 4:16; 6:23; Luke 1:79; 11:35; Rom 2:19; Col 1:13). Those who come to know God come out of darkness (Isa 9:2).<\/p>\nA major theme of the Old Testament prophets was the Day of the Lord, which was often associated with darkness (Ezek 32:8; Joel 2:2, 31; Amos 5:18, 20; Zeph 1:15). The New Testament also links darkness with judgment (Matt 8:12; 22:13; 25:30; 2 Pet 2:17; Jude 1:6, 13).<\/p>\n<h5>Light<\/h5>\nLight was the first thing God created after the heavens and earth (Gen 1:3; see also 1:16). It is a natural symbol for what is pleasant, good, or uplifting (Eccl 11:7; Jas 1:17). When the Israelites left Egypt, they were led by a pillar of cloud and fire that gave them light (Exod 13:21; 14:20) and showed them the way to go (Neh 9:19). Light symbolizes the blessing of the Lord (Job 12:22; 29:2-3; Pss 4:6; 18:28; 44:3; 118:27). God’s servants can extend this blessing by being a light to guide others (Isa 42:6; 49:6). God’s light also exposes sin and brings justice (see Ps 90:8; Isa 51:4).<\/p>\nGod himself is described as light (Ps 27:1; Isa 60:19-20; Dan 2:22; 1 Jn 1:5), and he dwells in unapproachable light (see 1 Tim 6:16). Yet he brings his servants into the light (Mic 7:8-9; see also 1 Jn 1:7).<\/p>\nJesus said, “I am the light of the world” (John 8:12; 9:5; 12:46). He brought a revelation (light) from God, but he was more than a revealer—he was himself that revelation (John 1:1-10). Those who receive Jesus, who believe in the Light, receive the right to become children of God (John 1:9-12). They are illumined by his light and come to know God and his salvation (Matt 4:16; Luke 2:32; Acts 13:47; 26:18). They are “children of the light” (John 12:36; 1 Thes 5:5), their allegiance is to the light (1 Jn 1:7), and their conduct is characterized by light—by “what is good and right and true” (Eph 5:8-9).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nGen 1:3-5, 14-18; 15:12; Exod 10:21-23; 14:20; 20:21; 2 Sam 22:10-13; 1 Kgs 8:12; Job 3:3-7; 12:22-25; 15:22; 17:12-13; 34:22; Pss 18:11, 28; 27:1; 97:2-6; 139:11-12; Prov 2:13; 4:18-19; Eccl 11:7-8; Isa 5:20; 9:2; 29:15; 51:4; 60:2-3, 19-20; Dan 2:22; Mic 7:8-9; Matt 4:16; 6:22-23; 8:12; Luke 1:78-79; 2:32; John 1:4-9; 8:12; 9:5; 12:35-36, 46; Acts 13:47; 26:18; Rom 2:19-20; Eph 5:7-14; 1 Thes 5:5-8; 1 Tim 6:16; Jas 1:17; 2 Pet 2:17; 1 Jn 1:5-7; 2:7-11<\/p>","summary_ro":"Darkness and Light Darkness Darkness is the absence of light. There was no light until God commanded that light appear. He then made a distinction between light and its absence (Gen 1:2, 4-5, 18). The ninth plague on Egypt was three days of intense darkness, a complete absence of light (Exod 10:21-23). There is a darkness surrounding God (Exod 20:21; Deut 4:11; 5:23; 2 Sam 22:12; Ps 18:11; 97:2); he dwells in thick darkness (1 Kgs 8:12 \/\/ 2 Chr 6:1), and thick darkness is under his feet (2 Sa...","summary_en":"Darkness and Light Darkness Darkness is the absence of light. There was no light until God commanded that light appear. He then made a distinction between light and its absence (Gen 1:2, 4-5, 18). The ninth plague on Egypt was three days of intense darkness, a complete absence of light (Exod 10:21-23). There is a darkness surrounding God (Exod 20:21; Deut 4:11; 5:23; 2 Sam 22:12; Ps 18:11; 97:2); he dwells in thick darkness (1 Kgs 8:12 \/\/ 2 Chr 6:1), and thick darkness is under his feet (2 Sa...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":90870,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Darkness and Light","title_en":"Darkness and Light","content_ro":"<h3>Darkness and Light<\/h3>\n<h5>Darkness<\/h5>\nDarkness is the absence of light. There was no light until God commanded that light appear. He then made a distinction between light and its absence (Gen 1:2, 4-5, 18). The ninth plague on Egypt was three days of intense darkness, a complete absence of light (Exod 10:21-23).<\/p>\nThere is a darkness surrounding God (Exod 20:21; Deut 4:11; 5:23; 2 Sam 22:12; Ps 18:11; 97:2); he dwells in thick darkness (1 Kgs 8:12 \/\/<\/em> 2 Chr 6:1), and thick darkness is under his feet (2 Sam 22:10 \/\/<\/em> Ps 18:9). God is unknowable unless he reveals himself.<\/p>\nDarkness often stands for distress and anxiety, or for the confusion and destruction experienced by the wicked (Gen 15:12; Job 12:25; 19:8; Pss 35:6; 107:10, 14; Eccl 5:17; Isa 5:30).<\/p>\nFor Job, darkness was like nothingness (Job 3:4-6). It points to death, a land of shadows and gloom, the dwelling place of the dead far from the light of day (Job 10:21-22; 17:12-13; Eccl 6:4).<\/p>\nEvil takes place under the cover of darkness (Job 24:16-17), but darkness cannot be a hiding place from God (Ps 139:11-12; Isa 29:15-16). Darkness often depicts ignorance of God’s will: Knowledge of God is “light,” so lack of knowledge is “darkness” (Job 12:24-25; Matt 4:16; John 1:5; 8:12; 12:35, 46; 1 Jn 1:5; 2:8-9, 11). Moral depravity is described as darkness (Prov 2:13; 4:19; Isa 5:20; 60:2). In the New Testament, darkness is also a metaphor for spiritual ignorance (Matt 4:16; 6:23; Luke 1:79; 11:35; Rom 2:19; Col 1:13). Those who come to know God come out of darkness (Isa 9:2).<\/p>\nA major theme of the Old Testament prophets was the Day of the Lord, which was often associated with darkness (Ezek 32:8; Joel 2:2, 31; Amos 5:18, 20; Zeph 1:15). The New Testament also links darkness with judgment (Matt 8:12; 22:13; 25:30; 2 Pet 2:17; Jude 1:6, 13).<\/p>\n<h5>Light<\/h5>\nLight was the first thing God created after the heavens and earth (Gen 1:3; see also 1:16). It is a natural symbol for what is pleasant, good, or uplifting (Eccl 11:7; Jas 1:17). When the Israelites left Egypt, they were led by a pillar of cloud and fire that gave them light (Exod 13:21; 14:20) and showed them the way to go (Neh 9:19). Light symbolizes the blessing of the Lord (Job 12:22; 29:2-3; Pss 4:6; 18:28; 44:3; 118:27). God’s servants can extend this blessing by being a light to guide others (Isa 42:6; 49:6). God’s light also exposes sin and brings justice (see Ps 90:8; Isa 51:4).<\/p>\nGod himself is described as light (Ps 27:1; Isa 60:19-20; Dan 2:22; 1 Jn 1:5), and he dwells in unapproachable light (see 1 Tim 6:16). Yet he brings his servants into the light (Mic 7:8-9; see also 1 Jn 1:7).<\/p>\nJesus said, “I am the light of the world” (John 8:12; 9:5; 12:46). He brought a revelation (light) from God, but he was more than a revealer—he was himself that revelation (John 1:1-10). Those who receive Jesus, who believe in the Light, receive the right to become children of God (John 1:9-12). They are illumined by his light and come to know God and his salvation (Matt 4:16; Luke 2:32; Acts 13:47; 26:18). They are “children of the light” (John 12:36; 1 Thes 5:5), their allegiance is to the light (1 Jn 1:7), and their conduct is characterized by light—by “what is good and right and true” (Eph 5:8-9).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nGen 1:3-5, 14-18; 15:12; Exod 10:21-23; 14:20; 20:21; 2 Sam 22:10-13; 1 Kgs 8:12; Job 3:3-7; 12:22-25; 15:22; 17:12-13; 34:22; Pss 18:11, 28; 27:1; 97:2-6; 139:11-12; Prov 2:13; 4:18-19; Eccl 11:7-8; Isa 5:20; 9:2; 29:15; 51:4; 60:2-3, 19-20; Dan 2:22; Mic 7:8-9; Matt 4:16; 6:22-23; 8:12; Luke 1:78-79; 2:32; John 1:4-9; 8:12; 9:5; 12:35-36, 46; Acts 13:47; 26:18; Rom 2:19-20; Eph 5:7-14; 1 Thes 5:5-8; 1 Tim 6:16; Jas 1:17; 2 Pet 2:17; 1 Jn 1:5-7; 2:7-11<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Darkness and Light<\/h3>\n<h5>Darkness<\/h5>\nDarkness is the absence of light. There was no light until God commanded that light appear. He then made a distinction between light and its absence (Gen 1:2, 4-5, 18). The ninth plague on Egypt was three days of intense darkness, a complete absence of light (Exod 10:21-23).<\/p>\nThere is a darkness surrounding God (Exod 20:21; Deut 4:11; 5:23; 2 Sam 22:12; Ps 18:11; 97:2); he dwells in thick darkness (1 Kgs 8:12 \/\/<\/em> 2 Chr 6:1), and thick darkness is under his feet (2 Sam 22:10 \/\/<\/em> Ps 18:9). God is unknowable unless he reveals himself.<\/p>\nDarkness often stands for distress and anxiety, or for the confusion and destruction experienced by the wicked (Gen 15:12; Job 12:25; 19:8; Pss 35:6; 107:10, 14; Eccl 5:17; Isa 5:30).<\/p>\nFor Job, darkness was like nothingness (Job 3:4-6). It points to death, a land of shadows and gloom, the dwelling place of the dead far from the light of day (Job 10:21-22; 17:12-13; Eccl 6:4).<\/p>\nEvil takes place under the cover of darkness (Job 24:16-17), but darkness cannot be a hiding place from God (Ps 139:11-12; Isa 29:15-16). Darkness often depicts ignorance of God’s will: Knowledge of God is “light,” so lack of knowledge is “darkness” (Job 12:24-25; Matt 4:16; John 1:5; 8:12; 12:35, 46; 1 Jn 1:5; 2:8-9, 11). Moral depravity is described as darkness (Prov 2:13; 4:19; Isa 5:20; 60:2). In the New Testament, darkness is also a metaphor for spiritual ignorance (Matt 4:16; 6:23; Luke 1:79; 11:35; Rom 2:19; Col 1:13). Those who come to know God come out of darkness (Isa 9:2).<\/p>\nA major theme of the Old Testament prophets was the Day of the Lord, which was often associated with darkness (Ezek 32:8; Joel 2:2, 31; Amos 5:18, 20; Zeph 1:15). The New Testament also links darkness with judgment (Matt 8:12; 22:13; 25:30; 2 Pet 2:17; Jude 1:6, 13).<\/p>\n<h5>Light<\/h5>\nLight was the first thing God created after the heavens and earth (Gen 1:3; see also 1:16). It is a natural symbol for what is pleasant, good, or uplifting (Eccl 11:7; Jas 1:17). When the Israelites left Egypt, they were led by a pillar of cloud and fire that gave them light (Exod 13:21; 14:20) and showed them the way to go (Neh 9:19). Light symbolizes the blessing of the Lord (Job 12:22; 29:2-3; Pss 4:6; 18:28; 44:3; 118:27). God’s servants can extend this blessing by being a light to guide others (Isa 42:6; 49:6). God’s light also exposes sin and brings justice (see Ps 90:8; Isa 51:4).<\/p>\nGod himself is described as light (Ps 27:1; Isa 60:19-20; Dan 2:22; 1 Jn 1:5), and he dwells in unapproachable light (see 1 Tim 6:16). Yet he brings his servants into the light (Mic 7:8-9; see also 1 Jn 1:7).<\/p>\nJesus said, “I am the light of the world” (John 8:12; 9:5; 12:46). He brought a revelation (light) from God, but he was more than a revealer—he was himself that revelation (John 1:1-10). Those who receive Jesus, who believe in the Light, receive the right to become children of God (John 1:9-12). They are illumined by his light and come to know God and his salvation (Matt 4:16; Luke 2:32; Acts 13:47; 26:18). They are “children of the light” (John 12:36; 1 Thes 5:5), their allegiance is to the light (1 Jn 1:7), and their conduct is characterized by light—by “what is good and right and true” (Eph 5:8-9).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nGen 1:3-5, 14-18; 15:12; Exod 10:21-23; 14:20; 20:21; 2 Sam 22:10-13; 1 Kgs 8:12; Job 3:3-7; 12:22-25; 15:22; 17:12-13; 34:22; Pss 18:11, 28; 27:1; 97:2-6; 139:11-12; Prov 2:13; 4:18-19; Eccl 11:7-8; Isa 5:20; 9:2; 29:15; 51:4; 60:2-3, 19-20; Dan 2:22; Mic 7:8-9; Matt 4:16; 6:22-23; 8:12; Luke 1:78-79; 2:32; John 1:4-9; 8:12; 9:5; 12:35-36, 46; Acts 13:47; 26:18; Rom 2:19-20; Eph 5:7-14; 1 Thes 5:5-8; 1 Tim 6:16; Jas 1:17; 2 Pet 2:17; 1 Jn 1:5-7; 2:7-11<\/p>","summary_ro":"Darkness and Light Darkness Darkness is the absence of light. There was no light until God commanded that light appear. He then made a distinction between light and its absence (Gen 1:2, 4-5, 18). The ninth plague on Egypt was three days of intense darkness, a complete absence of light (Exod 10:21-23). There is a darkness surrounding God (Exod 20:21; Deut 4:11; 5:23; 2 Sam 22:12; Ps 18:11; 97:2); he dwells in thick darkness (1 Kgs 8:12 \/\/ 2 Chr 6:1), and thick darkness is under his feet (2 Sa...","summary_en":"Darkness and Light Darkness Darkness is the absence of light. There was no light until God commanded that light appear. He then made a distinction between light and its absence (Gen 1:2, 4-5, 18). The ninth plague on Egypt was three days of intense darkness, a complete absence of light (Exod 10:21-23). There is a darkness surrounding God (Exod 20:21; Deut 4:11; 5:23; 2 Sam 22:12; Ps 18:11; 97:2); he dwells in thick darkness (1 Kgs 8:12 \/\/ 2 Chr 6:1), and thick darkness is under his feet (2 Sa...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":118496,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Darkness and Light","title_en":"Darkness and Light","content_ro":"<h3>Darkness and Light<\/h3>\n<h5>Darkness<\/h5>\nDarkness is the absence of light. There was no light until God commanded that light appear. He then made a distinction between light and its absence (Gen 1:2, 4-5, 18). The ninth plague on Egypt was three days of intense darkness, a complete absence of light (Exod 10:21-23).<\/p>\nThere is a darkness surrounding God (Exod 20:21; Deut 4:11; 5:23; 2 Sam 22:12; Ps 18:11; 97:2); he dwells in thick darkness (1 Kgs 8:12 \/\/<\/em> 2 Chr 6:1), and thick darkness is under his feet (2 Sam 22:10 \/\/<\/em> Ps 18:9). God is unknowable unless he reveals himself.<\/p>\nDarkness often stands for distress and anxiety, or for the confusion and destruction experienced by the wicked (Gen 15:12; Job 12:25; 19:8; Pss 35:6; 107:10, 14; Eccl 5:17; Isa 5:30).<\/p>\nFor Job, darkness was like nothingness (Job 3:4-6). It points to death, a land of shadows and gloom, the dwelling place of the dead far from the light of day (Job 10:21-22; 17:12-13; Eccl 6:4).<\/p>\nEvil takes place under the cover of darkness (Job 24:16-17), but darkness cannot be a hiding place from God (Ps 139:11-12; Isa 29:15-16). Darkness often depicts ignorance of God’s will: Knowledge of God is “light,” so lack of knowledge is “darkness” (Job 12:24-25; Matt 4:16; John 1:5; 8:12; 12:35, 46; 1 Jn 1:5; 2:8-9, 11). Moral depravity is described as darkness (Prov 2:13; 4:19; Isa 5:20; 60:2). In the New Testament, darkness is also a metaphor for spiritual ignorance (Matt 4:16; 6:23; Luke 1:79; 11:35; Rom 2:19; Col 1:13). Those who come to know God come out of darkness (Isa 9:2).<\/p>\nA major theme of the Old Testament prophets was the Day of the Lord, which was often associated with darkness (Ezek 32:8; Joel 2:2, 31; Amos 5:18, 20; Zeph 1:15). The New Testament also links darkness with judgment (Matt 8:12; 22:13; 25:30; 2 Pet 2:17; Jude 1:6, 13).<\/p>\n<h5>Light<\/h5>\nLight was the first thing God created after the heavens and earth (Gen 1:3; see also 1:16). It is a natural symbol for what is pleasant, good, or uplifting (Eccl 11:7; Jas 1:17). When the Israelites left Egypt, they were led by a pillar of cloud and fire that gave them light (Exod 13:21; 14:20) and showed them the way to go (Neh 9:19). Light symbolizes the blessing of the Lord (Job 12:22; 29:2-3; Pss 4:6; 18:28; 44:3; 118:27). God’s servants can extend this blessing by being a light to guide others (Isa 42:6; 49:6). God’s light also exposes sin and brings justice (see Ps 90:8; Isa 51:4).<\/p>\nGod himself is described as light (Ps 27:1; Isa 60:19-20; Dan 2:22; 1 Jn 1:5), and he dwells in unapproachable light (see 1 Tim 6:16). Yet he brings his servants into the light (Mic 7:8-9; see also 1 Jn 1:7).<\/p>\nJesus said, “I am the light of the world” (John 8:12; 9:5; 12:46). He brought a revelation (light) from God, but he was more than a revealer—he was himself that revelation (John 1:1-10). Those who receive Jesus, who believe in the Light, receive the right to become children of God (John 1:9-12). They are illumined by his light and come to know God and his salvation (Matt 4:16; Luke 2:32; Acts 13:47; 26:18). They are “children of the light” (John 12:36; 1 Thes 5:5), their allegiance is to the light (1 Jn 1:7), and their conduct is characterized by light—by “what is good and right and true” (Eph 5:8-9).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nGen 1:3-5, 14-18; 15:12; Exod 10:21-23; 14:20; 20:21; 2 Sam 22:10-13; 1 Kgs 8:12; Job 3:3-7; 12:22-25; 15:22; 17:12-13; 34:22; Pss 18:11, 28; 27:1; 97:2-6; 139:11-12; Prov 2:13; 4:18-19; Eccl 11:7-8; Isa 5:20; 9:2; 29:15; 51:4; 60:2-3, 19-20; Dan 2:22; Mic 7:8-9; Matt 4:16; 6:22-23; 8:12; Luke 1:78-79; 2:32; John 1:4-9; 8:12; 9:5; 12:35-36, 46; Acts 13:47; 26:18; Rom 2:19-20; Eph 5:7-14; 1 Thes 5:5-8; 1 Tim 6:16; Jas 1:17; 2 Pet 2:17; 1 Jn 1:5-7; 2:7-11<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Darkness and Light<\/h3>\n<h5>Darkness<\/h5>\nDarkness is the absence of light. There was no light until God commanded that light appear. He then made a distinction between light and its absence (Gen 1:2, 4-5, 18). The ninth plague on Egypt was three days of intense darkness, a complete absence of light (Exod 10:21-23).<\/p>\nThere is a darkness surrounding God (Exod 20:21; Deut 4:11; 5:23; 2 Sam 22:12; Ps 18:11; 97:2); he dwells in thick darkness (1 Kgs 8:12 \/\/<\/em> 2 Chr 6:1), and thick darkness is under his feet (2 Sam 22:10 \/\/<\/em> Ps 18:9). God is unknowable unless he reveals himself.<\/p>\nDarkness often stands for distress and anxiety, or for the confusion and destruction experienced by the wicked (Gen 15:12; Job 12:25; 19:8; Pss 35:6; 107:10, 14; Eccl 5:17; Isa 5:30).<\/p>\nFor Job, darkness was like nothingness (Job 3:4-6). It points to death, a land of shadows and gloom, the dwelling place of the dead far from the light of day (Job 10:21-22; 17:12-13; Eccl 6:4).<\/p>\nEvil takes place under the cover of darkness (Job 24:16-17), but darkness cannot be a hiding place from God (Ps 139:11-12; Isa 29:15-16). Darkness often depicts ignorance of God’s will: Knowledge of God is “light,” so lack of knowledge is “darkness” (Job 12:24-25; Matt 4:16; John 1:5; 8:12; 12:35, 46; 1 Jn 1:5; 2:8-9, 11). Moral depravity is described as darkness (Prov 2:13; 4:19; Isa 5:20; 60:2). In the New Testament, darkness is also a metaphor for spiritual ignorance (Matt 4:16; 6:23; Luke 1:79; 11:35; Rom 2:19; Col 1:13). Those who come to know God come out of darkness (Isa 9:2).<\/p>\nA major theme of the Old Testament prophets was the Day of the Lord, which was often associated with darkness (Ezek 32:8; Joel 2:2, 31; Amos 5:18, 20; Zeph 1:15). The New Testament also links darkness with judgment (Matt 8:12; 22:13; 25:30; 2 Pet 2:17; Jude 1:6, 13).<\/p>\n<h5>Light<\/h5>\nLight was the first thing God created after the heavens and earth (Gen 1:3; see also 1:16). It is a natural symbol for what is pleasant, good, or uplifting (Eccl 11:7; Jas 1:17). When the Israelites left Egypt, they were led by a pillar of cloud and fire that gave them light (Exod 13:21; 14:20) and showed them the way to go (Neh 9:19). Light symbolizes the blessing of the Lord (Job 12:22; 29:2-3; Pss 4:6; 18:28; 44:3; 118:27). God’s servants can extend this blessing by being a light to guide others (Isa 42:6; 49:6). God’s light also exposes sin and brings justice (see Ps 90:8; Isa 51:4).<\/p>\nGod himself is described as light (Ps 27:1; Isa 60:19-20; Dan 2:22; 1 Jn 1:5), and he dwells in unapproachable light (see 1 Tim 6:16). Yet he brings his servants into the light (Mic 7:8-9; see also 1 Jn 1:7).<\/p>\nJesus said, “I am the light of the world” (John 8:12; 9:5; 12:46). He brought a revelation (light) from God, but he was more than a revealer—he was himself that revelation (John 1:1-10). Those who receive Jesus, who believe in the Light, receive the right to become children of God (John 1:9-12). They are illumined by his light and come to know God and his salvation (Matt 4:16; Luke 2:32; Acts 13:47; 26:18). They are “children of the light” (John 12:36; 1 Thes 5:5), their allegiance is to the light (1 Jn 1:7), and their conduct is characterized by light—by “what is good and right and true” (Eph 5:8-9).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nGen 1:3-5, 14-18; 15:12; Exod 10:21-23; 14:20; 20:21; 2 Sam 22:10-13; 1 Kgs 8:12; Job 3:3-7; 12:22-25; 15:22; 17:12-13; 34:22; Pss 18:11, 28; 27:1; 97:2-6; 139:11-12; Prov 2:13; 4:18-19; Eccl 11:7-8; Isa 5:20; 9:2; 29:15; 51:4; 60:2-3, 19-20; Dan 2:22; Mic 7:8-9; Matt 4:16; 6:22-23; 8:12; Luke 1:78-79; 2:32; John 1:4-9; 8:12; 9:5; 12:35-36, 46; Acts 13:47; 26:18; Rom 2:19-20; Eph 5:7-14; 1 Thes 5:5-8; 1 Tim 6:16; Jas 1:17; 2 Pet 2:17; 1 Jn 1:5-7; 2:7-11<\/p>","summary_ro":"Darkness and Light Darkness Darkness is the absence of light. There was no light until God commanded that light appear. He then made a distinction between light and its absence (Gen 1:2, 4-5, 18). The ninth plague on Egypt was three days of intense darkness, a complete absence of light (Exod 10:21-23). There is a darkness surrounding God (Exod 20:21; Deut 4:11; 5:23; 2 Sam 22:12; Ps 18:11; 97:2); he dwells in thick darkness (1 Kgs 8:12 \/\/ 2 Chr 6:1), and thick darkness is under his feet (2 Sa...","summary_en":"Darkness and Light Darkness Darkness is the absence of light. There was no light until God commanded that light appear. He then made a distinction between light and its absence (Gen 1:2, 4-5, 18). The ninth plague on Egypt was three days of intense darkness, a complete absence of light (Exod 10:21-23). There is a darkness surrounding God (Exod 20:21; Deut 4:11; 5:23; 2 Sam 22:12; Ps 18:11; 97:2); he dwells in thick darkness (1 Kgs 8:12 \/\/ 2 Chr 6:1), and thick darkness is under his feet (2 Sa...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":146122,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Darkness and Light","title_en":"Darkness and Light","content_ro":"<h3>Darkness and Light<\/h3>\n<h5>Darkness<\/h5>\nDarkness is the absence of light. There was no light until God commanded that light appear. He then made a distinction between light and its absence (Gen 1:2, 4-5, 18). The ninth plague on Egypt was three days of intense darkness, a complete absence of light (Exod 10:21-23).<\/p>\nThere is a darkness surrounding God (Exod 20:21; Deut 4:11; 5:23; 2 Sam 22:12; Ps 18:11; 97:2); he dwells in thick darkness (1 Kgs 8:12 \/\/<\/em> 2 Chr 6:1), and thick darkness is under his feet (2 Sam 22:10 \/\/<\/em> Ps 18:9). God is unknowable unless he reveals himself.<\/p>\nDarkness often stands for distress and anxiety, or for the confusion and destruction experienced by the wicked (Gen 15:12; Job 12:25; 19:8; Pss 35:6; 107:10, 14; Eccl 5:17; Isa 5:30).<\/p>\nFor Job, darkness was like nothingness (Job 3:4-6). It points to death, a land of shadows and gloom, the dwelling place of the dead far from the light of day (Job 10:21-22; 17:12-13; Eccl 6:4).<\/p>\nEvil takes place under the cover of darkness (Job 24:16-17), but darkness cannot be a hiding place from God (Ps 139:11-12; Isa 29:15-16). Darkness often depicts ignorance of God’s will: Knowledge of God is “light,” so lack of knowledge is “darkness” (Job 12:24-25; Matt 4:16; John 1:5; 8:12; 12:35, 46; 1 Jn 1:5; 2:8-9, 11). Moral depravity is described as darkness (Prov 2:13; 4:19; Isa 5:20; 60:2). In the New Testament, darkness is also a metaphor for spiritual ignorance (Matt 4:16; 6:23; Luke 1:79; 11:35; Rom 2:19; Col 1:13). Those who come to know God come out of darkness (Isa 9:2).<\/p>\nA major theme of the Old Testament prophets was the Day of the Lord, which was often associated with darkness (Ezek 32:8; Joel 2:2, 31; Amos 5:18, 20; Zeph 1:15). The New Testament also links darkness with judgment (Matt 8:12; 22:13; 25:30; 2 Pet 2:17; Jude 1:6, 13).<\/p>\n<h5>Light<\/h5>\nLight was the first thing God created after the heavens and earth (Gen 1:3; see also 1:16). It is a natural symbol for what is pleasant, good, or uplifting (Eccl 11:7; Jas 1:17). When the Israelites left Egypt, they were led by a pillar of cloud and fire that gave them light (Exod 13:21; 14:20) and showed them the way to go (Neh 9:19). Light symbolizes the blessing of the Lord (Job 12:22; 29:2-3; Pss 4:6; 18:28; 44:3; 118:27). God’s servants can extend this blessing by being a light to guide others (Isa 42:6; 49:6). God’s light also exposes sin and brings justice (see Ps 90:8; Isa 51:4).<\/p>\nGod himself is described as light (Ps 27:1; Isa 60:19-20; Dan 2:22; 1 Jn 1:5), and he dwells in unapproachable light (see 1 Tim 6:16). Yet he brings his servants into the light (Mic 7:8-9; see also 1 Jn 1:7).<\/p>\nJesus said, “I am the light of the world” (John 8:12; 9:5; 12:46). He brought a revelation (light) from God, but he was more than a revealer—he was himself that revelation (John 1:1-10). Those who receive Jesus, who believe in the Light, receive the right to become children of God (John 1:9-12). They are illumined by his light and come to know God and his salvation (Matt 4:16; Luke 2:32; Acts 13:47; 26:18). They are “children of the light” (John 12:36; 1 Thes 5:5), their allegiance is to the light (1 Jn 1:7), and their conduct is characterized by light—by “what is good and right and true” (Eph 5:8-9).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nGen 1:3-5, 14-18; 15:12; Exod 10:21-23; 14:20; 20:21; 2 Sam 22:10-13; 1 Kgs 8:12; Job 3:3-7; 12:22-25; 15:22; 17:12-13; 34:22; Pss 18:11, 28; 27:1; 97:2-6; 139:11-12; Prov 2:13; 4:18-19; Eccl 11:7-8; Isa 5:20; 9:2; 29:15; 51:4; 60:2-3, 19-20; Dan 2:22; Mic 7:8-9; Matt 4:16; 6:22-23; 8:12; Luke 1:78-79; 2:32; John 1:4-9; 8:12; 9:5; 12:35-36, 46; Acts 13:47; 26:18; Rom 2:19-20; Eph 5:7-14; 1 Thes 5:5-8; 1 Tim 6:16; Jas 1:17; 2 Pet 2:17; 1 Jn 1:5-7; 2:7-11<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Darkness and Light<\/h3>\n<h5>Darkness<\/h5>\nDarkness is the absence of light. There was no light until God commanded that light appear. He then made a distinction between light and its absence (Gen 1:2, 4-5, 18). The ninth plague on Egypt was three days of intense darkness, a complete absence of light (Exod 10:21-23).<\/p>\nThere is a darkness surrounding God (Exod 20:21; Deut 4:11; 5:23; 2 Sam 22:12; Ps 18:11; 97:2); he dwells in thick darkness (1 Kgs 8:12 \/\/<\/em> 2 Chr 6:1), and thick darkness is under his feet (2 Sam 22:10 \/\/<\/em> Ps 18:9). God is unknowable unless he reveals himself.<\/p>\nDarkness often stands for distress and anxiety, or for the confusion and destruction experienced by the wicked (Gen 15:12; Job 12:25; 19:8; Pss 35:6; 107:10, 14; Eccl 5:17; Isa 5:30).<\/p>\nFor Job, darkness was like nothingness (Job 3:4-6). It points to death, a land of shadows and gloom, the dwelling place of the dead far from the light of day (Job 10:21-22; 17:12-13; Eccl 6:4).<\/p>\nEvil takes place under the cover of darkness (Job 24:16-17), but darkness cannot be a hiding place from God (Ps 139:11-12; Isa 29:15-16). Darkness often depicts ignorance of God’s will: Knowledge of God is “light,” so lack of knowledge is “darkness” (Job 12:24-25; Matt 4:16; John 1:5; 8:12; 12:35, 46; 1 Jn 1:5; 2:8-9, 11). Moral depravity is described as darkness (Prov 2:13; 4:19; Isa 5:20; 60:2). In the New Testament, darkness is also a metaphor for spiritual ignorance (Matt 4:16; 6:23; Luke 1:79; 11:35; Rom 2:19; Col 1:13). Those who come to know God come out of darkness (Isa 9:2).<\/p>\nA major theme of the Old Testament prophets was the Day of the Lord, which was often associated with darkness (Ezek 32:8; Joel 2:2, 31; Amos 5:18, 20; Zeph 1:15). The New Testament also links darkness with judgment (Matt 8:12; 22:13; 25:30; 2 Pet 2:17; Jude 1:6, 13).<\/p>\n<h5>Light<\/h5>\nLight was the first thing God created after the heavens and earth (Gen 1:3; see also 1:16). It is a natural symbol for what is pleasant, good, or uplifting (Eccl 11:7; Jas 1:17). When the Israelites left Egypt, they were led by a pillar of cloud and fire that gave them light (Exod 13:21; 14:20) and showed them the way to go (Neh 9:19). Light symbolizes the blessing of the Lord (Job 12:22; 29:2-3; Pss 4:6; 18:28; 44:3; 118:27). God’s servants can extend this blessing by being a light to guide others (Isa 42:6; 49:6). God’s light also exposes sin and brings justice (see Ps 90:8; Isa 51:4).<\/p>\nGod himself is described as light (Ps 27:1; Isa 60:19-20; Dan 2:22; 1 Jn 1:5), and he dwells in unapproachable light (see 1 Tim 6:16). Yet he brings his servants into the light (Mic 7:8-9; see also 1 Jn 1:7).<\/p>\nJesus said, “I am the light of the world” (John 8:12; 9:5; 12:46). He brought a revelation (light) from God, but he was more than a revealer—he was himself that revelation (John 1:1-10). Those who receive Jesus, who believe in the Light, receive the right to become children of God (John 1:9-12). They are illumined by his light and come to know God and his salvation (Matt 4:16; Luke 2:32; Acts 13:47; 26:18). They are “children of the light” (John 12:36; 1 Thes 5:5), their allegiance is to the light (1 Jn 1:7), and their conduct is characterized by light—by “what is good and right and true” (Eph 5:8-9).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nGen 1:3-5, 14-18; 15:12; Exod 10:21-23; 14:20; 20:21; 2 Sam 22:10-13; 1 Kgs 8:12; Job 3:3-7; 12:22-25; 15:22; 17:12-13; 34:22; Pss 18:11, 28; 27:1; 97:2-6; 139:11-12; Prov 2:13; 4:18-19; Eccl 11:7-8; Isa 5:20; 9:2; 29:15; 51:4; 60:2-3, 19-20; Dan 2:22; Mic 7:8-9; Matt 4:16; 6:22-23; 8:12; Luke 1:78-79; 2:32; John 1:4-9; 8:12; 9:5; 12:35-36, 46; Acts 13:47; 26:18; Rom 2:19-20; Eph 5:7-14; 1 Thes 5:5-8; 1 Tim 6:16; Jas 1:17; 2 Pet 2:17; 1 Jn 1:5-7; 2:7-11<\/p>","summary_ro":"Darkness and Light Darkness Darkness is the absence of light. There was no light until God commanded that light appear. He then made a distinction between light and its absence (Gen 1:2, 4-5, 18). The ninth plague on Egypt was three days of intense darkness, a complete absence of light (Exod 10:21-23). There is a darkness surrounding God (Exod 20:21; Deut 4:11; 5:23; 2 Sam 22:12; Ps 18:11; 97:2); he dwells in thick darkness (1 Kgs 8:12 \/\/ 2 Chr 6:1), and thick darkness is under his feet (2 Sa...","summary_en":"Darkness and Light Darkness Darkness is the absence of light. There was no light until God commanded that light appear. He then made a distinction between light and its absence (Gen 1:2, 4-5, 18). The ninth plague on Egypt was three days of intense darkness, a complete absence of light (Exod 10:21-23). There is a darkness surrounding God (Exod 20:21; Deut 4:11; 5:23; 2 Sam 22:12; Ps 18:11; 97:2); he dwells in thick darkness (1 Kgs 8:12 \/\/ 2 Chr 6:1), and thick darkness is under his feet (2 Sa...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"7":[{"id":8685,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Darkness","title_en":"Darkness","content_ro":"<h3>DARKNESS<\/h3>\nAbsence of light or brightness. Although the Bible seldom refers to literal darkness, a number of words translated “darkness” are used in a figurative or metaphorical sense.<\/p>\nWhen God created the world, there was no light until he commanded that light appear. He then made distinction between light and its opposite, darkness, which he called night (Gn 1:2, 4-5, 18). Literal darkness is also mentioned in the account of the plagues God inflicted on Egypt; the ninth plague was an intense darkness that could be “felt” (Ex 10:21-23). That darkness lasted three days and was selective; wherever Egyptians were, it was dark, but where the Israelites were, there was light. The Israelites left Egypt accompanied by a cloud that separated them from their enemy, evidently giving light to the Israelites but making darkness for the Egyptians (Ex 14:20). The Bible notes that thieves or adulterers are likely to do their evil deeds in the dark or at night (Jb 24:16-17).<\/p>\nIn the NT “darkness” is used twice in its literal sense. At the crucifixion of Jesus, for a three-hour period from noon to three o’clock, there was not light (Mt 27:45; Mk 15:33; Lk 23:44). The other reference is to Christ’s second coming, when “the sun will be darkened, and the moon will not give its light” (Mt 24:29, rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\nSeveral biblical passages speak of a darkness surrounding God, evidently moving from a literal sense of absence of light to a more profound meaning. God spoke to Moses on Mt Sinai in a dense, black cloud (Ex 20:21; Dt 4:11) or from the darkness (Dt 5:23). Darkness is pictured as a shelter or cloak around God (2 Sm 22:12; Pss 18:11; 97:2). God sets a boundary for light and darkness (Jb 26:10), brings darkness (Pss 104:20; 105:28), and creates light and darkness (Is 45:7). God dwells in thick darkness (1 Kgs 8:12; 2 Chr 6:1), and thick darkness is under his feet (2 Sm 22:10; Ps 18:9).<\/p>\nMost figurative references to darkness appear in poetic material, such as Job, Psalms, and Isaiah. Generally, such darkness depicts ignorance about God’s will. Knowledge of God is “light”; hence, lack of such knowledge is “darkness” (Jb 12:24-25; Mt 4:16; Jn 1:5; 8:12; 12:35, 46; 1 Jn 1:5; 2:8-9, 11).<\/p>\nJob spoke of darkness as equivalent to nothingness (Jb 3:4-6). In other references darkness stands for death, a land of shadows and gloom, the dwelling place of the dead far from the light of day (Jb 10:21-22; 15:24; 17:12-13; 18:18; Eccl 6:4; 11:8).<\/p>\nDarkness frequently stands for distress and anxiety, or for the confusion and destruction experienced by the wicked (Gn 15:12; Jb 5:14; 12:25; 15:22, 30; 19:8; 22:11; Pss 35:6; 107:10, 14; Eccl 5:17; Is 5:30). Moral depravity is sometimes described as darkness (Prv 2:13; 4:19; Is 5:20; 60:2). In the NT darkness is generally a metaphor of moral depravity and spiritual ignorance (Mt 4:16; 6:23; Lk 1:79; 11:35; 22:53; Rom 2:19; Col 1:13).<\/p>\nA major theme of OT prophets was the Day of the Lord, often associated with darkness (Ez 32:8; Jl 2:2, 31; Am 5:18, 20; Zep 1:15). The NT also links darkness with judgment in connection with Christ’s second coming (Mt 8:12; 22:13; 25:30; 2 Pt 2:17; Jude 1:6, 13). Those who come to know God are said to come out of darkness (Is 9:2; 29:18; 42:7); darkness cannot be a hiding place from God (Jb 34:22; Ps 139:11-12; Is 29:15).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Light.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>DARKNESS<\/h3>\nAbsence of light or brightness. Although the Bible seldom refers to literal darkness, a number of words translated “darkness” are used in a figurative or metaphorical sense.<\/p>\nWhen God created the world, there was no light until he commanded that light appear. He then made distinction between light and its opposite, darkness, which he called night (Gn 1:2, 4-5, 18). Literal darkness is also mentioned in the account of the plagues God inflicted on Egypt; the ninth plague was an intense darkness that could be “felt” (Ex 10:21-23). That darkness lasted three days and was selective; wherever Egyptians were, it was dark, but where the Israelites were, there was light. The Israelites left Egypt accompanied by a cloud that separated them from their enemy, evidently giving light to the Israelites but making darkness for the Egyptians (Ex 14:20). The Bible notes that thieves or adulterers are likely to do their evil deeds in the dark or at night (Jb 24:16-17).<\/p>\nIn the NT “darkness” is used twice in its literal sense. At the crucifixion of Jesus, for a three-hour period from noon to three o’clock, there was not light (Mt 27:45; Mk 15:33; Lk 23:44). The other reference is to Christ’s second coming, when “the sun will be darkened, and the moon will not give its light” (Mt 24:29, rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\nSeveral biblical passages speak of a darkness surrounding God, evidently moving from a literal sense of absence of light to a more profound meaning. God spoke to Moses on Mt Sinai in a dense, black cloud (Ex 20:21; Dt 4:11) or from the darkness (Dt 5:23). Darkness is pictured as a shelter or cloak around God (2 Sm 22:12; Pss 18:11; 97:2). God sets a boundary for light and darkness (Jb 26:10), brings darkness (Pss 104:20; 105:28), and creates light and darkness (Is 45:7). God dwells in thick darkness (1 Kgs 8:12; 2 Chr 6:1), and thick darkness is under his feet (2 Sm 22:10; Ps 18:9).<\/p>\nMost figurative references to darkness appear in poetic material, such as Job, Psalms, and Isaiah. Generally, such darkness depicts ignorance about God’s will. Knowledge of God is “light”; hence, lack of such knowledge is “darkness” (Jb 12:24-25; Mt 4:16; Jn 1:5; 8:12; 12:35, 46; 1 Jn 1:5; 2:8-9, 11).<\/p>\nJob spoke of darkness as equivalent to nothingness (Jb 3:4-6). In other references darkness stands for death, a land of shadows and gloom, the dwelling place of the dead far from the light of day (Jb 10:21-22; 15:24; 17:12-13; 18:18; Eccl 6:4; 11:8).<\/p>\nDarkness frequently stands for distress and anxiety, or for the confusion and destruction experienced by the wicked (Gn 15:12; Jb 5:14; 12:25; 15:22, 30; 19:8; 22:11; Pss 35:6; 107:10, 14; Eccl 5:17; Is 5:30). Moral depravity is sometimes described as darkness (Prv 2:13; 4:19; Is 5:20; 60:2). In the NT darkness is generally a metaphor of moral depravity and spiritual ignorance (Mt 4:16; 6:23; Lk 1:79; 11:35; 22:53; Rom 2:19; Col 1:13).<\/p>\nA major theme of OT prophets was the Day of the Lord, often associated with darkness (Ez 32:8; Jl 2:2, 31; Am 5:18, 20; Zep 1:15). The NT also links darkness with judgment in connection with Christ’s second coming (Mt 8:12; 22:13; 25:30; 2 Pt 2:17; Jude 1:6, 13). Those who come to know God are said to come out of darkness (Is 9:2; 29:18; 42:7); darkness cannot be a hiding place from God (Jb 34:22; Ps 139:11-12; Is 29:15).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Light.<\/p>","summary_ro":"DARKNESS Absence of light or brightness. Although the Bible seldom refers to literal darkness, a number of words translated “darkness” are used in a figurative or metaphorical sense. When God created the world, there was no light until he commanded that light appear. He then made distinction between light and its opposite, darkness, which he called night (Gn 1:2, 4-5, 18). Literal darkness is also mentioned in the account of the plagues God inflicted on Egypt; the ninth plague was an intense ...","summary_en":"DARKNESS Absence of light or brightness. Although the Bible seldom refers to literal darkness, a number of words translated “darkness” are used in a figurative or metaphorical sense. When God created the world, there was no light until he commanded that light appear. He then made distinction between light and its opposite, darkness, which he called night (Gn 1:2, 4-5, 18). Literal darkness is also mentioned in the account of the plagues God inflicted on Egypt; the ninth plague was an intense ...","source":"Articles\/D.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":51660,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 42:7","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 42:7","content_ro":"42:7<\/strong> The servant will open the eyes of the<\/em> spiritually blind<\/em> (see 6:10; 29:18) and free the<\/em> spiritual captives from<\/em> the prison<\/em> of sin, in addition to those who were captive in the Babylonian exile (see 61:1 with Luke 4:18).<\/p>","content_en":"42:7<\/strong> The servant will open the eyes of the<\/em> spiritually blind<\/em> (see 6:10; 29:18) and free the<\/em> spiritual captives from<\/em> the prison<\/em> of sin, in addition to those who were captive in the Babylonian exile (see 61:1 with Luke 4:18).<\/p>","summary_ro":"42:7 The servant will open the eyes of the spiritually blind (see 6:10; 29:18) and free the spiritual captives from the prison of sin, in addition to those who were captive in the Babylonian exile (see 61:1 with Luke 4:18).","summary_en":"42:7 The servant will open the eyes of the spiritually blind (see 6:10; 29:18) and free the spiritual captives from the prison of sin, in addition to those who were captive in the Babylonian exile (see 61:1 with Luke 4:18).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":79286,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 42:7","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 42:7","content_ro":"42:7<\/strong> The servant will open the eyes of the<\/em> spiritually blind<\/em> (see 6:10; 29:18) and free the<\/em> spiritual captives from<\/em> the prison<\/em> of sin, in addition to those who were captive in the Babylonian exile (see 61:1 with Luke 4:18).<\/p>","content_en":"42:7<\/strong> The servant will open the eyes of the<\/em> spiritually blind<\/em> (see 6:10; 29:18) and free the<\/em> spiritual captives from<\/em> the prison<\/em> of sin, in addition to those who were captive in the Babylonian exile (see 61:1 with Luke 4:18).<\/p>","summary_ro":"42:7 The servant will open the eyes of the spiritually blind (see 6:10; 29:18) and free the spiritual captives from the prison of sin, in addition to those who were captive in the Babylonian exile (see 61:1 with Luke 4:18).","summary_en":"42:7 The servant will open the eyes of the spiritually blind (see 6:10; 29:18) and free the spiritual captives from the prison of sin, in addition to those who were captive in the Babylonian exile (see 61:1 with Luke 4:18).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":106912,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 42:7","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 42:7","content_ro":"42:7<\/strong> The servant will open the eyes of the<\/em> spiritually blind<\/em> (see 6:10; 29:18) and free the<\/em> spiritual captives from<\/em> the prison<\/em> of sin, in addition to those who were captive in the Babylonian exile (see 61:1 with Luke 4:18).<\/p>","content_en":"42:7<\/strong> The servant will open the eyes of the<\/em> spiritually blind<\/em> (see 6:10; 29:18) and free the<\/em> spiritual captives from<\/em> the prison<\/em> of sin, in addition to those who were captive in the Babylonian exile (see 61:1 with Luke 4:18).<\/p>","summary_ro":"42:7 The servant will open the eyes of the spiritually blind (see 6:10; 29:18) and free the spiritual captives from the prison of sin, in addition to those who were captive in the Babylonian exile (see 61:1 with Luke 4:18).","summary_en":"42:7 The servant will open the eyes of the spiritually blind (see 6:10; 29:18) and free the spiritual captives from the prison of sin, in addition to those who were captive in the Babylonian exile (see 61:1 with Luke 4:18).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":134538,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 42:7","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 42:7","content_ro":"42:7<\/strong> The servant will open the eyes of the<\/em> spiritually blind<\/em> (see 6:10; 29:18) and free the<\/em> spiritual captives from<\/em> the prison<\/em> of sin, in addition to those who were captive in the Babylonian exile (see 61:1 with Luke 4:18).<\/p>","content_en":"42:7<\/strong> The servant will open the eyes of the<\/em> spiritually blind<\/em> (see 6:10; 29:18) and free the<\/em> spiritual captives from<\/em> the prison<\/em> of sin, in addition to those who were captive in the Babylonian exile (see 61:1 with Luke 4:18).<\/p>","summary_ro":"42:7 The servant will open the eyes of the spiritually blind (see 6:10; 29:18) and free the spiritual captives from the prison of sin, in addition to those who were captive in the Babylonian exile (see 61:1 with Luke 4:18).","summary_en":"42:7 The servant will open the eyes of the spiritually blind (see 6:10; 29:18) and free the spiritual captives from the prison of sin, in addition to those who were captive in the Babylonian exile (see 61:1 with Luke 4:18).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"8":[{"id":13807,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Gideon","title_en":"Gideon","content_ro":"<h3>GIDEON<\/h3>\nJudge of Israel, son of Joash, of the clan of Abiezer and the tribe of Manasseh. Of the 12 judges of Israel, more verses are devoted to Gideon than any other—Samson running a close second. The narrative in which he is the central character antedates the Christian era by roughly 11 centuries.<\/p>\nFollowing seven years of cruel oppression by the Midianites, Israel cried out to the Lord for relief (Jgs 6:6). An unknown prophet informs the Israelites that their miserable conditions stem from their forgetting to give exclusive devotion to the one true God. God sends his angel to Gideon. A touch of humor earmarks the angel’s greeting, for the “mighty warrior” (v 12) is threshing wheat secretly for fear of the Midianites. Yet God addresses Gideon in realization of what his mighty power is able to accomplish in him (vv 14-16, 34). Conscious of his own weakness and the formidable task before him, Gideon is an ideal vehicle for God’s tremendous work of deliverance (cf. 1 Cor 1:27; 2 Cor 12:10).<\/p>\n\nGideon’s first task is to tear down his father’s altar to Baal and the adjacent one to Asherah, Baal’s female consort (cf. Is 42:8). Knowing that the people would resist such an act, Gideon and his servants destroy these images of debased Canaanite religion at night. The following day the men of Ophrah confront Gideon and seek his life in retaliation for the act. Joash pleads the cause of his son, inviting Baal, if he indeed is deity, to contend for himself. Out of this confrontation the name Jerubbaal (“let Baal contend”) is ascribed to Gideon (Jgs 6:32).<\/p>\nYet Gideon is a man of inconstant faith, and his desire of further assurance is not rebuked as God graciously and patiently accedes to his requests concerning the dew and the fleece (Jgs 6:36-40). Subsequently Gideon is informed that mere numbers will not assure victory. Moreover, there must be no doubt whatever as to the true source of Israel’s liberation (7:2). From 32,000, Gideon’s troops are trimmed down to only 300 by an unusual method of reduction (vv 3-7). A secret reconnaissance mission to the outskirts of the oppositions’ camp enables Gideon to receive further strengthening as he and his servant Purah overhear a Midianite soldier reveal his dream indicating Israel’s imminent victory (vv 13-14). In response to this additional encouragement, he worships the Lord (Jgs 7:15; cf. 6:24).<\/p>\nDivided into three companies, Gideon’s army stations itself at night outside the Midianite stronghold. At Gideon’s signal each man blows a trumpet (made from an animal’s horn) and smashes an empty jar containing a torch, shouting, “A sword for the Lord<\/span> and for Gideon!” (Jgs 7:20). The effect of the clamor is overwhelming. Thinking themselves outnumbered, the confused and disheartened Midianites flee eastward across the Jordan. In hot pursuit, Gideon’s men are joined by Israelites from Naphtali, Asher, and Manasseh, who follow the enemy into the Transjordan area. The men of Ephraim, whose efforts are now called upon for the first time, capture and kill two of the Midianite leaders. Angry with Gideon for failing to enlist their services earlier, the Ephraimites are nonetheless appeased by Gideon’s tactful response to their queries (8:1-3).<\/p>\nGideon’s unselfishness shines in response to the people’s desire to make him king, but he declines (Jgs 8:22-23). He does, however, receive an immense personal fortune from the spoils of war (vv 24-26). The unfortunate conclusion of Gideon’s story relates to his making an ephod from the gold won in battle. Perhaps a garment patterned after the high priest’s or a freestanding image, the object ensnares the people, and they worship it at Ophrah (v 27). In 2 Samuel 11:21 Gideon’s alternate name, Jerubbaal, becomes Jerubbesheth, “Baal” being replaced with the Hebrew word for “shame” (<\/em>besheth<\/span>).<\/em><\/p>\nGideon has been singled out in the Letter to the Hebrews as a hero of the faith whose trust in God brought glory to the Lord (Heb 11:32, kjv<\/span> “Gedeon”). As far back as the time of Isaiah, “the day of Midian” had become proverbial for deliverance accomplished by the hand of God apart from human strength (Is 9:4).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Judges, Book of.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>GIDEON<\/h3>\nJudge of Israel, son of Joash, of the clan of Abiezer and the tribe of Manasseh. Of the 12 judges of Israel, more verses are devoted to Gideon than any other—Samson running a close second. The narrative in which he is the central character antedates the Christian era by roughly 11 centuries.<\/p>\nFollowing seven years of cruel oppression by the Midianites, Israel cried out to the Lord for relief (Jgs 6:6). An unknown prophet informs the Israelites that their miserable conditions stem from their forgetting to give exclusive devotion to the one true God. God sends his angel to Gideon. A touch of humor earmarks the angel’s greeting, for the “mighty warrior” (v 12) is threshing wheat secretly for fear of the Midianites. Yet God addresses Gideon in realization of what his mighty power is able to accomplish in him (vv 14-16, 34). Conscious of his own weakness and the formidable task before him, Gideon is an ideal vehicle for God’s tremendous work of deliverance (cf. 1 Cor 1:27; 2 Cor 12:10).<\/p>\n\nGideon’s first task is to tear down his father’s altar to Baal and the adjacent one to Asherah, Baal’s female consort (cf. Is 42:8). Knowing that the people would resist such an act, Gideon and his servants destroy these images of debased Canaanite religion at night. The following day the men of Ophrah confront Gideon and seek his life in retaliation for the act. Joash pleads the cause of his son, inviting Baal, if he indeed is deity, to contend for himself. Out of this confrontation the name Jerubbaal (“let Baal contend”) is ascribed to Gideon (Jgs 6:32).<\/p>\nYet Gideon is a man of inconstant faith, and his desire of further assurance is not rebuked as God graciously and patiently accedes to his requests concerning the dew and the fleece (Jgs 6:36-40). Subsequently Gideon is informed that mere numbers will not assure victory. Moreover, there must be no doubt whatever as to the true source of Israel’s liberation (7:2). From 32,000, Gideon’s troops are trimmed down to only 300 by an unusual method of reduction (vv 3-7). A secret reconnaissance mission to the outskirts of the oppositions’ camp enables Gideon to receive further strengthening as he and his servant Purah overhear a Midianite soldier reveal his dream indicating Israel’s imminent victory (vv 13-14). In response to this additional encouragement, he worships the Lord (Jgs 7:15; cf. 6:24).<\/p>\nDivided into three companies, Gideon’s army stations itself at night outside the Midianite stronghold. At Gideon’s signal each man blows a trumpet (made from an animal’s horn) and smashes an empty jar containing a torch, shouting, “A sword for the Lord<\/span> and for Gideon!” (Jgs 7:20). The effect of the clamor is overwhelming. Thinking themselves outnumbered, the confused and disheartened Midianites flee eastward across the Jordan. In hot pursuit, Gideon’s men are joined by Israelites from Naphtali, Asher, and Manasseh, who follow the enemy into the Transjordan area. The men of Ephraim, whose efforts are now called upon for the first time, capture and kill two of the Midianite leaders. Angry with Gideon for failing to enlist their services earlier, the Ephraimites are nonetheless appeased by Gideon’s tactful response to their queries (8:1-3).<\/p>\nGideon’s unselfishness shines in response to the people’s desire to make him king, but he declines (Jgs 8:22-23). He does, however, receive an immense personal fortune from the spoils of war (vv 24-26). The unfortunate conclusion of Gideon’s story relates to his making an ephod from the gold won in battle. Perhaps a garment patterned after the high priest’s or a freestanding image, the object ensnares the people, and they worship it at Ophrah (v 27). In 2 Samuel 11:21 Gideon’s alternate name, Jerubbaal, becomes Jerubbesheth, “Baal” being replaced with the Hebrew word for “shame” (<\/em>besheth<\/span>).<\/em><\/p>\nGideon has been singled out in the Letter to the Hebrews as a hero of the faith whose trust in God brought glory to the Lord (Heb 11:32, kjv<\/span> “Gedeon”). As far back as the time of Isaiah, “the day of Midian” had become proverbial for deliverance accomplished by the hand of God apart from human strength (Is 9:4).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Judges, Book of.<\/p>","summary_ro":"GIDEON Judge of Israel, son of Joash, of the clan of Abiezer and the tribe of Manasseh. Of the 12 judges of Israel, more verses are devoted to Gideon than any other—Samson running a close second. The narrative in which he is the central character antedates the Christian era by roughly 11 centuries. Following seven years of cruel oppression by the Midianites, Israel cried out to the Lord for relief (Jgs 6:6). An unknown prophet informs the Israelites that their miserable conditions stem from t...","summary_en":"GIDEON Judge of Israel, son of Joash, of the clan of Abiezer and the tribe of Manasseh. Of the 12 judges of Israel, more verses are devoted to Gideon than any other—Samson running a close second. The narrative in which he is the central character antedates the Christian era by roughly 11 centuries. Following seven years of cruel oppression by the Midianites, Israel cried out to the Lord for relief (Jgs 6:6). An unknown prophet informs the Israelites that their miserable conditions stem from t...","source":"Articles\/G.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":13983,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Glory","title_en":"Glory","content_ro":"<h3>GLORY<\/h3>\nThe singular splendor of God and the consequences for humanity.<\/p>\nThe Glory of God<\/p>\nThe glory of God can be described in two senses: (1) as a general category or attribute, and (2) as a specific category referring to particular historical manifestations of his presence.<\/p>\n<h5>As an Attribute<\/h5>\nGod’s glory refers primarily to his majestic beauty and splendor; it also refers to the expression of God’s character (Rom 3:23). The Scriptures record praise to his glorious name (Neh 9:5), describe him as the glorious Father (Eph 1:17) and the King of glory (Ps 24); he is exalted above the heavens, and his glory is over all the earth (Pss 57:5, 11; 108:5; 113:4). He is the God of glory who appeared to the patriarchs of the OT (Acts 7:2). He is jealous to maintain his glory and unwilling that it be given to another (Is 42:8); he acts to bring glory to himself (Ps 79:9; Is 48:11).<\/p>\nThe glory of God is proclaimed by the Creation (Pss 19:1; 97:6; Rom 1:20). It is revealed by his mighty acts of salvation and deliverance (1 Chr 16:24; Pss 72:18-19; 96:3; 145:10-12; Jn 11:4, 40). His glory is the theme of the praise (1 Chr 16:24-29; Pss 29:1-2, 9; 66:1-2; 96:7-8; 115:1; Is 42:12; Rom 4:20; Phil 2:9-11).<\/p>\n<h5>As His Presence<\/h5>\nReferences to the glory of the Lord are often to particular historical manifestations of his presence; images of light and fire are prominently associated with these occurrences. The foremost example is what is known in rabbinical literature as the shekinah glory, a phrase meaning the “dwelling glory.” It refers primarily to the presence of God in the pillar of cloud and fire in the OT.<\/p>\nThe first explicit reference to the glory cloud is found in Exodus 13:21-22. At the time of the exodus, the glory of God appeared in the pillar of cloud and fire to lead the people through the sea and wilderness (Neh 9:11-12, 19). At Sinai, with Israel encamped around the mountain, the glory of God comes in the cloud and fire to speak with Moses in the sight of the people (Ex 19:9, 16-18; 24:15-18; Dt 5:5, 22-24). When Moses is given a glimpse of that glory unconcealed by the cloud and fire, his own face becomes radiant and must be veiled because of the people’s fear (Ex 33:18-23; 34:29-35; 2 Cor 3:7-18).<\/p>\nThe picture of Israel encamped around the glory of God on Sinai portrays God dwelling in the midst of his people. When the tabernacle is completed and the people set out on their march, the glory cloud of God’s presence dwells above them throughout their journey (Ex 40:34-38; Nm 10:11-12). When they encamp, the tribes encircle the tabernacle (Nm 1:50–2:2), and the cloud reminds them of his presence in their midst. Later, the same glory filled the new temple that Solomon builds (2 Chr 5:13–6:1; 7:1-3). The psalmists celebrated Jerusalem and the temple as the place where his glory dwelt (Pss 26:8; 63:2; 85:9); God was in their midst.<\/p>\nLater in Israel’s history they denied God’s glorious presence (Is 3:8) and exchanged the glory of the Lord for idols made by human hands (Ps 106:20; Jer 2:10-11; cf. Rom 1:23). Because of their disobedience, judgment came against Jerusalem; the penalties of covenant violation were enforced. God would no longer be the God of a disobedient people (Hos 1:9). God’s presence in the glory cloud left the temple (Ez 10:4, 18-19; 11:22), and Israel went into exile (12:1-15).<\/p>\nYet out of this judgment God determined to bring a remnant to rebuild the city and the temple. In his visions Ezekiel saw the glory of the Lord return to dwell in the temple again (Ez 43:2-9), a time when the glory would return to a purified people and dwell among them forever. When the exile was over and the second temple was under construction, Haggai and Zechariah urged the people on with the promise of the return of the glory of God to fill the temple as it had done in the first temple and to “be glory in their midst” (Hg 2:3-9; Zec 2:5, 10-11).<\/p>\nThe Glory of God in Jesus Christ<\/p>\nWe are not told if the shekinah glory returned to the second temple. But we are told that God’s glory was seen again on earth in the person of Jesus Christ. John 1:14 says, “The Word became flesh and dwelt<\/em> among us, and we beheld his glory, glory<\/em> as of the only Son” (italics added). As such, Jesus was the new tabernacle for God’s abiding glory. In Jesus, God dwelt among people. Since Christ was (and is) the very image of God, to see the light of his face was to know the glory of God (2 Cor 4:4-6). To see Jesus was to see a “light to the Gentiles and the glory of Israel” (Lk 2:30-32). The disciples who witnessed the Transfiguration (Mt 17:1-8) saw his glory in a marvelous way (2 Pt 1:16-17), for it was a glory that burst out of his human body. This outburst of glory prefigured the glorification Christ experienced in resurrection and ascension (see Jn 17:5; Phil 2:5-11).<\/p>\nBecause Jesus humbled himself and was obedient to the point of death, God highly exalted him (Phil 2:8-9). After he suffered death on the cross, he entered into his glory (Lk 24:26) with a new and glorious body (1 Cor 15:39-43; Phil 3:21). The glorified Christ appeared to his servants. Stephen saw his glory (Acts 7:55), and Saul was blinded by his splendor (9:3). That same Christ is predicted to return in glory. He will sit on his throne in judgment (Mt 25:31); evil will be punished (16:27; 24:30; Mk 13:26; Lk 21:27; 2 Thes 2:9-10). Those who have professed him before men need not fear his glorious appearing (Mk 8:38).<\/p>\nAt the consummation, the whole earth will be filled with his glory (Ps 72:19; Is 6:3; Hb 2:14). No longer will a glory cloud rest above a temple to mark the Holy Place, for there will be a new heaven and a new earth (Rv 21:1). The Holy City will have the radiance of the glory of God (vv 10-11).<\/p>\nGlory and the People of God<\/p>\nThe people of God have experienced the glory of the presence of God. The glory cloud of the OT was their<\/em> glory (Ps 106:20; Jer 2:11). Christ came as the embodiment of the glory of God; God was in the midst of his people. When Christ ascended, he sent his Spirit to the believers (Jn 16:7-14) so that God could live in the midst of his people. The Spirit of glory rests on those who suffer for the name of Christ (1 Pt 4:14); that Spirit is the guarantee of the glorious inheritance of the saints (Rom 8:16-17).<\/p>\nGod has given to his people the hope of glory (Rom 5:2; Phil 3:21; Col 1:27; Jude 1:24-25). Those whom he has chosen he will also glorify (Rom 8:30; 9:23); they will share in the glory of Christ (Col 3:4; 2 Thes 2:14; 2 Tm 2:10). The sufferings of this age do not compare with the glory that will be revealed (Rom 8:18; 2 Cor 4:17). The whole of creation longs to see the glorious freedom of the children of God (Rom 8:21). This hope of glory is so certain that Peter can speak of participating in it even now (1 Pt 5:1) while looking forward to that eternal glory (v 10). As partakers in the glory of Christ, the church is called to glorify God. Because of the hope that is in them, they purify themselves (1 Jn 3:3).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Boast; God, Being and Attributes of; Pillar of Fire and Cloud; Shekinah; Theophany; Wealth.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>GLORY<\/h3>\nThe singular splendor of God and the consequences for humanity.<\/p>\nThe Glory of God<\/p>\nThe glory of God can be described in two senses: (1) as a general category or attribute, and (2) as a specific category referring to particular historical manifestations of his presence.<\/p>\n<h5>As an Attribute<\/h5>\nGod’s glory refers primarily to his majestic beauty and splendor; it also refers to the expression of God’s character (Rom 3:23). The Scriptures record praise to his glorious name (Neh 9:5), describe him as the glorious Father (Eph 1:17) and the King of glory (Ps 24); he is exalted above the heavens, and his glory is over all the earth (Pss 57:5, 11; 108:5; 113:4). He is the God of glory who appeared to the patriarchs of the OT (Acts 7:2). He is jealous to maintain his glory and unwilling that it be given to another (Is 42:8); he acts to bring glory to himself (Ps 79:9; Is 48:11).<\/p>\nThe glory of God is proclaimed by the Creation (Pss 19:1; 97:6; Rom 1:20). It is revealed by his mighty acts of salvation and deliverance (1 Chr 16:24; Pss 72:18-19; 96:3; 145:10-12; Jn 11:4, 40). His glory is the theme of the praise (1 Chr 16:24-29; Pss 29:1-2, 9; 66:1-2; 96:7-8; 115:1; Is 42:12; Rom 4:20; Phil 2:9-11).<\/p>\n<h5>As His Presence<\/h5>\nReferences to the glory of the Lord are often to particular historical manifestations of his presence; images of light and fire are prominently associated with these occurrences. The foremost example is what is known in rabbinical literature as the shekinah glory, a phrase meaning the “dwelling glory.” It refers primarily to the presence of God in the pillar of cloud and fire in the OT.<\/p>\nThe first explicit reference to the glory cloud is found in Exodus 13:21-22. At the time of the exodus, the glory of God appeared in the pillar of cloud and fire to lead the people through the sea and wilderness (Neh 9:11-12, 19). At Sinai, with Israel encamped around the mountain, the glory of God comes in the cloud and fire to speak with Moses in the sight of the people (Ex 19:9, 16-18; 24:15-18; Dt 5:5, 22-24). When Moses is given a glimpse of that glory unconcealed by the cloud and fire, his own face becomes radiant and must be veiled because of the people’s fear (Ex 33:18-23; 34:29-35; 2 Cor 3:7-18).<\/p>\nThe picture of Israel encamped around the glory of God on Sinai portrays God dwelling in the midst of his people. When the tabernacle is completed and the people set out on their march, the glory cloud of God’s presence dwells above them throughout their journey (Ex 40:34-38; Nm 10:11-12). When they encamp, the tribes encircle the tabernacle (Nm 1:50–2:2), and the cloud reminds them of his presence in their midst. Later, the same glory filled the new temple that Solomon builds (2 Chr 5:13–6:1; 7:1-3). The psalmists celebrated Jerusalem and the temple as the place where his glory dwelt (Pss 26:8; 63:2; 85:9); God was in their midst.<\/p>\nLater in Israel’s history they denied God’s glorious presence (Is 3:8) and exchanged the glory of the Lord for idols made by human hands (Ps 106:20; Jer 2:10-11; cf. Rom 1:23). Because of their disobedience, judgment came against Jerusalem; the penalties of covenant violation were enforced. God would no longer be the God of a disobedient people (Hos 1:9). God’s presence in the glory cloud left the temple (Ez 10:4, 18-19; 11:22), and Israel went into exile (12:1-15).<\/p>\nYet out of this judgment God determined to bring a remnant to rebuild the city and the temple. In his visions Ezekiel saw the glory of the Lord return to dwell in the temple again (Ez 43:2-9), a time when the glory would return to a purified people and dwell among them forever. When the exile was over and the second temple was under construction, Haggai and Zechariah urged the people on with the promise of the return of the glory of God to fill the temple as it had done in the first temple and to “be glory in their midst” (Hg 2:3-9; Zec 2:5, 10-11).<\/p>\nThe Glory of God in Jesus Christ<\/p>\nWe are not told if the shekinah glory returned to the second temple. But we are told that God’s glory was seen again on earth in the person of Jesus Christ. John 1:14 says, “The Word became flesh and dwelt<\/em> among us, and we beheld his glory, glory<\/em> as of the only Son” (italics added). As such, Jesus was the new tabernacle for God’s abiding glory. In Jesus, God dwelt among people. Since Christ was (and is) the very image of God, to see the light of his face was to know the glory of God (2 Cor 4:4-6). To see Jesus was to see a “light to the Gentiles and the glory of Israel” (Lk 2:30-32). The disciples who witnessed the Transfiguration (Mt 17:1-8) saw his glory in a marvelous way (2 Pt 1:16-17), for it was a glory that burst out of his human body. This outburst of glory prefigured the glorification Christ experienced in resurrection and ascension (see Jn 17:5; Phil 2:5-11).<\/p>\nBecause Jesus humbled himself and was obedient to the point of death, God highly exalted him (Phil 2:8-9). After he suffered death on the cross, he entered into his glory (Lk 24:26) with a new and glorious body (1 Cor 15:39-43; Phil 3:21). The glorified Christ appeared to his servants. Stephen saw his glory (Acts 7:55), and Saul was blinded by his splendor (9:3). That same Christ is predicted to return in glory. He will sit on his throne in judgment (Mt 25:31); evil will be punished (16:27; 24:30; Mk 13:26; Lk 21:27; 2 Thes 2:9-10). Those who have professed him before men need not fear his glorious appearing (Mk 8:38).<\/p>\nAt the consummation, the whole earth will be filled with his glory (Ps 72:19; Is 6:3; Hb 2:14). No longer will a glory cloud rest above a temple to mark the Holy Place, for there will be a new heaven and a new earth (Rv 21:1). The Holy City will have the radiance of the glory of God (vv 10-11).<\/p>\nGlory and the People of God<\/p>\nThe people of God have experienced the glory of the presence of God. The glory cloud of the OT was their<\/em> glory (Ps 106:20; Jer 2:11). Christ came as the embodiment of the glory of God; God was in the midst of his people. When Christ ascended, he sent his Spirit to the believers (Jn 16:7-14) so that God could live in the midst of his people. The Spirit of glory rests on those who suffer for the name of Christ (1 Pt 4:14); that Spirit is the guarantee of the glorious inheritance of the saints (Rom 8:16-17).<\/p>\nGod has given to his people the hope of glory (Rom 5:2; Phil 3:21; Col 1:27; Jude 1:24-25). Those whom he has chosen he will also glorify (Rom 8:30; 9:23); they will share in the glory of Christ (Col 3:4; 2 Thes 2:14; 2 Tm 2:10). The sufferings of this age do not compare with the glory that will be revealed (Rom 8:18; 2 Cor 4:17). The whole of creation longs to see the glorious freedom of the children of God (Rom 8:21). This hope of glory is so certain that Peter can speak of participating in it even now (1 Pt 5:1) while looking forward to that eternal glory (v 10). As partakers in the glory of Christ, the church is called to glorify God. Because of the hope that is in them, they purify themselves (1 Jn 3:3).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Boast; God, Being and Attributes of; Pillar of Fire and Cloud; Shekinah; Theophany; Wealth.<\/p>","summary_ro":"GLORY The singular splendor of God and the consequences for humanity. The Glory of God The glory of God can be described in two senses: (1) as a general category or attribute, and (2) as a specific category referring to particular historical manifestations of his presence. As an Attribute God’s glory refers primarily to his majestic beauty and splendor; it also refers to the expression of God’s character (Rom 3:23). The Scriptures record praise to his glorious name (Neh 9:5), describe him as ...","summary_en":"GLORY The singular splendor of God and the consequences for humanity. The Glory of God The glory of God can be described in two senses: (1) as a general category or attribute, and (2) as a specific category referring to particular historical manifestations of his presence. As an Attribute God’s glory refers primarily to his majestic beauty and splendor; it also refers to the expression of God’s character (Rom 3:23). The Scriptures record praise to his glorious name (Neh 9:5), describe him as ...","source":"Articles\/G.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":31066,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Praise","title_en":"Praise","content_ro":"<h3>PRAISE<\/h3>\nHonor, commendation, and worship.<\/p>\nTo Whom Praise Is Offered<\/p>\nThe one Lord who is God over all is alone worthy of praise. Frequently, the OT stresses that the praise due him is not to be offered to other gods or to idols of any kind (e.g., Is 42:8). There is a place for the commendation of men and women for their qualities of life and their right actions (Prv 31:28-31; 1 Pt 2:14). Ultimately, however, they should seek the praise and commendation of God (Rom 2:29), not the praise of their fellows (Mt 6:1-6; Jn 12:43), that others may be led to glorify God for whatever good is found in them (Mt 5:16). Frequently the Bible speaks of praising “the name” of God (e.g., Ps 149:3), meaning that he is to be praised for all that he is and has revealed himself to be. The often repeated word “Hallelujah” is simply the Hebrew equivalent of “Praise the Lord.”<\/p>\nBy Whom Praise Is Offered<\/p>\nGod is praised perfectly by his angels in heaven (Pss 103:20; 148:2). They caroled their praise when Jesus was born (Lk 2:13-14), and the book of Revelation (e.g., Rv 7:11-12) speaks about their continual praise in heaven. All creation praises God in the sense that it shows his greatness as Creator (Ps 19:1-6). Psalm 148 lists sun, moon and stars, fire and hail, snow, rain, wind and weather, mountains and hills, fruit trees and cedars, wild animals, cattle, snakes and birds—all these—as praising God together. Heaven and earth are spoken of as involved in the praise of God (Pss 89:5; 96:11; 98:4). The Psalter closes with the words “Let everything that lives sing praises to the Lord<\/span>!” (150:6). In the OT we read of the special role of priests and Levites (Ps 135:19-20) and of the temple singers (2 Chr 20:21) and of those who, like Miriam (Ex 15:20) and David (2 Sm 6:14), led others in God’s praise. But it was the duty of all God’s people to praise him; their praise was intended, moreover, to lead the nations to know and to praise him (Ps 67:2-3). The NT has this same emphasis (Rom 15:7-12), and it stresses that God’s gifts are given to his people to be used to his praise and glory (Eph 1:6, 12, 14). It is by a life of righteousness as well as by word of mouth that people are to praise him (Phil 1:11). The redeemed people of God are appointed to show forth the praises of him who has called them out of darkness into his marvelous light (1 Pt 2:9). The last book of the NT presents the praise of God in heaven, where the four living creatures (representing all creation) and the 24 elders (representing the people of God under the old and new covenants) unite in worship, adoring the mighty God who created them and the Lamb of God who redeemed them (Rv 4–5).<\/p>\nWhen God Is to Be Praised<\/p>\nIn the OT there were times of special praise, Sabbaths, new moons, and festivals. In Psalm 119:164 the psalmist says he praised the Lord seven times a day. “Everywhere—from east to west—praise the name of the Lord<\/span>” is the exhortation of Psalm 113:3 (nlt<\/span>). Psalm 145:1 says, “I will praise you, my God and King, and bless your name forever and ever” (nlt<\/span>). A dedication to a life of praise is expressed in Psalm 146:2: “I will praise the Lord<\/span> as long as I live. I will sing praises to my God even with my dying breath” (nlt<\/span>). In the NT, likewise, there are special times of praise, but the whole of the Christian’s life is intended to be devoted, in word and action, to the praise of God.<\/p>\nWhere Praise Is to Be Offered<\/p>\nIn the OT the temple (and thus “Zion” or “Jerusalem,” where the temple was located) had a special place in the purpose of God: his people should praise him there. Psalm 102:21 pictures people declaring “in Zion the name of the Lord, and in Jerusalem his praise.” People are to praise God publicly before the congregation and before the leaders of the nation (Ps 107:32), but they may also do so alone. For the whole of life is to be praise. Thus praise can come from unexpected places. Godly men and women can sing for joy as they lie on their beds (149:5). Paul and Silas can sing praises to God in a Philippian prison (Acts 16:25).<\/p>\nHow God Is to Be Praised<\/p>\nAs there is no limit to time or place, so there is no limit to the ways in which God may be praised. He may be praised with singing (Ps 47:7), with dancing (149:3), or with instruments of music (144:9; 150:3-5). The Psalter provides us with many songs of praise, and others are scattered throughout the OT. The NT speaks of “psalms and hymns and spiritual songs” (Col 3:16; see also Eph 5:19), and examples of Christian songs of praise are probably to be seen in Ephesians 5:14, Philippians 2:6-11, 1 Timothy 1:17, and 2 Timothy 2:11-13.<\/p>\nWhy God Is to Be Praised<\/p>\nCreation provides impetus for the praise of God (Ps 8:3), as does his preserving love and care (21:4) and the fact that he is a prayer-answering God (116:1). His redeeming work leads his people to worship him (Ex 15:1-2). Some of the psalms (e.g., Ps 107) list many reasons why he should be praised. With the coming of the Lord Jesus Christ, there is a fresh outburst of praise because the Messiah, the Savior, has come to his people (Lk 2:11). All that he did by his life, death, and resurrection calls for praise. But ultimately praise will be made perfect when God reigns victorious over all. Thus John speaks in the book of Revelation (19:6): “Then I heard again what sounded like the shout of a huge crowd, or the roar of mighty ocean waves, or the crash of loud thunder: ‘Hallelujah! For the Lord our God, the Almighty, reigns’ ” (nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Prayer; Tabernacle; Temple; Worship.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>PRAISE<\/h3>\nHonor, commendation, and worship.<\/p>\nTo Whom Praise Is Offered<\/p>\nThe one Lord who is God over all is alone worthy of praise. Frequently, the OT stresses that the praise due him is not to be offered to other gods or to idols of any kind (e.g., Is 42:8). There is a place for the commendation of men and women for their qualities of life and their right actions (Prv 31:28-31; 1 Pt 2:14). Ultimately, however, they should seek the praise and commendation of God (Rom 2:29), not the praise of their fellows (Mt 6:1-6; Jn 12:43), that others may be led to glorify God for whatever good is found in them (Mt 5:16). Frequently the Bible speaks of praising “the name” of God (e.g., Ps 149:3), meaning that he is to be praised for all that he is and has revealed himself to be. The often repeated word “Hallelujah” is simply the Hebrew equivalent of “Praise the Lord.”<\/p>\nBy Whom Praise Is Offered<\/p>\nGod is praised perfectly by his angels in heaven (Pss 103:20; 148:2). They caroled their praise when Jesus was born (Lk 2:13-14), and the book of Revelation (e.g., Rv 7:11-12) speaks about their continual praise in heaven. All creation praises God in the sense that it shows his greatness as Creator (Ps 19:1-6). Psalm 148 lists sun, moon and stars, fire and hail, snow, rain, wind and weather, mountains and hills, fruit trees and cedars, wild animals, cattle, snakes and birds—all these—as praising God together. Heaven and earth are spoken of as involved in the praise of God (Pss 89:5; 96:11; 98:4). The Psalter closes with the words “Let everything that lives sing praises to the Lord<\/span>!” (150:6). In the OT we read of the special role of priests and Levites (Ps 135:19-20) and of the temple singers (2 Chr 20:21) and of those who, like Miriam (Ex 15:20) and David (2 Sm 6:14), led others in God’s praise. But it was the duty of all God’s people to praise him; their praise was intended, moreover, to lead the nations to know and to praise him (Ps 67:2-3). The NT has this same emphasis (Rom 15:7-12), and it stresses that God’s gifts are given to his people to be used to his praise and glory (Eph 1:6, 12, 14). It is by a life of righteousness as well as by word of mouth that people are to praise him (Phil 1:11). The redeemed people of God are appointed to show forth the praises of him who has called them out of darkness into his marvelous light (1 Pt 2:9). The last book of the NT presents the praise of God in heaven, where the four living creatures (representing all creation) and the 24 elders (representing the people of God under the old and new covenants) unite in worship, adoring the mighty God who created them and the Lamb of God who redeemed them (Rv 4–5).<\/p>\nWhen God Is to Be Praised<\/p>\nIn the OT there were times of special praise, Sabbaths, new moons, and festivals. In Psalm 119:164 the psalmist says he praised the Lord seven times a day. “Everywhere—from east to west—praise the name of the Lord<\/span>” is the exhortation of Psalm 113:3 (nlt<\/span>). Psalm 145:1 says, “I will praise you, my God and King, and bless your name forever and ever” (nlt<\/span>). A dedication to a life of praise is expressed in Psalm 146:2: “I will praise the Lord<\/span> as long as I live. I will sing praises to my God even with my dying breath” (nlt<\/span>). In the NT, likewise, there are special times of praise, but the whole of the Christian’s life is intended to be devoted, in word and action, to the praise of God.<\/p>\nWhere Praise Is to Be Offered<\/p>\nIn the OT the temple (and thus “Zion” or “Jerusalem,” where the temple was located) had a special place in the purpose of God: his people should praise him there. Psalm 102:21 pictures people declaring “in Zion the name of the Lord, and in Jerusalem his praise.” People are to praise God publicly before the congregation and before the leaders of the nation (Ps 107:32), but they may also do so alone. For the whole of life is to be praise. Thus praise can come from unexpected places. Godly men and women can sing for joy as they lie on their beds (149:5). Paul and Silas can sing praises to God in a Philippian prison (Acts 16:25).<\/p>\nHow God Is to Be Praised<\/p>\nAs there is no limit to time or place, so there is no limit to the ways in which God may be praised. He may be praised with singing (Ps 47:7), with dancing (149:3), or with instruments of music (144:9; 150:3-5). The Psalter provides us with many songs of praise, and others are scattered throughout the OT. The NT speaks of “psalms and hymns and spiritual songs” (Col 3:16; see also Eph 5:19), and examples of Christian songs of praise are probably to be seen in Ephesians 5:14, Philippians 2:6-11, 1 Timothy 1:17, and 2 Timothy 2:11-13.<\/p>\nWhy God Is to Be Praised<\/p>\nCreation provides impetus for the praise of God (Ps 8:3), as does his preserving love and care (21:4) and the fact that he is a prayer-answering God (116:1). His redeeming work leads his people to worship him (Ex 15:1-2). Some of the psalms (e.g., Ps 107) list many reasons why he should be praised. With the coming of the Lord Jesus Christ, there is a fresh outburst of praise because the Messiah, the Savior, has come to his people (Lk 2:11). All that he did by his life, death, and resurrection calls for praise. But ultimately praise will be made perfect when God reigns victorious over all. Thus John speaks in the book of Revelation (19:6): “Then I heard again what sounded like the shout of a huge crowd, or the roar of mighty ocean waves, or the crash of loud thunder: ‘Hallelujah! For the Lord our God, the Almighty, reigns’ ” (nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Prayer; Tabernacle; Temple; Worship.<\/p>","summary_ro":"PRAISE Honor, commendation, and worship. To Whom Praise Is Offered The one Lord who is God over all is alone worthy of praise. Frequently, the OT stresses that the praise due him is not to be offered to other gods or to idols of any kind (e.g., Is 42:8). There is a place for the commendation of men and women for their qualities of life and their right actions (Prv 31:28-31; 1 Pt 2:14). Ultimately, however, they should seek the praise and commendation of God (Rom 2:29), not the praise of their...","summary_en":"PRAISE Honor, commendation, and worship. To Whom Praise Is Offered The one Lord who is God over all is alone worthy of praise. Frequently, the OT stresses that the praise due him is not to be offered to other gods or to idols of any kind (e.g., Is 42:8). There is a place for the commendation of men and women for their qualities of life and their right actions (Prv 31:28-31; 1 Pt 2:14). Ultimately, however, they should seek the praise and commendation of God (Rom 2:29), not the praise of their...","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":51661,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 42:8","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 42:8","content_ro":"42:8-9<\/strong> I am the<\/em> Lord<\/span>:<\/em> As Creator of the world, and as the only one who can bring about the things he predicts, the Lord alone is glorious and worthy of praise<\/em>.<\/p>","content_en":"42:8-9<\/strong> I am the<\/em> Lord<\/span>:<\/em> As Creator of the world, and as the only one who can bring about the things he predicts, the Lord alone is glorious and worthy of praise<\/em>.<\/p>","summary_ro":"42:8-9 I am the Lord: As Creator of the world, and as the only one who can bring about the things he predicts, the Lord alone is glorious and worthy of praise.","summary_en":"42:8-9 I am the Lord: As Creator of the world, and as the only one who can bring about the things he predicts, the Lord alone is glorious and worthy of praise.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":79287,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 42:8","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 42:8","content_ro":"42:8-9<\/strong> I am the<\/em> Lord<\/span>:<\/em> As Creator of the world, and as the only one who can bring about the things he predicts, the Lord alone is glorious and worthy of praise<\/em>.<\/p>","content_en":"42:8-9<\/strong> I am the<\/em> Lord<\/span>:<\/em> As Creator of the world, and as the only one who can bring about the things he predicts, the Lord alone is glorious and worthy of praise<\/em>.<\/p>","summary_ro":"42:8-9 I am the Lord: As Creator of the world, and as the only one who can bring about the things he predicts, the Lord alone is glorious and worthy of praise.","summary_en":"42:8-9 I am the Lord: As Creator of the world, and as the only one who can bring about the things he predicts, the Lord alone is glorious and worthy of praise.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":106913,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 42:8","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 42:8","content_ro":"42:8-9<\/strong> I am the<\/em> Lord<\/span>:<\/em> As Creator of the world, and as the only one who can bring about the things he predicts, the Lord alone is glorious and worthy of praise<\/em>.<\/p>","content_en":"42:8-9<\/strong> I am the<\/em> Lord<\/span>:<\/em> As Creator of the world, and as the only one who can bring about the things he predicts, the Lord alone is glorious and worthy of praise<\/em>.<\/p>","summary_ro":"42:8-9 I am the Lord: As Creator of the world, and as the only one who can bring about the things he predicts, the Lord alone is glorious and worthy of praise.","summary_en":"42:8-9 I am the Lord: As Creator of the world, and as the only one who can bring about the things he predicts, the Lord alone is glorious and worthy of praise.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":134539,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 42:8","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 42:8","content_ro":"42:8-9<\/strong> I am the<\/em> Lord<\/span>:<\/em> As Creator of the world, and as the only one who can bring about the things he predicts, the Lord alone is glorious and worthy of praise<\/em>.<\/p>","content_en":"42:8-9<\/strong> I am the<\/em> Lord<\/span>:<\/em> As Creator of the world, and as the only one who can bring about the things he predicts, the Lord alone is glorious and worthy of praise<\/em>.<\/p>","summary_ro":"42:8-9 I am the Lord: As Creator of the world, and as the only one who can bring about the things he predicts, the Lord alone is glorious and worthy of praise.","summary_en":"42:8-9 I am the Lord: As Creator of the world, and as the only one who can bring about the things he predicts, the Lord alone is glorious and worthy of praise.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":60292,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Glory of God","title_en":"The Glory of God","content_ro":"<h3>The Glory of God<\/h3>\nGlory<\/em> has a rather different connotation in the Old Testament than it does in English usage. The English word suggests something thin and passing—the glory of a sunset, the glory of last year’s winning team. The root idea of the Hebrew word for glory<\/em> is “heaviness” or “solidity.” It connotes “significance” or “worth,” the absolute opposite of “vanity” or “nothingness.” When God’s glory appears, it is not merely a bright light or a glittering cloud, but a visible expression of his absolute reality.<\/p>\nGod’s glory is the manifestation of his person, his power, and his majesty (see Ezek 1:28; 10:4). God’s glory may be revealed in nature, such as in a thunderstorm (Job 37:2-5; Ps 29:3, 7) or in the plagues sent on the Egyptians (Num 14:21-22). God’s glory can also be a unique manifestation, such as the revelation on Mount Sinai (Deut 5:24). When the Tabernacle and Solomon’s Temple were dedicated, God’s glory filled those structures (Exod 40:34-35; 1 Kgs 8:10-11), indicating his approval of them and that his presence would now reside there. Similarly, the glory of the Lord sent the fire that kindled the first sacrifices of the sanctuary (Lev 9:22-24).<\/p>\nWhen God reveals his glory to his creation (see, e.g., Exod 24:16-18), it is often called a theophany<\/em>. God gives limited (or veiled) glimpses of his glory because no one can see God and live (Exod 33:18-23; see also Isa 6:5). To “give glory” to God (Josh 7:19; Isa 24:15; Jer 13:16) means to speak or act in a manner that acknowledges who God is.<\/p>\nChrist is the glory and image of God (2 Cor 4:4), and he was glorified in his death and resurrection (John 17:1-5). When Christ appears again at last, he will further manifest God’s glory in his restored Kingdom (Rev 21:11, 23). Paul declares that the presence of Christ in the lives of believers provides assurance that we will share in that glory (Rom 5:2; Col 1:27).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nExod 14:17-18; 16:6-12; 33:17-23; 40:34-38; Lev 9:23-24; 10:1-3; Num 14:21-22; Deut 5:24; Josh 7:19; 1 Kgs 8:11; 2 Chr 7:1-3; Job 37:2-5; Pss 3:3; 8:4-6; 19:1; 29:3, 7-9; 48:8; Isa 6:3-5; 42:8; 43:7; 66:18-19; Jer 13:16; Ezek 1:28; 10:4; Hos 4:7; John 17:1-5; Rom 5:2; 2 Cor 4:4; Col 1:27; Rev 21:10-11, 23-25<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Glory of God<\/h3>\nGlory<\/em> has a rather different connotation in the Old Testament than it does in English usage. The English word suggests something thin and passing—the glory of a sunset, the glory of last year’s winning team. The root idea of the Hebrew word for glory<\/em> is “heaviness” or “solidity.” It connotes “significance” or “worth,” the absolute opposite of “vanity” or “nothingness.” When God’s glory appears, it is not merely a bright light or a glittering cloud, but a visible expression of his absolute reality.<\/p>\nGod’s glory is the manifestation of his person, his power, and his majesty (see Ezek 1:28; 10:4). God’s glory may be revealed in nature, such as in a thunderstorm (Job 37:2-5; Ps 29:3, 7) or in the plagues sent on the Egyptians (Num 14:21-22). God’s glory can also be a unique manifestation, such as the revelation on Mount Sinai (Deut 5:24). When the Tabernacle and Solomon’s Temple were dedicated, God’s glory filled those structures (Exod 40:34-35; 1 Kgs 8:10-11), indicating his approval of them and that his presence would now reside there. Similarly, the glory of the Lord sent the fire that kindled the first sacrifices of the sanctuary (Lev 9:22-24).<\/p>\nWhen God reveals his glory to his creation (see, e.g., Exod 24:16-18), it is often called a theophany<\/em>. God gives limited (or veiled) glimpses of his glory because no one can see God and live (Exod 33:18-23; see also Isa 6:5). To “give glory” to God (Josh 7:19; Isa 24:15; Jer 13:16) means to speak or act in a manner that acknowledges who God is.<\/p>\nChrist is the glory and image of God (2 Cor 4:4), and he was glorified in his death and resurrection (John 17:1-5). When Christ appears again at last, he will further manifest God’s glory in his restored Kingdom (Rev 21:11, 23). Paul declares that the presence of Christ in the lives of believers provides assurance that we will share in that glory (Rom 5:2; Col 1:27).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nExod 14:17-18; 16:6-12; 33:17-23; 40:34-38; Lev 9:23-24; 10:1-3; Num 14:21-22; Deut 5:24; Josh 7:19; 1 Kgs 8:11; 2 Chr 7:1-3; Job 37:2-5; Pss 3:3; 8:4-6; 19:1; 29:3, 7-9; 48:8; Isa 6:3-5; 42:8; 43:7; 66:18-19; Jer 13:16; Ezek 1:28; 10:4; Hos 4:7; John 17:1-5; Rom 5:2; 2 Cor 4:4; Col 1:27; Rev 21:10-11, 23-25<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Glory of God Glory has a rather different connotation in the Old Testament than it does in English usage. The English word suggests something thin and passing—the glory of a sunset, the glory of last year’s winning team. The root idea of the Hebrew word for glory is “heaviness” or “solidity.” It connotes “significance” or “worth,” the absolute opposite of “vanity” or “nothingness.” When God’s glory appears, it is not merely a bright light or a glittering cloud, but a visible expression of...","summary_en":"The Glory of God Glory has a rather different connotation in the Old Testament than it does in English usage. The English word suggests something thin and passing—the glory of a sunset, the glory of last year’s winning team. The root idea of the Hebrew word for glory is “heaviness” or “solidity.” It connotes “significance” or “worth,” the absolute opposite of “vanity” or “nothingness.” When God’s glory appears, it is not merely a bright light or a glittering cloud, but a visible expression of...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":64159,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God’s Uniqueness","title_en":"God’s Uniqueness","content_ro":"<h3>God’s Uniqueness<\/h3>\nAs Creator, God stands wholly apart from the things he has created. God is not part of nature; he created and rules nature. He has always existed as the living God, the intelligent Designer who decreed that the universe should function according to his laws. He gave life to all living beings. As God, he is present everywhere and knows all things. He is the living God of love, holiness, justice, and power.<\/p>\nThe nations around Israel worshiped numerous gods, who were often identified with elements of the natural world. These nature deities and their images were false, lifeless, and immobile (see Jer 10:1-5). They could not communicate with people or relate to individuals. They could not even move about by their own power, because they had no power. Unfortunately, God’s people often followed the idolatrous practices of their neighbors, leading the prophets to remind the people of God’s uniqueness.<\/p>\nIn contrast to lifeless idols, the one, true, living God relates to his specially made humans on a personal basis, despite his otherness. He reaches into the lives of individuals and reveals his will so that each person can understand his desires and respond to him. The Lord, who created all things, strikingly seeks an individual relationship with his people.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nGen 1:1–2:4; Exod 15:11; 20:2-6; Deut 4:32-39; 33:26; Job 38:1–41:34; Pss 86:8; 115:4-7; 139:1-18; Isa 42:8; 44:9-20; Jer 10:1-16; 14:22; Amos 4:13; 5:8-9; Rev 15:3-4<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God’s Uniqueness<\/h3>\nAs Creator, God stands wholly apart from the things he has created. God is not part of nature; he created and rules nature. He has always existed as the living God, the intelligent Designer who decreed that the universe should function according to his laws. He gave life to all living beings. As God, he is present everywhere and knows all things. He is the living God of love, holiness, justice, and power.<\/p>\nThe nations around Israel worshiped numerous gods, who were often identified with elements of the natural world. These nature deities and their images were false, lifeless, and immobile (see Jer 10:1-5). They could not communicate with people or relate to individuals. They could not even move about by their own power, because they had no power. Unfortunately, God’s people often followed the idolatrous practices of their neighbors, leading the prophets to remind the people of God’s uniqueness.<\/p>\nIn contrast to lifeless idols, the one, true, living God relates to his specially made humans on a personal basis, despite his otherness. He reaches into the lives of individuals and reveals his will so that each person can understand his desires and respond to him. The Lord, who created all things, strikingly seeks an individual relationship with his people.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nGen 1:1–2:4; Exod 15:11; 20:2-6; Deut 4:32-39; 33:26; Job 38:1–41:34; Pss 86:8; 115:4-7; 139:1-18; Isa 42:8; 44:9-20; Jer 10:1-16; 14:22; Amos 4:13; 5:8-9; Rev 15:3-4<\/p>","summary_ro":"God’s Uniqueness As Creator, God stands wholly apart from the things he has created. God is not part of nature; he created and rules nature. He has always existed as the living God, the intelligent Designer who decreed that the universe should function according to his laws. He gave life to all living beings. As God, he is present everywhere and knows all things. He is the living God of love, holiness, justice, and power. The nations around Israel worshiped numerous gods, who were often ident...","summary_en":"God’s Uniqueness As Creator, God stands wholly apart from the things he has created. God is not part of nature; he created and rules nature. He has always existed as the living God, the intelligent Designer who decreed that the universe should function according to his laws. He gave life to all living beings. As God, he is present everywhere and knows all things. He is the living God of love, holiness, justice, and power. The nations around Israel worshiped numerous gods, who were often ident...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":64359,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God’s Glory with His People","title_en":"God’s Glory with His People","content_ro":"<h3>God’s Glory with His People<\/h3>\nIn ancient Israel, God’s glory was particularly manifest at the central sanctuaries that had been built for him. When the Israelites completed construction of the Tabernacle, that sacred space became filled with the glory of the Lord (Exod 40:34-35). Likewise, after the Temple was completed and the Ark of the Covenant was brought in, God’s glorious presence filled the Temple (1 Kgs 8:10-11).<\/p>\nThe presence and absence of God’s glory is a central theme in the book of Ezekiel. God’s glory appears to the prophet Ezekiel while he is exiled in Babylon, meaning that his glory was no longer present at the Temple in Jerusalem. The reason God’s glory had departed from the Temple at that time becomes clear in Ezekiel’s vision in Ezekiel 8–11, in which the prophet sees the abominations that had polluted the Temple in Jerusalem. Without God’s presence, the Temple had become an empty shell awaiting destruction. God was not forcibly evicted by the superior might of the Babylonian army; he voluntarily departed because his people were defiled. Their sin drove him away from the land he had promised to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. For a time, the Lord went from Jerusalem to Babylon to become a sanctuary for the exiles there (see 11:16).<\/p>\nGod would not abandon his Temple forever. After pouring out his wrath in full measure, he would restore a remnant to their land and sanctify them by his Spirit so that he could once again dwell in their midst in a new sanctuary (37:26). God’s glory, dwelling among his people forever (43:1-5), is at the heart of Ezekiel’s vision of their restoration.<\/p>\nThe glory of God has come to live among us fully in the person of Jesus Christ. As John testifies, “We have seen his glory, the glory of the Father’s one and only Son” (John 1:14). The aged Simeon saw the baby Jesus brought to the Temple and described him as “a light to reveal God to the nations, and . . . the glory of your people Israel” (Luke 2:32). Jesus’ glory was veiled while he was on earth, though for a moment on the Mount of Transfiguration his radiance was revealed to his closest disciples (Matt 17:2). He experienced his own abandonment by God as he hung on the cross, bearing the curse for our sin (Matt 27:46). Now, as the exalted and glorified Lord, he sits at God’s right hand (Eph 1:19-20). By his Spirit, he has promised never to abandon us, but to be with us to the end of time (Matt 28:20).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nExod 15:11; 33:18–34:8; 40:34; Ps 19:1-11; Isa 4:5-6; 6:3; 40:5; 42:8; 43:7; 58:8; 60:1-2; Ezek 1:1-28; 11:16; 37:26; 43:1-5; 44:4; Hab 2:14; Matt 17:2; 28:20; Luke 2:32; John 1:14; 2 Cor 4:4-6; Heb 1:3; Rev 21:10-11, 23<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God’s Glory with His People<\/h3>\nIn ancient Israel, God’s glory was particularly manifest at the central sanctuaries that had been built for him. When the Israelites completed construction of the Tabernacle, that sacred space became filled with the glory of the Lord (Exod 40:34-35). Likewise, after the Temple was completed and the Ark of the Covenant was brought in, God’s glorious presence filled the Temple (1 Kgs 8:10-11).<\/p>\nThe presence and absence of God’s glory is a central theme in the book of Ezekiel. God’s glory appears to the prophet Ezekiel while he is exiled in Babylon, meaning that his glory was no longer present at the Temple in Jerusalem. The reason God’s glory had departed from the Temple at that time becomes clear in Ezekiel’s vision in Ezekiel 8–11, in which the prophet sees the abominations that had polluted the Temple in Jerusalem. Without God’s presence, the Temple had become an empty shell awaiting destruction. God was not forcibly evicted by the superior might of the Babylonian army; he voluntarily departed because his people were defiled. Their sin drove him away from the land he had promised to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. For a time, the Lord went from Jerusalem to Babylon to become a sanctuary for the exiles there (see 11:16).<\/p>\nGod would not abandon his Temple forever. After pouring out his wrath in full measure, he would restore a remnant to their land and sanctify them by his Spirit so that he could once again dwell in their midst in a new sanctuary (37:26). God’s glory, dwelling among his people forever (43:1-5), is at the heart of Ezekiel’s vision of their restoration.<\/p>\nThe glory of God has come to live among us fully in the person of Jesus Christ. As John testifies, “We have seen his glory, the glory of the Father’s one and only Son” (John 1:14). The aged Simeon saw the baby Jesus brought to the Temple and described him as “a light to reveal God to the nations, and . . . the glory of your people Israel” (Luke 2:32). Jesus’ glory was veiled while he was on earth, though for a moment on the Mount of Transfiguration his radiance was revealed to his closest disciples (Matt 17:2). He experienced his own abandonment by God as he hung on the cross, bearing the curse for our sin (Matt 27:46). Now, as the exalted and glorified Lord, he sits at God’s right hand (Eph 1:19-20). By his Spirit, he has promised never to abandon us, but to be with us to the end of time (Matt 28:20).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nExod 15:11; 33:18–34:8; 40:34; Ps 19:1-11; Isa 4:5-6; 6:3; 40:5; 42:8; 43:7; 58:8; 60:1-2; Ezek 1:1-28; 11:16; 37:26; 43:1-5; 44:4; Hab 2:14; Matt 17:2; 28:20; Luke 2:32; John 1:14; 2 Cor 4:4-6; Heb 1:3; Rev 21:10-11, 23<\/p>","summary_ro":"God’s Glory with His People In ancient Israel, God’s glory was particularly manifest at the central sanctuaries that had been built for him. When the Israelites completed construction of the Tabernacle, that sacred space became filled with the glory of the Lord (Exod 40:34-35). Likewise, after the Temple was completed and the Ark of the Covenant was brought in, God’s glorious presence filled the Temple (1 Kgs 8:10-11). The presence and absence of God’s glory is a central theme in the book of ...","summary_en":"God’s Glory with His People In ancient Israel, God’s glory was particularly manifest at the central sanctuaries that had been built for him. When the Israelites completed construction of the Tabernacle, that sacred space became filled with the glory of the Lord (Exod 40:34-35). Likewise, after the Temple was completed and the Ark of the Covenant was brought in, God’s glorious presence filled the Temple (1 Kgs 8:10-11). The presence and absence of God’s glory is a central theme in the book of ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":66853,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Sovereignty of God","title_en":"The Sovereignty of God","content_ro":"<h3>The Sovereignty of God<\/h3>\nWe human beings always want to think that we are in charge. We think that by our decisions and actions we can determine what will happen. However, Scripture confronts us with quite a different scenario, pointing again and again to the ultimate sovereignty of God (see, e.g., Deut 4:39; Ps 135:5-7; Isa 46:8-11; Jude 1:24-25). Although human decisions and actions are significant, the will of God is vastly more important (see Jas 4:13-16).<\/p>\nGod’s sovereign hand is in everything. God is in control of the lives of all people (Ps 135:5-12), the universe, and the course of earth’s history (Isa 40:15-17; Acts 17:24; Col 1:15-20), directing it to his appointed ends (Isa 46:10; Dan 7:27-28; Matt 24:14-31; Rev 1:7-8).<\/p>\nAs demonstrated throughout 2 Kings, God exercises sovereign power and control over the affairs of nations. He installed and deposed the kings of Israel and Judah according to his purposes and according to the degree of their obedience. He permitted successful attacks against his people as punishment for their sins (2 Kgs 8:18-22). God was in control when the Assyrians attacked Samaria and brought down the northern kingdom (17:1-6, 18, 20). Hezekiah’s successes in Judah were due to the Lord’s blessings (18:5-7). God’s sovereign hand can be seen in all of the complex international events that happened, just as the Lord had promised, during the reigns of the final kings of Judah (23:26-27).<\/p>\nGod also displays his power in his answers to the prayers and petitions of his people. When Elisha prayed, God responded to his faithful prophet’s requests. Through Elisha he allowed the woman from Shunem to have a son and later brought that son back to life (4:17, 32-35). The Lord graciously answered the prayers of Jehoahaz and provided a rescuer for beleaguered Israel (13:4-5). He honored Hezekiah’s prayers for Jerusalem (19:1-7) and for his own life (20:1-6).<\/p>\nPaul shows that God determines the course of salvation. Paul constantly explains the unexpected development of salvation history by appealing to what God has said and done. Human decisions alone cannot explain the situation, and God has said that he will show mercy to anyone he chooses (Rom 9:15). While theologians will continue to debate the role of God’s action and the role of human decision in salvation, God’s sovereignty stands out clearly.<\/p>\nBecause God is sovereign, his people rightly seek to live in harmony with his will (Rom 12:1-2), in the strength that he provides (see 1 Cor 1:8-9). We can follow the example of Christ in his prayer, “I want your will to be done, not mine” (Matt 26:39). The contemporary world has set God to the side and ignores the divine influence on the course of human affairs. But God’s decisions really do direct the world as well as the personal histories of those who trust him. When we live for God’s glory (Isa 42:8; Hab 2:14; Jude 1:24-25), whatever happens is also ultimately for our good (Ps 84:11; Eph 3:16-19; Col 1:27; 2 Thes 1:11-12), and we can confidently affirm that “God causes everything to work together for the good of those who love God and are called according to his purpose for them” (Rom 8:28)..<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nExod 8:22; 9:29; Deut 4:39; 32:8, 39; Josh 2:11; 1 Sam 2:6-8; 2 Kgs 13:4-5; 17:1-6, 18-20; 18:5-7; 19:5-7; 20:4-6; Pss 24:1-2; 84:11; 135:5-12; Isa 40:15-17; 45:7; 46:10; Jer 27:5-7; Dan 7:27-28; Hab 2:14; John 19:11; Acts 17:24-26; Rom 8:28; 9:5-24; 1 Cor 1:8-9; Col 1:15-20; 2 Thes 1:11-12; Jude 1:24-25; Rev 1:7-8<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Sovereignty of God<\/h3>\nWe human beings always want to think that we are in charge. We think that by our decisions and actions we can determine what will happen. However, Scripture confronts us with quite a different scenario, pointing again and again to the ultimate sovereignty of God (see, e.g., Deut 4:39; Ps 135:5-7; Isa 46:8-11; Jude 1:24-25). Although human decisions and actions are significant, the will of God is vastly more important (see Jas 4:13-16).<\/p>\nGod’s sovereign hand is in everything. God is in control of the lives of all people (Ps 135:5-12), the universe, and the course of earth’s history (Isa 40:15-17; Acts 17:24; Col 1:15-20), directing it to his appointed ends (Isa 46:10; Dan 7:27-28; Matt 24:14-31; Rev 1:7-8).<\/p>\nAs demonstrated throughout 2 Kings, God exercises sovereign power and control over the affairs of nations. He installed and deposed the kings of Israel and Judah according to his purposes and according to the degree of their obedience. He permitted successful attacks against his people as punishment for their sins (2 Kgs 8:18-22). God was in control when the Assyrians attacked Samaria and brought down the northern kingdom (17:1-6, 18, 20). Hezekiah’s successes in Judah were due to the Lord’s blessings (18:5-7). God’s sovereign hand can be seen in all of the complex international events that happened, just as the Lord had promised, during the reigns of the final kings of Judah (23:26-27).<\/p>\nGod also displays his power in his answers to the prayers and petitions of his people. When Elisha prayed, God responded to his faithful prophet’s requests. Through Elisha he allowed the woman from Shunem to have a son and later brought that son back to life (4:17, 32-35). The Lord graciously answered the prayers of Jehoahaz and provided a rescuer for beleaguered Israel (13:4-5). He honored Hezekiah’s prayers for Jerusalem (19:1-7) and for his own life (20:1-6).<\/p>\nPaul shows that God determines the course of salvation. Paul constantly explains the unexpected development of salvation history by appealing to what God has said and done. Human decisions alone cannot explain the situation, and God has said that he will show mercy to anyone he chooses (Rom 9:15). While theologians will continue to debate the role of God’s action and the role of human decision in salvation, God’s sovereignty stands out clearly.<\/p>\nBecause God is sovereign, his people rightly seek to live in harmony with his will (Rom 12:1-2), in the strength that he provides (see 1 Cor 1:8-9). We can follow the example of Christ in his prayer, “I want your will to be done, not mine” (Matt 26:39). The contemporary world has set God to the side and ignores the divine influence on the course of human affairs. But God’s decisions really do direct the world as well as the personal histories of those who trust him. When we live for God’s glory (Isa 42:8; Hab 2:14; Jude 1:24-25), whatever happens is also ultimately for our good (Ps 84:11; Eph 3:16-19; Col 1:27; 2 Thes 1:11-12), and we can confidently affirm that “God causes everything to work together for the good of those who love God and are called according to his purpose for them” (Rom 8:28)..<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nExod 8:22; 9:29; Deut 4:39; 32:8, 39; Josh 2:11; 1 Sam 2:6-8; 2 Kgs 13:4-5; 17:1-6, 18-20; 18:5-7; 19:5-7; 20:4-6; Pss 24:1-2; 84:11; 135:5-12; Isa 40:15-17; 45:7; 46:10; Jer 27:5-7; Dan 7:27-28; Hab 2:14; John 19:11; Acts 17:24-26; Rom 8:28; 9:5-24; 1 Cor 1:8-9; Col 1:15-20; 2 Thes 1:11-12; Jude 1:24-25; Rev 1:7-8<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Sovereignty of God We human beings always want to think that we are in charge. We think that by our decisions and actions we can determine what will happen. However, Scripture confronts us with quite a different scenario, pointing again and again to the ultimate sovereignty of God (see, e.g., Deut 4:39; Ps 135:5-7; Isa 46:8-11; Jude 1:24-25). Although human decisions and actions are significant, the will of God is vastly more important (see Jas 4:13-16). God’s sovereign hand is in everyth...","summary_en":"The Sovereignty of God We human beings always want to think that we are in charge. We think that by our decisions and actions we can determine what will happen. However, Scripture confronts us with quite a different scenario, pointing again and again to the ultimate sovereignty of God (see, e.g., Deut 4:39; Ps 135:5-7; Isa 46:8-11; Jude 1:24-25). Although human decisions and actions are significant, the will of God is vastly more important (see Jas 4:13-16). God’s sovereign hand is in everyth...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":87918,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Glory of God","title_en":"The Glory of God","content_ro":"<h3>The Glory of God<\/h3>\nGlory<\/em> has a rather different connotation in the Old Testament than it does in English usage. The English word suggests something thin and passing—the glory of a sunset, the glory of last year’s winning team. The root idea of the Hebrew word for glory<\/em> is “heaviness” or “solidity.” It connotes “significance” or “worth,” the absolute opposite of “vanity” or “nothingness.” When God’s glory appears, it is not merely a bright light or a glittering cloud, but a visible expression of his absolute reality.<\/p>\nGod’s glory is the manifestation of his person, his power, and his majesty (see Ezek 1:28; 10:4). God’s glory may be revealed in nature, such as in a thunderstorm (Job 37:2-5; Ps 29:3, 7) or in the plagues sent on the Egyptians (Num 14:21-22). God’s glory can also be a unique manifestation, such as the revelation on Mount Sinai (Deut 5:24). When the Tabernacle and Solomon’s Temple were dedicated, God’s glory filled those structures (Exod 40:34-35; 1 Kgs 8:10-11), indicating his approval of them and that his presence would now reside there. Similarly, the glory of the Lord sent the fire that kindled the first sacrifices of the sanctuary (Lev 9:22-24).<\/p>\nWhen God reveals his glory to his creation (see, e.g., Exod 24:16-18), it is often called a theophany<\/em>. God gives limited (or veiled) glimpses of his glory because no one can see God and live (Exod 33:18-23; see also Isa 6:5). To “give glory” to God (Josh 7:19; Isa 24:15; Jer 13:16) means to speak or act in a manner that acknowledges who God is.<\/p>\nChrist is the glory and image of God (2 Cor 4:4), and he was glorified in his death and resurrection (John 17:1-5). When Christ appears again at last, he will further manifest God’s glory in his restored Kingdom (Rev 21:11, 23). Paul declares that the presence of Christ in the lives of believers provides assurance that we will share in that glory (Rom 5:2; Col 1:27).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nExod 14:17-18; 16:6-12; 33:17-23; 40:34-38; Lev 9:23-24; 10:1-3; Num 14:21-22; Deut 5:24; Josh 7:19; 1 Kgs 8:11; 2 Chr 7:1-3; Job 37:2-5; Pss 3:3; 8:4-6; 19:1; 29:3, 7-9; 48:8; Isa 6:3-5; 42:8; 43:7; 66:18-19; Jer 13:16; Ezek 1:28; 10:4; Hos 4:7; John 17:1-5; Rom 5:2; 2 Cor 4:4; Col 1:27; Rev 21:10-11, 23-25<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Glory of God<\/h3>\nGlory<\/em> has a rather different connotation in the Old Testament than it does in English usage. The English word suggests something thin and passing—the glory of a sunset, the glory of last year’s winning team. The root idea of the Hebrew word for glory<\/em> is “heaviness” or “solidity.” It connotes “significance” or “worth,” the absolute opposite of “vanity” or “nothingness.” When God’s glory appears, it is not merely a bright light or a glittering cloud, but a visible expression of his absolute reality.<\/p>\nGod’s glory is the manifestation of his person, his power, and his majesty (see Ezek 1:28; 10:4). God’s glory may be revealed in nature, such as in a thunderstorm (Job 37:2-5; Ps 29:3, 7) or in the plagues sent on the Egyptians (Num 14:21-22). God’s glory can also be a unique manifestation, such as the revelation on Mount Sinai (Deut 5:24). When the Tabernacle and Solomon’s Temple were dedicated, God’s glory filled those structures (Exod 40:34-35; 1 Kgs 8:10-11), indicating his approval of them and that his presence would now reside there. Similarly, the glory of the Lord sent the fire that kindled the first sacrifices of the sanctuary (Lev 9:22-24).<\/p>\nWhen God reveals his glory to his creation (see, e.g., Exod 24:16-18), it is often called a theophany<\/em>. God gives limited (or veiled) glimpses of his glory because no one can see God and live (Exod 33:18-23; see also Isa 6:5). To “give glory” to God (Josh 7:19; Isa 24:15; Jer 13:16) means to speak or act in a manner that acknowledges who God is.<\/p>\nChrist is the glory and image of God (2 Cor 4:4), and he was glorified in his death and resurrection (John 17:1-5). When Christ appears again at last, he will further manifest God’s glory in his restored Kingdom (Rev 21:11, 23). Paul declares that the presence of Christ in the lives of believers provides assurance that we will share in that glory (Rom 5:2; Col 1:27).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nExod 14:17-18; 16:6-12; 33:17-23; 40:34-38; Lev 9:23-24; 10:1-3; Num 14:21-22; Deut 5:24; Josh 7:19; 1 Kgs 8:11; 2 Chr 7:1-3; Job 37:2-5; Pss 3:3; 8:4-6; 19:1; 29:3, 7-9; 48:8; Isa 6:3-5; 42:8; 43:7; 66:18-19; Jer 13:16; Ezek 1:28; 10:4; Hos 4:7; John 17:1-5; Rom 5:2; 2 Cor 4:4; Col 1:27; Rev 21:10-11, 23-25<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Glory of God Glory has a rather different connotation in the Old Testament than it does in English usage. The English word suggests something thin and passing—the glory of a sunset, the glory of last year’s winning team. The root idea of the Hebrew word for glory is “heaviness” or “solidity.” It connotes “significance” or “worth,” the absolute opposite of “vanity” or “nothingness.” When God’s glory appears, it is not merely a bright light or a glittering cloud, but a visible expression of...","summary_en":"The Glory of God Glory has a rather different connotation in the Old Testament than it does in English usage. The English word suggests something thin and passing—the glory of a sunset, the glory of last year’s winning team. The root idea of the Hebrew word for glory is “heaviness” or “solidity.” It connotes “significance” or “worth,” the absolute opposite of “vanity” or “nothingness.” When God’s glory appears, it is not merely a bright light or a glittering cloud, but a visible expression of...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":91785,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God’s Uniqueness","title_en":"God’s Uniqueness","content_ro":"<h3>God’s Uniqueness<\/h3>\nAs Creator, God stands wholly apart from the things he has created. God is not part of nature; he created and rules nature. He has always existed as the living God, the intelligent Designer who decreed that the universe should function according to his laws. He gave life to all living beings. As God, he is present everywhere and knows all things. He is the living God of love, holiness, justice, and power.<\/p>\nThe nations around Israel worshiped numerous gods, who were often identified with elements of the natural world. These nature deities and their images were false, lifeless, and immobile (see Jer 10:1-5). They could not communicate with people or relate to individuals. They could not even move about by their own power, because they had no power. Unfortunately, God’s people often followed the idolatrous practices of their neighbors, leading the prophets to remind the people of God’s uniqueness.<\/p>\nIn contrast to lifeless idols, the one, true, living God relates to his specially made humans on a personal basis, despite his otherness. He reaches into the lives of individuals and reveals his will so that each person can understand his desires and respond to him. The Lord, who created all things, strikingly seeks an individual relationship with his people.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nGen 1:1–2:4; Exod 15:11; 20:2-6; Deut 4:32-39; 33:26; Job 38:1–41:34; Pss 86:8; 115:4-7; 139:1-18; Isa 42:8; 44:9-20; Jer 10:1-16; 14:22; Amos 4:13; 5:8-9; Rev 15:3-4<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God’s Uniqueness<\/h3>\nAs Creator, God stands wholly apart from the things he has created. God is not part of nature; he created and rules nature. He has always existed as the living God, the intelligent Designer who decreed that the universe should function according to his laws. He gave life to all living beings. As God, he is present everywhere and knows all things. He is the living God of love, holiness, justice, and power.<\/p>\nThe nations around Israel worshiped numerous gods, who were often identified with elements of the natural world. These nature deities and their images were false, lifeless, and immobile (see Jer 10:1-5). They could not communicate with people or relate to individuals. They could not even move about by their own power, because they had no power. Unfortunately, God’s people often followed the idolatrous practices of their neighbors, leading the prophets to remind the people of God’s uniqueness.<\/p>\nIn contrast to lifeless idols, the one, true, living God relates to his specially made humans on a personal basis, despite his otherness. He reaches into the lives of individuals and reveals his will so that each person can understand his desires and respond to him. The Lord, who created all things, strikingly seeks an individual relationship with his people.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nGen 1:1–2:4; Exod 15:11; 20:2-6; Deut 4:32-39; 33:26; Job 38:1–41:34; Pss 86:8; 115:4-7; 139:1-18; Isa 42:8; 44:9-20; Jer 10:1-16; 14:22; Amos 4:13; 5:8-9; Rev 15:3-4<\/p>","summary_ro":"God’s Uniqueness As Creator, God stands wholly apart from the things he has created. God is not part of nature; he created and rules nature. He has always existed as the living God, the intelligent Designer who decreed that the universe should function according to his laws. He gave life to all living beings. As God, he is present everywhere and knows all things. He is the living God of love, holiness, justice, and power. The nations around Israel worshiped numerous gods, who were often ident...","summary_en":"God’s Uniqueness As Creator, God stands wholly apart from the things he has created. God is not part of nature; he created and rules nature. He has always existed as the living God, the intelligent Designer who decreed that the universe should function according to his laws. He gave life to all living beings. As God, he is present everywhere and knows all things. He is the living God of love, holiness, justice, and power. The nations around Israel worshiped numerous gods, who were often ident...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":91985,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God’s Glory with His People","title_en":"God’s Glory with His People","content_ro":"<h3>God’s Glory with His People<\/h3>\nIn ancient Israel, God’s glory was particularly manifest at the central sanctuaries that had been built for him. When the Israelites completed construction of the Tabernacle, that sacred space became filled with the glory of the Lord (Exod 40:34-35). Likewise, after the Temple was completed and the Ark of the Covenant was brought in, God’s glorious presence filled the Temple (1 Kgs 8:10-11).<\/p>\nThe presence and absence of God’s glory is a central theme in the book of Ezekiel. God’s glory appears to the prophet Ezekiel while he is exiled in Babylon, meaning that his glory was no longer present at the Temple in Jerusalem. The reason God’s glory had departed from the Temple at that time becomes clear in Ezekiel’s vision in Ezekiel 8–11, in which the prophet sees the abominations that had polluted the Temple in Jerusalem. Without God’s presence, the Temple had become an empty shell awaiting destruction. God was not forcibly evicted by the superior might of the Babylonian army; he voluntarily departed because his people were defiled. Their sin drove him away from the land he had promised to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. For a time, the Lord went from Jerusalem to Babylon to become a sanctuary for the exiles there (see 11:16).<\/p>\nGod would not abandon his Temple forever. After pouring out his wrath in full measure, he would restore a remnant to their land and sanctify them by his Spirit so that he could once again dwell in their midst in a new sanctuary (37:26). God’s glory, dwelling among his people forever (43:1-5), is at the heart of Ezekiel’s vision of their restoration.<\/p>\nThe glory of God has come to live among us fully in the person of Jesus Christ. As John testifies, “We have seen his glory, the glory of the Father’s one and only Son” (John 1:14). The aged Simeon saw the baby Jesus brought to the Temple and described him as “a light to reveal God to the nations, and . . . the glory of your people Israel” (Luke 2:32). Jesus’ glory was veiled while he was on earth, though for a moment on the Mount of Transfiguration his radiance was revealed to his closest disciples (Matt 17:2). He experienced his own abandonment by God as he hung on the cross, bearing the curse for our sin (Matt 27:46). Now, as the exalted and glorified Lord, he sits at God’s right hand (Eph 1:19-20). By his Spirit, he has promised never to abandon us, but to be with us to the end of time (Matt 28:20).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nExod 15:11; 33:18–34:8; 40:34; Ps 19:1-11; Isa 4:5-6; 6:3; 40:5; 42:8; 43:7; 58:8; 60:1-2; Ezek 1:1-28; 11:16; 37:26; 43:1-5; 44:4; Hab 2:14; Matt 17:2; 28:20; Luke 2:32; John 1:14; 2 Cor 4:4-6; Heb 1:3; Rev 21:10-11, 23<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God’s Glory with His People<\/h3>\nIn ancient Israel, God’s glory was particularly manifest at the central sanctuaries that had been built for him. When the Israelites completed construction of the Tabernacle, that sacred space became filled with the glory of the Lord (Exod 40:34-35). Likewise, after the Temple was completed and the Ark of the Covenant was brought in, God’s glorious presence filled the Temple (1 Kgs 8:10-11).<\/p>\nThe presence and absence of God’s glory is a central theme in the book of Ezekiel. God’s glory appears to the prophet Ezekiel while he is exiled in Babylon, meaning that his glory was no longer present at the Temple in Jerusalem. The reason God’s glory had departed from the Temple at that time becomes clear in Ezekiel’s vision in Ezekiel 8–11, in which the prophet sees the abominations that had polluted the Temple in Jerusalem. Without God’s presence, the Temple had become an empty shell awaiting destruction. God was not forcibly evicted by the superior might of the Babylonian army; he voluntarily departed because his people were defiled. Their sin drove him away from the land he had promised to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. For a time, the Lord went from Jerusalem to Babylon to become a sanctuary for the exiles there (see 11:16).<\/p>\nGod would not abandon his Temple forever. After pouring out his wrath in full measure, he would restore a remnant to their land and sanctify them by his Spirit so that he could once again dwell in their midst in a new sanctuary (37:26). God’s glory, dwelling among his people forever (43:1-5), is at the heart of Ezekiel’s vision of their restoration.<\/p>\nThe glory of God has come to live among us fully in the person of Jesus Christ. As John testifies, “We have seen his glory, the glory of the Father’s one and only Son” (John 1:14). The aged Simeon saw the baby Jesus brought to the Temple and described him as “a light to reveal God to the nations, and . . . the glory of your people Israel” (Luke 2:32). Jesus’ glory was veiled while he was on earth, though for a moment on the Mount of Transfiguration his radiance was revealed to his closest disciples (Matt 17:2). He experienced his own abandonment by God as he hung on the cross, bearing the curse for our sin (Matt 27:46). Now, as the exalted and glorified Lord, he sits at God’s right hand (Eph 1:19-20). By his Spirit, he has promised never to abandon us, but to be with us to the end of time (Matt 28:20).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nExod 15:11; 33:18–34:8; 40:34; Ps 19:1-11; Isa 4:5-6; 6:3; 40:5; 42:8; 43:7; 58:8; 60:1-2; Ezek 1:1-28; 11:16; 37:26; 43:1-5; 44:4; Hab 2:14; Matt 17:2; 28:20; Luke 2:32; John 1:14; 2 Cor 4:4-6; Heb 1:3; Rev 21:10-11, 23<\/p>","summary_ro":"God’s Glory with His People In ancient Israel, God’s glory was particularly manifest at the central sanctuaries that had been built for him. When the Israelites completed construction of the Tabernacle, that sacred space became filled with the glory of the Lord (Exod 40:34-35). Likewise, after the Temple was completed and the Ark of the Covenant was brought in, God’s glorious presence filled the Temple (1 Kgs 8:10-11). The presence and absence of God’s glory is a central theme in the book of ...","summary_en":"God’s Glory with His People In ancient Israel, God’s glory was particularly manifest at the central sanctuaries that had been built for him. When the Israelites completed construction of the Tabernacle, that sacred space became filled with the glory of the Lord (Exod 40:34-35). Likewise, after the Temple was completed and the Ark of the Covenant was brought in, God’s glorious presence filled the Temple (1 Kgs 8:10-11). The presence and absence of God’s glory is a central theme in the book of ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":94479,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Sovereignty of God","title_en":"The Sovereignty of God","content_ro":"<h3>The Sovereignty of God<\/h3>\nWe human beings always want to think that we are in charge. We think that by our decisions and actions we can determine what will happen. However, Scripture confronts us with quite a different scenario, pointing again and again to the ultimate sovereignty of God (see, e.g., Deut 4:39; Ps 135:5-7; Isa 46:8-11; Jude 1:24-25). Although human decisions and actions are significant, the will of God is vastly more important (see Jas 4:13-16).<\/p>\nGod’s sovereign hand is in everything. God is in control of the lives of all people (Ps 135:5-12), the universe, and the course of earth’s history (Isa 40:15-17; Acts 17:24; Col 1:15-20), directing it to his appointed ends (Isa 46:10; Dan 7:27-28; Matt 24:14-31; Rev 1:7-8).<\/p>\nAs demonstrated throughout 2 Kings, God exercises sovereign power and control over the affairs of nations. He installed and deposed the kings of Israel and Judah according to his purposes and according to the degree of their obedience. He permitted successful attacks against his people as punishment for their sins (2 Kgs 8:18-22). God was in control when the Assyrians attacked Samaria and brought down the northern kingdom (17:1-6, 18, 20). Hezekiah’s successes in Judah were due to the Lord’s blessings (18:5-7). God’s sovereign hand can be seen in all of the complex international events that happened, just as the Lord had promised, during the reigns of the final kings of Judah (23:26-27).<\/p>\nGod also displays his power in his answers to the prayers and petitions of his people. When Elisha prayed, God responded to his faithful prophet’s requests. Through Elisha he allowed the woman from Shunem to have a son and later brought that son back to life (4:17, 32-35). The Lord graciously answered the prayers of Jehoahaz and provided a rescuer for beleaguered Israel (13:4-5). He honored Hezekiah’s prayers for Jerusalem (19:1-7) and for his own life (20:1-6).<\/p>\nPaul shows that God determines the course of salvation. Paul constantly explains the unexpected development of salvation history by appealing to what God has said and done. Human decisions alone cannot explain the situation, and God has said that he will show mercy to anyone he chooses (Rom 9:15). While theologians will continue to debate the role of God’s action and the role of human decision in salvation, God’s sovereignty stands out clearly.<\/p>\nBecause God is sovereign, his people rightly seek to live in harmony with his will (Rom 12:1-2), in the strength that he provides (see 1 Cor 1:8-9). We can follow the example of Christ in his prayer, “I want your will to be done, not mine” (Matt 26:39). The contemporary world has set God to the side and ignores the divine influence on the course of human affairs. But God’s decisions really do direct the world as well as the personal histories of those who trust him. When we live for God’s glory (Isa 42:8; Hab 2:14; Jude 1:24-25), whatever happens is also ultimately for our good (Ps 84:11; Eph 3:16-19; Col 1:27; 2 Thes 1:11-12), and we can confidently affirm that “God causes everything to work together for the good of those who love God and are called according to his purpose for them” (Rom 8:28)..<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nExod 8:22; 9:29; Deut 4:39; 32:8, 39; Josh 2:11; 1 Sam 2:6-8; 2 Kgs 13:4-5; 17:1-6, 18-20; 18:5-7; 19:5-7; 20:4-6; Pss 24:1-2; 84:11; 135:5-12; Isa 40:15-17; 45:7; 46:10; Jer 27:5-7; Dan 7:27-28; Hab 2:14; John 19:11; Acts 17:24-26; Rom 8:28; 9:5-24; 1 Cor 1:8-9; Col 1:15-20; 2 Thes 1:11-12; Jude 1:24-25; Rev 1:7-8<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Sovereignty of God<\/h3>\nWe human beings always want to think that we are in charge. We think that by our decisions and actions we can determine what will happen. However, Scripture confronts us with quite a different scenario, pointing again and again to the ultimate sovereignty of God (see, e.g., Deut 4:39; Ps 135:5-7; Isa 46:8-11; Jude 1:24-25). Although human decisions and actions are significant, the will of God is vastly more important (see Jas 4:13-16).<\/p>\nGod’s sovereign hand is in everything. God is in control of the lives of all people (Ps 135:5-12), the universe, and the course of earth’s history (Isa 40:15-17; Acts 17:24; Col 1:15-20), directing it to his appointed ends (Isa 46:10; Dan 7:27-28; Matt 24:14-31; Rev 1:7-8).<\/p>\nAs demonstrated throughout 2 Kings, God exercises sovereign power and control over the affairs of nations. He installed and deposed the kings of Israel and Judah according to his purposes and according to the degree of their obedience. He permitted successful attacks against his people as punishment for their sins (2 Kgs 8:18-22). God was in control when the Assyrians attacked Samaria and brought down the northern kingdom (17:1-6, 18, 20). Hezekiah’s successes in Judah were due to the Lord’s blessings (18:5-7). God’s sovereign hand can be seen in all of the complex international events that happened, just as the Lord had promised, during the reigns of the final kings of Judah (23:26-27).<\/p>\nGod also displays his power in his answers to the prayers and petitions of his people. When Elisha prayed, God responded to his faithful prophet’s requests. Through Elisha he allowed the woman from Shunem to have a son and later brought that son back to life (4:17, 32-35). The Lord graciously answered the prayers of Jehoahaz and provided a rescuer for beleaguered Israel (13:4-5). He honored Hezekiah’s prayers for Jerusalem (19:1-7) and for his own life (20:1-6).<\/p>\nPaul shows that God determines the course of salvation. Paul constantly explains the unexpected development of salvation history by appealing to what God has said and done. Human decisions alone cannot explain the situation, and God has said that he will show mercy to anyone he chooses (Rom 9:15). While theologians will continue to debate the role of God’s action and the role of human decision in salvation, God’s sovereignty stands out clearly.<\/p>\nBecause God is sovereign, his people rightly seek to live in harmony with his will (Rom 12:1-2), in the strength that he provides (see 1 Cor 1:8-9). We can follow the example of Christ in his prayer, “I want your will to be done, not mine” (Matt 26:39). The contemporary world has set God to the side and ignores the divine influence on the course of human affairs. But God’s decisions really do direct the world as well as the personal histories of those who trust him. When we live for God’s glory (Isa 42:8; Hab 2:14; Jude 1:24-25), whatever happens is also ultimately for our good (Ps 84:11; Eph 3:16-19; Col 1:27; 2 Thes 1:11-12), and we can confidently affirm that “God causes everything to work together for the good of those who love God and are called according to his purpose for them” (Rom 8:28)..<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nExod 8:22; 9:29; Deut 4:39; 32:8, 39; Josh 2:11; 1 Sam 2:6-8; 2 Kgs 13:4-5; 17:1-6, 18-20; 18:5-7; 19:5-7; 20:4-6; Pss 24:1-2; 84:11; 135:5-12; Isa 40:15-17; 45:7; 46:10; Jer 27:5-7; Dan 7:27-28; Hab 2:14; John 19:11; Acts 17:24-26; Rom 8:28; 9:5-24; 1 Cor 1:8-9; Col 1:15-20; 2 Thes 1:11-12; Jude 1:24-25; Rev 1:7-8<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Sovereignty of God We human beings always want to think that we are in charge. We think that by our decisions and actions we can determine what will happen. However, Scripture confronts us with quite a different scenario, pointing again and again to the ultimate sovereignty of God (see, e.g., Deut 4:39; Ps 135:5-7; Isa 46:8-11; Jude 1:24-25). Although human decisions and actions are significant, the will of God is vastly more important (see Jas 4:13-16). God’s sovereign hand is in everyth...","summary_en":"The Sovereignty of God We human beings always want to think that we are in charge. We think that by our decisions and actions we can determine what will happen. However, Scripture confronts us with quite a different scenario, pointing again and again to the ultimate sovereignty of God (see, e.g., Deut 4:39; Ps 135:5-7; Isa 46:8-11; Jude 1:24-25). Although human decisions and actions are significant, the will of God is vastly more important (see Jas 4:13-16). God’s sovereign hand is in everyth...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":115544,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Glory of God","title_en":"The Glory of God","content_ro":"<h3>The Glory of God<\/h3>\nGlory<\/em> has a rather different connotation in the Old Testament than it does in English usage. The English word suggests something thin and passing—the glory of a sunset, the glory of last year’s winning team. The root idea of the Hebrew word for glory<\/em> is “heaviness” or “solidity.” It connotes “significance” or “worth,” the absolute opposite of “vanity” or “nothingness.” When God’s glory appears, it is not merely a bright light or a glittering cloud, but a visible expression of his absolute reality.<\/p>\nGod’s glory is the manifestation of his person, his power, and his majesty (see Ezek 1:28; 10:4). God’s glory may be revealed in nature, such as in a thunderstorm (Job 37:2-5; Ps 29:3, 7) or in the plagues sent on the Egyptians (Num 14:21-22). God’s glory can also be a unique manifestation, such as the revelation on Mount Sinai (Deut 5:24). When the Tabernacle and Solomon’s Temple were dedicated, God’s glory filled those structures (Exod 40:34-35; 1 Kgs 8:10-11), indicating his approval of them and that his presence would now reside there. Similarly, the glory of the Lord sent the fire that kindled the first sacrifices of the sanctuary (Lev 9:22-24).<\/p>\nWhen God reveals his glory to his creation (see, e.g., Exod 24:16-18), it is often called a theophany<\/em>. God gives limited (or veiled) glimpses of his glory because no one can see God and live (Exod 33:18-23; see also Isa 6:5). To “give glory” to God (Josh 7:19; Isa 24:15; Jer 13:16) means to speak or act in a manner that acknowledges who God is.<\/p>\nChrist is the glory and image of God (2 Cor 4:4), and he was glorified in his death and resurrection (John 17:1-5). When Christ appears again at last, he will further manifest God’s glory in his restored Kingdom (Rev 21:11, 23). Paul declares that the presence of Christ in the lives of believers provides assurance that we will share in that glory (Rom 5:2; Col 1:27).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nExod 14:17-18; 16:6-12; 33:17-23; 40:34-38; Lev 9:23-24; 10:1-3; Num 14:21-22; Deut 5:24; Josh 7:19; 1 Kgs 8:11; 2 Chr 7:1-3; Job 37:2-5; Pss 3:3; 8:4-6; 19:1; 29:3, 7-9; 48:8; Isa 6:3-5; 42:8; 43:7; 66:18-19; Jer 13:16; Ezek 1:28; 10:4; Hos 4:7; John 17:1-5; Rom 5:2; 2 Cor 4:4; Col 1:27; Rev 21:10-11, 23-25<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Glory of God<\/h3>\nGlory<\/em> has a rather different connotation in the Old Testament than it does in English usage. The English word suggests something thin and passing—the glory of a sunset, the glory of last year’s winning team. The root idea of the Hebrew word for glory<\/em> is “heaviness” or “solidity.” It connotes “significance” or “worth,” the absolute opposite of “vanity” or “nothingness.” When God’s glory appears, it is not merely a bright light or a glittering cloud, but a visible expression of his absolute reality.<\/p>\nGod’s glory is the manifestation of his person, his power, and his majesty (see Ezek 1:28; 10:4). God’s glory may be revealed in nature, such as in a thunderstorm (Job 37:2-5; Ps 29:3, 7) or in the plagues sent on the Egyptians (Num 14:21-22). God’s glory can also be a unique manifestation, such as the revelation on Mount Sinai (Deut 5:24). When the Tabernacle and Solomon’s Temple were dedicated, God’s glory filled those structures (Exod 40:34-35; 1 Kgs 8:10-11), indicating his approval of them and that his presence would now reside there. Similarly, the glory of the Lord sent the fire that kindled the first sacrifices of the sanctuary (Lev 9:22-24).<\/p>\nWhen God reveals his glory to his creation (see, e.g., Exod 24:16-18), it is often called a theophany<\/em>. God gives limited (or veiled) glimpses of his glory because no one can see God and live (Exod 33:18-23; see also Isa 6:5). To “give glory” to God (Josh 7:19; Isa 24:15; Jer 13:16) means to speak or act in a manner that acknowledges who God is.<\/p>\nChrist is the glory and image of God (2 Cor 4:4), and he was glorified in his death and resurrection (John 17:1-5). When Christ appears again at last, he will further manifest God’s glory in his restored Kingdom (Rev 21:11, 23). Paul declares that the presence of Christ in the lives of believers provides assurance that we will share in that glory (Rom 5:2; Col 1:27).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nExod 14:17-18; 16:6-12; 33:17-23; 40:34-38; Lev 9:23-24; 10:1-3; Num 14:21-22; Deut 5:24; Josh 7:19; 1 Kgs 8:11; 2 Chr 7:1-3; Job 37:2-5; Pss 3:3; 8:4-6; 19:1; 29:3, 7-9; 48:8; Isa 6:3-5; 42:8; 43:7; 66:18-19; Jer 13:16; Ezek 1:28; 10:4; Hos 4:7; John 17:1-5; Rom 5:2; 2 Cor 4:4; Col 1:27; Rev 21:10-11, 23-25<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Glory of God Glory has a rather different connotation in the Old Testament than it does in English usage. The English word suggests something thin and passing—the glory of a sunset, the glory of last year’s winning team. The root idea of the Hebrew word for glory is “heaviness” or “solidity.” It connotes “significance” or “worth,” the absolute opposite of “vanity” or “nothingness.” When God’s glory appears, it is not merely a bright light or a glittering cloud, but a visible expression of...","summary_en":"The Glory of God Glory has a rather different connotation in the Old Testament than it does in English usage. The English word suggests something thin and passing—the glory of a sunset, the glory of last year’s winning team. The root idea of the Hebrew word for glory is “heaviness” or “solidity.” It connotes “significance” or “worth,” the absolute opposite of “vanity” or “nothingness.” When God’s glory appears, it is not merely a bright light or a glittering cloud, but a visible expression of...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":119411,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God’s Uniqueness","title_en":"God’s Uniqueness","content_ro":"<h3>God’s Uniqueness<\/h3>\nAs Creator, God stands wholly apart from the things he has created. God is not part of nature; he created and rules nature. He has always existed as the living God, the intelligent Designer who decreed that the universe should function according to his laws. He gave life to all living beings. As God, he is present everywhere and knows all things. He is the living God of love, holiness, justice, and power.<\/p>\nThe nations around Israel worshiped numerous gods, who were often identified with elements of the natural world. These nature deities and their images were false, lifeless, and immobile (see Jer 10:1-5). They could not communicate with people or relate to individuals. They could not even move about by their own power, because they had no power. Unfortunately, God’s people often followed the idolatrous practices of their neighbors, leading the prophets to remind the people of God’s uniqueness.<\/p>\nIn contrast to lifeless idols, the one, true, living God relates to his specially made humans on a personal basis, despite his otherness. He reaches into the lives of individuals and reveals his will so that each person can understand his desires and respond to him. The Lord, who created all things, strikingly seeks an individual relationship with his people.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nGen 1:1–2:4; Exod 15:11; 20:2-6; Deut 4:32-39; 33:26; Job 38:1–41:34; Pss 86:8; 115:4-7; 139:1-18; Isa 42:8; 44:9-20; Jer 10:1-16; 14:22; Amos 4:13; 5:8-9; Rev 15:3-4<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God’s Uniqueness<\/h3>\nAs Creator, God stands wholly apart from the things he has created. God is not part of nature; he created and rules nature. He has always existed as the living God, the intelligent Designer who decreed that the universe should function according to his laws. He gave life to all living beings. As God, he is present everywhere and knows all things. He is the living God of love, holiness, justice, and power.<\/p>\nThe nations around Israel worshiped numerous gods, who were often identified with elements of the natural world. These nature deities and their images were false, lifeless, and immobile (see Jer 10:1-5). They could not communicate with people or relate to individuals. They could not even move about by their own power, because they had no power. Unfortunately, God’s people often followed the idolatrous practices of their neighbors, leading the prophets to remind the people of God’s uniqueness.<\/p>\nIn contrast to lifeless idols, the one, true, living God relates to his specially made humans on a personal basis, despite his otherness. He reaches into the lives of individuals and reveals his will so that each person can understand his desires and respond to him. The Lord, who created all things, strikingly seeks an individual relationship with his people.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nGen 1:1–2:4; Exod 15:11; 20:2-6; Deut 4:32-39; 33:26; Job 38:1–41:34; Pss 86:8; 115:4-7; 139:1-18; Isa 42:8; 44:9-20; Jer 10:1-16; 14:22; Amos 4:13; 5:8-9; Rev 15:3-4<\/p>","summary_ro":"God’s Uniqueness As Creator, God stands wholly apart from the things he has created. God is not part of nature; he created and rules nature. He has always existed as the living God, the intelligent Designer who decreed that the universe should function according to his laws. He gave life to all living beings. As God, he is present everywhere and knows all things. He is the living God of love, holiness, justice, and power. The nations around Israel worshiped numerous gods, who were often ident...","summary_en":"God’s Uniqueness As Creator, God stands wholly apart from the things he has created. God is not part of nature; he created and rules nature. He has always existed as the living God, the intelligent Designer who decreed that the universe should function according to his laws. He gave life to all living beings. As God, he is present everywhere and knows all things. He is the living God of love, holiness, justice, and power. The nations around Israel worshiped numerous gods, who were often ident...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":119611,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God’s Glory with His People","title_en":"God’s Glory with His People","content_ro":"<h3>God’s Glory with His People<\/h3>\nIn ancient Israel, God’s glory was particularly manifest at the central sanctuaries that had been built for him. When the Israelites completed construction of the Tabernacle, that sacred space became filled with the glory of the Lord (Exod 40:34-35). Likewise, after the Temple was completed and the Ark of the Covenant was brought in, God’s glorious presence filled the Temple (1 Kgs 8:10-11).<\/p>\nThe presence and absence of God’s glory is a central theme in the book of Ezekiel. God’s glory appears to the prophet Ezekiel while he is exiled in Babylon, meaning that his glory was no longer present at the Temple in Jerusalem. The reason God’s glory had departed from the Temple at that time becomes clear in Ezekiel’s vision in Ezekiel 8–11, in which the prophet sees the abominations that had polluted the Temple in Jerusalem. Without God’s presence, the Temple had become an empty shell awaiting destruction. God was not forcibly evicted by the superior might of the Babylonian army; he voluntarily departed because his people were defiled. Their sin drove him away from the land he had promised to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. For a time, the Lord went from Jerusalem to Babylon to become a sanctuary for the exiles there (see 11:16).<\/p>\nGod would not abandon his Temple forever. After pouring out his wrath in full measure, he would restore a remnant to their land and sanctify them by his Spirit so that he could once again dwell in their midst in a new sanctuary (37:26). God’s glory, dwelling among his people forever (43:1-5), is at the heart of Ezekiel’s vision of their restoration.<\/p>\nThe glory of God has come to live among us fully in the person of Jesus Christ. As John testifies, “We have seen his glory, the glory of the Father’s one and only Son” (John 1:14). The aged Simeon saw the baby Jesus brought to the Temple and described him as “a light to reveal God to the nations, and . . . the glory of your people Israel” (Luke 2:32). Jesus’ glory was veiled while he was on earth, though for a moment on the Mount of Transfiguration his radiance was revealed to his closest disciples (Matt 17:2). He experienced his own abandonment by God as he hung on the cross, bearing the curse for our sin (Matt 27:46). Now, as the exalted and glorified Lord, he sits at God’s right hand (Eph 1:19-20). By his Spirit, he has promised never to abandon us, but to be with us to the end of time (Matt 28:20).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nExod 15:11; 33:18–34:8; 40:34; Ps 19:1-11; Isa 4:5-6; 6:3; 40:5; 42:8; 43:7; 58:8; 60:1-2; Ezek 1:1-28; 11:16; 37:26; 43:1-5; 44:4; Hab 2:14; Matt 17:2; 28:20; Luke 2:32; John 1:14; 2 Cor 4:4-6; Heb 1:3; Rev 21:10-11, 23<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God’s Glory with His People<\/h3>\nIn ancient Israel, God’s glory was particularly manifest at the central sanctuaries that had been built for him. When the Israelites completed construction of the Tabernacle, that sacred space became filled with the glory of the Lord (Exod 40:34-35). Likewise, after the Temple was completed and the Ark of the Covenant was brought in, God’s glorious presence filled the Temple (1 Kgs 8:10-11).<\/p>\nThe presence and absence of God’s glory is a central theme in the book of Ezekiel. God’s glory appears to the prophet Ezekiel while he is exiled in Babylon, meaning that his glory was no longer present at the Temple in Jerusalem. The reason God’s glory had departed from the Temple at that time becomes clear in Ezekiel’s vision in Ezekiel 8–11, in which the prophet sees the abominations that had polluted the Temple in Jerusalem. Without God’s presence, the Temple had become an empty shell awaiting destruction. God was not forcibly evicted by the superior might of the Babylonian army; he voluntarily departed because his people were defiled. Their sin drove him away from the land he had promised to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. For a time, the Lord went from Jerusalem to Babylon to become a sanctuary for the exiles there (see 11:16).<\/p>\nGod would not abandon his Temple forever. After pouring out his wrath in full measure, he would restore a remnant to their land and sanctify them by his Spirit so that he could once again dwell in their midst in a new sanctuary (37:26). God’s glory, dwelling among his people forever (43:1-5), is at the heart of Ezekiel’s vision of their restoration.<\/p>\nThe glory of God has come to live among us fully in the person of Jesus Christ. As John testifies, “We have seen his glory, the glory of the Father’s one and only Son” (John 1:14). The aged Simeon saw the baby Jesus brought to the Temple and described him as “a light to reveal God to the nations, and . . . the glory of your people Israel” (Luke 2:32). Jesus’ glory was veiled while he was on earth, though for a moment on the Mount of Transfiguration his radiance was revealed to his closest disciples (Matt 17:2). He experienced his own abandonment by God as he hung on the cross, bearing the curse for our sin (Matt 27:46). Now, as the exalted and glorified Lord, he sits at God’s right hand (Eph 1:19-20). By his Spirit, he has promised never to abandon us, but to be with us to the end of time (Matt 28:20).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nExod 15:11; 33:18–34:8; 40:34; Ps 19:1-11; Isa 4:5-6; 6:3; 40:5; 42:8; 43:7; 58:8; 60:1-2; Ezek 1:1-28; 11:16; 37:26; 43:1-5; 44:4; Hab 2:14; Matt 17:2; 28:20; Luke 2:32; John 1:14; 2 Cor 4:4-6; Heb 1:3; Rev 21:10-11, 23<\/p>","summary_ro":"God’s Glory with His People In ancient Israel, God’s glory was particularly manifest at the central sanctuaries that had been built for him. When the Israelites completed construction of the Tabernacle, that sacred space became filled with the glory of the Lord (Exod 40:34-35). Likewise, after the Temple was completed and the Ark of the Covenant was brought in, God’s glorious presence filled the Temple (1 Kgs 8:10-11). The presence and absence of God’s glory is a central theme in the book of ...","summary_en":"God’s Glory with His People In ancient Israel, God’s glory was particularly manifest at the central sanctuaries that had been built for him. When the Israelites completed construction of the Tabernacle, that sacred space became filled with the glory of the Lord (Exod 40:34-35). Likewise, after the Temple was completed and the Ark of the Covenant was brought in, God’s glorious presence filled the Temple (1 Kgs 8:10-11). The presence and absence of God’s glory is a central theme in the book of ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":122105,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Sovereignty of God","title_en":"The Sovereignty of God","content_ro":"<h3>The Sovereignty of God<\/h3>\nWe human beings always want to think that we are in charge. We think that by our decisions and actions we can determine what will happen. However, Scripture confronts us with quite a different scenario, pointing again and again to the ultimate sovereignty of God (see, e.g., Deut 4:39; Ps 135:5-7; Isa 46:8-11; Jude 1:24-25). Although human decisions and actions are significant, the will of God is vastly more important (see Jas 4:13-16).<\/p>\nGod’s sovereign hand is in everything. God is in control of the lives of all people (Ps 135:5-12), the universe, and the course of earth’s history (Isa 40:15-17; Acts 17:24; Col 1:15-20), directing it to his appointed ends (Isa 46:10; Dan 7:27-28; Matt 24:14-31; Rev 1:7-8).<\/p>\nAs demonstrated throughout 2 Kings, God exercises sovereign power and control over the affairs of nations. He installed and deposed the kings of Israel and Judah according to his purposes and according to the degree of their obedience. He permitted successful attacks against his people as punishment for their sins (2 Kgs 8:18-22). God was in control when the Assyrians attacked Samaria and brought down the northern kingdom (17:1-6, 18, 20). Hezekiah’s successes in Judah were due to the Lord’s blessings (18:5-7). God’s sovereign hand can be seen in all of the complex international events that happened, just as the Lord had promised, during the reigns of the final kings of Judah (23:26-27).<\/p>\nGod also displays his power in his answers to the prayers and petitions of his people. When Elisha prayed, God responded to his faithful prophet’s requests. Through Elisha he allowed the woman from Shunem to have a son and later brought that son back to life (4:17, 32-35). The Lord graciously answered the prayers of Jehoahaz and provided a rescuer for beleaguered Israel (13:4-5). He honored Hezekiah’s prayers for Jerusalem (19:1-7) and for his own life (20:1-6).<\/p>\nPaul shows that God determines the course of salvation. Paul constantly explains the unexpected development of salvation history by appealing to what God has said and done. Human decisions alone cannot explain the situation, and God has said that he will show mercy to anyone he chooses (Rom 9:15). While theologians will continue to debate the role of God’s action and the role of human decision in salvation, God’s sovereignty stands out clearly.<\/p>\nBecause God is sovereign, his people rightly seek to live in harmony with his will (Rom 12:1-2), in the strength that he provides (see 1 Cor 1:8-9). We can follow the example of Christ in his prayer, “I want your will to be done, not mine” (Matt 26:39). The contemporary world has set God to the side and ignores the divine influence on the course of human affairs. But God’s decisions really do direct the world as well as the personal histories of those who trust him. When we live for God’s glory (Isa 42:8; Hab 2:14; Jude 1:24-25), whatever happens is also ultimately for our good (Ps 84:11; Eph 3:16-19; Col 1:27; 2 Thes 1:11-12), and we can confidently affirm that “God causes everything to work together for the good of those who love God and are called according to his purpose for them” (Rom 8:28)..<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nExod 8:22; 9:29; Deut 4:39; 32:8, 39; Josh 2:11; 1 Sam 2:6-8; 2 Kgs 13:4-5; 17:1-6, 18-20; 18:5-7; 19:5-7; 20:4-6; Pss 24:1-2; 84:11; 135:5-12; Isa 40:15-17; 45:7; 46:10; Jer 27:5-7; Dan 7:27-28; Hab 2:14; John 19:11; Acts 17:24-26; Rom 8:28; 9:5-24; 1 Cor 1:8-9; Col 1:15-20; 2 Thes 1:11-12; Jude 1:24-25; Rev 1:7-8<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Sovereignty of God<\/h3>\nWe human beings always want to think that we are in charge. We think that by our decisions and actions we can determine what will happen. However, Scripture confronts us with quite a different scenario, pointing again and again to the ultimate sovereignty of God (see, e.g., Deut 4:39; Ps 135:5-7; Isa 46:8-11; Jude 1:24-25). Although human decisions and actions are significant, the will of God is vastly more important (see Jas 4:13-16).<\/p>\nGod’s sovereign hand is in everything. God is in control of the lives of all people (Ps 135:5-12), the universe, and the course of earth’s history (Isa 40:15-17; Acts 17:24; Col 1:15-20), directing it to his appointed ends (Isa 46:10; Dan 7:27-28; Matt 24:14-31; Rev 1:7-8).<\/p>\nAs demonstrated throughout 2 Kings, God exercises sovereign power and control over the affairs of nations. He installed and deposed the kings of Israel and Judah according to his purposes and according to the degree of their obedience. He permitted successful attacks against his people as punishment for their sins (2 Kgs 8:18-22). God was in control when the Assyrians attacked Samaria and brought down the northern kingdom (17:1-6, 18, 20). Hezekiah’s successes in Judah were due to the Lord’s blessings (18:5-7). God’s sovereign hand can be seen in all of the complex international events that happened, just as the Lord had promised, during the reigns of the final kings of Judah (23:26-27).<\/p>\nGod also displays his power in his answers to the prayers and petitions of his people. When Elisha prayed, God responded to his faithful prophet’s requests. Through Elisha he allowed the woman from Shunem to have a son and later brought that son back to life (4:17, 32-35). The Lord graciously answered the prayers of Jehoahaz and provided a rescuer for beleaguered Israel (13:4-5). He honored Hezekiah’s prayers for Jerusalem (19:1-7) and for his own life (20:1-6).<\/p>\nPaul shows that God determines the course of salvation. Paul constantly explains the unexpected development of salvation history by appealing to what God has said and done. Human decisions alone cannot explain the situation, and God has said that he will show mercy to anyone he chooses (Rom 9:15). While theologians will continue to debate the role of God’s action and the role of human decision in salvation, God’s sovereignty stands out clearly.<\/p>\nBecause God is sovereign, his people rightly seek to live in harmony with his will (Rom 12:1-2), in the strength that he provides (see 1 Cor 1:8-9). We can follow the example of Christ in his prayer, “I want your will to be done, not mine” (Matt 26:39). The contemporary world has set God to the side and ignores the divine influence on the course of human affairs. But God’s decisions really do direct the world as well as the personal histories of those who trust him. When we live for God’s glory (Isa 42:8; Hab 2:14; Jude 1:24-25), whatever happens is also ultimately for our good (Ps 84:11; Eph 3:16-19; Col 1:27; 2 Thes 1:11-12), and we can confidently affirm that “God causes everything to work together for the good of those who love God and are called according to his purpose for them” (Rom 8:28)..<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nExod 8:22; 9:29; Deut 4:39; 32:8, 39; Josh 2:11; 1 Sam 2:6-8; 2 Kgs 13:4-5; 17:1-6, 18-20; 18:5-7; 19:5-7; 20:4-6; Pss 24:1-2; 84:11; 135:5-12; Isa 40:15-17; 45:7; 46:10; Jer 27:5-7; Dan 7:27-28; Hab 2:14; John 19:11; Acts 17:24-26; Rom 8:28; 9:5-24; 1 Cor 1:8-9; Col 1:15-20; 2 Thes 1:11-12; Jude 1:24-25; Rev 1:7-8<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Sovereignty of God We human beings always want to think that we are in charge. We think that by our decisions and actions we can determine what will happen. However, Scripture confronts us with quite a different scenario, pointing again and again to the ultimate sovereignty of God (see, e.g., Deut 4:39; Ps 135:5-7; Isa 46:8-11; Jude 1:24-25). Although human decisions and actions are significant, the will of God is vastly more important (see Jas 4:13-16). God’s sovereign hand is in everyth...","summary_en":"The Sovereignty of God We human beings always want to think that we are in charge. We think that by our decisions and actions we can determine what will happen. However, Scripture confronts us with quite a different scenario, pointing again and again to the ultimate sovereignty of God (see, e.g., Deut 4:39; Ps 135:5-7; Isa 46:8-11; Jude 1:24-25). Although human decisions and actions are significant, the will of God is vastly more important (see Jas 4:13-16). God’s sovereign hand is in everyth...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":143170,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Glory of God","title_en":"The Glory of God","content_ro":"<h3>The Glory of God<\/h3>\nGlory<\/em> has a rather different connotation in the Old Testament than it does in English usage. The English word suggests something thin and passing—the glory of a sunset, the glory of last year’s winning team. The root idea of the Hebrew word for glory<\/em> is “heaviness” or “solidity.” It connotes “significance” or “worth,” the absolute opposite of “vanity” or “nothingness.” When God’s glory appears, it is not merely a bright light or a glittering cloud, but a visible expression of his absolute reality.<\/p>\nGod’s glory is the manifestation of his person, his power, and his majesty (see Ezek 1:28; 10:4). God’s glory may be revealed in nature, such as in a thunderstorm (Job 37:2-5; Ps 29:3, 7) or in the plagues sent on the Egyptians (Num 14:21-22). God’s glory can also be a unique manifestation, such as the revelation on Mount Sinai (Deut 5:24). When the Tabernacle and Solomon’s Temple were dedicated, God’s glory filled those structures (Exod 40:34-35; 1 Kgs 8:10-11), indicating his approval of them and that his presence would now reside there. Similarly, the glory of the Lord sent the fire that kindled the first sacrifices of the sanctuary (Lev 9:22-24).<\/p>\nWhen God reveals his glory to his creation (see, e.g., Exod 24:16-18), it is often called a theophany<\/em>. God gives limited (or veiled) glimpses of his glory because no one can see God and live (Exod 33:18-23; see also Isa 6:5). To “give glory” to God (Josh 7:19; Isa 24:15; Jer 13:16) means to speak or act in a manner that acknowledges who God is.<\/p>\nChrist is the glory and image of God (2 Cor 4:4), and he was glorified in his death and resurrection (John 17:1-5). When Christ appears again at last, he will further manifest God’s glory in his restored Kingdom (Rev 21:11, 23). Paul declares that the presence of Christ in the lives of believers provides assurance that we will share in that glory (Rom 5:2; Col 1:27).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nExod 14:17-18; 16:6-12; 33:17-23; 40:34-38; Lev 9:23-24; 10:1-3; Num 14:21-22; Deut 5:24; Josh 7:19; 1 Kgs 8:11; 2 Chr 7:1-3; Job 37:2-5; Pss 3:3; 8:4-6; 19:1; 29:3, 7-9; 48:8; Isa 6:3-5; 42:8; 43:7; 66:18-19; Jer 13:16; Ezek 1:28; 10:4; Hos 4:7; John 17:1-5; Rom 5:2; 2 Cor 4:4; Col 1:27; Rev 21:10-11, 23-25<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Glory of God<\/h3>\nGlory<\/em> has a rather different connotation in the Old Testament than it does in English usage. The English word suggests something thin and passing—the glory of a sunset, the glory of last year’s winning team. The root idea of the Hebrew word for glory<\/em> is “heaviness” or “solidity.” It connotes “significance” or “worth,” the absolute opposite of “vanity” or “nothingness.” When God’s glory appears, it is not merely a bright light or a glittering cloud, but a visible expression of his absolute reality.<\/p>\nGod’s glory is the manifestation of his person, his power, and his majesty (see Ezek 1:28; 10:4). God’s glory may be revealed in nature, such as in a thunderstorm (Job 37:2-5; Ps 29:3, 7) or in the plagues sent on the Egyptians (Num 14:21-22). God’s glory can also be a unique manifestation, such as the revelation on Mount Sinai (Deut 5:24). When the Tabernacle and Solomon’s Temple were dedicated, God’s glory filled those structures (Exod 40:34-35; 1 Kgs 8:10-11), indicating his approval of them and that his presence would now reside there. Similarly, the glory of the Lord sent the fire that kindled the first sacrifices of the sanctuary (Lev 9:22-24).<\/p>\nWhen God reveals his glory to his creation (see, e.g., Exod 24:16-18), it is often called a theophany<\/em>. God gives limited (or veiled) glimpses of his glory because no one can see God and live (Exod 33:18-23; see also Isa 6:5). To “give glory” to God (Josh 7:19; Isa 24:15; Jer 13:16) means to speak or act in a manner that acknowledges who God is.<\/p>\nChrist is the glory and image of God (2 Cor 4:4), and he was glorified in his death and resurrection (John 17:1-5). When Christ appears again at last, he will further manifest God’s glory in his restored Kingdom (Rev 21:11, 23). Paul declares that the presence of Christ in the lives of believers provides assurance that we will share in that glory (Rom 5:2; Col 1:27).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nExod 14:17-18; 16:6-12; 33:17-23; 40:34-38; Lev 9:23-24; 10:1-3; Num 14:21-22; Deut 5:24; Josh 7:19; 1 Kgs 8:11; 2 Chr 7:1-3; Job 37:2-5; Pss 3:3; 8:4-6; 19:1; 29:3, 7-9; 48:8; Isa 6:3-5; 42:8; 43:7; 66:18-19; Jer 13:16; Ezek 1:28; 10:4; Hos 4:7; John 17:1-5; Rom 5:2; 2 Cor 4:4; Col 1:27; Rev 21:10-11, 23-25<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Glory of God Glory has a rather different connotation in the Old Testament than it does in English usage. The English word suggests something thin and passing—the glory of a sunset, the glory of last year’s winning team. The root idea of the Hebrew word for glory is “heaviness” or “solidity.” It connotes “significance” or “worth,” the absolute opposite of “vanity” or “nothingness.” When God’s glory appears, it is not merely a bright light or a glittering cloud, but a visible expression of...","summary_en":"The Glory of God Glory has a rather different connotation in the Old Testament than it does in English usage. The English word suggests something thin and passing—the glory of a sunset, the glory of last year’s winning team. The root idea of the Hebrew word for glory is “heaviness” or “solidity.” It connotes “significance” or “worth,” the absolute opposite of “vanity” or “nothingness.” When God’s glory appears, it is not merely a bright light or a glittering cloud, but a visible expression of...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":147037,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God’s Uniqueness","title_en":"God’s Uniqueness","content_ro":"<h3>God’s Uniqueness<\/h3>\nAs Creator, God stands wholly apart from the things he has created. God is not part of nature; he created and rules nature. He has always existed as the living God, the intelligent Designer who decreed that the universe should function according to his laws. He gave life to all living beings. As God, he is present everywhere and knows all things. He is the living God of love, holiness, justice, and power.<\/p>\nThe nations around Israel worshiped numerous gods, who were often identified with elements of the natural world. These nature deities and their images were false, lifeless, and immobile (see Jer 10:1-5). They could not communicate with people or relate to individuals. They could not even move about by their own power, because they had no power. Unfortunately, God’s people often followed the idolatrous practices of their neighbors, leading the prophets to remind the people of God’s uniqueness.<\/p>\nIn contrast to lifeless idols, the one, true, living God relates to his specially made humans on a personal basis, despite his otherness. He reaches into the lives of individuals and reveals his will so that each person can understand his desires and respond to him. The Lord, who created all things, strikingly seeks an individual relationship with his people.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nGen 1:1–2:4; Exod 15:11; 20:2-6; Deut 4:32-39; 33:26; Job 38:1–41:34; Pss 86:8; 115:4-7; 139:1-18; Isa 42:8; 44:9-20; Jer 10:1-16; 14:22; Amos 4:13; 5:8-9; Rev 15:3-4<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God’s Uniqueness<\/h3>\nAs Creator, God stands wholly apart from the things he has created. God is not part of nature; he created and rules nature. He has always existed as the living God, the intelligent Designer who decreed that the universe should function according to his laws. He gave life to all living beings. As God, he is present everywhere and knows all things. He is the living God of love, holiness, justice, and power.<\/p>\nThe nations around Israel worshiped numerous gods, who were often identified with elements of the natural world. These nature deities and their images were false, lifeless, and immobile (see Jer 10:1-5). They could not communicate with people or relate to individuals. They could not even move about by their own power, because they had no power. Unfortunately, God’s people often followed the idolatrous practices of their neighbors, leading the prophets to remind the people of God’s uniqueness.<\/p>\nIn contrast to lifeless idols, the one, true, living God relates to his specially made humans on a personal basis, despite his otherness. He reaches into the lives of individuals and reveals his will so that each person can understand his desires and respond to him. The Lord, who created all things, strikingly seeks an individual relationship with his people.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nGen 1:1–2:4; Exod 15:11; 20:2-6; Deut 4:32-39; 33:26; Job 38:1–41:34; Pss 86:8; 115:4-7; 139:1-18; Isa 42:8; 44:9-20; Jer 10:1-16; 14:22; Amos 4:13; 5:8-9; Rev 15:3-4<\/p>","summary_ro":"God’s Uniqueness As Creator, God stands wholly apart from the things he has created. God is not part of nature; he created and rules nature. He has always existed as the living God, the intelligent Designer who decreed that the universe should function according to his laws. He gave life to all living beings. As God, he is present everywhere and knows all things. He is the living God of love, holiness, justice, and power. The nations around Israel worshiped numerous gods, who were often ident...","summary_en":"God’s Uniqueness As Creator, God stands wholly apart from the things he has created. God is not part of nature; he created and rules nature. He has always existed as the living God, the intelligent Designer who decreed that the universe should function according to his laws. He gave life to all living beings. As God, he is present everywhere and knows all things. He is the living God of love, holiness, justice, and power. The nations around Israel worshiped numerous gods, who were often ident...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":147237,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God’s Glory with His People","title_en":"God’s Glory with His People","content_ro":"<h3>God’s Glory with His People<\/h3>\nIn ancient Israel, God’s glory was particularly manifest at the central sanctuaries that had been built for him. When the Israelites completed construction of the Tabernacle, that sacred space became filled with the glory of the Lord (Exod 40:34-35). Likewise, after the Temple was completed and the Ark of the Covenant was brought in, God’s glorious presence filled the Temple (1 Kgs 8:10-11).<\/p>\nThe presence and absence of God’s glory is a central theme in the book of Ezekiel. God’s glory appears to the prophet Ezekiel while he is exiled in Babylon, meaning that his glory was no longer present at the Temple in Jerusalem. The reason God’s glory had departed from the Temple at that time becomes clear in Ezekiel’s vision in Ezekiel 8–11, in which the prophet sees the abominations that had polluted the Temple in Jerusalem. Without God’s presence, the Temple had become an empty shell awaiting destruction. God was not forcibly evicted by the superior might of the Babylonian army; he voluntarily departed because his people were defiled. Their sin drove him away from the land he had promised to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. For a time, the Lord went from Jerusalem to Babylon to become a sanctuary for the exiles there (see 11:16).<\/p>\nGod would not abandon his Temple forever. After pouring out his wrath in full measure, he would restore a remnant to their land and sanctify them by his Spirit so that he could once again dwell in their midst in a new sanctuary (37:26). God’s glory, dwelling among his people forever (43:1-5), is at the heart of Ezekiel’s vision of their restoration.<\/p>\nThe glory of God has come to live among us fully in the person of Jesus Christ. As John testifies, “We have seen his glory, the glory of the Father’s one and only Son” (John 1:14). The aged Simeon saw the baby Jesus brought to the Temple and described him as “a light to reveal God to the nations, and . . . the glory of your people Israel” (Luke 2:32). Jesus’ glory was veiled while he was on earth, though for a moment on the Mount of Transfiguration his radiance was revealed to his closest disciples (Matt 17:2). He experienced his own abandonment by God as he hung on the cross, bearing the curse for our sin (Matt 27:46). Now, as the exalted and glorified Lord, he sits at God’s right hand (Eph 1:19-20). By his Spirit, he has promised never to abandon us, but to be with us to the end of time (Matt 28:20).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nExod 15:11; 33:18–34:8; 40:34; Ps 19:1-11; Isa 4:5-6; 6:3; 40:5; 42:8; 43:7; 58:8; 60:1-2; Ezek 1:1-28; 11:16; 37:26; 43:1-5; 44:4; Hab 2:14; Matt 17:2; 28:20; Luke 2:32; John 1:14; 2 Cor 4:4-6; Heb 1:3; Rev 21:10-11, 23<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God’s Glory with His People<\/h3>\nIn ancient Israel, God’s glory was particularly manifest at the central sanctuaries that had been built for him. When the Israelites completed construction of the Tabernacle, that sacred space became filled with the glory of the Lord (Exod 40:34-35). Likewise, after the Temple was completed and the Ark of the Covenant was brought in, God’s glorious presence filled the Temple (1 Kgs 8:10-11).<\/p>\nThe presence and absence of God’s glory is a central theme in the book of Ezekiel. God’s glory appears to the prophet Ezekiel while he is exiled in Babylon, meaning that his glory was no longer present at the Temple in Jerusalem. The reason God’s glory had departed from the Temple at that time becomes clear in Ezekiel’s vision in Ezekiel 8–11, in which the prophet sees the abominations that had polluted the Temple in Jerusalem. Without God’s presence, the Temple had become an empty shell awaiting destruction. God was not forcibly evicted by the superior might of the Babylonian army; he voluntarily departed because his people were defiled. Their sin drove him away from the land he had promised to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. For a time, the Lord went from Jerusalem to Babylon to become a sanctuary for the exiles there (see 11:16).<\/p>\nGod would not abandon his Temple forever. After pouring out his wrath in full measure, he would restore a remnant to their land and sanctify them by his Spirit so that he could once again dwell in their midst in a new sanctuary (37:26). God’s glory, dwelling among his people forever (43:1-5), is at the heart of Ezekiel’s vision of their restoration.<\/p>\nThe glory of God has come to live among us fully in the person of Jesus Christ. As John testifies, “We have seen his glory, the glory of the Father’s one and only Son” (John 1:14). The aged Simeon saw the baby Jesus brought to the Temple and described him as “a light to reveal God to the nations, and . . . the glory of your people Israel” (Luke 2:32). Jesus’ glory was veiled while he was on earth, though for a moment on the Mount of Transfiguration his radiance was revealed to his closest disciples (Matt 17:2). He experienced his own abandonment by God as he hung on the cross, bearing the curse for our sin (Matt 27:46). Now, as the exalted and glorified Lord, he sits at God’s right hand (Eph 1:19-20). By his Spirit, he has promised never to abandon us, but to be with us to the end of time (Matt 28:20).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nExod 15:11; 33:18–34:8; 40:34; Ps 19:1-11; Isa 4:5-6; 6:3; 40:5; 42:8; 43:7; 58:8; 60:1-2; Ezek 1:1-28; 11:16; 37:26; 43:1-5; 44:4; Hab 2:14; Matt 17:2; 28:20; Luke 2:32; John 1:14; 2 Cor 4:4-6; Heb 1:3; Rev 21:10-11, 23<\/p>","summary_ro":"God’s Glory with His People In ancient Israel, God’s glory was particularly manifest at the central sanctuaries that had been built for him. When the Israelites completed construction of the Tabernacle, that sacred space became filled with the glory of the Lord (Exod 40:34-35). Likewise, after the Temple was completed and the Ark of the Covenant was brought in, God’s glorious presence filled the Temple (1 Kgs 8:10-11). The presence and absence of God’s glory is a central theme in the book of ...","summary_en":"God’s Glory with His People In ancient Israel, God’s glory was particularly manifest at the central sanctuaries that had been built for him. When the Israelites completed construction of the Tabernacle, that sacred space became filled with the glory of the Lord (Exod 40:34-35). Likewise, after the Temple was completed and the Ark of the Covenant was brought in, God’s glorious presence filled the Temple (1 Kgs 8:10-11). The presence and absence of God’s glory is a central theme in the book of ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":149731,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Sovereignty of God","title_en":"The Sovereignty of God","content_ro":"<h3>The Sovereignty of God<\/h3>\nWe human beings always want to think that we are in charge. We think that by our decisions and actions we can determine what will happen. However, Scripture confronts us with quite a different scenario, pointing again and again to the ultimate sovereignty of God (see, e.g., Deut 4:39; Ps 135:5-7; Isa 46:8-11; Jude 1:24-25). Although human decisions and actions are significant, the will of God is vastly more important (see Jas 4:13-16).<\/p>\nGod’s sovereign hand is in everything. God is in control of the lives of all people (Ps 135:5-12), the universe, and the course of earth’s history (Isa 40:15-17; Acts 17:24; Col 1:15-20), directing it to his appointed ends (Isa 46:10; Dan 7:27-28; Matt 24:14-31; Rev 1:7-8).<\/p>\nAs demonstrated throughout 2 Kings, God exercises sovereign power and control over the affairs of nations. He installed and deposed the kings of Israel and Judah according to his purposes and according to the degree of their obedience. He permitted successful attacks against his people as punishment for their sins (2 Kgs 8:18-22). God was in control when the Assyrians attacked Samaria and brought down the northern kingdom (17:1-6, 18, 20). Hezekiah’s successes in Judah were due to the Lord’s blessings (18:5-7). God’s sovereign hand can be seen in all of the complex international events that happened, just as the Lord had promised, during the reigns of the final kings of Judah (23:26-27).<\/p>\nGod also displays his power in his answers to the prayers and petitions of his people. When Elisha prayed, God responded to his faithful prophet’s requests. Through Elisha he allowed the woman from Shunem to have a son and later brought that son back to life (4:17, 32-35). The Lord graciously answered the prayers of Jehoahaz and provided a rescuer for beleaguered Israel (13:4-5). He honored Hezekiah’s prayers for Jerusalem (19:1-7) and for his own life (20:1-6).<\/p>\nPaul shows that God determines the course of salvation. Paul constantly explains the unexpected development of salvation history by appealing to what God has said and done. Human decisions alone cannot explain the situation, and God has said that he will show mercy to anyone he chooses (Rom 9:15). While theologians will continue to debate the role of God’s action and the role of human decision in salvation, God’s sovereignty stands out clearly.<\/p>\nBecause God is sovereign, his people rightly seek to live in harmony with his will (Rom 12:1-2), in the strength that he provides (see 1 Cor 1:8-9). We can follow the example of Christ in his prayer, “I want your will to be done, not mine” (Matt 26:39). The contemporary world has set God to the side and ignores the divine influence on the course of human affairs. But God’s decisions really do direct the world as well as the personal histories of those who trust him. When we live for God’s glory (Isa 42:8; Hab 2:14; Jude 1:24-25), whatever happens is also ultimately for our good (Ps 84:11; Eph 3:16-19; Col 1:27; 2 Thes 1:11-12), and we can confidently affirm that “God causes everything to work together for the good of those who love God and are called according to his purpose for them” (Rom 8:28)..<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nExod 8:22; 9:29; Deut 4:39; 32:8, 39; Josh 2:11; 1 Sam 2:6-8; 2 Kgs 13:4-5; 17:1-6, 18-20; 18:5-7; 19:5-7; 20:4-6; Pss 24:1-2; 84:11; 135:5-12; Isa 40:15-17; 45:7; 46:10; Jer 27:5-7; Dan 7:27-28; Hab 2:14; John 19:11; Acts 17:24-26; Rom 8:28; 9:5-24; 1 Cor 1:8-9; Col 1:15-20; 2 Thes 1:11-12; Jude 1:24-25; Rev 1:7-8<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Sovereignty of God<\/h3>\nWe human beings always want to think that we are in charge. We think that by our decisions and actions we can determine what will happen. However, Scripture confronts us with quite a different scenario, pointing again and again to the ultimate sovereignty of God (see, e.g., Deut 4:39; Ps 135:5-7; Isa 46:8-11; Jude 1:24-25). Although human decisions and actions are significant, the will of God is vastly more important (see Jas 4:13-16).<\/p>\nGod’s sovereign hand is in everything. God is in control of the lives of all people (Ps 135:5-12), the universe, and the course of earth’s history (Isa 40:15-17; Acts 17:24; Col 1:15-20), directing it to his appointed ends (Isa 46:10; Dan 7:27-28; Matt 24:14-31; Rev 1:7-8).<\/p>\nAs demonstrated throughout 2 Kings, God exercises sovereign power and control over the affairs of nations. He installed and deposed the kings of Israel and Judah according to his purposes and according to the degree of their obedience. He permitted successful attacks against his people as punishment for their sins (2 Kgs 8:18-22). God was in control when the Assyrians attacked Samaria and brought down the northern kingdom (17:1-6, 18, 20). Hezekiah’s successes in Judah were due to the Lord’s blessings (18:5-7). God’s sovereign hand can be seen in all of the complex international events that happened, just as the Lord had promised, during the reigns of the final kings of Judah (23:26-27).<\/p>\nGod also displays his power in his answers to the prayers and petitions of his people. When Elisha prayed, God responded to his faithful prophet’s requests. Through Elisha he allowed the woman from Shunem to have a son and later brought that son back to life (4:17, 32-35). The Lord graciously answered the prayers of Jehoahaz and provided a rescuer for beleaguered Israel (13:4-5). He honored Hezekiah’s prayers for Jerusalem (19:1-7) and for his own life (20:1-6).<\/p>\nPaul shows that God determines the course of salvation. Paul constantly explains the unexpected development of salvation history by appealing to what God has said and done. Human decisions alone cannot explain the situation, and God has said that he will show mercy to anyone he chooses (Rom 9:15). While theologians will continue to debate the role of God’s action and the role of human decision in salvation, God’s sovereignty stands out clearly.<\/p>\nBecause God is sovereign, his people rightly seek to live in harmony with his will (Rom 12:1-2), in the strength that he provides (see 1 Cor 1:8-9). We can follow the example of Christ in his prayer, “I want your will to be done, not mine” (Matt 26:39). The contemporary world has set God to the side and ignores the divine influence on the course of human affairs. But God’s decisions really do direct the world as well as the personal histories of those who trust him. When we live for God’s glory (Isa 42:8; Hab 2:14; Jude 1:24-25), whatever happens is also ultimately for our good (Ps 84:11; Eph 3:16-19; Col 1:27; 2 Thes 1:11-12), and we can confidently affirm that “God causes everything to work together for the good of those who love God and are called according to his purpose for them” (Rom 8:28)..<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nExod 8:22; 9:29; Deut 4:39; 32:8, 39; Josh 2:11; 1 Sam 2:6-8; 2 Kgs 13:4-5; 17:1-6, 18-20; 18:5-7; 19:5-7; 20:4-6; Pss 24:1-2; 84:11; 135:5-12; Isa 40:15-17; 45:7; 46:10; Jer 27:5-7; Dan 7:27-28; Hab 2:14; John 19:11; Acts 17:24-26; Rom 8:28; 9:5-24; 1 Cor 1:8-9; Col 1:15-20; 2 Thes 1:11-12; Jude 1:24-25; Rev 1:7-8<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Sovereignty of God We human beings always want to think that we are in charge. We think that by our decisions and actions we can determine what will happen. However, Scripture confronts us with quite a different scenario, pointing again and again to the ultimate sovereignty of God (see, e.g., Deut 4:39; Ps 135:5-7; Isa 46:8-11; Jude 1:24-25). Although human decisions and actions are significant, the will of God is vastly more important (see Jas 4:13-16). God’s sovereign hand is in everyth...","summary_en":"The Sovereignty of God We human beings always want to think that we are in charge. We think that by our decisions and actions we can determine what will happen. However, Scripture confronts us with quite a different scenario, pointing again and again to the ultimate sovereignty of God (see, e.g., Deut 4:39; Ps 135:5-7; Isa 46:8-11; Jude 1:24-25). Although human decisions and actions are significant, the will of God is vastly more important (see Jas 4:13-16). God’s sovereign hand is in everyth...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"10":[{"id":26531,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Music","title_en":"Music","content_ro":"<h3>MUSIC<\/h3>\nA natural human expression that probably began with speech-singing and developed into songs, which were then accompanied by instruments. Music as we know it has become quite complex, a luxury and entertainment; music in antiquity, however, was a functional expression of daily life, work, and worship.<\/p>\nThe phrase “sing to the Lord,” common to the OT (Ex 15:21; 1 Chr 16:9; Pss 68:32; 96:1-2; Is 42:10; Jer 20:13), was not unique to the Jewish nation. All religions draw on the natural human impulse to sing. The injunction “sing to the Lord” was a signal for the people to pour out their praise in song.<\/p>\nThe Bible, however, is limited in its treatment of music in ancient Israel. Since there was no written musical notation, the primary record of songs sung by the Hebrews is the collection of texts, particularly the psalms, and a few enigmatic musical instructions. The biblical writers were writing a history not of their culture but of their relationship with God; hence, their comments about music are not critical. Also, the biblical documents cover a long span of history and are grouped according to category rather than in chronological order, thus making it difficult to order the development of musical style with precision. Finally, there is the problem of understanding the biblical descriptions of music and its performance. Only in this century have scholars been able to interpret the information provided in the Bible in terms of Eastern music systems.<\/p>\nPreview<\/p>\n• Music in the Old Testament<\/p>\n• Music in the Psalms<\/p>\n• Music in the New Testament<\/p>\nMusic in the Old Testament<\/p>\nThe first musician mentioned in the Bible is “Jubal, the first musician—the inventor of the harp and flute” (Gn 4:21, nlt<\/span>). The importance of this description of a musician so early in history lies in the equality Jubal is given with his brothers Jabal, the herdsman, and Tubal-cain, the smith. Music making is recognized among the earliest professions of nomadic peoples. The name Jubal is believed to be a derivative from the Hebrew word for “ram.” The ram’s horn (<\/em>shophar<\/span>)<\/em> was an early instrument of the Jewish people and was significant in signaling important events.<\/p>\nFor the most part, the music described in early biblical history was of a functional nature. Music gained special significance as it became an important part of temple worship. Many of the descriptions of music making in ancient Israel, before David’s time, are quite utilitarian. There are accounts of music at times of farewell (Gn 31:27), at times of rejoicing and feasting (Ex 32:17-18; Is 5:12; 24:8-9), at military victories (2 Chr 20:27-28), and for work (Nm 21:17, the song of the well diggers; Is 16:10; Jer 48:33). Most of this music was probably rather crude and primitive in nature, especially the music associated with military advances, which was meant to terrify the enemy (Jgs 7:17-20). The music and dancing that greeted Moses as he descended from the mountain was described as if it sounded like “war in the camp” (Ex 32:17-18).<\/p>\nIn the early history of the Jewish people, women played an important part in the performance of music. The image of women dancing and singing for joy accompanied by percussion instruments is repeated several times: Miriam led the women in a hymn of thanksgiving after the deliverance from the Red Sea (Ex 15); Jephthah’s daughter welcomed her father in his victory (Jgs 11:34); Deborah joined with Barak in singing a song of victory (Jgs 5); and women hailed David after his defeat of the Philistines (1 Sm 18:6-7). There is little mention of women as musicians following the establishment of the temple in Jerusalem, but there are a few allusions to the fact that women did participate in singing and dancing. The account of the return from exile in Babylon includes both male and female singers (Neh 7:67), confirming that women still took part in musical performance.<\/p>\nAs Jerusalem became the religious center of the Hebrew people (950–850 BC<\/span>), the role of the professional musician became more important. The women’s songs became insignificant compared to the pomp and ceremony associated with the temple and the royal court. While the Levitical singers took most of the musical responsibility at the temple, the development of antiphonal singing allowed the people to join in on responses in the singing of psalms.<\/p>\n<h5>Musical Style and Use<\/h5>\nThe Jewish people seem to have been especially musical. Of course, they were influenced by other ancient cultures, but there is evidence that they were in demand as musicians by other peoples. According to an Assyrian document, King Hezekiah gave as tribute to King Sennacherib many male and female Jewish musicians. The Babylonians demanded that the captive Jews sing to them and entertain them (cf. Ps 137:3).<\/p>\nSince the OT’s purpose was to narrate the relationship between the Jewish nation and God, most of the references to music deal with its function in worship. However, evidence reveals that there was also a large body of secular musical literature. There may have been guilds of poets and singers early in Jewish history. The kinds of songs recorded in the early part of the OT represent a folklike poetry. The song of thanksgiving to the Lord by Moses and the people of Israel after their escape at the Red Sea is a stirring national song. Many descriptions of the biblical writers reflect the spirit of bardic song. This would be logical, as these stories were meant to be passed on. Marching songs (2 Chr 20:27-28), and songs of triumph (Jgs 5) also indicate a secular body of music.<\/p>\n<h5>Music in Worship<\/h5>\nThe singers and musicians for the temple worship were chosen from the tribe of Levi. King David assembled the Levites for a census, and out of the total of 38,000 men over the age of 30, 4,000 were chosen as musicians. These 4,000 were subsequently given specific jobs. “David and the chiefs of the service also set apart for the service certain of the sons of Asaph, and of Heman, and of Jeduthun, who should prophesy with lyres, with harps, and with cymbals. . . . The number of them along with their brethren, who were trained in singing to the Lord<\/span>, all who were skilful, was two hundred and eighty-eight” (1 Chr 25:1, 7, rsv<\/span>). The singers were further divided into 24 groups of 12 singers, who rotated in participating in the weekday, Sabbath, and high holy day services.<\/p>\nAccording to a later source, there were minimum and maximum numbers of singers and instrumentalists required at each service. The minimum number of singers was twelve, the maximum was unlimited. There had to be in attendance at least two harps but no more than six, at least two flutes but no more than twelve, a minimum of two trumpets with no maximum, and a minimum of nine lyres with no maximum. There was only one player with a pair of cymbals.<\/p>\nA singer was admitted to the Levitical choir at the age of thirty following a five-year apprenticeship (1 Chr 23:3). Five years is a relatively short time considering the amount of material these singers had to memorize (for there was no notation) and the liturgical ritual they had to master; it is speculated that they actually were in training from childhood. The Levites lived in villages outside the city wall and may have been actively involved in the musical education of their children (Neh 12:29). The Levites performed other duties connected with the sacred service, but the singers were excused from all other duties because they were on duty day and night (1 Chr 9:33). Their skills were an important part of the temple worship, and they were able to devote their entire life to the development of their musical ability. A singer served in the choir for 20 years, from age 30 to 50, and the music was of a high quality due to strict discipline and continuous practice and performance.<\/p>\nFrom the beginning of Jewish formal worship connected with the tabernacle, music and sound was important. In Exodus 28:34-35 the descriptions of Aaron’s robe include bells attached to the lower hem that sounded as he entered the Holy Place. The first liturgical music mentioned in the OT is found in 2 Samuel 6 in the descriptions of the transfer of the ark: David and the Israelites sang, played instruments, and danced to the glory of the Lord. This music bore little resemblance to the stately ceremony described later in Solomon’s temple. In 2 Chronicles 7:6, David is given recognition for inventing the musical instruments used in the temple. In the postexilic era Levitical singers are mentioned as the descendants of Asaph, the “singing master” appointed by David (Ezr 2:41; Neh 7:44; 11:22-23). From passages such as these, we have a definite indication that liturgical music and organization stemmed from David’s time.<\/p>\nThe ceremonies in the Jewish temple were organized around the sacrifice. Singing formed an integral part of the sacrificial service and was necessary to validate the sacrificial action. There were special musical settings for each sacrifice; thus the daily burnt, expiatory, and laudatory offerings and libations had individual liturgies. Particular psalms became associated with certain sacrifices as well as with certain days of the week. The psalm of the day was intoned as the high priest started to pour out the drink offering. The psalm was divided into three sections, each signaled by the blowing of the trumpets, on which signal the people would prostrate themselves. This is the only time the trumpets were used together with the other instruments in orchestral fashion on solemn occasions (2 Chr 5:12-13).<\/p>\nMusic in the Psalms<\/p>\n<h5>Musical Psalm Titles<\/h5>\nThe collection of 150 lyric poems known as the book of Psalms contains the most information on music making in ancient Israel. The Psalter contains not only religious songs but also songs that have their roots in secular or popular songs, such as work songs, love songs, and wedding songs. The majority are songs of praise, thanksgiving, prayer, and repentance. There are also historic odes that relate great national events—for example, Psalm 30, “a song at the dedication of the temple,” and Psalm 137, which portrays the sufferings of the Jews in captivity.<\/p>\nThe psalms were an important part of all the services of the temple; the Psalter became the liturgical hymnal of the Israelites. Worship included an appointed psalm for each day of the week. On the first day of the week, Psalm 24 was sung in remembrance of the first day of creation, Psalm 48 was sung on the second day, Psalm 82 on the third, Psalm 94 on the fourth, Psalm 81 on the fifth, Psalm 93 on the sixth, and Psalm 92 on the Sabbath. After the sacrificial offerings, Psalm 105:1-5 was sung at the morning service and Psalm 96 at the evening service. The Hallel psalms (Pss 113–118, 120–136, 146–148) were sung during the offering of the paschal lamb at the Passover feast.<\/p>\nWhile most of the liturgical music was performed by Levites, texts of the psalms suggest that there was also congregational participation. The forms of music found both in synagogal and ecclesiastical chant had their source in the forms of the poetic text of the psalms. The simplest is the plain psalmody sung by one person (e.g., Pss 3–5, 46). In responsorial psalmody the soloist is answered by the choir (e.g., Ps 67:1-2; the soloist sang verse 1 and the choir answered with verse 2). Antiphonal psalmody involves two groups singing alternately (e.g., Ps 103:20-22). The congregation would chant a refrain such as appears in Psalm 80: “Restore us, O God; let thy face shine, that we may be saved!” recurs throughout the psalm (rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\nEven though the synagogue had no altar for sacrifice, psalm singing retained an important place. After the Romans destroyed the temple, the worship heritage of the Jews could have been lost if the customs, including musical customs, had not become an integral part of synagogue worship.<\/p>\nThe most enigmatic part of the psalms is the headings that are not part of the poetic text. The first question is whether these should even be considered as superscripts. Greek, Latin, Hebrew, and other ancient languages were written in such a way that the text ran together without any break between chapters or paragraphs. This means that the verses, and even the division of the psalms themselves, were partially determined by copyists, chiefly the Masoretes. There is some question as to which psalms the extrapoetic texts actually belong with; they may actually be subscripts instead of superscripts. Sumerian and Babylonian poetry had information such as the name of the author, the musical instrument used for accompaniment, the tune, the purpose, and such listed at the end of the poem. Hence, some of the headings may actually be endings.<\/p>\nThe indications at the beginning of a psalm fall into three categories. They are either musical terms giving direction for the actual performance, musical cues designating the tune to which the psalm would be sung, or comments indicating the function of the psalm. These terms have been interpreted in various ways.<\/p>\nOriginally, these headings may have been marginal notes for the choir leaders. Realizing that these terms were not related to the psalm text proper, early biblical scribes may not have been overly careful with their placement in the text, which may explain some of the discrepancies among the early manuscripts—why certain words are left out in some and why terms assigned to only a few psalms may originally have been indicated on more of them.<\/p>\nAll but 50 of the psalms contain a proper name in the heading. These names possibly indicate the author; other commentators, interpreting the preposition appearing before the names to mean “for,” think the names are a dedication. Thus the title would be “A Psalm for David,” not “A Psalm of David.” This may be the case with the names of Asaph, Heman, Ethan, and especially the sons of Korah, where it would make better sense for the psalm to be written for rather than by the family. Seventy-three psalms have David’s name in the heading, hence the common reference to the Psalter as the Psalms of David. Twelve include the name of Asaph, eleven the children of Korah, two Solomon, and one each contains Moses, Heman, and Ethan.<\/p>\n<h5>Musical Terms in the Psalm Titles<\/h5>\nNumerous musical terms are included in the superscriptions to cue the kind of instrumental accompaniment, mood, and style of performance for the psalm.<\/p>\nAlamoth<\/span> is one of the most controversial terms found in the psalm headings. It appears at the beginning of Psalm 46 and also in 1 Chronicles 15:20. One meaning for the Hebrew word is “maiden,” and musicologists interpret this as an instruction that the psalm should be sung in the range of the female singing voice. The reference in Chronicles is to harps in the range of women’s voices. This interpretation does not seem to fit Psalm 46, but if we look at the preceding psalm and read the term as a subscript, it becomes logical. Psalm 45 is a song of love, actually a nuptial ode; it would be natural for women to sing the second half (vv 10-17). While there is little mention of women singing in the temple, there is speculation that young boys in training may have sung along with the Levitical singers. Also this may be a case where the term appears only once in the modern text but may have been used more often in the original. Another possible meaning for Alamoth<\/span> is “flutes,” perhaps describing the kind of musical accompaniment for the performance of the psalm.<\/p>\nGittith<\/span> is a term found in the superscriptions of Psalms 8, 81, and 84. It may be a musical cue, indicating a mood for the performance of these psalms, but a more common explanation is that it is a collective term for the stringed instruments that would have accompanied them.<\/p>\nMahalath<\/span> has been left in its original Hebrew form by early translators and is found in the headings of Psalms 53 and 88. It may have roots in the Hebrew mahaleh<\/span> “sickness” or mahot<\/span> “dance,” though neither of these words can be related to the psalm texts. Another explanation is a musical one. Mahalath<\/span> may come from the word halal<\/span> meaning “to pierce,” implying that the psalm was to be accompanied with pipes.<\/p>\nMaskil<\/span> (kjv<\/span> “Maschil”) appears in the headings of 13 psalms (Pss 32, 42, 44–45, 52–55, 74, 78, 88–89, 142). The term is probably derived from the verb sakal<\/span>,<\/em> “to have insight or comprehension,” but there is no agreement among commentators. By looking at the psalms themselves, their didactic nature and the structure of stanzas and refrains, musicologists conclude the term represents a song of praise, possibly sung by a soloist with participation by the choir.<\/p>\nMenazzeah<\/span> appears in the heading of 55 psalms. It appears 52 times in the first three books of Psalms (Pss 1–89), not at all in book four (Pss 90–106), and 3 times in book five (Pss 107–150). The most common modern translations are “to the Choirmaster” (rsv<\/span>), “to the choir director” (nasb<\/span>, nlt<\/span>), “to the director of music” (niv<\/span>), “to the chief Musician” (kjv<\/span>, nkjv<\/span>). The word is derived from the Hebrew verb nazzah<\/span>,<\/em> appearing in 1 Chronicles 23:4 and Ezra 3:8-9 in the sense of “administering.” In 1 Chronicles 15:21 the word is found in relation to leading or directing song in the temple. Menazzeah<\/span> relates to the choirmaster and represents the singer chosen to lead the music who probably was involved in rehearsing and instructing. It is now assumed that menazzeah<\/span> indicates the psalm was to be sung partially or entirely by a soloist. This is evidenced by the change in some texts from “I” where the soloist sang, to “we” where the choir or congregation sang. Psalm 5 is an example of a text divided for solo and choral singing: verses 1-3 solo; verses 4-6 choral; verses 7-8 solo; verses 9-10 choral; and verses 11-12 end the psalm with the combined soloist and choir.<\/p>\nMiktam<\/span> (kjv<\/span> “Michtam”) is another term that has no clear musical meaning, due mainly to the fact that its etymology is unknown. It occurs in Psalms 16 and 56–60, all of which have a character of lamentation or supplication. In a musical sense, it probably meant that a certain well-known tune was to be selected as the melody of the psalm.<\/p>\nMizmor<\/span> (Hebrew, meaning a song sung to instrumental accompaniment) is found nowhere else in the Bible; it is included in the superscriptions of 57 psalms. It probably indicated a song accompanied by melodic instruments as opposed to a dance song accompanied by rhythmic instruments.<\/p>\nNeginah<\/span> appears in the superscriptions of Psalms 4, 6, 54–55, 61, 67, and 76. The term neginah<\/span> and its plural neginoth<\/span> are found in Psalm 77:7, Lamentations 5:14, Isaiah 38:20, and Habakkuk 3:19. Neginah<\/span>,<\/em> from the Hebrew root naggen<\/span>,<\/em> “to touch the strings,” instructs that stringed instruments accompany the singing.<\/p>\nNehiloth<\/span> is found only in the introduction to Psalm 5 (kjv<\/span>). The origin of the word is problematic. It could come from the verb nahal<\/span>,<\/em> “to possess or inherit,” or more feasibly from halal<\/span>,<\/em> meaning “to pierce.” The latter implies the idea of a pierced instrument (the flute or pipe) to be used for accompaniment.<\/p>\nSheminith<\/span> appears in Psalms 6 and 12 and also in 1 Chronicles 15:21. The Hebrew word means literally “over the eighth.” Some scholars feel it had something to do with an octave, but the Hebrew musical language probably did not include a musical unit divided into eight parts. Other scholars interpret sheminith<\/span> as meaning an eight-stringed instrument. A more logical interpretation comes from examining its use in 1 Chronicles. In 15:20 the instructions are for musicians to play the harps according to alamoth<\/span> and in verse 21 to play the lyres according to sheminith<\/span>.<\/em> Here the terms alamoth<\/span> and sheminith<\/span> seem to be used in opposition. If alamoth<\/span> implies a register of the female voice, then sheminith<\/span> would imply a lower register. Thus, it may have been an instruction to use a lower pitched instrument for accompaniment.<\/p>\n<h5>Psalm Varieties in the Titles<\/h5>\nSome of the notes in the psalm headings are indications of the type or variety of psalm.<\/p>\nHazkir<\/span> is found in the headings of Psalms 38 and 70. According to the Targum, this is an indication that the psalm was sung at the sacrificial rite called askara<\/span> and is translated “for a memorial offering.”<\/p>\nLammed<\/span> appears in the superscription of Psalm 60 in the phrase le-lammed<\/span>,<\/em> translated “to teach.” According to tradition, this was a psalm, though undoubtedly not the only one, taught to young people as part of their education. This is another example of a term that may have been omitted from other psalms in later versions of the Psalter.<\/p>\nShiggaion<\/span> is in the heading of Psalm 7 and also in Habakkuk 3:1. The word probably comes from the Hebrew verb shagah<\/span>,<\/em> “to wander,” but may also be connected with the Assyrian liturgical term shigu<\/span>,<\/em> which represented a plaintive song in several stanzas. Biblical scholars have assumed shiggaion<\/span>,<\/em> plural shigionoth<\/span>,<\/em> was a lament or penitential song.<\/p>\nShir<\/span> is the simplest word for “song” and was probably used in the headings at an early stage of the Psalter; it is usually found with mizmor<\/span> (13 times). Fifteen psalms have this heading. It was probably the term for a specific type of praise song, usually performed by the choir.<\/p>\nShir Hamaalot<\/span> and Shir Lamaalot<\/span> occur in the headings of Psalms 120–134, which are often referred to as the Psalms of Ascent (kjv<\/span> “Psalms of Degrees”). Most explanations offered relate to the fact that the temple was situated on high ground. Often these 15 psalms are associated with the 15 steps leading from the Court of the Women to the Court of the Israelites. But most contemporary scholars believe the idea of “going up” referred to the pilgrims’ journey to Jerusalem to worship at the temple. These psalms are short, with popular appeal, making them appropriate for singing during the journey.<\/p>\nShir Hanukkat Habayit<\/span> is found only in the heading of Psalm 30. This phrase tells that the psalm was to be used for the dedication or rededication of the house of God.<\/p>\nShir-yedidot<\/span> appears only in Psalm 45. It refers to a love song that was probably sung at wedding ceremonies.<\/p>\nTefillah<\/span> is a common term for “prayer” and appears in the headings of Psalms 17, 86, 90, 102, and 142, and also in Habakkuk 3:1. The word probably refers to a specific form of poetic prayer.<\/p>\nSelah<\/span> is one of the most frequently used, but most enigmatic, terms found in the book of Psalms. It occurs in 39 psalms, appearing a total of 71 times in the Psalter—67 times within the text and 4 times at the end of a psalm. It is most frequent in the first three books. In the first book selah<\/span> appears in 9 psalms; in the second book, 17 psalms; in the third book, 11 psalms. In the fourth book it is not found at all and in the fifth book in only two psalms. Thirty-one of these psalms also include the term menazzeah<\/span> in their superscriptions, which implies that they were sung by a soloist and choir. Most commonly, selah<\/span> is interpreted as a signal for a break in the singing and possibly for an instrumental interlude. It never appears at the beginning of a psalm but only in the middle of the text or at the end. The regularity of its appearance within a psalm is not consistent, and in only a few instances do these divisions break the psalm into equal sections. Because of the random placement of the term, some scholars believe that, like the headings, selah<\/span> was not always carefully copied into the text. It may have been a note appearing only in the texts of the musicians, which would explain this inconsistency. An explanation of selah<\/span> is found in the Talmudic tradition: “Ben Azra clashed the cymbal and the Levites broke forth into singing. When they reached a break in the singing they blew upon the trumpets and the people prostrated themselves; at every break there was a blowing of the trumpet and at every blowing of the trumpet a prostration. This was the rite of the daily whole offering in the service of the House of our God.” Selah<\/span>,<\/em> then, would be an instruction for the musicians that the singing was to cease and the instrumentalists were to play.<\/p>\nThe term higgaion selah<\/span> appears once, in Psalm 9:16. The word higgaiaon<\/span> comes from the root hagah<\/span>,<\/em> “to murmur, to growl, to produce a low sound.” This may have been an instruction for the interlude to be more subdued than a normal selah<\/span>.<\/em><\/p>\n<h5>Ancient Melodies in the Titles<\/h5>\nMany psalms contain headings that are not direct musical references but are cue words to suggest well-known tunes. They probably refer either to names or the first words of popular secular songs (<\/em>makams<\/span>)<\/em> whose melodic patterns were used in singing the psalm. Many biblical scholars have tried to find hidden meaning in these headings, but most musicologists believe these are simply references or introductions to melodies.<\/p>\nAijeleth Shahar<\/span>,<\/em> in Psalm 22 (kjv<\/span>), is translated “according to The Hind of the Dawn” (rsv<\/span>), and “To the tune of ‘The Doe of the Morning’ ” (niv<\/span>), “To the tune ‘Doe of the Dawn’ ” (nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nAl-taschith<\/span>,<\/em> in Psalms 57–59 and 75 (kjv<\/span>), is translated “To the tune ‘Do Not Destroy!’ ” (nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nJonath-elem-rechokim<\/span>,<\/em> in Psalm 56 (kjv<\/span>), is translated “according to The Dove on Far-off Terebinths” (rsv<\/span>), and “To the tune ‘Dove on Distant Oaks’ ” (nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nMahalath Leannoth<\/span>,<\/em> in Psalm 88, is translated “To the tune ‘The Suffering of Affliction’ ” (nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nMuthlabben<\/span>,<\/em> in Psalm 9, is translated “To the tune ‘Death of the Son’ ” (nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nShoshannim<\/span>,<\/em> in Psalms 45 and 69 (kjv<\/span>), is translated “To the tune ‘Lilies’ ” (nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nShoshannim-Eduth<\/span>,<\/em> in Psalm 80 (kjv<\/span>), is translated “To the tune ‘Lilies of the Covenant’ ” (nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nShushan-eduth<\/span>,<\/em> in Psalm 60, is translated “To the tune ‘Lily of the Testimony’ ” (nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nThese melody types appear only in the first three books of the Psalter, and this may imply that these popular makams<\/span> had fallen into disuse by the time the final books of the Psalter were written. Other makam<\/span>-types had probably become popular, and the authors, realizing the relatively short life of a popular tune, did not include them in the headings of the Psalms but left the choice up to the performer.<\/p>\nMusic in the New Testament<\/p>\n<h5>First-Century Influences<\/h5>\n<h6>The Synagogue<\/h6>\nBy the time of Christ, the synagogue had become the chief place of worship for the Jewish people. It began as a place for study of the law but gradually became the center of worship for Jews unable to attend the temple. The liturgical service of the temple could not be duplicated in the synagogue as there was no sacrificial rite, and the music could not be exactly reproduced as there were no trained Levitical singers. Scholars do not agree about the amount of continuity between the music of the temple and the music of the synagogue, but there is evidence that certain musical practices did remain constant between the two places of worship.<\/p>\nInformation on the customs and rituals of the synagogue come from Talmudic writings. The musical elements of worship in the synagogue were the chanting of Scripture, psalmody, and spiritual songs. The choral singing of the temple was replaced by a single cantor. The cantor was a layman who, according to tradition, had to have the following qualifications: “He had to be well educated, gifted with a sweet voice, of humble personality, recognized by the community, conversant with Scripture and all the prayers; he must not be a rich man, for his prayers should come from his heart.” His most important job was the cantillation of the Law and the Prophets. A series of accents and punctuations, forerunners of actual musical notation, were indications for the cantor in the musical interpretation of the Scripture.<\/p>\nPsalm singing was gradually transplanted from the temple to the synagogue, which in turn influenced the early Christian church. Gregorian psalm tones have their roots in Hebrew psalmody.<\/p>\n<h6>Greek and Roman Cultures<\/h6>\nWhile both the temple and the synagogue were familiar to the early Christians (Acts 2:46-47; 3:1; 5:42; 9:20; 18:4; etc.), the Greek and Roman cultures also played a major part in shaping the young church. Hellenistic influences by the time of Christ had long been felt in the Middle East, and while it was strongly opposed by some Jewish leaders, the Greek arts had permeated Jewish culture. Greek philosophers considered music a cathartic force that could lead humans into metaphysical knowledge. This understanding led to the belief that music had a moral substance that could influence people to either good or evil. If this philosophy had totally encompassed Judeo-Christian thought, certainly Paul would have encouraged the use of music in the spread of the gospel. However, Paul’s omission of this theory implies that the Judeo-Christian world at that time had rejected the Greek ideal, at least in part.<\/p>\nWhile the Jewish rabbis considered music an art form for the praise of God, and while the Greek philosophers thought of it as a powerful moral force in creation, the Romans considered music mainly as entertainment. The music of the Roman games was neither religious nor philosophic and, from the accounts of witnesses, it was not technically exceptional. In the Roman Empire musicians were given a lower status and looked on as mere entertainers. One reason the early church did not include instrumental music in their worship was in reaction to the debased secular use of instruments by the Romans.<\/p>\n<h5>In the New Testament Writings<\/h5>\nOne of the few mentions of instruments in the NT is the use of flutes at a wake (Mt 9:23). As in the OT, music is associated with feasting and merrymaking (e.g., the return of the prodigal son, Lk 15:25). Five passages mention music metaphorically (Mt 6:2; 11:17; Lk 7:32; 1 Cor 13:1; 14:7-8). The most well known of these is Paul’s celebration of love in 1 Corinthians 13. The denunciation of the gong and cymbals must be understood in light of the attitude of the early Christians toward the music of the Pharisees. Here the signal instruments of the temple were used to represent pompous display of religious pietism.<\/p>\n\nMost references to music are found in the eschatological visions and prophetic passages scattered throughout the NT—most frequently in the book of Revelation (also Mt 24:31; 1 Cor 15:52; 1 Thes 4:16; Heb 12:19). Many of these descriptions have a direct association with musical references in the OT (e.g., the use of harps and trumpets and the singing of the Hallelujah). But the value of many of the passages in Revelation comes from their literary style. These doxological and psalmlike passages were probably spontaneous “spiritual songs” composed by the young church (e.g., Rv 5:9-10).<\/p>\nThe passages that mention religious or liturgical music are often more conceptual than literal. Two parallel passages describing the Last Supper (Mt 26:30; Mk 14:26) mention that Christ and his disciples sang a hymn. This is the only direct account of Jesus singing, but it is probable that when he read in the synagogue he did so in the accepted vocal style (Lk 4:16-20). There is much controversy surrounding the actual events at the Last Supper, but we can assume that the hymn sung was a traditional Jewish hymn, probably associated with the Passover.<\/p>\nFrom the account in Acts 16:25 we know that Paul and Silas sang hymns while in jail. Paul gives instruction for music making in 1 Corinthians 14:15, 26 in terms of a balance between rationalism and emotion. And, as with all the gifts of the Spirit, Paul asks that singing be done for edification.<\/p>\nIn two similar passages (Eph 5:19; Col 3:16) Paul groups together three musical terms—psalms, hymns, and spiritual songs. The singing of psalms was an obvious carryover from the synagogue, and we can assume that the early Christian psalm singing followed the Jewish style. The term for “hymns” probably refers to poetic texts, possibly modeled after the psalms, but in praise of Christ. “Spiritual songs” may refer to a spontaneous, ecstatic form of musical prayer, possibly wordless (perhaps related to glossolalia), in a style that was popular in mystical Judaism. These outbursts of song were probably melismatic (sung on one tone) and are perhaps the forerunners of the later Alleluia chant.<\/p>\n<h5>Hymnody in the New Testament<\/h5>\nIt can be assumed that the early Christians composed hymns in praise of Christ. Logically, most of the hymns found in the NT are based on Hebrew poetic psalm forms, but there is Greek and Latin influence also. The hymns from the Gospel of Luke have become well-known canticles adopted by the church: the Magnificat (Lk 1:46-55), the Benedictus (1:68-79), the Gloria (2:14) and the Nunc Dimittis (2:29-32). While patterned after the psalms of the OT, these hymns are full of confidence in the salvation of Christ and in his imminent return. Other Christological hymns found in the NT include the prologue to the Gospel of John, Ephesians 2:14-16, Philippians 2:6-11, Colossians 1:15-20, 1 Timothy 3:16, Hebrews 1:3, and 1 Peter 3:18-22.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>MUSIC<\/h3>\nA natural human expression that probably began with speech-singing and developed into songs, which were then accompanied by instruments. Music as we know it has become quite complex, a luxury and entertainment; music in antiquity, however, was a functional expression of daily life, work, and worship.<\/p>\nThe phrase “sing to the Lord,” common to the OT (Ex 15:21; 1 Chr 16:9; Pss 68:32; 96:1-2; Is 42:10; Jer 20:13), was not unique to the Jewish nation. All religions draw on the natural human impulse to sing. The injunction “sing to the Lord” was a signal for the people to pour out their praise in song.<\/p>\nThe Bible, however, is limited in its treatment of music in ancient Israel. Since there was no written musical notation, the primary record of songs sung by the Hebrews is the collection of texts, particularly the psalms, and a few enigmatic musical instructions. The biblical writers were writing a history not of their culture but of their relationship with God; hence, their comments about music are not critical. Also, the biblical documents cover a long span of history and are grouped according to category rather than in chronological order, thus making it difficult to order the development of musical style with precision. Finally, there is the problem of understanding the biblical descriptions of music and its performance. Only in this century have scholars been able to interpret the information provided in the Bible in terms of Eastern music systems.<\/p>\nPreview<\/p>\n• Music in the Old Testament<\/p>\n• Music in the Psalms<\/p>\n• Music in the New Testament<\/p>\nMusic in the Old Testament<\/p>\nThe first musician mentioned in the Bible is “Jubal, the first musician—the inventor of the harp and flute” (Gn 4:21, nlt<\/span>). The importance of this description of a musician so early in history lies in the equality Jubal is given with his brothers Jabal, the herdsman, and Tubal-cain, the smith. Music making is recognized among the earliest professions of nomadic peoples. The name Jubal is believed to be a derivative from the Hebrew word for “ram.” The ram’s horn (<\/em>shophar<\/span>)<\/em> was an early instrument of the Jewish people and was significant in signaling important events.<\/p>\nFor the most part, the music described in early biblical history was of a functional nature. Music gained special significance as it became an important part of temple worship. Many of the descriptions of music making in ancient Israel, before David’s time, are quite utilitarian. There are accounts of music at times of farewell (Gn 31:27), at times of rejoicing and feasting (Ex 32:17-18; Is 5:12; 24:8-9), at military victories (2 Chr 20:27-28), and for work (Nm 21:17, the song of the well diggers; Is 16:10; Jer 48:33). Most of this music was probably rather crude and primitive in nature, especially the music associated with military advances, which was meant to terrify the enemy (Jgs 7:17-20). The music and dancing that greeted Moses as he descended from the mountain was described as if it sounded like “war in the camp” (Ex 32:17-18).<\/p>\nIn the early history of the Jewish people, women played an important part in the performance of music. The image of women dancing and singing for joy accompanied by percussion instruments is repeated several times: Miriam led the women in a hymn of thanksgiving after the deliverance from the Red Sea (Ex 15); Jephthah’s daughter welcomed her father in his victory (Jgs 11:34); Deborah joined with Barak in singing a song of victory (Jgs 5); and women hailed David after his defeat of the Philistines (1 Sm 18:6-7). There is little mention of women as musicians following the establishment of the temple in Jerusalem, but there are a few allusions to the fact that women did participate in singing and dancing. The account of the return from exile in Babylon includes both male and female singers (Neh 7:67), confirming that women still took part in musical performance.<\/p>\nAs Jerusalem became the religious center of the Hebrew people (950–850 BC<\/span>), the role of the professional musician became more important. The women’s songs became insignificant compared to the pomp and ceremony associated with the temple and the royal court. While the Levitical singers took most of the musical responsibility at the temple, the development of antiphonal singing allowed the people to join in on responses in the singing of psalms.<\/p>\n<h5>Musical Style and Use<\/h5>\nThe Jewish people seem to have been especially musical. Of course, they were influenced by other ancient cultures, but there is evidence that they were in demand as musicians by other peoples. According to an Assyrian document, King Hezekiah gave as tribute to King Sennacherib many male and female Jewish musicians. The Babylonians demanded that the captive Jews sing to them and entertain them (cf. Ps 137:3).<\/p>\nSince the OT’s purpose was to narrate the relationship between the Jewish nation and God, most of the references to music deal with its function in worship. However, evidence reveals that there was also a large body of secular musical literature. There may have been guilds of poets and singers early in Jewish history. The kinds of songs recorded in the early part of the OT represent a folklike poetry. The song of thanksgiving to the Lord by Moses and the people of Israel after their escape at the Red Sea is a stirring national song. Many descriptions of the biblical writers reflect the spirit of bardic song. This would be logical, as these stories were meant to be passed on. Marching songs (2 Chr 20:27-28), and songs of triumph (Jgs 5) also indicate a secular body of music.<\/p>\n<h5>Music in Worship<\/h5>\nThe singers and musicians for the temple worship were chosen from the tribe of Levi. King David assembled the Levites for a census, and out of the total of 38,000 men over the age of 30, 4,000 were chosen as musicians. These 4,000 were subsequently given specific jobs. “David and the chiefs of the service also set apart for the service certain of the sons of Asaph, and of Heman, and of Jeduthun, who should prophesy with lyres, with harps, and with cymbals. . . . The number of them along with their brethren, who were trained in singing to the Lord<\/span>, all who were skilful, was two hundred and eighty-eight” (1 Chr 25:1, 7, rsv<\/span>). The singers were further divided into 24 groups of 12 singers, who rotated in participating in the weekday, Sabbath, and high holy day services.<\/p>\nAccording to a later source, there were minimum and maximum numbers of singers and instrumentalists required at each service. The minimum number of singers was twelve, the maximum was unlimited. There had to be in attendance at least two harps but no more than six, at least two flutes but no more than twelve, a minimum of two trumpets with no maximum, and a minimum of nine lyres with no maximum. There was only one player with a pair of cymbals.<\/p>\nA singer was admitted to the Levitical choir at the age of thirty following a five-year apprenticeship (1 Chr 23:3). Five years is a relatively short time considering the amount of material these singers had to memorize (for there was no notation) and the liturgical ritual they had to master; it is speculated that they actually were in training from childhood. The Levites lived in villages outside the city wall and may have been actively involved in the musical education of their children (Neh 12:29). The Levites performed other duties connected with the sacred service, but the singers were excused from all other duties because they were on duty day and night (1 Chr 9:33). Their skills were an important part of the temple worship, and they were able to devote their entire life to the development of their musical ability. A singer served in the choir for 20 years, from age 30 to 50, and the music was of a high quality due to strict discipline and continuous practice and performance.<\/p>\nFrom the beginning of Jewish formal worship connected with the tabernacle, music and sound was important. In Exodus 28:34-35 the descriptions of Aaron’s robe include bells attached to the lower hem that sounded as he entered the Holy Place. The first liturgical music mentioned in the OT is found in 2 Samuel 6 in the descriptions of the transfer of the ark: David and the Israelites sang, played instruments, and danced to the glory of the Lord. This music bore little resemblance to the stately ceremony described later in Solomon’s temple. In 2 Chronicles 7:6, David is given recognition for inventing the musical instruments used in the temple. In the postexilic era Levitical singers are mentioned as the descendants of Asaph, the “singing master” appointed by David (Ezr 2:41; Neh 7:44; 11:22-23). From passages such as these, we have a definite indication that liturgical music and organization stemmed from David’s time.<\/p>\nThe ceremonies in the Jewish temple were organized around the sacrifice. Singing formed an integral part of the sacrificial service and was necessary to validate the sacrificial action. There were special musical settings for each sacrifice; thus the daily burnt, expiatory, and laudatory offerings and libations had individual liturgies. Particular psalms became associated with certain sacrifices as well as with certain days of the week. The psalm of the day was intoned as the high priest started to pour out the drink offering. The psalm was divided into three sections, each signaled by the blowing of the trumpets, on which signal the people would prostrate themselves. This is the only time the trumpets were used together with the other instruments in orchestral fashion on solemn occasions (2 Chr 5:12-13).<\/p>\nMusic in the Psalms<\/p>\n<h5>Musical Psalm Titles<\/h5>\nThe collection of 150 lyric poems known as the book of Psalms contains the most information on music making in ancient Israel. The Psalter contains not only religious songs but also songs that have their roots in secular or popular songs, such as work songs, love songs, and wedding songs. The majority are songs of praise, thanksgiving, prayer, and repentance. There are also historic odes that relate great national events—for example, Psalm 30, “a song at the dedication of the temple,” and Psalm 137, which portrays the sufferings of the Jews in captivity.<\/p>\nThe psalms were an important part of all the services of the temple; the Psalter became the liturgical hymnal of the Israelites. Worship included an appointed psalm for each day of the week. On the first day of the week, Psalm 24 was sung in remembrance of the first day of creation, Psalm 48 was sung on the second day, Psalm 82 on the third, Psalm 94 on the fourth, Psalm 81 on the fifth, Psalm 93 on the sixth, and Psalm 92 on the Sabbath. After the sacrificial offerings, Psalm 105:1-5 was sung at the morning service and Psalm 96 at the evening service. The Hallel psalms (Pss 113–118, 120–136, 146–148) were sung during the offering of the paschal lamb at the Passover feast.<\/p>\nWhile most of the liturgical music was performed by Levites, texts of the psalms suggest that there was also congregational participation. The forms of music found both in synagogal and ecclesiastical chant had their source in the forms of the poetic text of the psalms. The simplest is the plain psalmody sung by one person (e.g., Pss 3–5, 46). In responsorial psalmody the soloist is answered by the choir (e.g., Ps 67:1-2; the soloist sang verse 1 and the choir answered with verse 2). Antiphonal psalmody involves two groups singing alternately (e.g., Ps 103:20-22). The congregation would chant a refrain such as appears in Psalm 80: “Restore us, O God; let thy face shine, that we may be saved!” recurs throughout the psalm (rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\nEven though the synagogue had no altar for sacrifice, psalm singing retained an important place. After the Romans destroyed the temple, the worship heritage of the Jews could have been lost if the customs, including musical customs, had not become an integral part of synagogue worship.<\/p>\nThe most enigmatic part of the psalms is the headings that are not part of the poetic text. The first question is whether these should even be considered as superscripts. Greek, Latin, Hebrew, and other ancient languages were written in such a way that the text ran together without any break between chapters or paragraphs. This means that the verses, and even the division of the psalms themselves, were partially determined by copyists, chiefly the Masoretes. There is some question as to which psalms the extrapoetic texts actually belong with; they may actually be subscripts instead of superscripts. Sumerian and Babylonian poetry had information such as the name of the author, the musical instrument used for accompaniment, the tune, the purpose, and such listed at the end of the poem. Hence, some of the headings may actually be endings.<\/p>\nThe indications at the beginning of a psalm fall into three categories. They are either musical terms giving direction for the actual performance, musical cues designating the tune to which the psalm would be sung, or comments indicating the function of the psalm. These terms have been interpreted in various ways.<\/p>\nOriginally, these headings may have been marginal notes for the choir leaders. Realizing that these terms were not related to the psalm text proper, early biblical scribes may not have been overly careful with their placement in the text, which may explain some of the discrepancies among the early manuscripts—why certain words are left out in some and why terms assigned to only a few psalms may originally have been indicated on more of them.<\/p>\nAll but 50 of the psalms contain a proper name in the heading. These names possibly indicate the author; other commentators, interpreting the preposition appearing before the names to mean “for,” think the names are a dedication. Thus the title would be “A Psalm for David,” not “A Psalm of David.” This may be the case with the names of Asaph, Heman, Ethan, and especially the sons of Korah, where it would make better sense for the psalm to be written for rather than by the family. Seventy-three psalms have David’s name in the heading, hence the common reference to the Psalter as the Psalms of David. Twelve include the name of Asaph, eleven the children of Korah, two Solomon, and one each contains Moses, Heman, and Ethan.<\/p>\n<h5>Musical Terms in the Psalm Titles<\/h5>\nNumerous musical terms are included in the superscriptions to cue the kind of instrumental accompaniment, mood, and style of performance for the psalm.<\/p>\nAlamoth<\/span> is one of the most controversial terms found in the psalm headings. It appears at the beginning of Psalm 46 and also in 1 Chronicles 15:20. One meaning for the Hebrew word is “maiden,” and musicologists interpret this as an instruction that the psalm should be sung in the range of the female singing voice. The reference in Chronicles is to harps in the range of women’s voices. This interpretation does not seem to fit Psalm 46, but if we look at the preceding psalm and read the term as a subscript, it becomes logical. Psalm 45 is a song of love, actually a nuptial ode; it would be natural for women to sing the second half (vv 10-17). While there is little mention of women singing in the temple, there is speculation that young boys in training may have sung along with the Levitical singers. Also this may be a case where the term appears only once in the modern text but may have been used more often in the original. Another possible meaning for Alamoth<\/span> is “flutes,” perhaps describing the kind of musical accompaniment for the performance of the psalm.<\/p>\nGittith<\/span> is a term found in the superscriptions of Psalms 8, 81, and 84. It may be a musical cue, indicating a mood for the performance of these psalms, but a more common explanation is that it is a collective term for the stringed instruments that would have accompanied them.<\/p>\nMahalath<\/span> has been left in its original Hebrew form by early translators and is found in the headings of Psalms 53 and 88. It may have roots in the Hebrew mahaleh<\/span> “sickness” or mahot<\/span> “dance,” though neither of these words can be related to the psalm texts. Another explanation is a musical one. Mahalath<\/span> may come from the word halal<\/span> meaning “to pierce,” implying that the psalm was to be accompanied with pipes.<\/p>\nMaskil<\/span> (kjv<\/span> “Maschil”) appears in the headings of 13 psalms (Pss 32, 42, 44–45, 52–55, 74, 78, 88–89, 142). The term is probably derived from the verb sakal<\/span>,<\/em> “to have insight or comprehension,” but there is no agreement among commentators. By looking at the psalms themselves, their didactic nature and the structure of stanzas and refrains, musicologists conclude the term represents a song of praise, possibly sung by a soloist with participation by the choir.<\/p>\nMenazzeah<\/span> appears in the heading of 55 psalms. It appears 52 times in the first three books of Psalms (Pss 1–89), not at all in book four (Pss 90–106), and 3 times in book five (Pss 107–150). The most common modern translations are “to the Choirmaster” (rsv<\/span>), “to the choir director” (nasb<\/span>, nlt<\/span>), “to the director of music” (niv<\/span>), “to the chief Musician” (kjv<\/span>, nkjv<\/span>). The word is derived from the Hebrew verb nazzah<\/span>,<\/em> appearing in 1 Chronicles 23:4 and Ezra 3:8-9 in the sense of “administering.” In 1 Chronicles 15:21 the word is found in relation to leading or directing song in the temple. Menazzeah<\/span> relates to the choirmaster and represents the singer chosen to lead the music who probably was involved in rehearsing and instructing. It is now assumed that menazzeah<\/span> indicates the psalm was to be sung partially or entirely by a soloist. This is evidenced by the change in some texts from “I” where the soloist sang, to “we” where the choir or congregation sang. Psalm 5 is an example of a text divided for solo and choral singing: verses 1-3 solo; verses 4-6 choral; verses 7-8 solo; verses 9-10 choral; and verses 11-12 end the psalm with the combined soloist and choir.<\/p>\nMiktam<\/span> (kjv<\/span> “Michtam”) is another term that has no clear musical meaning, due mainly to the fact that its etymology is unknown. It occurs in Psalms 16 and 56–60, all of which have a character of lamentation or supplication. In a musical sense, it probably meant that a certain well-known tune was to be selected as the melody of the psalm.<\/p>\nMizmor<\/span> (Hebrew, meaning a song sung to instrumental accompaniment) is found nowhere else in the Bible; it is included in the superscriptions of 57 psalms. It probably indicated a song accompanied by melodic instruments as opposed to a dance song accompanied by rhythmic instruments.<\/p>\nNeginah<\/span> appears in the superscriptions of Psalms 4, 6, 54–55, 61, 67, and 76. The term neginah<\/span> and its plural neginoth<\/span> are found in Psalm 77:7, Lamentations 5:14, Isaiah 38:20, and Habakkuk 3:19. Neginah<\/span>,<\/em> from the Hebrew root naggen<\/span>,<\/em> “to touch the strings,” instructs that stringed instruments accompany the singing.<\/p>\nNehiloth<\/span> is found only in the introduction to Psalm 5 (kjv<\/span>). The origin of the word is problematic. It could come from the verb nahal<\/span>,<\/em> “to possess or inherit,” or more feasibly from halal<\/span>,<\/em> meaning “to pierce.” The latter implies the idea of a pierced instrument (the flute or pipe) to be used for accompaniment.<\/p>\nSheminith<\/span> appears in Psalms 6 and 12 and also in 1 Chronicles 15:21. The Hebrew word means literally “over the eighth.” Some scholars feel it had something to do with an octave, but the Hebrew musical language probably did not include a musical unit divided into eight parts. Other scholars interpret sheminith<\/span> as meaning an eight-stringed instrument. A more logical interpretation comes from examining its use in 1 Chronicles. In 15:20 the instructions are for musicians to play the harps according to alamoth<\/span> and in verse 21 to play the lyres according to sheminith<\/span>.<\/em> Here the terms alamoth<\/span> and sheminith<\/span> seem to be used in opposition. If alamoth<\/span> implies a register of the female voice, then sheminith<\/span> would imply a lower register. Thus, it may have been an instruction to use a lower pitched instrument for accompaniment.<\/p>\n<h5>Psalm Varieties in the Titles<\/h5>\nSome of the notes in the psalm headings are indications of the type or variety of psalm.<\/p>\nHazkir<\/span> is found in the headings of Psalms 38 and 70. According to the Targum, this is an indication that the psalm was sung at the sacrificial rite called askara<\/span> and is translated “for a memorial offering.”<\/p>\nLammed<\/span> appears in the superscription of Psalm 60 in the phrase le-lammed<\/span>,<\/em> translated “to teach.” According to tradition, this was a psalm, though undoubtedly not the only one, taught to young people as part of their education. This is another example of a term that may have been omitted from other psalms in later versions of the Psalter.<\/p>\nShiggaion<\/span> is in the heading of Psalm 7 and also in Habakkuk 3:1. The word probably comes from the Hebrew verb shagah<\/span>,<\/em> “to wander,” but may also be connected with the Assyrian liturgical term shigu<\/span>,<\/em> which represented a plaintive song in several stanzas. Biblical scholars have assumed shiggaion<\/span>,<\/em> plural shigionoth<\/span>,<\/em> was a lament or penitential song.<\/p>\nShir<\/span> is the simplest word for “song” and was probably used in the headings at an early stage of the Psalter; it is usually found with mizmor<\/span> (13 times). Fifteen psalms have this heading. It was probably the term for a specific type of praise song, usually performed by the choir.<\/p>\nShir Hamaalot<\/span> and Shir Lamaalot<\/span> occur in the headings of Psalms 120–134, which are often referred to as the Psalms of Ascent (kjv<\/span> “Psalms of Degrees”). Most explanations offered relate to the fact that the temple was situated on high ground. Often these 15 psalms are associated with the 15 steps leading from the Court of the Women to the Court of the Israelites. But most contemporary scholars believe the idea of “going up” referred to the pilgrims’ journey to Jerusalem to worship at the temple. These psalms are short, with popular appeal, making them appropriate for singing during the journey.<\/p>\nShir Hanukkat Habayit<\/span> is found only in the heading of Psalm 30. This phrase tells that the psalm was to be used for the dedication or rededication of the house of God.<\/p>\nShir-yedidot<\/span> appears only in Psalm 45. It refers to a love song that was probably sung at wedding ceremonies.<\/p>\nTefillah<\/span> is a common term for “prayer” and appears in the headings of Psalms 17, 86, 90, 102, and 142, and also in Habakkuk 3:1. The word probably refers to a specific form of poetic prayer.<\/p>\nSelah<\/span> is one of the most frequently used, but most enigmatic, terms found in the book of Psalms. It occurs in 39 psalms, appearing a total of 71 times in the Psalter—67 times within the text and 4 times at the end of a psalm. It is most frequent in the first three books. In the first book selah<\/span> appears in 9 psalms; in the second book, 17 psalms; in the third book, 11 psalms. In the fourth book it is not found at all and in the fifth book in only two psalms. Thirty-one of these psalms also include the term menazzeah<\/span> in their superscriptions, which implies that they were sung by a soloist and choir. Most commonly, selah<\/span> is interpreted as a signal for a break in the singing and possibly for an instrumental interlude. It never appears at the beginning of a psalm but only in the middle of the text or at the end. The regularity of its appearance within a psalm is not consistent, and in only a few instances do these divisions break the psalm into equal sections. Because of the random placement of the term, some scholars believe that, like the headings, selah<\/span> was not always carefully copied into the text. It may have been a note appearing only in the texts of the musicians, which would explain this inconsistency. An explanation of selah<\/span> is found in the Talmudic tradition: “Ben Azra clashed the cymbal and the Levites broke forth into singing. When they reached a break in the singing they blew upon the trumpets and the people prostrated themselves; at every break there was a blowing of the trumpet and at every blowing of the trumpet a prostration. This was the rite of the daily whole offering in the service of the House of our God.” Selah<\/span>,<\/em> then, would be an instruction for the musicians that the singing was to cease and the instrumentalists were to play.<\/p>\nThe term higgaion selah<\/span> appears once, in Psalm 9:16. The word higgaiaon<\/span> comes from the root hagah<\/span>,<\/em> “to murmur, to growl, to produce a low sound.” This may have been an instruction for the interlude to be more subdued than a normal selah<\/span>.<\/em><\/p>\n<h5>Ancient Melodies in the Titles<\/h5>\nMany psalms contain headings that are not direct musical references but are cue words to suggest well-known tunes. They probably refer either to names or the first words of popular secular songs (<\/em>makams<\/span>)<\/em> whose melodic patterns were used in singing the psalm. Many biblical scholars have tried to find hidden meaning in these headings, but most musicologists believe these are simply references or introductions to melodies.<\/p>\nAijeleth Shahar<\/span>,<\/em> in Psalm 22 (kjv<\/span>), is translated “according to The Hind of the Dawn” (rsv<\/span>), and “To the tune of ‘The Doe of the Morning’ ” (niv<\/span>), “To the tune ‘Doe of the Dawn’ ” (nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nAl-taschith<\/span>,<\/em> in Psalms 57–59 and 75 (kjv<\/span>), is translated “To the tune ‘Do Not Destroy!’ ” (nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nJonath-elem-rechokim<\/span>,<\/em> in Psalm 56 (kjv<\/span>), is translated “according to The Dove on Far-off Terebinths” (rsv<\/span>), and “To the tune ‘Dove on Distant Oaks’ ” (nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nMahalath Leannoth<\/span>,<\/em> in Psalm 88, is translated “To the tune ‘The Suffering of Affliction’ ” (nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nMuthlabben<\/span>,<\/em> in Psalm 9, is translated “To the tune ‘Death of the Son’ ” (nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nShoshannim<\/span>,<\/em> in Psalms 45 and 69 (kjv<\/span>), is translated “To the tune ‘Lilies’ ” (nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nShoshannim-Eduth<\/span>,<\/em> in Psalm 80 (kjv<\/span>), is translated “To the tune ‘Lilies of the Covenant’ ” (nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nShushan-eduth<\/span>,<\/em> in Psalm 60, is translated “To the tune ‘Lily of the Testimony’ ” (nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nThese melody types appear only in the first three books of the Psalter, and this may imply that these popular makams<\/span> had fallen into disuse by the time the final books of the Psalter were written. Other makam<\/span>-types had probably become popular, and the authors, realizing the relatively short life of a popular tune, did not include them in the headings of the Psalms but left the choice up to the performer.<\/p>\nMusic in the New Testament<\/p>\n<h5>First-Century Influences<\/h5>\n<h6>The Synagogue<\/h6>\nBy the time of Christ, the synagogue had become the chief place of worship for the Jewish people. It began as a place for study of the law but gradually became the center of worship for Jews unable to attend the temple. The liturgical service of the temple could not be duplicated in the synagogue as there was no sacrificial rite, and the music could not be exactly reproduced as there were no trained Levitical singers. Scholars do not agree about the amount of continuity between the music of the temple and the music of the synagogue, but there is evidence that certain musical practices did remain constant between the two places of worship.<\/p>\nInformation on the customs and rituals of the synagogue come from Talmudic writings. The musical elements of worship in the synagogue were the chanting of Scripture, psalmody, and spiritual songs. The choral singing of the temple was replaced by a single cantor. The cantor was a layman who, according to tradition, had to have the following qualifications: “He had to be well educated, gifted with a sweet voice, of humble personality, recognized by the community, conversant with Scripture and all the prayers; he must not be a rich man, for his prayers should come from his heart.” His most important job was the cantillation of the Law and the Prophets. A series of accents and punctuations, forerunners of actual musical notation, were indications for the cantor in the musical interpretation of the Scripture.<\/p>\nPsalm singing was gradually transplanted from the temple to the synagogue, which in turn influenced the early Christian church. Gregorian psalm tones have their roots in Hebrew psalmody.<\/p>\n<h6>Greek and Roman Cultures<\/h6>\nWhile both the temple and the synagogue were familiar to the early Christians (Acts 2:46-47; 3:1; 5:42; 9:20; 18:4; etc.), the Greek and Roman cultures also played a major part in shaping the young church. Hellenistic influences by the time of Christ had long been felt in the Middle East, and while it was strongly opposed by some Jewish leaders, the Greek arts had permeated Jewish culture. Greek philosophers considered music a cathartic force that could lead humans into metaphysical knowledge. This understanding led to the belief that music had a moral substance that could influence people to either good or evil. If this philosophy had totally encompassed Judeo-Christian thought, certainly Paul would have encouraged the use of music in the spread of the gospel. However, Paul’s omission of this theory implies that the Judeo-Christian world at that time had rejected the Greek ideal, at least in part.<\/p>\nWhile the Jewish rabbis considered music an art form for the praise of God, and while the Greek philosophers thought of it as a powerful moral force in creation, the Romans considered music mainly as entertainment. The music of the Roman games was neither religious nor philosophic and, from the accounts of witnesses, it was not technically exceptional. In the Roman Empire musicians were given a lower status and looked on as mere entertainers. One reason the early church did not include instrumental music in their worship was in reaction to the debased secular use of instruments by the Romans.<\/p>\n<h5>In the New Testament Writings<\/h5>\nOne of the few mentions of instruments in the NT is the use of flutes at a wake (Mt 9:23). As in the OT, music is associated with feasting and merrymaking (e.g., the return of the prodigal son, Lk 15:25). Five passages mention music metaphorically (Mt 6:2; 11:17; Lk 7:32; 1 Cor 13:1; 14:7-8). The most well known of these is Paul’s celebration of love in 1 Corinthians 13. The denunciation of the gong and cymbals must be understood in light of the attitude of the early Christians toward the music of the Pharisees. Here the signal instruments of the temple were used to represent pompous display of religious pietism.<\/p>\n\nMost references to music are found in the eschatological visions and prophetic passages scattered throughout the NT—most frequently in the book of Revelation (also Mt 24:31; 1 Cor 15:52; 1 Thes 4:16; Heb 12:19). Many of these descriptions have a direct association with musical references in the OT (e.g., the use of harps and trumpets and the singing of the Hallelujah). But the value of many of the passages in Revelation comes from their literary style. These doxological and psalmlike passages were probably spontaneous “spiritual songs” composed by the young church (e.g., Rv 5:9-10).<\/p>\nThe passages that mention religious or liturgical music are often more conceptual than literal. Two parallel passages describing the Last Supper (Mt 26:30; Mk 14:26) mention that Christ and his disciples sang a hymn. This is the only direct account of Jesus singing, but it is probable that when he read in the synagogue he did so in the accepted vocal style (Lk 4:16-20). There is much controversy surrounding the actual events at the Last Supper, but we can assume that the hymn sung was a traditional Jewish hymn, probably associated with the Passover.<\/p>\nFrom the account in Acts 16:25 we know that Paul and Silas sang hymns while in jail. Paul gives instruction for music making in 1 Corinthians 14:15, 26 in terms of a balance between rationalism and emotion. And, as with all the gifts of the Spirit, Paul asks that singing be done for edification.<\/p>\nIn two similar passages (Eph 5:19; Col 3:16) Paul groups together three musical terms—psalms, hymns, and spiritual songs. The singing of psalms was an obvious carryover from the synagogue, and we can assume that the early Christian psalm singing followed the Jewish style. The term for “hymns” probably refers to poetic texts, possibly modeled after the psalms, but in praise of Christ. “Spiritual songs” may refer to a spontaneous, ecstatic form of musical prayer, possibly wordless (perhaps related to glossolalia), in a style that was popular in mystical Judaism. These outbursts of song were probably melismatic (sung on one tone) and are perhaps the forerunners of the later Alleluia chant.<\/p>\n<h5>Hymnody in the New Testament<\/h5>\nIt can be assumed that the early Christians composed hymns in praise of Christ. Logically, most of the hymns found in the NT are based on Hebrew poetic psalm forms, but there is Greek and Latin influence also. The hymns from the Gospel of Luke have become well-known canticles adopted by the church: the Magnificat (Lk 1:46-55), the Benedictus (1:68-79), the Gloria (2:14) and the Nunc Dimittis (2:29-32). While patterned after the psalms of the OT, these hymns are full of confidence in the salvation of Christ and in his imminent return. Other Christological hymns found in the NT include the prologue to the Gospel of John, Ephesians 2:14-16, Philippians 2:6-11, Colossians 1:15-20, 1 Timothy 3:16, Hebrews 1:3, and 1 Peter 3:18-22.<\/p>","summary_ro":"MUSIC A natural human expression that probably began with speech-singing and developed into songs, which were then accompanied by instruments. Music as we know it has become quite complex, a luxury and entertainment; music in antiquity, however, was a functional expression of daily life, work, and worship. The phrase “sing to the Lord,” common to the OT (Ex 15:21; 1 Chr 16:9; Pss 68:32; 96:1-2; Is 42:10; Jer 20:13), was not unique to the Jewish nation. All religions draw on the natural human ...","summary_en":"MUSIC A natural human expression that probably began with speech-singing and developed into songs, which were then accompanied by instruments. Music as we know it has become quite complex, a luxury and entertainment; music in antiquity, however, was a functional expression of daily life, work, and worship. The phrase “sing to the Lord,” common to the OT (Ex 15:21; 1 Chr 16:9; Pss 68:32; 96:1-2; Is 42:10; Jer 20:13), was not unique to the Jewish nation. All religions draw on the natural human ...","source":"Articles\/M.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":27402,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"New","title_en":"New","content_ro":"<h3>NEW<\/h3>\nThat which has just been made or come into existence—often replacing that which already existed, thereby turning the old into new.<\/p>\nThat the second part of the Bible is called the New<\/em> Testament indicates how fundamental the idea of “new” is to biblical revelation. Many key theological expressions incorporate the idea: new creation (2 Cor 5:17), new birth (Jn 3:3), new man (Eph 2:15; Col 3:10), new commandment (Jn 13:34), new covenant (Jer 31:31), new life (Rom 6:4), and various others.<\/p>\nThe Expectation of the New<\/p>\nThe totality of the expectation of the new<\/em> is best expressed in Jeremiah and Ezekiel and in the reference in the Psalter to the “new song” to be given to the people to sing (e.g., Pss 33:3; 40:3; 149:1; cf., also Is 42:10). Jeremiah speaks of the day when God will make a new covenant with the house of Israel (Jer 31:31-34; cf. Ez 34:25-31; 37:26-28). In contrast with the old, this new covenant will be written upon the heart—that is, it will be internalized. Similarly Ezekiel (Ez 36:22-32) tells of the day when God, as an expression of his own holiness, will cleanse his people and will give a heart of flesh in place of the heart of stone. This will usher in the age of the Spirit and will bring about a new existence, characterized by security and freedom, in which the laws of God are carried out. The supreme feature of this new time is the new spirit within them (Ez 11:19). Joel speaks also of that day when the Spirit of God will be poured out on all flesh (Jl 2:28). Isaiah 65:17 states the promise of “new heavens and a new earth,” words that often reflect national circumstances and hopes (for example, after the exile). However, they came to take on new eschatological significance beyond the hope of the nation Israel.<\/p>\nThe Coming of the New<\/p>\nThe central proclamation of the presence of the kingdom in the world through Jesus is a declaration that the promised new age has broken into time in powerful ways. Jesus’ ministry is one of fulfillment; what has been promised by prophets has begun to take place. John the Baptist had prepared the way for the one who would bestow the promised Spirit. The giving of this Spirit is the giving of new life. Through faith in Christ, one is born anew (Jn 3:3-7). But Jesus had to die in order for this new life to be given. At the Last Supper the cup of wine Jesus shared with his disciples symbolized the blood of the new covenant (Mk 14:24).<\/p>\nThe early church expressed this significance in varying metaphors. This “newness of life” is expressed sacramentally through baptism (Rom 6:4). The eucharistic cup is the new covenant through blood (1 Cor 11:25). An extended discourse on the old and new covenants shows that by the shedding of his blood Christ has become mediator of a new covenant (Heb 9:15); by his blood he has opened up a new and living way into the Holy Place (10:19-20). Paul restates the promise of Ezekiel for a heart of flesh (2 Cor 3:3), after which he gives an account of the ministry of the new covenant in contrast to the old. The church represents the appearance of the new age in the domain of the old.<\/p>\nThe one who comes to Christ by faith is declared a new person, a new creation, for whom the old has passed away (2 Cor 5:17; Gal 6:15). Jewish-Gentile hostility disappears in the resulting “new humanity” (Eph 2:15). All other social distinctions (such as male-female, slave-free) pass away in the new humanity created afresh in Christ Jesus (Col 3:10-11).<\/p>\nThe newness of a person in Christ is the foundation for NT ethics (Eph 4:24; Col 3:12). The new commandment (Jn 13:34; 1 Jn 2:8) is not really new (1 Jn 2:7), but now has new possibility and dimension by virtue of the power and pattern of Jesus. Though this new life is a gift of God, the process<\/em> of being made new continues. Transformation by the renewing of the mind (Rom 12:2) brings realization of the will of God. Paul declares the inner man being renewed day by day (2 Cor 4:16).<\/p>\nThe Realization of the New<\/p>\nAs real as the new life of the believer may be, Scripture recognizes a tension between the new age that has come in history but is not yet fully realized. There is a projection to that time when all things are made new (Rv 21:5). With the end of the old, there is a new heaven and new earth. The new Jerusalem (v 2) “descends” as the dwelling place of God. The people of God receive a new name (3:12) as the former things pass away. To the redeemed of the Lord, a new song is given, the song of the Lamb slain from the very foundation of creation: “Worthy is the Lamb who was slain, to receive power and wealth and wisdom and might and honor and glory and blessing!” The antiphonal song returns, “To him who sits upon the throne and to the Lamb be blessing and honor and glory and might for ever and ever!” (5:12-13, rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Commandment, The New; Covenant, The New; Jerusalem, New; Man, Old and New; New Creation, New Creature; New Heavens and New Earth; Regeneration.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>NEW<\/h3>\nThat which has just been made or come into existence—often replacing that which already existed, thereby turning the old into new.<\/p>\nThat the second part of the Bible is called the New<\/em> Testament indicates how fundamental the idea of “new” is to biblical revelation. Many key theological expressions incorporate the idea: new creation (2 Cor 5:17), new birth (Jn 3:3), new man (Eph 2:15; Col 3:10), new commandment (Jn 13:34), new covenant (Jer 31:31), new life (Rom 6:4), and various others.<\/p>\nThe Expectation of the New<\/p>\nThe totality of the expectation of the new<\/em> is best expressed in Jeremiah and Ezekiel and in the reference in the Psalter to the “new song” to be given to the people to sing (e.g., Pss 33:3; 40:3; 149:1; cf., also Is 42:10). Jeremiah speaks of the day when God will make a new covenant with the house of Israel (Jer 31:31-34; cf. Ez 34:25-31; 37:26-28). In contrast with the old, this new covenant will be written upon the heart—that is, it will be internalized. Similarly Ezekiel (Ez 36:22-32) tells of the day when God, as an expression of his own holiness, will cleanse his people and will give a heart of flesh in place of the heart of stone. This will usher in the age of the Spirit and will bring about a new existence, characterized by security and freedom, in which the laws of God are carried out. The supreme feature of this new time is the new spirit within them (Ez 11:19). Joel speaks also of that day when the Spirit of God will be poured out on all flesh (Jl 2:28). Isaiah 65:17 states the promise of “new heavens and a new earth,” words that often reflect national circumstances and hopes (for example, after the exile). However, they came to take on new eschatological significance beyond the hope of the nation Israel.<\/p>\nThe Coming of the New<\/p>\nThe central proclamation of the presence of the kingdom in the world through Jesus is a declaration that the promised new age has broken into time in powerful ways. Jesus’ ministry is one of fulfillment; what has been promised by prophets has begun to take place. John the Baptist had prepared the way for the one who would bestow the promised Spirit. The giving of this Spirit is the giving of new life. Through faith in Christ, one is born anew (Jn 3:3-7). But Jesus had to die in order for this new life to be given. At the Last Supper the cup of wine Jesus shared with his disciples symbolized the blood of the new covenant (Mk 14:24).<\/p>\nThe early church expressed this significance in varying metaphors. This “newness of life” is expressed sacramentally through baptism (Rom 6:4). The eucharistic cup is the new covenant through blood (1 Cor 11:25). An extended discourse on the old and new covenants shows that by the shedding of his blood Christ has become mediator of a new covenant (Heb 9:15); by his blood he has opened up a new and living way into the Holy Place (10:19-20). Paul restates the promise of Ezekiel for a heart of flesh (2 Cor 3:3), after which he gives an account of the ministry of the new covenant in contrast to the old. The church represents the appearance of the new age in the domain of the old.<\/p>\nThe one who comes to Christ by faith is declared a new person, a new creation, for whom the old has passed away (2 Cor 5:17; Gal 6:15). Jewish-Gentile hostility disappears in the resulting “new humanity” (Eph 2:15). All other social distinctions (such as male-female, slave-free) pass away in the new humanity created afresh in Christ Jesus (Col 3:10-11).<\/p>\nThe newness of a person in Christ is the foundation for NT ethics (Eph 4:24; Col 3:12). The new commandment (Jn 13:34; 1 Jn 2:8) is not really new (1 Jn 2:7), but now has new possibility and dimension by virtue of the power and pattern of Jesus. Though this new life is a gift of God, the process<\/em> of being made new continues. Transformation by the renewing of the mind (Rom 12:2) brings realization of the will of God. Paul declares the inner man being renewed day by day (2 Cor 4:16).<\/p>\nThe Realization of the New<\/p>\nAs real as the new life of the believer may be, Scripture recognizes a tension between the new age that has come in history but is not yet fully realized. There is a projection to that time when all things are made new (Rv 21:5). With the end of the old, there is a new heaven and new earth. The new Jerusalem (v 2) “descends” as the dwelling place of God. The people of God receive a new name (3:12) as the former things pass away. To the redeemed of the Lord, a new song is given, the song of the Lamb slain from the very foundation of creation: “Worthy is the Lamb who was slain, to receive power and wealth and wisdom and might and honor and glory and blessing!” The antiphonal song returns, “To him who sits upon the throne and to the Lamb be blessing and honor and glory and might for ever and ever!” (5:12-13, rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Commandment, The New; Covenant, The New; Jerusalem, New; Man, Old and New; New Creation, New Creature; New Heavens and New Earth; Regeneration.<\/p>","summary_ro":"NEW That which has just been made or come into existence—often replacing that which already existed, thereby turning the old into new. That the second part of the Bible is called the New Testament indicates how fundamental the idea of “new” is to biblical revelation. Many key theological expressions incorporate the idea: new creation (2 Cor 5:17), new birth (Jn 3:3), new man (Eph 2:15; Col 3:10), new commandment (Jn 13:34), new covenant (Jer 31:31), new life (Rom 6:4), and various others. The...","summary_en":"NEW That which has just been made or come into existence—often replacing that which already existed, thereby turning the old into new. That the second part of the Bible is called the New Testament indicates how fundamental the idea of “new” is to biblical revelation. Many key theological expressions incorporate the idea: new creation (2 Cor 5:17), new birth (Jn 3:3), new man (Eph 2:15; Col 3:10), new commandment (Jn 13:34), new covenant (Jer 31:31), new life (Rom 6:4), and various others. The...","source":"Articles\/N.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":51662,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 42:10","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 42:10","content_ro":"42:10-11<\/strong> The various geographical regions represent the extremes of human habitation. The whole earth is called to praise God for his commitment to redeem humanity. • Kedar<\/em> and Sela<\/em> (42:11; see also 16:1; 21:16-17) were representative desert sites.<\/p>","content_en":"42:10-11<\/strong> The various geographical regions represent the extremes of human habitation. The whole earth is called to praise God for his commitment to redeem humanity. • Kedar<\/em> and Sela<\/em> (42:11; see also 16:1; 21:16-17) were representative desert sites.<\/p>","summary_ro":"42:10-11 The various geographical regions represent the extremes of human habitation. The whole earth is called to praise God for his commitment to redeem humanity. • Kedar and Sela (42:11; see also 16:1; 21:16-17) were representative desert sites.","summary_en":"42:10-11 The various geographical regions represent the extremes of human habitation. The whole earth is called to praise God for his commitment to redeem humanity. • Kedar and Sela (42:11; see also 16:1; 21:16-17) were representative desert sites.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":79288,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 42:10","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 42:10","content_ro":"42:10-11<\/strong> The various geographical regions represent the extremes of human habitation. The whole earth is called to praise God for his commitment to redeem humanity. • Kedar<\/em> and Sela<\/em> (42:11; see also 16:1; 21:16-17) were representative desert sites.<\/p>","content_en":"42:10-11<\/strong> The various geographical regions represent the extremes of human habitation. The whole earth is called to praise God for his commitment to redeem humanity. • Kedar<\/em> and Sela<\/em> (42:11; see also 16:1; 21:16-17) were representative desert sites.<\/p>","summary_ro":"42:10-11 The various geographical regions represent the extremes of human habitation. The whole earth is called to praise God for his commitment to redeem humanity. • Kedar and Sela (42:11; see also 16:1; 21:16-17) were representative desert sites.","summary_en":"42:10-11 The various geographical regions represent the extremes of human habitation. The whole earth is called to praise God for his commitment to redeem humanity. • Kedar and Sela (42:11; see also 16:1; 21:16-17) were representative desert sites.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":106914,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 42:10","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 42:10","content_ro":"42:10-11<\/strong> The various geographical regions represent the extremes of human habitation. The whole earth is called to praise God for his commitment to redeem humanity. • Kedar<\/em> and Sela<\/em> (42:11; see also 16:1; 21:16-17) were representative desert sites.<\/p>","content_en":"42:10-11<\/strong> The various geographical regions represent the extremes of human habitation. The whole earth is called to praise God for his commitment to redeem humanity. • Kedar<\/em> and Sela<\/em> (42:11; see also 16:1; 21:16-17) were representative desert sites.<\/p>","summary_ro":"42:10-11 The various geographical regions represent the extremes of human habitation. The whole earth is called to praise God for his commitment to redeem humanity. • Kedar and Sela (42:11; see also 16:1; 21:16-17) were representative desert sites.","summary_en":"42:10-11 The various geographical regions represent the extremes of human habitation. The whole earth is called to praise God for his commitment to redeem humanity. • Kedar and Sela (42:11; see also 16:1; 21:16-17) were representative desert sites.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":134540,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 42:10","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 42:10","content_ro":"42:10-11<\/strong> The various geographical regions represent the extremes of human habitation. The whole earth is called to praise God for his commitment to redeem humanity. • Kedar<\/em> and Sela<\/em> (42:11; see also 16:1; 21:16-17) were representative desert sites.<\/p>","content_en":"42:10-11<\/strong> The various geographical regions represent the extremes of human habitation. The whole earth is called to praise God for his commitment to redeem humanity. • Kedar<\/em> and Sela<\/em> (42:11; see also 16:1; 21:16-17) were representative desert sites.<\/p>","summary_ro":"42:10-11 The various geographical regions represent the extremes of human habitation. The whole earth is called to praise God for his commitment to redeem humanity. • Kedar and Sela (42:11; see also 16:1; 21:16-17) were representative desert sites.","summary_en":"42:10-11 The various geographical regions represent the extremes of human habitation. The whole earth is called to praise God for his commitment to redeem humanity. • Kedar and Sela (42:11; see also 16:1; 21:16-17) were representative desert sites.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"11":[{"id":21539,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Kedar","title_en":"Kedar","content_ro":"<h3>KEDAR<\/h3>\n<li>1. Second son of Ishmael, Abraham’s son (Gn 25:13; 1 Chr 1:29).<\/li>\n<li>2. Tribe or area appearing mainly in the prophetic writings from Solomon to the exile. In Isaiah’s prophecy against Arabia, Kedar is mentioned twice (Is 21:13-17). Along with Arabia, Dedan, and Tema, the Kedarites are threatened with destruction. The pomp attributed to them in verse 16 indicates some degree of affluence (see also Ez 27:21), and the militaristic tone of verse 17 points to the fact that they were a warring people. In Jeremiah 49:28 Kedar is linked with Hazor as victims of Nebuchadnezzar’s conquests. Although there is no extrabiblical record of Nebuchadnezzar’s march on Kedar, Ashurbanipal, the king of Assyria, does mention the conquest of Kedar. That would have been about 650 BC<\/span>, or a half a century earlier than the Babylonian conquest. Apart from Ashurbanipal’s account, the only other ancient extrabiblical reference to Kedar is found on a silver bowl offered to the Arabian goddess Han-’ilat in the Egyptian Delta. The inscription on the bowl reads, “Cain, son of Geshem, king of Kedar,” and the date is firmly fixed in the fifth century BC<\/span>. This Geshem was very likely the enemy of Nehemiah (Neh 2:19; 6:1-6).<\/li>\nThe picture the Bible gives of Kedar is that of a desert nomadic people descended from Ishmael. They were not initially believers in Yahweh but are included in Isaiah’s prophecy of the future kingdom of God (cf. Is 42:11; 60:7). Their desert environment limited their work to sheep herding and trading. Because of unpredictable water supplies in the desert, they were constantly moving—a way of life best handled by living in tents rather than permanent houses (cf. Ps 120:5; Sg 1:5). For this reason archaeologists have found no site named Kedar. All we can surmise is that the area of Kedar lay to the east and slightly to the south of Israel in what is today the southern part of Jordan. The people of Kedar presumably died out or were assimilated into the surrounding nations.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>KEDAR<\/h3>\n<li>1. Second son of Ishmael, Abraham’s son (Gn 25:13; 1 Chr 1:29).<\/li>\n<li>2. Tribe or area appearing mainly in the prophetic writings from Solomon to the exile. In Isaiah’s prophecy against Arabia, Kedar is mentioned twice (Is 21:13-17). Along with Arabia, Dedan, and Tema, the Kedarites are threatened with destruction. The pomp attributed to them in verse 16 indicates some degree of affluence (see also Ez 27:21), and the militaristic tone of verse 17 points to the fact that they were a warring people. In Jeremiah 49:28 Kedar is linked with Hazor as victims of Nebuchadnezzar’s conquests. Although there is no extrabiblical record of Nebuchadnezzar’s march on Kedar, Ashurbanipal, the king of Assyria, does mention the conquest of Kedar. That would have been about 650 BC<\/span>, or a half a century earlier than the Babylonian conquest. Apart from Ashurbanipal’s account, the only other ancient extrabiblical reference to Kedar is found on a silver bowl offered to the Arabian goddess Han-’ilat in the Egyptian Delta. The inscription on the bowl reads, “Cain, son of Geshem, king of Kedar,” and the date is firmly fixed in the fifth century BC<\/span>. This Geshem was very likely the enemy of Nehemiah (Neh 2:19; 6:1-6).<\/li>\nThe picture the Bible gives of Kedar is that of a desert nomadic people descended from Ishmael. They were not initially believers in Yahweh but are included in Isaiah’s prophecy of the future kingdom of God (cf. Is 42:11; 60:7). Their desert environment limited their work to sheep herding and trading. Because of unpredictable water supplies in the desert, they were constantly moving—a way of life best handled by living in tents rather than permanent houses (cf. Ps 120:5; Sg 1:5). For this reason archaeologists have found no site named Kedar. All we can surmise is that the area of Kedar lay to the east and slightly to the south of Israel in what is today the southern part of Jordan. The people of Kedar presumably died out or were assimilated into the surrounding nations.<\/p>","summary_ro":"KEDAR 1. Second son of Ishmael, Abraham’s son (Gn 25:13; 1 Chr 1:29). 2. Tribe or area appearing mainly in the prophetic writings from Solomon to the exile. In Isaiah’s prophecy against Arabia, Kedar is mentioned twice (Is 21:13-17). Along with Arabia, Dedan, and Tema, the Kedarites are threatened with destruction. The pomp attributed to them in verse 16 indicates some degree of affluence (see also Ez 27:21), and the militaristic tone of verse 17 points to the fact that they were a warring pe...","summary_en":"KEDAR 1. Second son of Ishmael, Abraham’s son (Gn 25:13; 1 Chr 1:29). 2. Tribe or area appearing mainly in the prophetic writings from Solomon to the exile. In Isaiah’s prophecy against Arabia, Kedar is mentioned twice (Is 21:13-17). Along with Arabia, Dedan, and Tema, the Kedarites are threatened with destruction. The pomp attributed to them in verse 16 indicates some degree of affluence (see also Ez 27:21), and the militaristic tone of verse 17 points to the fact that they were a warring pe...","source":"Articles\/K.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":38390,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Wilderness","title_en":"Wilderness","content_ro":"<h3>WILDERNESS<\/h3>\nLand that is basically wild and sparsely inhabited or unfit for permanent human settlement. It may be desert, mountains, forest, or marsh.<\/p>\nIn the Near East the wilderness is characteristically dry, desolate, and mostly rock and sand. It is rough, uneven, and interlaced with dry watercourses. The wilderness is not completely barren but provides seasonal pasture for flocks, depending on the rainfall.<\/p>\nJoel 2:22 declares that “the pastures of the wilderness are green,” and Psalm 65:12 states that the pastures of the wilderness drip with richness. But Jeremiah says that “the pastures of the wilderness are dried up” (Jer 23:10; cf. Jl 1:20). And Job refers to the wilderness as a land where no human can live (Jb 38:26); it is a place for various animals and birds, such as wild asses, jackals, vultures, and owls (Ps 102:6; Jer 2:24; Is 13:22; 34:13-15).<\/p>\nCertain wilderness tracts are identified by name and are related to definite cities, persons, or events. Hagar wandered in the wilderness of Beersheba (Gn 21:14). In the exodus from Egypt, the Israelites traversed the following wildernesses: Shur (Ex 15:22), Etham (Nm 33:8), Sin (Ex 16:1), Sinai (19:1-2), Zin (Nm 13:21; 20:1), Paran (13:26), Kadesh (Ps 29:8), Moab (Dt 2:8), and Kedemoth (v 26). When David was fleeing from Saul, David hid in the hill country of the wilderness of Ziph (1 Sm 23:14-15), in the wilderness of Maon (vv 24-25), and in the wilderness of En-gedi (24:1).<\/p>\nIn spite of the comparative desolation of the wilderness, villages or towns are sometimes associated with a wilderness setting. Joshua 15:61-62 lists the names of six cities and their villages “in the wilderness.” The future joy of the towns of the desert is proclaimed by Isaiah (Is 42:11).<\/p>\nThe wilderness is associated with both austerity and temptation. Elijah, by his way of life and his dress, is often thought of in connection with the wilderness. His successor, Elisha, had occasion to minister in the wilderness of Edom (2 Kgs 3:4-27).<\/p>\nIsaiah prophesied of the message of John the Baptist, who preached in the wilderness of Judea (Is 40:3; Mt 3:1-3; Mk 1:2-4; Lk 3:1-6; Jn 1:23). Jesus, full of the Holy Spirit, was led by the Spirit into the wilderness for 40 days. There he was tempted by the devil (cf. Lk 4:1-2), but there also angels ministered to him (Mk 1:13). The anchorites (hermits) of Egypt and the Qumran community near the Dead Sea used the wilderness as an escape from the evils of urban life. Jesus, however, used the wilderness as a place of prayer and communion with the Father (Lk 5:16).<\/p>\nSee<\/em> Desert; Wilderness Wanderings.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>WILDERNESS<\/h3>\nLand that is basically wild and sparsely inhabited or unfit for permanent human settlement. It may be desert, mountains, forest, or marsh.<\/p>\nIn the Near East the wilderness is characteristically dry, desolate, and mostly rock and sand. It is rough, uneven, and interlaced with dry watercourses. The wilderness is not completely barren but provides seasonal pasture for flocks, depending on the rainfall.<\/p>\nJoel 2:22 declares that “the pastures of the wilderness are green,” and Psalm 65:12 states that the pastures of the wilderness drip with richness. But Jeremiah says that “the pastures of the wilderness are dried up” (Jer 23:10; cf. Jl 1:20). And Job refers to the wilderness as a land where no human can live (Jb 38:26); it is a place for various animals and birds, such as wild asses, jackals, vultures, and owls (Ps 102:6; Jer 2:24; Is 13:22; 34:13-15).<\/p>\nCertain wilderness tracts are identified by name and are related to definite cities, persons, or events. Hagar wandered in the wilderness of Beersheba (Gn 21:14). In the exodus from Egypt, the Israelites traversed the following wildernesses: Shur (Ex 15:22), Etham (Nm 33:8), Sin (Ex 16:1), Sinai (19:1-2), Zin (Nm 13:21; 20:1), Paran (13:26), Kadesh (Ps 29:8), Moab (Dt 2:8), and Kedemoth (v 26). When David was fleeing from Saul, David hid in the hill country of the wilderness of Ziph (1 Sm 23:14-15), in the wilderness of Maon (vv 24-25), and in the wilderness of En-gedi (24:1).<\/p>\nIn spite of the comparative desolation of the wilderness, villages or towns are sometimes associated with a wilderness setting. Joshua 15:61-62 lists the names of six cities and their villages “in the wilderness.” The future joy of the towns of the desert is proclaimed by Isaiah (Is 42:11).<\/p>\nThe wilderness is associated with both austerity and temptation. Elijah, by his way of life and his dress, is often thought of in connection with the wilderness. His successor, Elisha, had occasion to minister in the wilderness of Edom (2 Kgs 3:4-27).<\/p>\nIsaiah prophesied of the message of John the Baptist, who preached in the wilderness of Judea (Is 40:3; Mt 3:1-3; Mk 1:2-4; Lk 3:1-6; Jn 1:23). Jesus, full of the Holy Spirit, was led by the Spirit into the wilderness for 40 days. There he was tempted by the devil (cf. Lk 4:1-2), but there also angels ministered to him (Mk 1:13). The anchorites (hermits) of Egypt and the Qumran community near the Dead Sea used the wilderness as an escape from the evils of urban life. Jesus, however, used the wilderness as a place of prayer and communion with the Father (Lk 5:16).<\/p>\nSee<\/em> Desert; Wilderness Wanderings.<\/p>","summary_ro":"WILDERNESS Land that is basically wild and sparsely inhabited or unfit for permanent human settlement. It may be desert, mountains, forest, or marsh. In the Near East the wilderness is characteristically dry, desolate, and mostly rock and sand. It is rough, uneven, and interlaced with dry watercourses. The wilderness is not completely barren but provides seasonal pasture for flocks, depending on the rainfall. Joel 2:22 declares that “the pastures of the wilderness are green,” and Psalm 65:12 ...","summary_en":"WILDERNESS Land that is basically wild and sparsely inhabited or unfit for permanent human settlement. It may be desert, mountains, forest, or marsh. In the Near East the wilderness is characteristically dry, desolate, and mostly rock and sand. It is rough, uneven, and interlaced with dry watercourses. The wilderness is not completely barren but provides seasonal pasture for flocks, depending on the rainfall. Joel 2:22 declares that “the pastures of the wilderness are green,” and Psalm 65:12 ...","source":"Articles\/W.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"12":[{"id":13998,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Glory","title_en":"Glory","content_ro":"<h3>GLORY<\/h3>\nThe singular splendor of God and the consequences for humanity.<\/p>\nThe Glory of God<\/p>\nThe glory of God can be described in two senses: (1) as a general category or attribute, and (2) as a specific category referring to particular historical manifestations of his presence.<\/p>\n<h5>As an Attribute<\/h5>\nGod’s glory refers primarily to his majestic beauty and splendor; it also refers to the expression of God’s character (Rom 3:23). The Scriptures record praise to his glorious name (Neh 9:5), describe him as the glorious Father (Eph 1:17) and the King of glory (Ps 24); he is exalted above the heavens, and his glory is over all the earth (Pss 57:5, 11; 108:5; 113:4). He is the God of glory who appeared to the patriarchs of the OT (Acts 7:2). He is jealous to maintain his glory and unwilling that it be given to another (Is 42:8); he acts to bring glory to himself (Ps 79:9; Is 48:11).<\/p>\nThe glory of God is proclaimed by the Creation (Pss 19:1; 97:6; Rom 1:20). It is revealed by his mighty acts of salvation and deliverance (1 Chr 16:24; Pss 72:18-19; 96:3; 145:10-12; Jn 11:4, 40). His glory is the theme of the praise (1 Chr 16:24-29; Pss 29:1-2, 9; 66:1-2; 96:7-8; 115:1; Is 42:12; Rom 4:20; Phil 2:9-11).<\/p>\n<h5>As His Presence<\/h5>\nReferences to the glory of the Lord are often to particular historical manifestations of his presence; images of light and fire are prominently associated with these occurrences. The foremost example is what is known in rabbinical literature as the shekinah glory, a phrase meaning the “dwelling glory.” It refers primarily to the presence of God in the pillar of cloud and fire in the OT.<\/p>\nThe first explicit reference to the glory cloud is found in Exodus 13:21-22. At the time of the exodus, the glory of God appeared in the pillar of cloud and fire to lead the people through the sea and wilderness (Neh 9:11-12, 19). At Sinai, with Israel encamped around the mountain, the glory of God comes in the cloud and fire to speak with Moses in the sight of the people (Ex 19:9, 16-18; 24:15-18; Dt 5:5, 22-24). When Moses is given a glimpse of that glory unconcealed by the cloud and fire, his own face becomes radiant and must be veiled because of the people’s fear (Ex 33:18-23; 34:29-35; 2 Cor 3:7-18).<\/p>\nThe picture of Israel encamped around the glory of God on Sinai portrays God dwelling in the midst of his people. When the tabernacle is completed and the people set out on their march, the glory cloud of God’s presence dwells above them throughout their journey (Ex 40:34-38; Nm 10:11-12). When they encamp, the tribes encircle the tabernacle (Nm 1:50–2:2), and the cloud reminds them of his presence in their midst. Later, the same glory filled the new temple that Solomon builds (2 Chr 5:13–6:1; 7:1-3). The psalmists celebrated Jerusalem and the temple as the place where his glory dwelt (Pss 26:8; 63:2; 85:9); God was in their midst.<\/p>\nLater in Israel’s history they denied God’s glorious presence (Is 3:8) and exchanged the glory of the Lord for idols made by human hands (Ps 106:20; Jer 2:10-11; cf. Rom 1:23). Because of their disobedience, judgment came against Jerusalem; the penalties of covenant violation were enforced. God would no longer be the God of a disobedient people (Hos 1:9). God’s presence in the glory cloud left the temple (Ez 10:4, 18-19; 11:22), and Israel went into exile (12:1-15).<\/p>\nYet out of this judgment God determined to bring a remnant to rebuild the city and the temple. In his visions Ezekiel saw the glory of the Lord return to dwell in the temple again (Ez 43:2-9), a time when the glory would return to a purified people and dwell among them forever. When the exile was over and the second temple was under construction, Haggai and Zechariah urged the people on with the promise of the return of the glory of God to fill the temple as it had done in the first temple and to “be glory in their midst” (Hg 2:3-9; Zec 2:5, 10-11).<\/p>\nThe Glory of God in Jesus Christ<\/p>\nWe are not told if the shekinah glory returned to the second temple. But we are told that God’s glory was seen again on earth in the person of Jesus Christ. John 1:14 says, “The Word became flesh and dwelt<\/em> among us, and we beheld his glory, glory<\/em> as of the only Son” (italics added). As such, Jesus was the new tabernacle for God’s abiding glory. In Jesus, God dwelt among people. Since Christ was (and is) the very image of God, to see the light of his face was to know the glory of God (2 Cor 4:4-6). To see Jesus was to see a “light to the Gentiles and the glory of Israel” (Lk 2:30-32). The disciples who witnessed the Transfiguration (Mt 17:1-8) saw his glory in a marvelous way (2 Pt 1:16-17), for it was a glory that burst out of his human body. This outburst of glory prefigured the glorification Christ experienced in resurrection and ascension (see Jn 17:5; Phil 2:5-11).<\/p>\nBecause Jesus humbled himself and was obedient to the point of death, God highly exalted him (Phil 2:8-9). After he suffered death on the cross, he entered into his glory (Lk 24:26) with a new and glorious body (1 Cor 15:39-43; Phil 3:21). The glorified Christ appeared to his servants. Stephen saw his glory (Acts 7:55), and Saul was blinded by his splendor (9:3). That same Christ is predicted to return in glory. He will sit on his throne in judgment (Mt 25:31); evil will be punished (16:27; 24:30; Mk 13:26; Lk 21:27; 2 Thes 2:9-10). Those who have professed him before men need not fear his glorious appearing (Mk 8:38).<\/p>\nAt the consummation, the whole earth will be filled with his glory (Ps 72:19; Is 6:3; Hb 2:14). No longer will a glory cloud rest above a temple to mark the Holy Place, for there will be a new heaven and a new earth (Rv 21:1). The Holy City will have the radiance of the glory of God (vv 10-11).<\/p>\nGlory and the People of God<\/p>\nThe people of God have experienced the glory of the presence of God. The glory cloud of the OT was their<\/em> glory (Ps 106:20; Jer 2:11). Christ came as the embodiment of the glory of God; God was in the midst of his people. When Christ ascended, he sent his Spirit to the believers (Jn 16:7-14) so that God could live in the midst of his people. The Spirit of glory rests on those who suffer for the name of Christ (1 Pt 4:14); that Spirit is the guarantee of the glorious inheritance of the saints (Rom 8:16-17).<\/p>\nGod has given to his people the hope of glory (Rom 5:2; Phil 3:21; Col 1:27; Jude 1:24-25). Those whom he has chosen he will also glorify (Rom 8:30; 9:23); they will share in the glory of Christ (Col 3:4; 2 Thes 2:14; 2 Tm 2:10). The sufferings of this age do not compare with the glory that will be revealed (Rom 8:18; 2 Cor 4:17). The whole of creation longs to see the glorious freedom of the children of God (Rom 8:21). This hope of glory is so certain that Peter can speak of participating in it even now (1 Pt 5:1) while looking forward to that eternal glory (v 10). As partakers in the glory of Christ, the church is called to glorify God. Because of the hope that is in them, they purify themselves (1 Jn 3:3).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Boast; God, Being and Attributes of; Pillar of Fire and Cloud; Shekinah; Theophany; Wealth.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>GLORY<\/h3>\nThe singular splendor of God and the consequences for humanity.<\/p>\nThe Glory of God<\/p>\nThe glory of God can be described in two senses: (1) as a general category or attribute, and (2) as a specific category referring to particular historical manifestations of his presence.<\/p>\n<h5>As an Attribute<\/h5>\nGod’s glory refers primarily to his majestic beauty and splendor; it also refers to the expression of God’s character (Rom 3:23). The Scriptures record praise to his glorious name (Neh 9:5), describe him as the glorious Father (Eph 1:17) and the King of glory (Ps 24); he is exalted above the heavens, and his glory is over all the earth (Pss 57:5, 11; 108:5; 113:4). He is the God of glory who appeared to the patriarchs of the OT (Acts 7:2). He is jealous to maintain his glory and unwilling that it be given to another (Is 42:8); he acts to bring glory to himself (Ps 79:9; Is 48:11).<\/p>\nThe glory of God is proclaimed by the Creation (Pss 19:1; 97:6; Rom 1:20). It is revealed by his mighty acts of salvation and deliverance (1 Chr 16:24; Pss 72:18-19; 96:3; 145:10-12; Jn 11:4, 40). His glory is the theme of the praise (1 Chr 16:24-29; Pss 29:1-2, 9; 66:1-2; 96:7-8; 115:1; Is 42:12; Rom 4:20; Phil 2:9-11).<\/p>\n<h5>As His Presence<\/h5>\nReferences to the glory of the Lord are often to particular historical manifestations of his presence; images of light and fire are prominently associated with these occurrences. The foremost example is what is known in rabbinical literature as the shekinah glory, a phrase meaning the “dwelling glory.” It refers primarily to the presence of God in the pillar of cloud and fire in the OT.<\/p>\nThe first explicit reference to the glory cloud is found in Exodus 13:21-22. At the time of the exodus, the glory of God appeared in the pillar of cloud and fire to lead the people through the sea and wilderness (Neh 9:11-12, 19). At Sinai, with Israel encamped around the mountain, the glory of God comes in the cloud and fire to speak with Moses in the sight of the people (Ex 19:9, 16-18; 24:15-18; Dt 5:5, 22-24). When Moses is given a glimpse of that glory unconcealed by the cloud and fire, his own face becomes radiant and must be veiled because of the people’s fear (Ex 33:18-23; 34:29-35; 2 Cor 3:7-18).<\/p>\nThe picture of Israel encamped around the glory of God on Sinai portrays God dwelling in the midst of his people. When the tabernacle is completed and the people set out on their march, the glory cloud of God’s presence dwells above them throughout their journey (Ex 40:34-38; Nm 10:11-12). When they encamp, the tribes encircle the tabernacle (Nm 1:50–2:2), and the cloud reminds them of his presence in their midst. Later, the same glory filled the new temple that Solomon builds (2 Chr 5:13–6:1; 7:1-3). The psalmists celebrated Jerusalem and the temple as the place where his glory dwelt (Pss 26:8; 63:2; 85:9); God was in their midst.<\/p>\nLater in Israel’s history they denied God’s glorious presence (Is 3:8) and exchanged the glory of the Lord for idols made by human hands (Ps 106:20; Jer 2:10-11; cf. Rom 1:23). Because of their disobedience, judgment came against Jerusalem; the penalties of covenant violation were enforced. God would no longer be the God of a disobedient people (Hos 1:9). God’s presence in the glory cloud left the temple (Ez 10:4, 18-19; 11:22), and Israel went into exile (12:1-15).<\/p>\nYet out of this judgment God determined to bring a remnant to rebuild the city and the temple. In his visions Ezekiel saw the glory of the Lord return to dwell in the temple again (Ez 43:2-9), a time when the glory would return to a purified people and dwell among them forever. When the exile was over and the second temple was under construction, Haggai and Zechariah urged the people on with the promise of the return of the glory of God to fill the temple as it had done in the first temple and to “be glory in their midst” (Hg 2:3-9; Zec 2:5, 10-11).<\/p>\nThe Glory of God in Jesus Christ<\/p>\nWe are not told if the shekinah glory returned to the second temple. But we are told that God’s glory was seen again on earth in the person of Jesus Christ. John 1:14 says, “The Word became flesh and dwelt<\/em> among us, and we beheld his glory, glory<\/em> as of the only Son” (italics added). As such, Jesus was the new tabernacle for God’s abiding glory. In Jesus, God dwelt among people. Since Christ was (and is) the very image of God, to see the light of his face was to know the glory of God (2 Cor 4:4-6). To see Jesus was to see a “light to the Gentiles and the glory of Israel” (Lk 2:30-32). The disciples who witnessed the Transfiguration (Mt 17:1-8) saw his glory in a marvelous way (2 Pt 1:16-17), for it was a glory that burst out of his human body. This outburst of glory prefigured the glorification Christ experienced in resurrection and ascension (see Jn 17:5; Phil 2:5-11).<\/p>\nBecause Jesus humbled himself and was obedient to the point of death, God highly exalted him (Phil 2:8-9). After he suffered death on the cross, he entered into his glory (Lk 24:26) with a new and glorious body (1 Cor 15:39-43; Phil 3:21). The glorified Christ appeared to his servants. Stephen saw his glory (Acts 7:55), and Saul was blinded by his splendor (9:3). That same Christ is predicted to return in glory. He will sit on his throne in judgment (Mt 25:31); evil will be punished (16:27; 24:30; Mk 13:26; Lk 21:27; 2 Thes 2:9-10). Those who have professed him before men need not fear his glorious appearing (Mk 8:38).<\/p>\nAt the consummation, the whole earth will be filled with his glory (Ps 72:19; Is 6:3; Hb 2:14). No longer will a glory cloud rest above a temple to mark the Holy Place, for there will be a new heaven and a new earth (Rv 21:1). The Holy City will have the radiance of the glory of God (vv 10-11).<\/p>\nGlory and the People of God<\/p>\nThe people of God have experienced the glory of the presence of God. The glory cloud of the OT was their<\/em> glory (Ps 106:20; Jer 2:11). Christ came as the embodiment of the glory of God; God was in the midst of his people. When Christ ascended, he sent his Spirit to the believers (Jn 16:7-14) so that God could live in the midst of his people. The Spirit of glory rests on those who suffer for the name of Christ (1 Pt 4:14); that Spirit is the guarantee of the glorious inheritance of the saints (Rom 8:16-17).<\/p>\nGod has given to his people the hope of glory (Rom 5:2; Phil 3:21; Col 1:27; Jude 1:24-25). Those whom he has chosen he will also glorify (Rom 8:30; 9:23); they will share in the glory of Christ (Col 3:4; 2 Thes 2:14; 2 Tm 2:10). The sufferings of this age do not compare with the glory that will be revealed (Rom 8:18; 2 Cor 4:17). The whole of creation longs to see the glorious freedom of the children of God (Rom 8:21). This hope of glory is so certain that Peter can speak of participating in it even now (1 Pt 5:1) while looking forward to that eternal glory (v 10). As partakers in the glory of Christ, the church is called to glorify God. Because of the hope that is in them, they purify themselves (1 Jn 3:3).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Boast; God, Being and Attributes of; Pillar of Fire and Cloud; Shekinah; Theophany; Wealth.<\/p>","summary_ro":"GLORY The singular splendor of God and the consequences for humanity. The Glory of God The glory of God can be described in two senses: (1) as a general category or attribute, and (2) as a specific category referring to particular historical manifestations of his presence. As an Attribute God’s glory refers primarily to his majestic beauty and splendor; it also refers to the expression of God’s character (Rom 3:23). The Scriptures record praise to his glorious name (Neh 9:5), describe him as ...","summary_en":"GLORY The singular splendor of God and the consequences for humanity. The Glory of God The glory of God can be described in two senses: (1) as a general category or attribute, and (2) as a specific category referring to particular historical manifestations of his presence. As an Attribute God’s glory refers primarily to his majestic beauty and splendor; it also refers to the expression of God’s character (Rom 3:23). The Scriptures record praise to his glorious name (Neh 9:5), describe him as ...","source":"Articles\/G.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"13":[{"id":51663,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 42:13","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 42:13","content_ro":"42:13<\/strong> a mighty hero . . . a warrior:<\/em> The background of this theme is God’s victory at the Red Sea during the Exodus (Exod 15:3). • God will be victorious over all his enemies<\/em> in order to rescue his people (Isa 51:9; 63:1-6; see also Pss 54:7; 108:9; 112:8).<\/p>","content_en":"42:13<\/strong> a mighty hero . . . a warrior:<\/em> The background of this theme is God’s victory at the Red Sea during the Exodus (Exod 15:3). • God will be victorious over all his enemies<\/em> in order to rescue his people (Isa 51:9; 63:1-6; see also Pss 54:7; 108:9; 112:8).<\/p>","summary_ro":"42:13 a mighty hero . . . a warrior: The background of this theme is God’s victory at the Red Sea during the Exodus (Exod 15:3). • God will be victorious over all his enemies in order to rescue his people (Isa 51:9; 63:1-6; see also Pss 54:7; 108:9; 112:8).","summary_en":"42:13 a mighty hero . . . a warrior: The background of this theme is God’s victory at the Red Sea during the Exodus (Exod 15:3). • God will be victorious over all his enemies in order to rescue his people (Isa 51:9; 63:1-6; see also Pss 54:7; 108:9; 112:8).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":79289,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 42:13","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 42:13","content_ro":"42:13<\/strong> a mighty hero . . . a warrior:<\/em> The background of this theme is God’s victory at the Red Sea during the Exodus (Exod 15:3). • God will be victorious over all his enemies<\/em> in order to rescue his people (Isa 51:9; 63:1-6; see also Pss 54:7; 108:9; 112:8).<\/p>","content_en":"42:13<\/strong> a mighty hero . . . a warrior:<\/em> The background of this theme is God’s victory at the Red Sea during the Exodus (Exod 15:3). • God will be victorious over all his enemies<\/em> in order to rescue his people (Isa 51:9; 63:1-6; see also Pss 54:7; 108:9; 112:8).<\/p>","summary_ro":"42:13 a mighty hero . . . a warrior: The background of this theme is God’s victory at the Red Sea during the Exodus (Exod 15:3). • God will be victorious over all his enemies in order to rescue his people (Isa 51:9; 63:1-6; see also Pss 54:7; 108:9; 112:8).","summary_en":"42:13 a mighty hero . . . a warrior: The background of this theme is God’s victory at the Red Sea during the Exodus (Exod 15:3). • God will be victorious over all his enemies in order to rescue his people (Isa 51:9; 63:1-6; see also Pss 54:7; 108:9; 112:8).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":106915,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 42:13","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 42:13","content_ro":"42:13<\/strong> a mighty hero . . . a warrior:<\/em> The background of this theme is God’s victory at the Red Sea during the Exodus (Exod 15:3). • God will be victorious over all his enemies<\/em> in order to rescue his people (Isa 51:9; 63:1-6; see also Pss 54:7; 108:9; 112:8).<\/p>","content_en":"42:13<\/strong> a mighty hero . . . a warrior:<\/em> The background of this theme is God’s victory at the Red Sea during the Exodus (Exod 15:3). • God will be victorious over all his enemies<\/em> in order to rescue his people (Isa 51:9; 63:1-6; see also Pss 54:7; 108:9; 112:8).<\/p>","summary_ro":"42:13 a mighty hero . . . a warrior: The background of this theme is God’s victory at the Red Sea during the Exodus (Exod 15:3). • God will be victorious over all his enemies in order to rescue his people (Isa 51:9; 63:1-6; see also Pss 54:7; 108:9; 112:8).","summary_en":"42:13 a mighty hero . . . a warrior: The background of this theme is God’s victory at the Red Sea during the Exodus (Exod 15:3). • God will be victorious over all his enemies in order to rescue his people (Isa 51:9; 63:1-6; see also Pss 54:7; 108:9; 112:8).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":134541,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 42:13","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 42:13","content_ro":"42:13<\/strong> a mighty hero . . . a warrior:<\/em> The background of this theme is God’s victory at the Red Sea during the Exodus (Exod 15:3). • God will be victorious over all his enemies<\/em> in order to rescue his people (Isa 51:9; 63:1-6; see also Pss 54:7; 108:9; 112:8).<\/p>","content_en":"42:13<\/strong> a mighty hero . . . a warrior:<\/em> The background of this theme is God’s victory at the Red Sea during the Exodus (Exod 15:3). • God will be victorious over all his enemies<\/em> in order to rescue his people (Isa 51:9; 63:1-6; see also Pss 54:7; 108:9; 112:8).<\/p>","summary_ro":"42:13 a mighty hero . . . a warrior: The background of this theme is God’s victory at the Red Sea during the Exodus (Exod 15:3). • God will be victorious over all his enemies in order to rescue his people (Isa 51:9; 63:1-6; see also Pss 54:7; 108:9; 112:8).","summary_en":"42:13 a mighty hero . . . a warrior: The background of this theme is God’s victory at the Red Sea during the Exodus (Exod 15:3). • God will be victorious over all his enemies in order to rescue his people (Isa 51:9; 63:1-6; see also Pss 54:7; 108:9; 112:8).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"14":[{"id":31518,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Prophecy","title_en":"Prophecy","content_ro":"<h3>PROPHECY<\/h3>\nTerm, along with its English cognates (“prophet,” “to prophesy,” “prophetism,” and “prophetic”), derived from a group of Greek words that, in secular Greek, mean “speak forth,” “proclaim,” “announce.” In biblical Greek, however, these terms always carry the connotation of speaking, proclaiming, or announcing something under the influence of spiritual inspiration.<\/p>\nPreview<\/p>\n• Prophecy in the Old Testament<\/p>\n• Types of Old Testament Prophets<\/p>\n• The Message of the Prophets<\/p>\n• Prophecy in the New Testament<\/p>\n• The Role of the Christian Prophet<\/p>\nProphecy in the Old Testament<\/p>\nOne of the clearest and most significant statements on the nature of prophetic inspiration in the OT is found in Numbers 12:6-8: “The Lord<\/span> said to them, ‘Now listen to me! Even with prophets, I the Lord<\/span> communicate by visions and dreams. But that is not how I communicate with my servant Moses. He is entrusted with my entire house. I speak to him face to face, directly and not in riddles! He sees the Lord<\/span> as he is’ ” (nlt<\/span>). Several important insights into the nature of prophetic inspiration are found in this passage: (1) The prophetic gift of Moses was unique in that he alone received revelations directly from God. (2) Ordinarily, prophetic revelation was received through the medium of a dream or a vision. (3) The meaning of prophetic revelation is not always completely clear; prophecy is sometimes ambiguous.<\/p>\nFurther insight into the nature of prophetic revelation is found in Deuteronomy 18:18: “I [God] will raise up for them a prophet like you [Moses] from among their brethren; and I will put my words in his mouth, and he shall speak to them all that I command him” (rsv<\/span>). While this passage is of interest because Jesus was identified as “the prophet like Moses” who came in fulfillment of this prediction (Acts 3:22; 7:37), the more immediate historical reference is to the succession of prophets that guided Israel from Joshua to Malachi. The phrase “I will put my words in his mouth” refers to the process of divine inspiration and is reminiscent of the common OT prophetic formula “the word of the Lord came to [such and such a prophet]” (for examples, see 1 Sm 15:10; 2 Sm 24:11; 1 Kgs 19:9; Jon 1:1; Hg 1:1; 2:1, 20; Zec 7:1, 8; 8:1). A true prophet is one who speaks (or repeats) all that God has told him.<\/p>\n<h5>Modes of Prophetic Inspiration<\/h5>\nDreams were a commonly recognized mode of inspiration throughout the ancient world, though they were more highly regarded in Greece than in ancient Israel. Revelatory dreams in the Bible fall into two major categories: (1) dreams whose meaning is self-evident, and (2) symbolic dreams that usually require the expertise of an interpreter of dreams. Both types normally involve both visual and auditory elements. In those dreams whose meaning is self-evident, normally a supernatural being (God or an angel) appears to the dreamer and speaks to him or her in a straightforward manner.<\/p>\nMore frequently, revelatory dreams have symbolic elements that require interpretation. The two great dream interpreters of the OT are Joseph and Daniel; the latter is clearly a prophet. The two symbolic dreams that Joseph himself dreamed (Gn 37:5-11) had sufficiently self-evident meaning so that his brothers and father were able to interpret them immediately. More complex were the dreams of the butler and baker (40:1-19) and of Pharaoh (41:1-36), which Joseph was able to interpret with the help of God. Similarly, Daniel was enabled to interpret the dreams of Nebuchadnezzar (Dn 2:25-45; 4:4-27). The skill in interpreting such dreams was attributed by both Joseph and Daniel to God (Gn 40:8; 41:16, 25; Dn 2:27-30; cf. 4:9). While dreams are used almost interchangeably with visions in referring to modes of prophetic inspiration (Jl 2:28), dreams do not occupy a significant part in the prophetic revelations of any of the OT prophets, with the exception of Daniel.<\/p>\nOne of the most characteristic modes of prophetic inspiration was the vision (Nm 12:6; 24:4, 16; Hos 12:10). The revelatory visions experienced by the prophets were not limited to visual phenomena alone but also included the auditory dimension as well. In Isaiah 1:1, the author describes his entire prophetic book as a “vision”: “These visions concerning Judah and Jerusalem came to Isaiah son of Amoz during the reigns of Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah—all kings of Judah” (nlt<\/span>). Yet in the very next verse, Isaiah says, “Hear, O heavens! Listen, O earth! This is what the Lord<\/span> says.” Again, in Amos 1:1, “The words<\/em> of Amos, who was among the shepherds of Tekoa, which he saw<\/em> concerning Israel” (rsv<\/span>, emphasis added).<\/p>\n<h5>Manifestations of Prophetic Inspiration<\/h5>\nAll prophecy, whether biblical or not, presupposes that the prophet either possessed or was possessed by a personal supernatural power. The external behavioral manifestations of this possession can exhibit great variety.<\/p>\nThe prophetic phenomenon generally designated “ecstatic” prophecy appears to have existed in Canaan prior to the arrival of the Hebrew tribes in the 13th century BC<\/span>. The first reference to ecstatic prophecy in Israel occurs in 1 Samuel 10:5-13 (11th century BC<\/span>), and it persisted at least till the sixth century BC<\/span> (Jer 29:26).<\/p>\nThe ecstatic prophet achieves a trancelike state by self-induced means. The most common devices used to achieve a state of ecstasy were musical instruments, such as the harp, tambourine, flute, and lyre (1 Sm 10:5). Among the prophets of Baal, self-flagellation was another means of inducing ecstasy (1 Kgs 18:28-29).<\/p>\nThis kind of prophetic ecstasy was usually practiced by groups of prophets (1 Sm 10:5), and such ecstasy was contagious. When Saul met a band of such prophets, the Spirit of God came upon him and he, too, began to prophesy (vv 10-13), a phenomenon that occurred repeatedly to various messengers sent by Saul on a later occasion (19:20-22). At that time Saul again prophesied, and his ecstatic behavior is described in 1 Samuel 19:24. When Elisha was asked to prophesy for King Jehoram of Israel, he first requested a minstrel. When the minstrel played, the power of the Lord came upon him (2 Kgs 3:15).<\/p>\nTypes of Old Testament Prophets<\/p>\nThere are two basic types of prophetic commission in the OT. One type is that of a narrative call by God to a particular individual whose objections to the call are gradually overcome in a dialogue between himself and God. The classic example of this type of prophetic commission is found in Jeremiah 1:4-8:<\/p>\nThe Lord<\/span> gave me a message. He said, “I knew you before I formed you in your mother’s womb. Before you were born I set you apart and appointed you as my spokesman to the world.”<\/p>\n<blockquote>“O Sovereign Lord<\/span>,” I said, “I can’t speak for you! I’m too young!”<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<blockquote>“Don’t say that,” the Lord<\/span> replied, “for you must go wherever I send you and say whatever I tell you. And don’t be afraid of the people, for I will be with you and take care of you. I, the Lord<\/span>, have spoken!” (nlt<\/span>)<\/p><\/blockquote>\nSimilar prophetic commissions including such dialogues are associated with the calls of Moses (Ex 3:1–4:17) and Gideon (Jgs 6:11-17).<\/p>\nThe second major form of prophetic commission is the “throne vision.” An outstanding example is Isaiah 6:1-8:<\/p>\nIn the year King Uzziah died, I saw the Lord. He was sitting on a lofty throne, and the train of his robe filled the Temple. . . .<\/p>\n<blockquote>Then I said, “My destruction is sealed, for I am a sinful man and a member of a sinful race. Yet I have seen the King, the Lord<\/span> Almighty!”<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<blockquote>Then one of the seraphim flew over to the altar, and he picked up a burning coal with a pair of tongs. He touched my lips with it and said, “See, this coal has touched your lips. Now your guilt is removed, and your sins are forgiven.”<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<blockquote>Then I heard the Lord asking, “Whom should I send as a messenger to my people? Who will go for us?”<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<blockquote>And I said, “Lord, I’ll go! Send me.” (nlt<\/span>)<\/p><\/blockquote>\nHere we have an account of the visionary presence of a prophet in the heavenly council; in this case, however, the prophet participates in the deliberations and thereby receives a prophetic commission. Though few prophets have left accounts of their divine commissions, most of them appear to have been conscious of having been “sent” by God (Is 48:16; Hos 8:1; Am 7:14-15). According to Jeremiah, false prophets did not receive such divine commissions (Jer 23:21, 32; 28:15).<\/p>\nThe Message of the Prophets<\/p>\n<h5>The Form of the Message<\/h5>\nThe most common introductory formula for prophetic oracles in the OT is the phrase “Thus says the Lord,” which occurs hundreds of times in prophetic contexts. This formula clearly implies that the pronouncement so introduced is not the word of the prophet who utters the oracle but of the God of Israel who delivered his word to his prophet. The use of this formula also reiterates the prophet’s sense of divine commission. In oracles introduced in this manner, God speaks in the first person. In fact, virtually all Israelite prophetic utterance is formulated as the direct speech of the God of Israel.<\/p>\nThe prophets used many literary forms in which to express their oracles. Two of the more widely used forms of prophetic speech are the judgment speech and the oracle of salvation. The judgment speech is composed of at least two central elements: the speech of rebuke or invective, and the pronouncement of judgment (see 2 Kgs 1:3-4). The second common prophetic speech form is the oracle of salvation (see Is 41:8-13). Other fixed forms of prophetic speech include the prophecy of salvation (43:14-21), the proclamation of salvation (41:17-20; 42:14-17; 43:16-21; 49:7-12), and the woe oracle (Is 5:8-10; 10:1-4; Am 5:18-24; 6:1-7; Mi 2:1-5).<\/p>\n<h5>The Content of the Message<\/h5>\nThe common adage that OT prophets were not “foretellers” but “forthtellers” is not strictly correct. All of the prophets predict the future. Such prediction, however, is based not on human curiosity of what the future will hold but rather is rooted in the future consequences of past or present violations of the covenant, or on a future act of deliverance that will provide hope for a discouraged people. Most of the prophetic speeches that have been preserved in the OT were originally delivered as public proclamations or sermons. Most of these prophetic proclamations were evoked by the iniquity and apostasy of Israel. Hosea and Jeremiah condemned Israel because she had broken the covenant (Jer 11:2-3; Hos 8:1).<\/p>\nThe prophets are frequently associated with social justice and social reform, and these elements were unquestionably an important dimension of their message. Amos denounced the rich who afflicted the poor (Am 2:6-8; 4:1; 5:11; 8:4-6). He railed against sexual immorality (2:6-8) and against those who take bribes (5:12). Hosea provided a list of prevalent vices, including lying, killing, stealing, adultery, and idolatry (Hos 4:2). Idolatry was a particular target for his denunciations (8:5; 11:2). The background for such heated denunciations of Israel’s behavior is God’s unquenchable love for Israel (Is 43:4; Jer 31:3; Hos 3:1; 11:1-4; 14:4; Mal 1:2), which is inseparable from his election of Israel (Is 43:1; Jer 33:24; Ez 20:5; Hos 3).<\/p>\nThe prophets were concerned not only with the transgressions of Israel and the historical judgment that would inevitably follow but also with the achievement of a final future time of bliss. The message of many of the prophets is thoroughly eschatological (i.e., pertaining to the end times). One such eschatological concept is that of the Day of the Lord. The concept of the Day of the Lord first appears in Amos, where the emphasis lies on the disaster that will befall Israel on that day. Amos’s emphasis on disaster notwithstanding, the Day of the Lord is a conception that had both salvific as well as judgmental overtones for Israel. While the disaster that will occur in the Day of the Lord can be viewed in terms of a literal historical fulfillment in the tragic events of 722 BC<\/span> (the fall of Samaria) and 586 BC<\/span> (the fall of Judah), there are nevertheless features of these predictions that transcend historical fulfillment and reach toward eschatological fulfillment.<\/p>\nSince the Israelite conception of “salvation” was largely temporal in its dimensions, it included such blessings as length of life, fruitfulness of the womb and field, peace and victory over one’s enemies, the abundance of water, and so on. In harmony with this conception of salvation, the future age is conceived in precisely those terms, as in Amos 9:13-15.<\/p>\nThe prophets pictured a time when David himself, or someone very much like him, would return and inaugurate a golden era reminiscent of the great Davidic and Solomonic period. The covenant of God with David was not a conditional covenant but rather one that was absolutely inviolable (2 Sm 7:4-17; Ps 89; Jer 33:19-22), and it was with this knowledge that the prophets could look forward confidently to a restoration of David’s throne (Jer 17:24-26; 23:5-6; 33:14-15).<\/p>\n\nProphecy in the New Testament<\/p>\nIn contrast to the few self-proclaimed prophets of the intertestamental period, early Christianity began with a flurry of prophetic activity that lasted well into the second century AD<\/span>. Jesus, his disciples and followers, and the early Christians were convinced that the times in which they lived were times in which OT prophecy was being fulfilled (Mk 1:14-15; Acts 2:16-21; Rom 16:25-27; 1 Cor 10:11). Yet this era was not only one of fulfillment but also one of the renewal of the prophetic gift.<\/p>\n<h5>John the Baptist<\/h5>\nJohn the Baptist is remembered in the NT primarily as the forerunner of Jesus whose coming was predicted by Malachi (Mal 4:5-6). Yet, in his own right, John proclaimed the imminent judgment of God with a flair of denunciation and rebuke reminiscent of the OT prophets. John’s costume, consisting of a hairy cloak and a leather girdle (Mk 1:6), was reminiscent of the typical garb of OT prophets (1 Kgs 19:19; 2 Kgs 1:8; 2:13-14; Zec 13:4). John was regarded as a prophet by people everywhere (Mt 14:5; 17:10-13; Mk 9:11-13; 11:32; Lk 1:76; 7:26). Luke reports, in a style similar to the OT prophetic narratives, that “the word of God came to John” (Lk 3:2). Two short prophetic speeches have been preserved in Matthew 3:7-10 (cf. Lk 3:7-9) and Mark 1:7-8 (cf. Mt 3:11-12; Lk 3:15-18). In the first speech, John denounced those of his generation who had transgressed the covenant law and exhorted them to change their manner of life. In the second speech, John predicted the coming of the Mighty One, Jesus (Mt 3:11; Mk 1:7; Lk 3:16; Jn 1:15, 27, 30; Acts 13:25). John’s style, however, was not precisely that of the OT prophets. His pronouncements were made on his own authority; never did he use formulas such as “thus says the Lord,” or present his prophetic utterances as if they were speeches made by God. Yet, in spite of these differences, John is appropriately regarded as the last representative of the OT prophetic tradition (Mt 11:13; Lk 16:16).<\/p>\n<h5>Jesus of Nazareth<\/h5>\nJesus was popularly regarded as a prophet (Mt 16:14; 21:10-11; Mk 6:14-15; 8:28; Lk 7:16, 39; 9:8, 19; Jn 6:14; 7:40, 52). This assessment was based as much on the mighty deeds Jesus performed as on his prophetic speeches and predictions. Though Jesus nowhere claimed prophetic status directly, that claim is implicit in Mark 6:4: “A prophet is honored everywhere except in his own hometown” (cf. Mt 13:57; Lk 4:24). It is implicit as well in Luke 13:33: “Yes, today, tomorrow, and the next day I must proceed on my way. For it wouldn’t do for a prophet of God to be killed except in Jerusalem!” (nlt<\/span>). In Acts, Jesus is regarded as “the prophet like Moses” predicted in Deuteronomy 18:18 (Acts 3:22; 7:37). Matthew presents Jesus as the New Moses, but he does not particularly emphasize his prophetic role. John, however, like Luke, emphasizes Jesus’ role as the prophet (Jn 4:19; 6:14-15; 7:40).<\/p>\nWhile the Gospels and Acts reflect the notion that Jesus was a prophet, they also emphasize the fact that he was much more than a prophet. Nevertheless, the notion of prophetism was sufficiently important in early Judaism that Jesus’ recognition as a prophet is very significant. There are 12 solid reasons for regarding Jesus as a prophet in the OT tradition: (1) The sovereign authority of Jesus’ teaching (Mk 1:27), a feature underlined by his use of the introductory formula “(Amen) I say to you,” which is reminiscent of the formula “thus says the Lord” used by the OT prophets. (2) The poetic character of many of Jesus’ sayings is unlike contemporary rabbinic teaching but is similar to the poetic rhetoric of the OT prophets. (3) Jesus experienced visions (Lk 10:18) like the ancient prophets. (4) Jesus, like the prophets, made many predictions (Mt 23:38; Mk 13:2; 14:58; Lk 13:35; etc.). (5) Like the OT prophets, Jesus performed symbolic acts (such as the cleansing of the temple, the entry into Jerusalem, and the Last Supper). (6) Jesus, like the prophets, when necessary, rejected the formal observance of religious ritual and emphasized the moral and spiritual dimensions of obedience to God. (7) Jesus announced the imminent arrival of the kingdom of God—an eschatological proclamation similar to those made by the prophets. (8) Like the OT prophets, Jesus functioned as a preacher of repentance. (9) Jesus, like many of the prophets, was conscious of a special calling of God (Mt 15:24; Mk 8:31; 9:37; 14:36; Lk 4:18-26). (10) Jesus, like the prophets, received divine revelation through intimate communion with God (Mt 11:27; Lk 10:22). (11) Like the prophets, Jesus represented God; to obey him was to obey God, to reject him was to reject God (Mk 9:37; cf. Ez 33:30-33). (12) Like the prophets, Jesus was conscious of a mission to all Israel (Mt 15:24; 19:28; Lk 22:30).<\/p>\nAmong the many prophetic predictions of Jesus are the following:<\/p>\n1. Predictions of the imminent arrival of the kingdom of God (Mt 10:7-8, 23; 23:39; Mk 1:15; 9:1; 13:28-29)<\/p>\n<li>2. Predictions of the destruction of Jerusalem and the temple (Mt 23:37-39; 24:2; 26:61; 27:40; Mk 13:2; 14:58; 15:29; Lk 13:34-35; 21:6; Jn 2:19-21)<\/li>\n<li>3. Predictions of the coming of the Son of Man (Mt 10:23, 32-33; 12:40; 13:40-41; 16:27; 24:27, 37-39; Mk 8:38; 13:26-27; 14:62; Lk 9:26; 11:30; 12:8-9; 17:24, 26)<\/li>\n<li>4. Predictions of the end of the age. The longest prophetic section in the Gospels is the eschatological discourse of Jesus in Mark 13:1-32 (cf. Mt 24:1-36; Lk 21:5-33), in which a number of predictions concerning the destruction of Jerusalem and the end of the age are woven into a lengthy discourse to the disciples.<\/li>\n<h5>Prophecy as a Gift for the Believers<\/h5>\nThe beginning of prophetic activity in early Christianity, according to Acts, coincided with the outpouring of the Holy Spirit upon the earliest Christians on the Day of Pentecost (Acts 2:1-21). Peter’s sermon on the Day of Pentecost indicates that the outpouring of the Spirit fulfilled Joel’s prophecy (Acts 2:4, 17-21; cf. Jl 2:28-32). Further, since the Spirit had been poured out upon all early Christians (that Spirit being a Spirit of prophecy), all are actual or potential prophets.<\/p>\nAccording to 1 Corinthians 12:28 (see also Rom 12:6; Eph 4:11), God has appointed in the church first apostles, second prophets, and third teachers. The names of several early Christian prophets have been preserved. These include Agabus (Acts 11:27-28; 21:10-11); Judas and Silas (15:32); Barnabas, Simeon Niger, Lucius of Cyrene, Manaen, and Paul (13:1); and the four virgin daughters of Philip the evangelist (21:8-9). John, the author of Revelation, was certainly a prophet (Rv 1:3; 22:9, 18), though he never directly assumed that title.<\/p>\nThe Role of the Christian Prophet<\/p>\nChristian prophets were leaders in early Christian communities (1 Cor 12:28; Eph 4:11), who exercised their gift in church gatherings (Acts 13:1-3; 11:27-28; 1 Cor 12–14; Rv 1:10). Since the Spirit of God was particularly active in Christian worship, prophecy was a major means whereby God communicated with his people. Prophets, like apostles and teachers, did not hold offices in local communities like bishops, elders, and deacons. Rather, they were chosen, not by individual congregations, but by divine commission and so were honored and accepted in all local communities.<\/p>\nEarly Christian prophets were both itinerant and settled, though itinerant prophets seem to have been more prevalent in Syria-Palestine and Asia Minor than in the European churches.<\/p>\n<h5>The Function of Prophecy<\/h5>\nAccording to Paul, the central purpose of prophecy (as of all other spiritual gifts) is that of building up or edifying the church. According to 1 Corinthians 14:3, “one who prophesies is helping others grow in the Lord, encouraging and comforting them” (nlt<\/span>). Again, in 1 Corinthians 14:4, Paul states that the “one who speaks a word of prophecy strengthens the entire church.” Paul discussed the subject of spiritual gifts, particularly tongues speaking and prophecy, because the Corinthians had placed an excessive emphasis on speaking in tongues. Paul did not object to speaking in tongues (1 Cor 14:18, 39), but he did point out that, since it was generally incomprehensible, the church could not be edified by it. Prophecy, which consisted of comprehensible speech inspired by the Spirit, contributed to the mutual edification, encouragement, and consolation of all present (1 Cor 14:20-25, 39).<\/p>\n<h5>The Content of Christian Prophecy<\/h5>\nWe know only a little about the content of prophecies uttered in the first-century church. Prophetic utterance occasionally provided divine guidance in making important decisions in early Christianity. Through a prophetic utterance, Paul and Barnabas were selected for a particular mission (Acts 13:1-3; cf. 1 Tm 1:18; 4:14). Probably through prophetic utterance, Paul and Timothy were forbidden to preach the gospel in Asia (Acts 16:6), and they were similarly forbidden by the Spirit of Jesus to go into Bithynia (v 7). Perhaps the most frequent use of prophecy is the prediction of the future. Agabus predicted a universal famine (11:28) and the imminent arrest of Paul (21:11). Other prophets had also predicted his impending imprisonment (20:23). The prophecies contained in the Revelation of John are all oriented toward the future events that will gradually unfold in the last days. Yet the purpose of John’s elaborate prophecy is not to satisfy the curiosity of his audience but rather to comfort and encourage them in the midst of persecution.<\/p>\n<h5>The Form of Christian Prophecy<\/h5>\nUnlike the prophets of the OT, Christian prophets did not always present their message in the form of a direct speech from God or Jesus. There are few, if any, formal indicators of the presence of prophetic speech in early Christian literature. The book of Revelation is one notable exception.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Dreams; Oracle; Promise; Prophet, Prophetess; Prophets, False; Visions.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>PROPHECY<\/h3>\nTerm, along with its English cognates (“prophet,” “to prophesy,” “prophetism,” and “prophetic”), derived from a group of Greek words that, in secular Greek, mean “speak forth,” “proclaim,” “announce.” In biblical Greek, however, these terms always carry the connotation of speaking, proclaiming, or announcing something under the influence of spiritual inspiration.<\/p>\nPreview<\/p>\n• Prophecy in the Old Testament<\/p>\n• Types of Old Testament Prophets<\/p>\n• The Message of the Prophets<\/p>\n• Prophecy in the New Testament<\/p>\n• The Role of the Christian Prophet<\/p>\nProphecy in the Old Testament<\/p>\nOne of the clearest and most significant statements on the nature of prophetic inspiration in the OT is found in Numbers 12:6-8: “The Lord<\/span> said to them, ‘Now listen to me! Even with prophets, I the Lord<\/span> communicate by visions and dreams. But that is not how I communicate with my servant Moses. He is entrusted with my entire house. I speak to him face to face, directly and not in riddles! He sees the Lord<\/span> as he is’ ” (nlt<\/span>). Several important insights into the nature of prophetic inspiration are found in this passage: (1) The prophetic gift of Moses was unique in that he alone received revelations directly from God. (2) Ordinarily, prophetic revelation was received through the medium of a dream or a vision. (3) The meaning of prophetic revelation is not always completely clear; prophecy is sometimes ambiguous.<\/p>\nFurther insight into the nature of prophetic revelation is found in Deuteronomy 18:18: “I [God] will raise up for them a prophet like you [Moses] from among their brethren; and I will put my words in his mouth, and he shall speak to them all that I command him” (rsv<\/span>). While this passage is of interest because Jesus was identified as “the prophet like Moses” who came in fulfillment of this prediction (Acts 3:22; 7:37), the more immediate historical reference is to the succession of prophets that guided Israel from Joshua to Malachi. The phrase “I will put my words in his mouth” refers to the process of divine inspiration and is reminiscent of the common OT prophetic formula “the word of the Lord came to [such and such a prophet]” (for examples, see 1 Sm 15:10; 2 Sm 24:11; 1 Kgs 19:9; Jon 1:1; Hg 1:1; 2:1, 20; Zec 7:1, 8; 8:1). A true prophet is one who speaks (or repeats) all that God has told him.<\/p>\n<h5>Modes of Prophetic Inspiration<\/h5>\nDreams were a commonly recognized mode of inspiration throughout the ancient world, though they were more highly regarded in Greece than in ancient Israel. Revelatory dreams in the Bible fall into two major categories: (1) dreams whose meaning is self-evident, and (2) symbolic dreams that usually require the expertise of an interpreter of dreams. Both types normally involve both visual and auditory elements. In those dreams whose meaning is self-evident, normally a supernatural being (God or an angel) appears to the dreamer and speaks to him or her in a straightforward manner.<\/p>\nMore frequently, revelatory dreams have symbolic elements that require interpretation. The two great dream interpreters of the OT are Joseph and Daniel; the latter is clearly a prophet. The two symbolic dreams that Joseph himself dreamed (Gn 37:5-11) had sufficiently self-evident meaning so that his brothers and father were able to interpret them immediately. More complex were the dreams of the butler and baker (40:1-19) and of Pharaoh (41:1-36), which Joseph was able to interpret with the help of God. Similarly, Daniel was enabled to interpret the dreams of Nebuchadnezzar (Dn 2:25-45; 4:4-27). The skill in interpreting such dreams was attributed by both Joseph and Daniel to God (Gn 40:8; 41:16, 25; Dn 2:27-30; cf. 4:9). While dreams are used almost interchangeably with visions in referring to modes of prophetic inspiration (Jl 2:28), dreams do not occupy a significant part in the prophetic revelations of any of the OT prophets, with the exception of Daniel.<\/p>\nOne of the most characteristic modes of prophetic inspiration was the vision (Nm 12:6; 24:4, 16; Hos 12:10). The revelatory visions experienced by the prophets were not limited to visual phenomena alone but also included the auditory dimension as well. In Isaiah 1:1, the author describes his entire prophetic book as a “vision”: “These visions concerning Judah and Jerusalem came to Isaiah son of Amoz during the reigns of Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah—all kings of Judah” (nlt<\/span>). Yet in the very next verse, Isaiah says, “Hear, O heavens! Listen, O earth! This is what the Lord<\/span> says.” Again, in Amos 1:1, “The words<\/em> of Amos, who was among the shepherds of Tekoa, which he saw<\/em> concerning Israel” (rsv<\/span>, emphasis added).<\/p>\n<h5>Manifestations of Prophetic Inspiration<\/h5>\nAll prophecy, whether biblical or not, presupposes that the prophet either possessed or was possessed by a personal supernatural power. The external behavioral manifestations of this possession can exhibit great variety.<\/p>\nThe prophetic phenomenon generally designated “ecstatic” prophecy appears to have existed in Canaan prior to the arrival of the Hebrew tribes in the 13th century BC<\/span>. The first reference to ecstatic prophecy in Israel occurs in 1 Samuel 10:5-13 (11th century BC<\/span>), and it persisted at least till the sixth century BC<\/span> (Jer 29:26).<\/p>\nThe ecstatic prophet achieves a trancelike state by self-induced means. The most common devices used to achieve a state of ecstasy were musical instruments, such as the harp, tambourine, flute, and lyre (1 Sm 10:5). Among the prophets of Baal, self-flagellation was another means of inducing ecstasy (1 Kgs 18:28-29).<\/p>\nThis kind of prophetic ecstasy was usually practiced by groups of prophets (1 Sm 10:5), and such ecstasy was contagious. When Saul met a band of such prophets, the Spirit of God came upon him and he, too, began to prophesy (vv 10-13), a phenomenon that occurred repeatedly to various messengers sent by Saul on a later occasion (19:20-22). At that time Saul again prophesied, and his ecstatic behavior is described in 1 Samuel 19:24. When Elisha was asked to prophesy for King Jehoram of Israel, he first requested a minstrel. When the minstrel played, the power of the Lord came upon him (2 Kgs 3:15).<\/p>\nTypes of Old Testament Prophets<\/p>\nThere are two basic types of prophetic commission in the OT. One type is that of a narrative call by God to a particular individual whose objections to the call are gradually overcome in a dialogue between himself and God. The classic example of this type of prophetic commission is found in Jeremiah 1:4-8:<\/p>\nThe Lord<\/span> gave me a message. He said, “I knew you before I formed you in your mother’s womb. Before you were born I set you apart and appointed you as my spokesman to the world.”<\/p>\n<blockquote>“O Sovereign Lord<\/span>,” I said, “I can’t speak for you! I’m too young!”<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<blockquote>“Don’t say that,” the Lord<\/span> replied, “for you must go wherever I send you and say whatever I tell you. And don’t be afraid of the people, for I will be with you and take care of you. I, the Lord<\/span>, have spoken!” (nlt<\/span>)<\/p><\/blockquote>\nSimilar prophetic commissions including such dialogues are associated with the calls of Moses (Ex 3:1–4:17) and Gideon (Jgs 6:11-17).<\/p>\nThe second major form of prophetic commission is the “throne vision.” An outstanding example is Isaiah 6:1-8:<\/p>\nIn the year King Uzziah died, I saw the Lord. He was sitting on a lofty throne, and the train of his robe filled the Temple. . . .<\/p>\n<blockquote>Then I said, “My destruction is sealed, for I am a sinful man and a member of a sinful race. Yet I have seen the King, the Lord<\/span> Almighty!”<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<blockquote>Then one of the seraphim flew over to the altar, and he picked up a burning coal with a pair of tongs. He touched my lips with it and said, “See, this coal has touched your lips. Now your guilt is removed, and your sins are forgiven.”<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<blockquote>Then I heard the Lord asking, “Whom should I send as a messenger to my people? Who will go for us?”<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<blockquote>And I said, “Lord, I’ll go! Send me.” (nlt<\/span>)<\/p><\/blockquote>\nHere we have an account of the visionary presence of a prophet in the heavenly council; in this case, however, the prophet participates in the deliberations and thereby receives a prophetic commission. Though few prophets have left accounts of their divine commissions, most of them appear to have been conscious of having been “sent” by God (Is 48:16; Hos 8:1; Am 7:14-15). According to Jeremiah, false prophets did not receive such divine commissions (Jer 23:21, 32; 28:15).<\/p>\nThe Message of the Prophets<\/p>\n<h5>The Form of the Message<\/h5>\nThe most common introductory formula for prophetic oracles in the OT is the phrase “Thus says the Lord,” which occurs hundreds of times in prophetic contexts. This formula clearly implies that the pronouncement so introduced is not the word of the prophet who utters the oracle but of the God of Israel who delivered his word to his prophet. The use of this formula also reiterates the prophet’s sense of divine commission. In oracles introduced in this manner, God speaks in the first person. In fact, virtually all Israelite prophetic utterance is formulated as the direct speech of the God of Israel.<\/p>\nThe prophets used many literary forms in which to express their oracles. Two of the more widely used forms of prophetic speech are the judgment speech and the oracle of salvation. The judgment speech is composed of at least two central elements: the speech of rebuke or invective, and the pronouncement of judgment (see 2 Kgs 1:3-4). The second common prophetic speech form is the oracle of salvation (see Is 41:8-13). Other fixed forms of prophetic speech include the prophecy of salvation (43:14-21), the proclamation of salvation (41:17-20; 42:14-17; 43:16-21; 49:7-12), and the woe oracle (Is 5:8-10; 10:1-4; Am 5:18-24; 6:1-7; Mi 2:1-5).<\/p>\n<h5>The Content of the Message<\/h5>\nThe common adage that OT prophets were not “foretellers” but “forthtellers” is not strictly correct. All of the prophets predict the future. Such prediction, however, is based not on human curiosity of what the future will hold but rather is rooted in the future consequences of past or present violations of the covenant, or on a future act of deliverance that will provide hope for a discouraged people. Most of the prophetic speeches that have been preserved in the OT were originally delivered as public proclamations or sermons. Most of these prophetic proclamations were evoked by the iniquity and apostasy of Israel. Hosea and Jeremiah condemned Israel because she had broken the covenant (Jer 11:2-3; Hos 8:1).<\/p>\nThe prophets are frequently associated with social justice and social reform, and these elements were unquestionably an important dimension of their message. Amos denounced the rich who afflicted the poor (Am 2:6-8; 4:1; 5:11; 8:4-6). He railed against sexual immorality (2:6-8) and against those who take bribes (5:12). Hosea provided a list of prevalent vices, including lying, killing, stealing, adultery, and idolatry (Hos 4:2). Idolatry was a particular target for his denunciations (8:5; 11:2). The background for such heated denunciations of Israel’s behavior is God’s unquenchable love for Israel (Is 43:4; Jer 31:3; Hos 3:1; 11:1-4; 14:4; Mal 1:2), which is inseparable from his election of Israel (Is 43:1; Jer 33:24; Ez 20:5; Hos 3).<\/p>\nThe prophets were concerned not only with the transgressions of Israel and the historical judgment that would inevitably follow but also with the achievement of a final future time of bliss. The message of many of the prophets is thoroughly eschatological (i.e., pertaining to the end times). One such eschatological concept is that of the Day of the Lord. The concept of the Day of the Lord first appears in Amos, where the emphasis lies on the disaster that will befall Israel on that day. Amos’s emphasis on disaster notwithstanding, the Day of the Lord is a conception that had both salvific as well as judgmental overtones for Israel. While the disaster that will occur in the Day of the Lord can be viewed in terms of a literal historical fulfillment in the tragic events of 722 BC<\/span> (the fall of Samaria) and 586 BC<\/span> (the fall of Judah), there are nevertheless features of these predictions that transcend historical fulfillment and reach toward eschatological fulfillment.<\/p>\nSince the Israelite conception of “salvation” was largely temporal in its dimensions, it included such blessings as length of life, fruitfulness of the womb and field, peace and victory over one’s enemies, the abundance of water, and so on. In harmony with this conception of salvation, the future age is conceived in precisely those terms, as in Amos 9:13-15.<\/p>\nThe prophets pictured a time when David himself, or someone very much like him, would return and inaugurate a golden era reminiscent of the great Davidic and Solomonic period. The covenant of God with David was not a conditional covenant but rather one that was absolutely inviolable (2 Sm 7:4-17; Ps 89; Jer 33:19-22), and it was with this knowledge that the prophets could look forward confidently to a restoration of David’s throne (Jer 17:24-26; 23:5-6; 33:14-15).<\/p>\n\nProphecy in the New Testament<\/p>\nIn contrast to the few self-proclaimed prophets of the intertestamental period, early Christianity began with a flurry of prophetic activity that lasted well into the second century AD<\/span>. Jesus, his disciples and followers, and the early Christians were convinced that the times in which they lived were times in which OT prophecy was being fulfilled (Mk 1:14-15; Acts 2:16-21; Rom 16:25-27; 1 Cor 10:11). Yet this era was not only one of fulfillment but also one of the renewal of the prophetic gift.<\/p>\n<h5>John the Baptist<\/h5>\nJohn the Baptist is remembered in the NT primarily as the forerunner of Jesus whose coming was predicted by Malachi (Mal 4:5-6). Yet, in his own right, John proclaimed the imminent judgment of God with a flair of denunciation and rebuke reminiscent of the OT prophets. John’s costume, consisting of a hairy cloak and a leather girdle (Mk 1:6), was reminiscent of the typical garb of OT prophets (1 Kgs 19:19; 2 Kgs 1:8; 2:13-14; Zec 13:4). John was regarded as a prophet by people everywhere (Mt 14:5; 17:10-13; Mk 9:11-13; 11:32; Lk 1:76; 7:26). Luke reports, in a style similar to the OT prophetic narratives, that “the word of God came to John” (Lk 3:2). Two short prophetic speeches have been preserved in Matthew 3:7-10 (cf. Lk 3:7-9) and Mark 1:7-8 (cf. Mt 3:11-12; Lk 3:15-18). In the first speech, John denounced those of his generation who had transgressed the covenant law and exhorted them to change their manner of life. In the second speech, John predicted the coming of the Mighty One, Jesus (Mt 3:11; Mk 1:7; Lk 3:16; Jn 1:15, 27, 30; Acts 13:25). John’s style, however, was not precisely that of the OT prophets. His pronouncements were made on his own authority; never did he use formulas such as “thus says the Lord,” or present his prophetic utterances as if they were speeches made by God. Yet, in spite of these differences, John is appropriately regarded as the last representative of the OT prophetic tradition (Mt 11:13; Lk 16:16).<\/p>\n<h5>Jesus of Nazareth<\/h5>\nJesus was popularly regarded as a prophet (Mt 16:14; 21:10-11; Mk 6:14-15; 8:28; Lk 7:16, 39; 9:8, 19; Jn 6:14; 7:40, 52). This assessment was based as much on the mighty deeds Jesus performed as on his prophetic speeches and predictions. Though Jesus nowhere claimed prophetic status directly, that claim is implicit in Mark 6:4: “A prophet is honored everywhere except in his own hometown” (cf. Mt 13:57; Lk 4:24). It is implicit as well in Luke 13:33: “Yes, today, tomorrow, and the next day I must proceed on my way. For it wouldn’t do for a prophet of God to be killed except in Jerusalem!” (nlt<\/span>). In Acts, Jesus is regarded as “the prophet like Moses” predicted in Deuteronomy 18:18 (Acts 3:22; 7:37). Matthew presents Jesus as the New Moses, but he does not particularly emphasize his prophetic role. John, however, like Luke, emphasizes Jesus’ role as the prophet (Jn 4:19; 6:14-15; 7:40).<\/p>\nWhile the Gospels and Acts reflect the notion that Jesus was a prophet, they also emphasize the fact that he was much more than a prophet. Nevertheless, the notion of prophetism was sufficiently important in early Judaism that Jesus’ recognition as a prophet is very significant. There are 12 solid reasons for regarding Jesus as a prophet in the OT tradition: (1) The sovereign authority of Jesus’ teaching (Mk 1:27), a feature underlined by his use of the introductory formula “(Amen) I say to you,” which is reminiscent of the formula “thus says the Lord” used by the OT prophets. (2) The poetic character of many of Jesus’ sayings is unlike contemporary rabbinic teaching but is similar to the poetic rhetoric of the OT prophets. (3) Jesus experienced visions (Lk 10:18) like the ancient prophets. (4) Jesus, like the prophets, made many predictions (Mt 23:38; Mk 13:2; 14:58; Lk 13:35; etc.). (5) Like the OT prophets, Jesus performed symbolic acts (such as the cleansing of the temple, the entry into Jerusalem, and the Last Supper). (6) Jesus, like the prophets, when necessary, rejected the formal observance of religious ritual and emphasized the moral and spiritual dimensions of obedience to God. (7) Jesus announced the imminent arrival of the kingdom of God—an eschatological proclamation similar to those made by the prophets. (8) Like the OT prophets, Jesus functioned as a preacher of repentance. (9) Jesus, like many of the prophets, was conscious of a special calling of God (Mt 15:24; Mk 8:31; 9:37; 14:36; Lk 4:18-26). (10) Jesus, like the prophets, received divine revelation through intimate communion with God (Mt 11:27; Lk 10:22). (11) Like the prophets, Jesus represented God; to obey him was to obey God, to reject him was to reject God (Mk 9:37; cf. Ez 33:30-33). (12) Like the prophets, Jesus was conscious of a mission to all Israel (Mt 15:24; 19:28; Lk 22:30).<\/p>\nAmong the many prophetic predictions of Jesus are the following:<\/p>\n1. Predictions of the imminent arrival of the kingdom of God (Mt 10:7-8, 23; 23:39; Mk 1:15; 9:1; 13:28-29)<\/p>\n<li>2. Predictions of the destruction of Jerusalem and the temple (Mt 23:37-39; 24:2; 26:61; 27:40; Mk 13:2; 14:58; 15:29; Lk 13:34-35; 21:6; Jn 2:19-21)<\/li>\n<li>3. Predictions of the coming of the Son of Man (Mt 10:23, 32-33; 12:40; 13:40-41; 16:27; 24:27, 37-39; Mk 8:38; 13:26-27; 14:62; Lk 9:26; 11:30; 12:8-9; 17:24, 26)<\/li>\n<li>4. Predictions of the end of the age. The longest prophetic section in the Gospels is the eschatological discourse of Jesus in Mark 13:1-32 (cf. Mt 24:1-36; Lk 21:5-33), in which a number of predictions concerning the destruction of Jerusalem and the end of the age are woven into a lengthy discourse to the disciples.<\/li>\n<h5>Prophecy as a Gift for the Believers<\/h5>\nThe beginning of prophetic activity in early Christianity, according to Acts, coincided with the outpouring of the Holy Spirit upon the earliest Christians on the Day of Pentecost (Acts 2:1-21). Peter’s sermon on the Day of Pentecost indicates that the outpouring of the Spirit fulfilled Joel’s prophecy (Acts 2:4, 17-21; cf. Jl 2:28-32). Further, since the Spirit had been poured out upon all early Christians (that Spirit being a Spirit of prophecy), all are actual or potential prophets.<\/p>\nAccording to 1 Corinthians 12:28 (see also Rom 12:6; Eph 4:11), God has appointed in the church first apostles, second prophets, and third teachers. The names of several early Christian prophets have been preserved. These include Agabus (Acts 11:27-28; 21:10-11); Judas and Silas (15:32); Barnabas, Simeon Niger, Lucius of Cyrene, Manaen, and Paul (13:1); and the four virgin daughters of Philip the evangelist (21:8-9). John, the author of Revelation, was certainly a prophet (Rv 1:3; 22:9, 18), though he never directly assumed that title.<\/p>\nThe Role of the Christian Prophet<\/p>\nChristian prophets were leaders in early Christian communities (1 Cor 12:28; Eph 4:11), who exercised their gift in church gatherings (Acts 13:1-3; 11:27-28; 1 Cor 12–14; Rv 1:10). Since the Spirit of God was particularly active in Christian worship, prophecy was a major means whereby God communicated with his people. Prophets, like apostles and teachers, did not hold offices in local communities like bishops, elders, and deacons. Rather, they were chosen, not by individual congregations, but by divine commission and so were honored and accepted in all local communities.<\/p>\nEarly Christian prophets were both itinerant and settled, though itinerant prophets seem to have been more prevalent in Syria-Palestine and Asia Minor than in the European churches.<\/p>\n<h5>The Function of Prophecy<\/h5>\nAccording to Paul, the central purpose of prophecy (as of all other spiritual gifts) is that of building up or edifying the church. According to 1 Corinthians 14:3, “one who prophesies is helping others grow in the Lord, encouraging and comforting them” (nlt<\/span>). Again, in 1 Corinthians 14:4, Paul states that the “one who speaks a word of prophecy strengthens the entire church.” Paul discussed the subject of spiritual gifts, particularly tongues speaking and prophecy, because the Corinthians had placed an excessive emphasis on speaking in tongues. Paul did not object to speaking in tongues (1 Cor 14:18, 39), but he did point out that, since it was generally incomprehensible, the church could not be edified by it. Prophecy, which consisted of comprehensible speech inspired by the Spirit, contributed to the mutual edification, encouragement, and consolation of all present (1 Cor 14:20-25, 39).<\/p>\n<h5>The Content of Christian Prophecy<\/h5>\nWe know only a little about the content of prophecies uttered in the first-century church. Prophetic utterance occasionally provided divine guidance in making important decisions in early Christianity. Through a prophetic utterance, Paul and Barnabas were selected for a particular mission (Acts 13:1-3; cf. 1 Tm 1:18; 4:14). Probably through prophetic utterance, Paul and Timothy were forbidden to preach the gospel in Asia (Acts 16:6), and they were similarly forbidden by the Spirit of Jesus to go into Bithynia (v 7). Perhaps the most frequent use of prophecy is the prediction of the future. Agabus predicted a universal famine (11:28) and the imminent arrest of Paul (21:11). Other prophets had also predicted his impending imprisonment (20:23). The prophecies contained in the Revelation of John are all oriented toward the future events that will gradually unfold in the last days. Yet the purpose of John’s elaborate prophecy is not to satisfy the curiosity of his audience but rather to comfort and encourage them in the midst of persecution.<\/p>\n<h5>The Form of Christian Prophecy<\/h5>\nUnlike the prophets of the OT, Christian prophets did not always present their message in the form of a direct speech from God or Jesus. There are few, if any, formal indicators of the presence of prophetic speech in early Christian literature. The book of Revelation is one notable exception.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Dreams; Oracle; Promise; Prophet, Prophetess; Prophets, False; Visions.<\/p>","summary_ro":"PROPHECY Term, along with its English cognates (“prophet,” “to prophesy,” “prophetism,” and “prophetic”), derived from a group of Greek words that, in secular Greek, mean “speak forth,” “proclaim,” “announce.” In biblical Greek, however, these terms always carry the connotation of speaking, proclaiming, or announcing something under the influence of spiritual inspiration. Preview • Prophecy in the Old Testament • Types of Old Testament Prophets • The Message of the Prophets • Prophecy in the ...","summary_en":"PROPHECY Term, along with its English cognates (“prophet,” “to prophesy,” “prophetism,” and “prophetic”), derived from a group of Greek words that, in secular Greek, mean “speak forth,” “proclaim,” “announce.” In biblical Greek, however, these terms always carry the connotation of speaking, proclaiming, or announcing something under the influence of spiritual inspiration. Preview • Prophecy in the Old Testament • Types of Old Testament Prophets • The Message of the Prophets • Prophecy in the ...","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":51664,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 42:14","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 42:14","content_ro":"42:14<\/strong> I have long been silent . . . restrained myself:<\/em> Israel had experienced God’s absence in the Exile, which came about because of their idolatrous ways (57:11-13; 2 Kgs 17:6-24). The godly will pray for God’s presence and renewed involvement in their situation (Isa 64:12), and the Lord will answer their prayers because of his commitment to their redemption (62:1, 6).<\/p>","content_en":"42:14<\/strong> I have long been silent . . . restrained myself:<\/em> Israel had experienced God’s absence in the Exile, which came about because of their idolatrous ways (57:11-13; 2 Kgs 17:6-24). The godly will pray for God’s presence and renewed involvement in their situation (Isa 64:12), and the Lord will answer their prayers because of his commitment to their redemption (62:1, 6).<\/p>","summary_ro":"42:14 I have long been silent . . . restrained myself: Israel had experienced God’s absence in the Exile, which came about because of their idolatrous ways (57:11-13; 2 Kgs 17:6-24). The godly will pray for God’s presence and renewed involvement in their situation (Isa 64:12), and the Lord will answer their prayers because of his commitment to their redemption (62:1, 6).","summary_en":"42:14 I have long been silent . . . restrained myself: Israel had experienced God’s absence in the Exile, which came about because of their idolatrous ways (57:11-13; 2 Kgs 17:6-24). The godly will pray for God’s presence and renewed involvement in their situation (Isa 64:12), and the Lord will answer their prayers because of his commitment to their redemption (62:1, 6).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":79290,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 42:14","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 42:14","content_ro":"42:14<\/strong> I have long been silent . . . restrained myself:<\/em> Israel had experienced God’s absence in the Exile, which came about because of their idolatrous ways (57:11-13; 2 Kgs 17:6-24). The godly will pray for God’s presence and renewed involvement in their situation (Isa 64:12), and the Lord will answer their prayers because of his commitment to their redemption (62:1, 6).<\/p>","content_en":"42:14<\/strong> I have long been silent . . . restrained myself:<\/em> Israel had experienced God’s absence in the Exile, which came about because of their idolatrous ways (57:11-13; 2 Kgs 17:6-24). The godly will pray for God’s presence and renewed involvement in their situation (Isa 64:12), and the Lord will answer their prayers because of his commitment to their redemption (62:1, 6).<\/p>","summary_ro":"42:14 I have long been silent . . . restrained myself: Israel had experienced God’s absence in the Exile, which came about because of their idolatrous ways (57:11-13; 2 Kgs 17:6-24). The godly will pray for God’s presence and renewed involvement in their situation (Isa 64:12), and the Lord will answer their prayers because of his commitment to their redemption (62:1, 6).","summary_en":"42:14 I have long been silent . . . restrained myself: Israel had experienced God’s absence in the Exile, which came about because of their idolatrous ways (57:11-13; 2 Kgs 17:6-24). The godly will pray for God’s presence and renewed involvement in their situation (Isa 64:12), and the Lord will answer their prayers because of his commitment to their redemption (62:1, 6).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":106916,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 42:14","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 42:14","content_ro":"42:14<\/strong> I have long been silent . . . restrained myself:<\/em> Israel had experienced God’s absence in the Exile, which came about because of their idolatrous ways (57:11-13; 2 Kgs 17:6-24). The godly will pray for God’s presence and renewed involvement in their situation (Isa 64:12), and the Lord will answer their prayers because of his commitment to their redemption (62:1, 6).<\/p>","content_en":"42:14<\/strong> I have long been silent . . . restrained myself:<\/em> Israel had experienced God’s absence in the Exile, which came about because of their idolatrous ways (57:11-13; 2 Kgs 17:6-24). The godly will pray for God’s presence and renewed involvement in their situation (Isa 64:12), and the Lord will answer their prayers because of his commitment to their redemption (62:1, 6).<\/p>","summary_ro":"42:14 I have long been silent . . . restrained myself: Israel had experienced God’s absence in the Exile, which came about because of their idolatrous ways (57:11-13; 2 Kgs 17:6-24). The godly will pray for God’s presence and renewed involvement in their situation (Isa 64:12), and the Lord will answer their prayers because of his commitment to their redemption (62:1, 6).","summary_en":"42:14 I have long been silent . . . restrained myself: Israel had experienced God’s absence in the Exile, which came about because of their idolatrous ways (57:11-13; 2 Kgs 17:6-24). The godly will pray for God’s presence and renewed involvement in their situation (Isa 64:12), and the Lord will answer their prayers because of his commitment to their redemption (62:1, 6).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":134542,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 42:14","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 42:14","content_ro":"42:14<\/strong> I have long been silent . . . restrained myself:<\/em> Israel had experienced God’s absence in the Exile, which came about because of their idolatrous ways (57:11-13; 2 Kgs 17:6-24). The godly will pray for God’s presence and renewed involvement in their situation (Isa 64:12), and the Lord will answer their prayers because of his commitment to their redemption (62:1, 6).<\/p>","content_en":"42:14<\/strong> I have long been silent . . . restrained myself:<\/em> Israel had experienced God’s absence in the Exile, which came about because of their idolatrous ways (57:11-13; 2 Kgs 17:6-24). The godly will pray for God’s presence and renewed involvement in their situation (Isa 64:12), and the Lord will answer their prayers because of his commitment to their redemption (62:1, 6).<\/p>","summary_ro":"42:14 I have long been silent . . . restrained myself: Israel had experienced God’s absence in the Exile, which came about because of their idolatrous ways (57:11-13; 2 Kgs 17:6-24). The godly will pray for God’s presence and renewed involvement in their situation (Isa 64:12), and the Lord will answer their prayers because of his commitment to their redemption (62:1, 6).","summary_en":"42:14 I have long been silent . . . restrained myself: Israel had experienced God’s absence in the Exile, which came about because of their idolatrous ways (57:11-13; 2 Kgs 17:6-24). The godly will pray for God’s presence and renewed involvement in their situation (Isa 64:12), and the Lord will answer their prayers because of his commitment to their redemption (62:1, 6).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":64037,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Promise of a Second Exodus","title_en":"The Promise of a Second Exodus","content_ro":"<h3>The Promise of a Second Exodus<\/h3>\nLike the exodus from Egypt, Israel’s return from exile would restore God’s people to the land. Just as they had left Egypt many years before, the people of Israel would leave Babylon (Isa 48:20-21). This time they would have to be cleansed (52:11) and would not rush their departure (52:12).<\/p>\nBoth the experience in exile and the journey are likened to a desert (see 35:1) from which the Lord would bring rescue. He prepares a road through the desert (43:19), transforms the desert into a watering hole with vegetation and animals (43:19-20), removes obstacles along the way (42:16; 49:11), guides his people through the desert (42:16; 58:11; 63:13), feeds them (49:10), protects them from the desert heat (49:10), and strengthens them (58:11). He changes the experience of the exiles from sorrow to great joy (51:3) and pours out his Spirit on them (44:3-4).<\/p>\nAn exodus of sorts also occurs for all those who believe in Christ—an exodus from sin and death through Christ’s death and the power of his resurrection. The Holy Spirit enables believers to live in newness of life and to serve God with joy as they await the coming of his kingdom in all its fullness.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nIsa 35:8-10; 42:14-16; 43:18-21; 44:3-4; 48:20-21; 49:9-12; 52:11-12; 58:8-12; Jer 31:2-17; Joel 3:17-21; Luke 1:78-79; John 7:38; 15:19; 2 Cor 5:17; 6:17-18; Eph 5:8; Col 1:13; Heb 13:12-14; Rev 7:16<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Promise of a Second Exodus<\/h3>\nLike the exodus from Egypt, Israel’s return from exile would restore God’s people to the land. Just as they had left Egypt many years before, the people of Israel would leave Babylon (Isa 48:20-21). This time they would have to be cleansed (52:11) and would not rush their departure (52:12).<\/p>\nBoth the experience in exile and the journey are likened to a desert (see 35:1) from which the Lord would bring rescue. He prepares a road through the desert (43:19), transforms the desert into a watering hole with vegetation and animals (43:19-20), removes obstacles along the way (42:16; 49:11), guides his people through the desert (42:16; 58:11; 63:13), feeds them (49:10), protects them from the desert heat (49:10), and strengthens them (58:11). He changes the experience of the exiles from sorrow to great joy (51:3) and pours out his Spirit on them (44:3-4).<\/p>\nAn exodus of sorts also occurs for all those who believe in Christ—an exodus from sin and death through Christ’s death and the power of his resurrection. The Holy Spirit enables believers to live in newness of life and to serve God with joy as they await the coming of his kingdom in all its fullness.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nIsa 35:8-10; 42:14-16; 43:18-21; 44:3-4; 48:20-21; 49:9-12; 52:11-12; 58:8-12; Jer 31:2-17; Joel 3:17-21; Luke 1:78-79; John 7:38; 15:19; 2 Cor 5:17; 6:17-18; Eph 5:8; Col 1:13; Heb 13:12-14; Rev 7:16<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Promise of a Second Exodus Like the exodus from Egypt, Israel’s return from exile would restore God’s people to the land. Just as they had left Egypt many years before, the people of Israel would leave Babylon (Isa 48:20-21). This time they would have to be cleansed (52:11) and would not rush their departure (52:12). Both the experience in exile and the journey are likened to a desert (see 35:1) from which the Lord would bring rescue. He prepares a road through the desert (43:19), transfo...","summary_en":"The Promise of a Second Exodus Like the exodus from Egypt, Israel’s return from exile would restore God’s people to the land. Just as they had left Egypt many years before, the people of Israel would leave Babylon (Isa 48:20-21). This time they would have to be cleansed (52:11) and would not rush their departure (52:12). Both the experience in exile and the journey are likened to a desert (see 35:1) from which the Lord would bring rescue. He prepares a road through the desert (43:19), transfo...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":91663,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Promise of a Second Exodus","title_en":"The Promise of a Second Exodus","content_ro":"<h3>The Promise of a Second Exodus<\/h3>\nLike the exodus from Egypt, Israel’s return from exile would restore God’s people to the land. Just as they had left Egypt many years before, the people of Israel would leave Babylon (Isa 48:20-21). This time they would have to be cleansed (52:11) and would not rush their departure (52:12).<\/p>\nBoth the experience in exile and the journey are likened to a desert (see 35:1) from which the Lord would bring rescue. He prepares a road through the desert (43:19), transforms the desert into a watering hole with vegetation and animals (43:19-20), removes obstacles along the way (42:16; 49:11), guides his people through the desert (42:16; 58:11; 63:13), feeds them (49:10), protects them from the desert heat (49:10), and strengthens them (58:11). He changes the experience of the exiles from sorrow to great joy (51:3) and pours out his Spirit on them (44:3-4).<\/p>\nAn exodus of sorts also occurs for all those who believe in Christ—an exodus from sin and death through Christ’s death and the power of his resurrection. The Holy Spirit enables believers to live in newness of life and to serve God with joy as they await the coming of his kingdom in all its fullness.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nIsa 35:8-10; 42:14-16; 43:18-21; 44:3-4; 48:20-21; 49:9-12; 52:11-12; 58:8-12; Jer 31:2-17; Joel 3:17-21; Luke 1:78-79; John 7:38; 15:19; 2 Cor 5:17; 6:17-18; Eph 5:8; Col 1:13; Heb 13:12-14; Rev 7:16<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Promise of a Second Exodus<\/h3>\nLike the exodus from Egypt, Israel’s return from exile would restore God’s people to the land. Just as they had left Egypt many years before, the people of Israel would leave Babylon (Isa 48:20-21). This time they would have to be cleansed (52:11) and would not rush their departure (52:12).<\/p>\nBoth the experience in exile and the journey are likened to a desert (see 35:1) from which the Lord would bring rescue. He prepares a road through the desert (43:19), transforms the desert into a watering hole with vegetation and animals (43:19-20), removes obstacles along the way (42:16; 49:11), guides his people through the desert (42:16; 58:11; 63:13), feeds them (49:10), protects them from the desert heat (49:10), and strengthens them (58:11). He changes the experience of the exiles from sorrow to great joy (51:3) and pours out his Spirit on them (44:3-4).<\/p>\nAn exodus of sorts also occurs for all those who believe in Christ—an exodus from sin and death through Christ’s death and the power of his resurrection. The Holy Spirit enables believers to live in newness of life and to serve God with joy as they await the coming of his kingdom in all its fullness.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nIsa 35:8-10; 42:14-16; 43:18-21; 44:3-4; 48:20-21; 49:9-12; 52:11-12; 58:8-12; Jer 31:2-17; Joel 3:17-21; Luke 1:78-79; John 7:38; 15:19; 2 Cor 5:17; 6:17-18; Eph 5:8; Col 1:13; Heb 13:12-14; Rev 7:16<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Promise of a Second Exodus Like the exodus from Egypt, Israel’s return from exile would restore God’s people to the land. Just as they had left Egypt many years before, the people of Israel would leave Babylon (Isa 48:20-21). This time they would have to be cleansed (52:11) and would not rush their departure (52:12). Both the experience in exile and the journey are likened to a desert (see 35:1) from which the Lord would bring rescue. He prepares a road through the desert (43:19), transfo...","summary_en":"The Promise of a Second Exodus Like the exodus from Egypt, Israel’s return from exile would restore God’s people to the land. Just as they had left Egypt many years before, the people of Israel would leave Babylon (Isa 48:20-21). This time they would have to be cleansed (52:11) and would not rush their departure (52:12). Both the experience in exile and the journey are likened to a desert (see 35:1) from which the Lord would bring rescue. He prepares a road through the desert (43:19), transfo...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":119289,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Promise of a Second Exodus","title_en":"The Promise of a Second Exodus","content_ro":"<h3>The Promise of a Second Exodus<\/h3>\nLike the exodus from Egypt, Israel’s return from exile would restore God’s people to the land. Just as they had left Egypt many years before, the people of Israel would leave Babylon (Isa 48:20-21). This time they would have to be cleansed (52:11) and would not rush their departure (52:12).<\/p>\nBoth the experience in exile and the journey are likened to a desert (see 35:1) from which the Lord would bring rescue. He prepares a road through the desert (43:19), transforms the desert into a watering hole with vegetation and animals (43:19-20), removes obstacles along the way (42:16; 49:11), guides his people through the desert (42:16; 58:11; 63:13), feeds them (49:10), protects them from the desert heat (49:10), and strengthens them (58:11). He changes the experience of the exiles from sorrow to great joy (51:3) and pours out his Spirit on them (44:3-4).<\/p>\nAn exodus of sorts also occurs for all those who believe in Christ—an exodus from sin and death through Christ’s death and the power of his resurrection. The Holy Spirit enables believers to live in newness of life and to serve God with joy as they await the coming of his kingdom in all its fullness.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nIsa 35:8-10; 42:14-16; 43:18-21; 44:3-4; 48:20-21; 49:9-12; 52:11-12; 58:8-12; Jer 31:2-17; Joel 3:17-21; Luke 1:78-79; John 7:38; 15:19; 2 Cor 5:17; 6:17-18; Eph 5:8; Col 1:13; Heb 13:12-14; Rev 7:16<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Promise of a Second Exodus<\/h3>\nLike the exodus from Egypt, Israel’s return from exile would restore God’s people to the land. Just as they had left Egypt many years before, the people of Israel would leave Babylon (Isa 48:20-21). This time they would have to be cleansed (52:11) and would not rush their departure (52:12).<\/p>\nBoth the experience in exile and the journey are likened to a desert (see 35:1) from which the Lord would bring rescue. He prepares a road through the desert (43:19), transforms the desert into a watering hole with vegetation and animals (43:19-20), removes obstacles along the way (42:16; 49:11), guides his people through the desert (42:16; 58:11; 63:13), feeds them (49:10), protects them from the desert heat (49:10), and strengthens them (58:11). He changes the experience of the exiles from sorrow to great joy (51:3) and pours out his Spirit on them (44:3-4).<\/p>\nAn exodus of sorts also occurs for all those who believe in Christ—an exodus from sin and death through Christ’s death and the power of his resurrection. The Holy Spirit enables believers to live in newness of life and to serve God with joy as they await the coming of his kingdom in all its fullness.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nIsa 35:8-10; 42:14-16; 43:18-21; 44:3-4; 48:20-21; 49:9-12; 52:11-12; 58:8-12; Jer 31:2-17; Joel 3:17-21; Luke 1:78-79; John 7:38; 15:19; 2 Cor 5:17; 6:17-18; Eph 5:8; Col 1:13; Heb 13:12-14; Rev 7:16<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Promise of a Second Exodus Like the exodus from Egypt, Israel’s return from exile would restore God’s people to the land. Just as they had left Egypt many years before, the people of Israel would leave Babylon (Isa 48:20-21). This time they would have to be cleansed (52:11) and would not rush their departure (52:12). Both the experience in exile and the journey are likened to a desert (see 35:1) from which the Lord would bring rescue. He prepares a road through the desert (43:19), transfo...","summary_en":"The Promise of a Second Exodus Like the exodus from Egypt, Israel’s return from exile would restore God’s people to the land. Just as they had left Egypt many years before, the people of Israel would leave Babylon (Isa 48:20-21). This time they would have to be cleansed (52:11) and would not rush their departure (52:12). Both the experience in exile and the journey are likened to a desert (see 35:1) from which the Lord would bring rescue. He prepares a road through the desert (43:19), transfo...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":146915,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Promise of a Second Exodus","title_en":"The Promise of a Second Exodus","content_ro":"<h3>The Promise of a Second Exodus<\/h3>\nLike the exodus from Egypt, Israel’s return from exile would restore God’s people to the land. Just as they had left Egypt many years before, the people of Israel would leave Babylon (Isa 48:20-21). This time they would have to be cleansed (52:11) and would not rush their departure (52:12).<\/p>\nBoth the experience in exile and the journey are likened to a desert (see 35:1) from which the Lord would bring rescue. He prepares a road through the desert (43:19), transforms the desert into a watering hole with vegetation and animals (43:19-20), removes obstacles along the way (42:16; 49:11), guides his people through the desert (42:16; 58:11; 63:13), feeds them (49:10), protects them from the desert heat (49:10), and strengthens them (58:11). He changes the experience of the exiles from sorrow to great joy (51:3) and pours out his Spirit on them (44:3-4).<\/p>\nAn exodus of sorts also occurs for all those who believe in Christ—an exodus from sin and death through Christ’s death and the power of his resurrection. The Holy Spirit enables believers to live in newness of life and to serve God with joy as they await the coming of his kingdom in all its fullness.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nIsa 35:8-10; 42:14-16; 43:18-21; 44:3-4; 48:20-21; 49:9-12; 52:11-12; 58:8-12; Jer 31:2-17; Joel 3:17-21; Luke 1:78-79; John 7:38; 15:19; 2 Cor 5:17; 6:17-18; Eph 5:8; Col 1:13; Heb 13:12-14; Rev 7:16<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Promise of a Second Exodus<\/h3>\nLike the exodus from Egypt, Israel’s return from exile would restore God’s people to the land. Just as they had left Egypt many years before, the people of Israel would leave Babylon (Isa 48:20-21). This time they would have to be cleansed (52:11) and would not rush their departure (52:12).<\/p>\nBoth the experience in exile and the journey are likened to a desert (see 35:1) from which the Lord would bring rescue. He prepares a road through the desert (43:19), transforms the desert into a watering hole with vegetation and animals (43:19-20), removes obstacles along the way (42:16; 49:11), guides his people through the desert (42:16; 58:11; 63:13), feeds them (49:10), protects them from the desert heat (49:10), and strengthens them (58:11). He changes the experience of the exiles from sorrow to great joy (51:3) and pours out his Spirit on them (44:3-4).<\/p>\nAn exodus of sorts also occurs for all those who believe in Christ—an exodus from sin and death through Christ’s death and the power of his resurrection. The Holy Spirit enables believers to live in newness of life and to serve God with joy as they await the coming of his kingdom in all its fullness.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nIsa 35:8-10; 42:14-16; 43:18-21; 44:3-4; 48:20-21; 49:9-12; 52:11-12; 58:8-12; Jer 31:2-17; Joel 3:17-21; Luke 1:78-79; John 7:38; 15:19; 2 Cor 5:17; 6:17-18; Eph 5:8; Col 1:13; Heb 13:12-14; Rev 7:16<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Promise of a Second Exodus Like the exodus from Egypt, Israel’s return from exile would restore God’s people to the land. Just as they had left Egypt many years before, the people of Israel would leave Babylon (Isa 48:20-21). This time they would have to be cleansed (52:11) and would not rush their departure (52:12). Both the experience in exile and the journey are likened to a desert (see 35:1) from which the Lord would bring rescue. He prepares a road through the desert (43:19), transfo...","summary_en":"The Promise of a Second Exodus Like the exodus from Egypt, Israel’s return from exile would restore God’s people to the land. Just as they had left Egypt many years before, the people of Israel would leave Babylon (Isa 48:20-21). This time they would have to be cleansed (52:11) and would not rush their departure (52:12). Both the experience in exile and the journey are likened to a desert (see 35:1) from which the Lord would bring rescue. He prepares a road through the desert (43:19), transfo...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"16":[{"id":64029,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Promise of a Second Exodus","title_en":"The Promise of a Second Exodus","content_ro":"<h3>The Promise of a Second Exodus<\/h3>\nLike the exodus from Egypt, Israel’s return from exile would restore God’s people to the land. Just as they had left Egypt many years before, the people of Israel would leave Babylon (Isa 48:20-21). This time they would have to be cleansed (52:11) and would not rush their departure (52:12).<\/p>\nBoth the experience in exile and the journey are likened to a desert (see 35:1) from which the Lord would bring rescue. He prepares a road through the desert (43:19), transforms the desert into a watering hole with vegetation and animals (43:19-20), removes obstacles along the way (42:16; 49:11), guides his people through the desert (42:16; 58:11; 63:13), feeds them (49:10), protects them from the desert heat (49:10), and strengthens them (58:11). He changes the experience of the exiles from sorrow to great joy (51:3) and pours out his Spirit on them (44:3-4).<\/p>\nAn exodus of sorts also occurs for all those who believe in Christ—an exodus from sin and death through Christ’s death and the power of his resurrection. The Holy Spirit enables believers to live in newness of life and to serve God with joy as they await the coming of his kingdom in all its fullness.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nIsa 35:8-10; 42:14-16; 43:18-21; 44:3-4; 48:20-21; 49:9-12; 52:11-12; 58:8-12; Jer 31:2-17; Joel 3:17-21; Luke 1:78-79; John 7:38; 15:19; 2 Cor 5:17; 6:17-18; Eph 5:8; Col 1:13; Heb 13:12-14; Rev 7:16<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Promise of a Second Exodus<\/h3>\nLike the exodus from Egypt, Israel’s return from exile would restore God’s people to the land. Just as they had left Egypt many years before, the people of Israel would leave Babylon (Isa 48:20-21). This time they would have to be cleansed (52:11) and would not rush their departure (52:12).<\/p>\nBoth the experience in exile and the journey are likened to a desert (see 35:1) from which the Lord would bring rescue. He prepares a road through the desert (43:19), transforms the desert into a watering hole with vegetation and animals (43:19-20), removes obstacles along the way (42:16; 49:11), guides his people through the desert (42:16; 58:11; 63:13), feeds them (49:10), protects them from the desert heat (49:10), and strengthens them (58:11). He changes the experience of the exiles from sorrow to great joy (51:3) and pours out his Spirit on them (44:3-4).<\/p>\nAn exodus of sorts also occurs for all those who believe in Christ—an exodus from sin and death through Christ’s death and the power of his resurrection. The Holy Spirit enables believers to live in newness of life and to serve God with joy as they await the coming of his kingdom in all its fullness.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nIsa 35:8-10; 42:14-16; 43:18-21; 44:3-4; 48:20-21; 49:9-12; 52:11-12; 58:8-12; Jer 31:2-17; Joel 3:17-21; Luke 1:78-79; John 7:38; 15:19; 2 Cor 5:17; 6:17-18; Eph 5:8; Col 1:13; Heb 13:12-14; Rev 7:16<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Promise of a Second Exodus Like the exodus from Egypt, Israel’s return from exile would restore God’s people to the land. Just as they had left Egypt many years before, the people of Israel would leave Babylon (Isa 48:20-21). This time they would have to be cleansed (52:11) and would not rush their departure (52:12). Both the experience in exile and the journey are likened to a desert (see 35:1) from which the Lord would bring rescue. He prepares a road through the desert (43:19), transfo...","summary_en":"The Promise of a Second Exodus Like the exodus from Egypt, Israel’s return from exile would restore God’s people to the land. Just as they had left Egypt many years before, the people of Israel would leave Babylon (Isa 48:20-21). This time they would have to be cleansed (52:11) and would not rush their departure (52:12). Both the experience in exile and the journey are likened to a desert (see 35:1) from which the Lord would bring rescue. He prepares a road through the desert (43:19), transfo...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":91655,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Promise of a Second Exodus","title_en":"The Promise of a Second Exodus","content_ro":"<h3>The Promise of a Second Exodus<\/h3>\nLike the exodus from Egypt, Israel’s return from exile would restore God’s people to the land. Just as they had left Egypt many years before, the people of Israel would leave Babylon (Isa 48:20-21). This time they would have to be cleansed (52:11) and would not rush their departure (52:12).<\/p>\nBoth the experience in exile and the journey are likened to a desert (see 35:1) from which the Lord would bring rescue. He prepares a road through the desert (43:19), transforms the desert into a watering hole with vegetation and animals (43:19-20), removes obstacles along the way (42:16; 49:11), guides his people through the desert (42:16; 58:11; 63:13), feeds them (49:10), protects them from the desert heat (49:10), and strengthens them (58:11). He changes the experience of the exiles from sorrow to great joy (51:3) and pours out his Spirit on them (44:3-4).<\/p>\nAn exodus of sorts also occurs for all those who believe in Christ—an exodus from sin and death through Christ’s death and the power of his resurrection. The Holy Spirit enables believers to live in newness of life and to serve God with joy as they await the coming of his kingdom in all its fullness.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nIsa 35:8-10; 42:14-16; 43:18-21; 44:3-4; 48:20-21; 49:9-12; 52:11-12; 58:8-12; Jer 31:2-17; Joel 3:17-21; Luke 1:78-79; John 7:38; 15:19; 2 Cor 5:17; 6:17-18; Eph 5:8; Col 1:13; Heb 13:12-14; Rev 7:16<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Promise of a Second Exodus<\/h3>\nLike the exodus from Egypt, Israel’s return from exile would restore God’s people to the land. Just as they had left Egypt many years before, the people of Israel would leave Babylon (Isa 48:20-21). This time they would have to be cleansed (52:11) and would not rush their departure (52:12).<\/p>\nBoth the experience in exile and the journey are likened to a desert (see 35:1) from which the Lord would bring rescue. He prepares a road through the desert (43:19), transforms the desert into a watering hole with vegetation and animals (43:19-20), removes obstacles along the way (42:16; 49:11), guides his people through the desert (42:16; 58:11; 63:13), feeds them (49:10), protects them from the desert heat (49:10), and strengthens them (58:11). He changes the experience of the exiles from sorrow to great joy (51:3) and pours out his Spirit on them (44:3-4).<\/p>\nAn exodus of sorts also occurs for all those who believe in Christ—an exodus from sin and death through Christ’s death and the power of his resurrection. The Holy Spirit enables believers to live in newness of life and to serve God with joy as they await the coming of his kingdom in all its fullness.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nIsa 35:8-10; 42:14-16; 43:18-21; 44:3-4; 48:20-21; 49:9-12; 52:11-12; 58:8-12; Jer 31:2-17; Joel 3:17-21; Luke 1:78-79; John 7:38; 15:19; 2 Cor 5:17; 6:17-18; Eph 5:8; Col 1:13; Heb 13:12-14; Rev 7:16<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Promise of a Second Exodus Like the exodus from Egypt, Israel’s return from exile would restore God’s people to the land. Just as they had left Egypt many years before, the people of Israel would leave Babylon (Isa 48:20-21). This time they would have to be cleansed (52:11) and would not rush their departure (52:12). Both the experience in exile and the journey are likened to a desert (see 35:1) from which the Lord would bring rescue. He prepares a road through the desert (43:19), transfo...","summary_en":"The Promise of a Second Exodus Like the exodus from Egypt, Israel’s return from exile would restore God’s people to the land. Just as they had left Egypt many years before, the people of Israel would leave Babylon (Isa 48:20-21). This time they would have to be cleansed (52:11) and would not rush their departure (52:12). Both the experience in exile and the journey are likened to a desert (see 35:1) from which the Lord would bring rescue. He prepares a road through the desert (43:19), transfo...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":119281,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Promise of a Second Exodus","title_en":"The Promise of a Second Exodus","content_ro":"<h3>The Promise of a Second Exodus<\/h3>\nLike the exodus from Egypt, Israel’s return from exile would restore God’s people to the land. Just as they had left Egypt many years before, the people of Israel would leave Babylon (Isa 48:20-21). This time they would have to be cleansed (52:11) and would not rush their departure (52:12).<\/p>\nBoth the experience in exile and the journey are likened to a desert (see 35:1) from which the Lord would bring rescue. He prepares a road through the desert (43:19), transforms the desert into a watering hole with vegetation and animals (43:19-20), removes obstacles along the way (42:16; 49:11), guides his people through the desert (42:16; 58:11; 63:13), feeds them (49:10), protects them from the desert heat (49:10), and strengthens them (58:11). He changes the experience of the exiles from sorrow to great joy (51:3) and pours out his Spirit on them (44:3-4).<\/p>\nAn exodus of sorts also occurs for all those who believe in Christ—an exodus from sin and death through Christ’s death and the power of his resurrection. The Holy Spirit enables believers to live in newness of life and to serve God with joy as they await the coming of his kingdom in all its fullness.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nIsa 35:8-10; 42:14-16; 43:18-21; 44:3-4; 48:20-21; 49:9-12; 52:11-12; 58:8-12; Jer 31:2-17; Joel 3:17-21; Luke 1:78-79; John 7:38; 15:19; 2 Cor 5:17; 6:17-18; Eph 5:8; Col 1:13; Heb 13:12-14; Rev 7:16<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Promise of a Second Exodus<\/h3>\nLike the exodus from Egypt, Israel’s return from exile would restore God’s people to the land. Just as they had left Egypt many years before, the people of Israel would leave Babylon (Isa 48:20-21). This time they would have to be cleansed (52:11) and would not rush their departure (52:12).<\/p>\nBoth the experience in exile and the journey are likened to a desert (see 35:1) from which the Lord would bring rescue. He prepares a road through the desert (43:19), transforms the desert into a watering hole with vegetation and animals (43:19-20), removes obstacles along the way (42:16; 49:11), guides his people through the desert (42:16; 58:11; 63:13), feeds them (49:10), protects them from the desert heat (49:10), and strengthens them (58:11). He changes the experience of the exiles from sorrow to great joy (51:3) and pours out his Spirit on them (44:3-4).<\/p>\nAn exodus of sorts also occurs for all those who believe in Christ—an exodus from sin and death through Christ’s death and the power of his resurrection. The Holy Spirit enables believers to live in newness of life and to serve God with joy as they await the coming of his kingdom in all its fullness.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nIsa 35:8-10; 42:14-16; 43:18-21; 44:3-4; 48:20-21; 49:9-12; 52:11-12; 58:8-12; Jer 31:2-17; Joel 3:17-21; Luke 1:78-79; John 7:38; 15:19; 2 Cor 5:17; 6:17-18; Eph 5:8; Col 1:13; Heb 13:12-14; Rev 7:16<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Promise of a Second Exodus Like the exodus from Egypt, Israel’s return from exile would restore God’s people to the land. Just as they had left Egypt many years before, the people of Israel would leave Babylon (Isa 48:20-21). This time they would have to be cleansed (52:11) and would not rush their departure (52:12). Both the experience in exile and the journey are likened to a desert (see 35:1) from which the Lord would bring rescue. He prepares a road through the desert (43:19), transfo...","summary_en":"The Promise of a Second Exodus Like the exodus from Egypt, Israel’s return from exile would restore God’s people to the land. Just as they had left Egypt many years before, the people of Israel would leave Babylon (Isa 48:20-21). This time they would have to be cleansed (52:11) and would not rush their departure (52:12). Both the experience in exile and the journey are likened to a desert (see 35:1) from which the Lord would bring rescue. He prepares a road through the desert (43:19), transfo...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":146907,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Promise of a Second Exodus","title_en":"The Promise of a Second Exodus","content_ro":"<h3>The Promise of a Second Exodus<\/h3>\nLike the exodus from Egypt, Israel’s return from exile would restore God’s people to the land. Just as they had left Egypt many years before, the people of Israel would leave Babylon (Isa 48:20-21). This time they would have to be cleansed (52:11) and would not rush their departure (52:12).<\/p>\nBoth the experience in exile and the journey are likened to a desert (see 35:1) from which the Lord would bring rescue. He prepares a road through the desert (43:19), transforms the desert into a watering hole with vegetation and animals (43:19-20), removes obstacles along the way (42:16; 49:11), guides his people through the desert (42:16; 58:11; 63:13), feeds them (49:10), protects them from the desert heat (49:10), and strengthens them (58:11). He changes the experience of the exiles from sorrow to great joy (51:3) and pours out his Spirit on them (44:3-4).<\/p>\nAn exodus of sorts also occurs for all those who believe in Christ—an exodus from sin and death through Christ’s death and the power of his resurrection. The Holy Spirit enables believers to live in newness of life and to serve God with joy as they await the coming of his kingdom in all its fullness.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nIsa 35:8-10; 42:14-16; 43:18-21; 44:3-4; 48:20-21; 49:9-12; 52:11-12; 58:8-12; Jer 31:2-17; Joel 3:17-21; Luke 1:78-79; John 7:38; 15:19; 2 Cor 5:17; 6:17-18; Eph 5:8; Col 1:13; Heb 13:12-14; Rev 7:16<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Promise of a Second Exodus<\/h3>\nLike the exodus from Egypt, Israel’s return from exile would restore God’s people to the land. Just as they had left Egypt many years before, the people of Israel would leave Babylon (Isa 48:20-21). This time they would have to be cleansed (52:11) and would not rush their departure (52:12).<\/p>\nBoth the experience in exile and the journey are likened to a desert (see 35:1) from which the Lord would bring rescue. He prepares a road through the desert (43:19), transforms the desert into a watering hole with vegetation and animals (43:19-20), removes obstacles along the way (42:16; 49:11), guides his people through the desert (42:16; 58:11; 63:13), feeds them (49:10), protects them from the desert heat (49:10), and strengthens them (58:11). He changes the experience of the exiles from sorrow to great joy (51:3) and pours out his Spirit on them (44:3-4).<\/p>\nAn exodus of sorts also occurs for all those who believe in Christ—an exodus from sin and death through Christ’s death and the power of his resurrection. The Holy Spirit enables believers to live in newness of life and to serve God with joy as they await the coming of his kingdom in all its fullness.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nIsa 35:8-10; 42:14-16; 43:18-21; 44:3-4; 48:20-21; 49:9-12; 52:11-12; 58:8-12; Jer 31:2-17; Joel 3:17-21; Luke 1:78-79; John 7:38; 15:19; 2 Cor 5:17; 6:17-18; Eph 5:8; Col 1:13; Heb 13:12-14; Rev 7:16<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Promise of a Second Exodus Like the exodus from Egypt, Israel’s return from exile would restore God’s people to the land. Just as they had left Egypt many years before, the people of Israel would leave Babylon (Isa 48:20-21). This time they would have to be cleansed (52:11) and would not rush their departure (52:12). Both the experience in exile and the journey are likened to a desert (see 35:1) from which the Lord would bring rescue. He prepares a road through the desert (43:19), transfo...","summary_en":"The Promise of a Second Exodus Like the exodus from Egypt, Israel’s return from exile would restore God’s people to the land. Just as they had left Egypt many years before, the people of Israel would leave Babylon (Isa 48:20-21). This time they would have to be cleansed (52:11) and would not rush their departure (52:12). Both the experience in exile and the journey are likened to a desert (see 35:1) from which the Lord would bring rescue. He prepares a road through the desert (43:19), transfo...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"18":[{"id":9024,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Deafness Deaf","title_en":"Deafness Deaf","content_ro":"<h3>DEAF, DEAFNESS<\/h3>\nInability to hear; term used in Scripture to describe both a literal, physical inability and a figurative, spiritual defect. The spiritually deaf were those who either refused to hear the divine message or were rendered incapable because of their lack of spirituality (Ps 38:13). The prophet Isaiah forcefully addressed both types of deaf persons (the figurative in Is 42:18; 43:8; the literal in Is 29:18; 35:5). In the OT, although the condition was considered the result of God’s judgment (Ex 4:11; Mi 7:16), it was wrong to curse a deaf person (Lv 19:14). In the NT the deaf were among those Jesus healed (Mt 11:5; Mk 7:32-37; Lk 7:22). An epileptic boy whom Jesus healed was afflicted with a “dumb and deaf spirit” (Mk 9:25, rsv<\/span>). Such healings authenticated Jesus’ role as Messiah.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Medicine and Medical Practice.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>DEAF, DEAFNESS<\/h3>\nInability to hear; term used in Scripture to describe both a literal, physical inability and a figurative, spiritual defect. The spiritually deaf were those who either refused to hear the divine message or were rendered incapable because of their lack of spirituality (Ps 38:13). The prophet Isaiah forcefully addressed both types of deaf persons (the figurative in Is 42:18; 43:8; the literal in Is 29:18; 35:5). In the OT, although the condition was considered the result of God’s judgment (Ex 4:11; Mi 7:16), it was wrong to curse a deaf person (Lv 19:14). In the NT the deaf were among those Jesus healed (Mt 11:5; Mk 7:32-37; Lk 7:22). An epileptic boy whom Jesus healed was afflicted with a “dumb and deaf spirit” (Mk 9:25, rsv<\/span>). Such healings authenticated Jesus’ role as Messiah.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Medicine and Medical Practice.<\/p>","summary_ro":"DEAF, DEAFNESS Inability to hear; term used in Scripture to describe both a literal, physical inability and a figurative, spiritual defect. The spiritually deaf were those who either refused to hear the divine message or were rendered incapable because of their lack of spirituality (Ps 38:13). The prophet Isaiah forcefully addressed both types of deaf persons (the figurative in Is 42:18; 43:8; the literal in Is 29:18; 35:5). In the OT, although the condition was considered the result of God’s...","summary_en":"DEAF, DEAFNESS Inability to hear; term used in Scripture to describe both a literal, physical inability and a figurative, spiritual defect. The spiritually deaf were those who either refused to hear the divine message or were rendered incapable because of their lack of spirituality (Ps 38:13). The prophet Isaiah forcefully addressed both types of deaf persons (the figurative in Is 42:18; 43:8; the literal in Is 29:18; 35:5). In the OT, although the condition was considered the result of God’s...","source":"Articles\/D.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":25393,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Messiah","title_en":"Messiah","content_ro":"<h3>MESSIAH<\/h3>\nTitle derived from the Hebrew, mashiach<\/span>,<\/em> a verbal adjective meaning “anointed one.” Along with its NT equivalent, christos<\/span> (Christ), it refers to an act of consecration whereby an individual is set apart to serve God and then anointed with oil. The verbal root (<\/em>mashach<\/span>)<\/em> conveys this idea as well.<\/p>\nIsrael’s practice of ceremonially anointing with oil is present in several contexts. Priests were regularly anointed prior to their divinely given service at the altar of sacrifice (Lv 4:3). While there is evidence for a literal anointing of prophets (1 Kgs 19:16), this does not appear to have been a standard practice. The anointing of Saul and David by Samuel established the act as a significant prerequisite for Hebrew kings before they assumed their positions of royal leadership. The king was especially considered to be the Lord’s anointed and as such was viewed to hold a secure position before men (1 Sm 12:14; 2 Sm 19:21) and God (Pss 2:2; 20:6). Along with numerous messianic prophecies, these proceedings helped inform the Jews of the Anointed One, par excellence, who would eventually come to bring salvation to Israel.<\/p>\nConcluding the 13 articles of Hebraic faith attributed to Moses Maimonides (13th century AD<\/span>) is the statement still found in many Hebrew prayer books: “I believe with a perfect heart that the Messiah will come; and although his coming be delayed, I will still wait patiently for his speedy appearance.”<\/p>\nMessiah in the Old Testament<\/p>\nJewish hope for the advent of the Messiah developed dynamically from the period of David’s reign, when it was prophesied that his kingdom would endure to the end of time (2 Sm 7:16). Israel was told that, through David’s descendants, his throne would exert a never-ending dominion over all the earth (2 Sm 22:48-51; Jer 33). It is with this aspect of messianic salvation that Jewish minds have traditionally been preoccupied (cf. Acts 1:6).<\/p>\nAmong Orthodox rabbis there has never been a lack of conjecture respecting the details of the Messiah’s ministry. At one time the rabbis applied no less than 456 passages of Scripture to his person and salvation. Preoccupation with the Messiah is evident in the tractate Sanhedrin<\/em> (Babylonian Talmud), where passages state that the world was created for him and that all the prophets prophesied of his days (Sanhedrin<\/em> 98b, 99a). By and large, Orthodoxy still retains its time-worn belief in the Messiah’s reign in Jerusalem, the rebuilding of the temple, and the reestablishment of both priesthood and sacrifice.<\/p>\nWhile later Judaism looked for the Messiah as an eschatological figure who will reign at the end of time, modern Jewish thought has largely jettisoned the traditional notion of a personal Messiah in favor of belief in a messianic age. Prevalent liberal Judaism envisions the world ultimately perfected through the influence of the twin Judaic ideals of justice and compassion. Such conviction, ignoring the plight of fallen humans and the teaching of Scripture, substitutes humanistic thinking for miraculous heavenly intervention.<\/p>\nWhile the Messiah’s origin is linked firmly to the house of David (2 Sm 7:14; Hos 3:5), the promise for a Messiah was given long before David lived. In fact, the hope for the Messiah is implicit in the first promise of the establishment of the kingdom of God. Addressed to Satan, Genesis 3:15 declares that God will place hostility between the serpent and the woman until, in the fullness of time, the “seed” of the woman inflicts a fatal blow to the head of the serpent.<\/p>\nThe nature of messianic prophecy is progressive; each prophecy casts more light on the subject. This occurs, for example, respecting the concept of the “seed”: Messiah is to be born of a woman (Gn 3:15), through the line of Shem (9:26) and specifically through Abraham (22:18). Yet even as late as Genesis 22:18, the “seed” is not clearly presented as a person, since zerah<\/span> (seed) may indicate a singular or plural object. Still less apparent in these early stages of messianic prophecy is the nature of the “bruising” that is to occur. Yet the idea of the Messiah being crushed for sin is implicit in the Genesis pronouncement, as is the violence associated with that act. Chief among the messianic prophets, Isaiah gives full range to the axiom that the Anointed One must endure extensive suffering (Is 53:1). Under the figure “the Servant of the Lord,” four “servant songs” delineate the mission of the future deliverer (Is 42:1-7; 49:1-9; 50:4-11; 52:13–53:12). While it is true that Isaiah does not explicitly link the title Messiah with the Servant of the Lord, identifying both figures as one and the same person is justifiable. Both figures are uniquely anointed (61:1); each brings light to the Gentiles (55:4; cf. 49:6); neither is pretentious in his first appearance (7:14-15; 11:1; cf. 42:3; 53:1); and the title of Davidic “branch” rests upon them both (11:1-4). Equally significant are the dual facts of their humiliation and exaltation (49:7; 52:13-15). Jewish scholars of the early Christian era in the Aramaic Targum on the prophets paraphrase Isaiah 42:1, “Behold my Servant Messiah” and begin Isaiah 53, “Behold my Servant Messiah will prosper.” While Cyrus may be spoken of as “anointed,” no final salvific work is attributed to him (45:1-5). Israel, although elect and loved by God (41:8), is ill-equipped as God’s servant to bring his redeeming work to mankind (42:18). The collapse of David’s dynasty points eloquently to Israel’s need for an anointed monarch who will heal the apostasy and disobedience (Ex 33:5; Hos 4:1). More and more, OT history presents Israel’s comprehensive moral failure. Her problem, which she shares with mankind, can only be solved by the making of a covenant whose surety and focal point is both a personal Savior and sovereign Lord (Jer 31:31-34). The advent of such a champion lives in the recorded promise of a shoot from the stump of Jesse’s fallen tree, who will bring the light of life to God’s benighted people (Is 9:2; 11:1).<\/p>\nIt is difficult to get away from the idea that the concept of servanthood and lowliness belongs within the sphere of royalty (Zec 9:9). The concept of the Messiah filling the complementary offices of priest and king is incontrovertible (Ps 110:1-4); a suffering priest-king is far less obvious. Some among the Talmudic writers apparently recognized the likelihood that the Messiah would have to suffer. In the Babylonian Talmud, tractate Sanhedrin<\/em> 98b, the Messiah is said to bear sicknesses and pain. Among the prayers for the Day of Atonement may be found the words of Eleazar ben Qalir (perhaps as late as AD<\/span> 1000): “Our righteous Messiah has departed from us; we are horror-stricken, and there is none to justify us. Our iniquities and the yoke of our transgressions he carries, and is wounded for our transgressions. He bears on his shoulders our sins to find pardon for our iniquities. May we be healed by his stripes.” In a similar vein Rabbi Eliyya de Vidas writes, “The meaning of ‘He was wounded for our transgressions, bruised for our iniquities,’ is that since the Messiah bears our iniquities, which produce the effect of His being bruised, it follows that whosoever will not admit that the Messiah thus suffers for our iniquities must endure and suffer for them himself.” For all this, it is highly doubtful that anyone imagined the Messiah would accomplish his salvational work by means of his own death (cf. Is 53:12). When rabbinic speculation failed to satisfactorily harmonize the paradoxical facts of humiliation and exaltation, some hypothesized that God would send a Messiah to suffer as well as a Messiah to reign. Biblically, it is evident that the Anointed One’s terrible ordeal of suffering is but the necessary prelude to infinite glory. He is pictured not only as a great king (52:13; 53:12) but also as humble (53:2), humiliated (52:14), rejected (53:3), and bearing the consequences of mankind’s rebellion (vv 5-6). Yet he is raised up to intercede for, and richly bless, his people (v 12). The Messiah, having accomplished that full obedience that Adam and Israel failed to achieve, will bring Israel and the nations back to God (42:18-19; 49:3, 6).<\/p>\nThe writings of Daniel contain important messianic data. Daniel is unique in that he boldly speaks of “Messiah the Prince” (Dn 9:25), identifies him as the “Son of Man” (7:13), and says he suffers (“cut off,” 9:26). This statement of the cutting off (i.e., death) of the Messiah makes possible his work of atonement (9:24). The doctrine of a vicarious substitutionary atonement is the only doctrine of atonement found in the Bible (cf. Lv 17:11). Israel understood that to bear sin meant enduring the consequences, or penalty, for sin (cf. Nm 14:33). The same penal substitution is evident in the working principle of the Messiah’s atoning sacrifice. He is the victim’s substitute to whom is transferred the suffering due the sinner. The penalty having been thus borne vicariously, the suppliant is fully pardoned.<\/p>\nPsalm 22:1 records the plaintive cry of the Messiah bearing man’s penalty for sin (cf. Mt 27:46) as he becomes sin on behalf of his people (2 Cor 5:21). Yet his cry, “My God,” indicates an intimate relationship that cannot be radically severed. Once again the motif of messianic humiliation prior to great exaltation is in view (Ps 22:27). In the so-called “royal psalms” (e.g., 2; 72; 110) it is the priestly intercessor who is also ordained to function as monarch and judge.<\/p>\nJeremiah brings the portrait a step further. The one who will enable humans to enter into a salvational covenant with God conveys God’s imputed righteousness: the Messiah, God’s righteous branch, becomes “the Lord our Righteousness.” Paradoxically, under the law no one could be crucified who was not guilty of sin (Dt 21:22). But it is Christ the righteous one who was crucified, thereby forever undermining any supposed legalistic confidence (Dt 21:23; Gal 3:13). More than forgiven, believers are deemed righteous in him (Jer 23:5-6).<\/p>\nWhile the birthplace of the Messiah was well established (Mi 5:2), his deity was a hotly contested matter. Although few in ancient Israel disputed the belief in a superhuman Messiah, it is doubtful that anyone imagined him to be “God with us” in the fullest sense of the expression (cf. Heb 1:3).<\/p>\nMessiah in the New Testament<\/p>\nThe NT writers present the picture that he who was the child of supernatural origins (Is 7:14; Mi 5:2) carried the full weight of divinity (Is 9:6; Phil 2:6; Col 1:19). He is the Son of God, worthy to receive the worship of all people (Ps 45:6-7; cf. Heb 1:8-9).<\/p>\nThe Jews of first-century Palestine knew that the messianic promise would be fulfilled in the coming of one like Moses (Dt 18:18). Parallels between Jesus and Moses are abundant. As mediators, innovators, and propagators of new phases of spiritual life for the people, they are unexcelled. Specifically, both are miraculously spared in infancy (Ex 2; Mt 2:13-23); both renounce a royal court for the sake of serving the people of God (Phil 2:5-8; Heb 11:24-28); both exhibit intense compassion for others (Nm 27:17; Mt 9:36); both commune “face to face” with God (Ex 34:29-30; 2 Cor 3:7); and each mediates a covenant of redemption (Dt 29:1; Heb 8:6-7). But, as Luther observes, “Christ is no Moses.” In the final analysis Moses is but a household servant; the Messiah is the maker and master of all things (Heb 3:3-6; cf. Jn 1:1-2, 18).<\/p>\nFamily genealogies are important in Scripture. Rabbis agreed upon the absolute necessity of the Messiah’s Davidic lineage based on Hosea 3:5 and Jeremiah 30:9. The angelic announcement immediately establishes the correct lineage for Jesus (Lk 1:32-33; cf. 2:4), as does Matthew’s (Mt 1:1-17). The Lukan list, like that of Matthew, sets forth the exclusive kingly descent verifying Jesus as Messiah (Lk 3:23-38). Although variations occur between the two genealogies, there is a firm solidarity emphasizing an ancestry within the unique messianic stock. Fully aware of the messianic focus of Scripture (Jn 5:46; 8:56), Jesus acknowledged himself to be the Christ on numerous occasions. He accepted the title from blind Bartimaeus (Mk 10:46-48); from the crowds when he entered Jerusalem (Mt 21:9); from the children at the temple (v 15); and in other contexts as well (Mt 16:16-18; Mk 14:61-62; Lk 4:21; Jn 4:25-26). Nonetheless, he warned his disciples not to broadcast his mighty acts as Messiah prior to his resurrection (Mt 17:9; cf. Lk 9:20-21). Owing to the commonly held (but false) notion that the Messiah’s role was primarily that of a political liberator, Jesus actually avoided use of that term and preferred to identify himself as “the Son of Man.” It was by no means assumed that both designations referred to the same person (cf. Mk 14:61-62). Borrowing essentially from Daniel’s vision of a heavenly conqueror (Dn 7:13-14), Jesus consistently employed this less-known title and filled it with the true character and scope of messianic salvation. Jesus’ teaching in this regard enabled his disciples to correct their erroneous views concerning his mission (Mt 16:21-23). In the fullness of time they would come to see him not only as Messiah but also as the theme of the entire OT (Mt 5:17; Lk 24:27, 44; Jn 5:39; cf. Heb 10:7). When Jesus expounded the Scriptures beginning with the Torah (Lk 24:27), he did so as the living exegesis of God, the Word made flesh (Jn 1:14, 18). Legitimate messianic exposition is found in a host of texts, such as Psalms 2; 16; 22; 40; 110; Isaiah 7:14; 9:6; 11:1; 40:10-11; 50:6; 52:13–53:12; 61:1; 63:1-6; Jeremiah 23:5-6; 33:14-16; Ezekiel 34:23; 37:25; Daniel 9:24-27; Hosea 11:1; Micah 5:2; Zechariah 9:9; 11:13; 12:10; 13:7; Malachi 3:1; 4:2.<\/p>\nThe messiahship of Jesus is firmly proclaimed by all four evangelists (Mt 1:1; Mk 1:1; Lk 24:26; Jn 20:31). Peter on Pentecost, Philip before the Ethiopian eunuch, and Apollos in open debate all argue convincingly that Jesus is the Messiah (Acts 2:36; 8:35; 28:28). Peter says he was “made” both Lord and Christ (2:36), signifying that the resurrection rightfully confirms him as such. Similarly, the apostle Paul speaks of Jesus’ resurrection as a patent declaration of his inalienable right to the title (Rom 1:4). For the ex-Pharisee and former persecutor of the church, “Jesus the Christ” is the very heart and soul of Paul’s preaching. Nothing is worthy to be compared to the glory of the Messiah; everything pales by comparison (Phil 3:5-10). The apostle’s all-consuming passion is for others to know the fullness of God in the person of his only Son (Eph 3:14-19).<\/p>\nThe Holy Spirit in Scripture speaks of Jesus with wide-ranging appellatives—Holy One, Judge, Righteous One, King, Son of God, and Lord—but these are not exhaustive. In him all the lines of messianic prediction converge; he is the touchstone whereby their validity is firmly established. The Lord Jesus Christ is himself the heart and substance of that covenant through which sinful people may be reconciled to a holy God (Is 42:6; Jn 14:6). That Jesus is the Messiah of Israel, God incarnate, exhaustively fulfills prophecy, type, and symbol—all shadows of his coming. Therefore, all should trust in him, the source of all grace, the only abiding treasure (Mt 12:21; Jn 1:16-17; Col 2:3). Anointed as prophet, he leads us into all truth (Jn 6:14; 7:16); as priest he intercedes for us (Heb 7:21); and as king he reigns over us (Phil 2:9-10).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Atonement; Branch; Christology; Jesus Christ, Life and Teachings of; Redeemer, Redemption; Son of God; Son of Man.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>MESSIAH<\/h3>\nTitle derived from the Hebrew, mashiach<\/span>,<\/em> a verbal adjective meaning “anointed one.” Along with its NT equivalent, christos<\/span> (Christ), it refers to an act of consecration whereby an individual is set apart to serve God and then anointed with oil. The verbal root (<\/em>mashach<\/span>)<\/em> conveys this idea as well.<\/p>\nIsrael’s practice of ceremonially anointing with oil is present in several contexts. Priests were regularly anointed prior to their divinely given service at the altar of sacrifice (Lv 4:3). While there is evidence for a literal anointing of prophets (1 Kgs 19:16), this does not appear to have been a standard practice. The anointing of Saul and David by Samuel established the act as a significant prerequisite for Hebrew kings before they assumed their positions of royal leadership. The king was especially considered to be the Lord’s anointed and as such was viewed to hold a secure position before men (1 Sm 12:14; 2 Sm 19:21) and God (Pss 2:2; 20:6). Along with numerous messianic prophecies, these proceedings helped inform the Jews of the Anointed One, par excellence, who would eventually come to bring salvation to Israel.<\/p>\nConcluding the 13 articles of Hebraic faith attributed to Moses Maimonides (13th century AD<\/span>) is the statement still found in many Hebrew prayer books: “I believe with a perfect heart that the Messiah will come; and although his coming be delayed, I will still wait patiently for his speedy appearance.”<\/p>\nMessiah in the Old Testament<\/p>\nJewish hope for the advent of the Messiah developed dynamically from the period of David’s reign, when it was prophesied that his kingdom would endure to the end of time (2 Sm 7:16). Israel was told that, through David’s descendants, his throne would exert a never-ending dominion over all the earth (2 Sm 22:48-51; Jer 33). It is with this aspect of messianic salvation that Jewish minds have traditionally been preoccupied (cf. Acts 1:6).<\/p>\nAmong Orthodox rabbis there has never been a lack of conjecture respecting the details of the Messiah’s ministry. At one time the rabbis applied no less than 456 passages of Scripture to his person and salvation. Preoccupation with the Messiah is evident in the tractate Sanhedrin<\/em> (Babylonian Talmud), where passages state that the world was created for him and that all the prophets prophesied of his days (Sanhedrin<\/em> 98b, 99a). By and large, Orthodoxy still retains its time-worn belief in the Messiah’s reign in Jerusalem, the rebuilding of the temple, and the reestablishment of both priesthood and sacrifice.<\/p>\nWhile later Judaism looked for the Messiah as an eschatological figure who will reign at the end of time, modern Jewish thought has largely jettisoned the traditional notion of a personal Messiah in favor of belief in a messianic age. Prevalent liberal Judaism envisions the world ultimately perfected through the influence of the twin Judaic ideals of justice and compassion. Such conviction, ignoring the plight of fallen humans and the teaching of Scripture, substitutes humanistic thinking for miraculous heavenly intervention.<\/p>\nWhile the Messiah’s origin is linked firmly to the house of David (2 Sm 7:14; Hos 3:5), the promise for a Messiah was given long before David lived. In fact, the hope for the Messiah is implicit in the first promise of the establishment of the kingdom of God. Addressed to Satan, Genesis 3:15 declares that God will place hostility between the serpent and the woman until, in the fullness of time, the “seed” of the woman inflicts a fatal blow to the head of the serpent.<\/p>\nThe nature of messianic prophecy is progressive; each prophecy casts more light on the subject. This occurs, for example, respecting the concept of the “seed”: Messiah is to be born of a woman (Gn 3:15), through the line of Shem (9:26) and specifically through Abraham (22:18). Yet even as late as Genesis 22:18, the “seed” is not clearly presented as a person, since zerah<\/span> (seed) may indicate a singular or plural object. Still less apparent in these early stages of messianic prophecy is the nature of the “bruising” that is to occur. Yet the idea of the Messiah being crushed for sin is implicit in the Genesis pronouncement, as is the violence associated with that act. Chief among the messianic prophets, Isaiah gives full range to the axiom that the Anointed One must endure extensive suffering (Is 53:1). Under the figure “the Servant of the Lord,” four “servant songs” delineate the mission of the future deliverer (Is 42:1-7; 49:1-9; 50:4-11; 52:13–53:12). While it is true that Isaiah does not explicitly link the title Messiah with the Servant of the Lord, identifying both figures as one and the same person is justifiable. Both figures are uniquely anointed (61:1); each brings light to the Gentiles (55:4; cf. 49:6); neither is pretentious in his first appearance (7:14-15; 11:1; cf. 42:3; 53:1); and the title of Davidic “branch” rests upon them both (11:1-4). Equally significant are the dual facts of their humiliation and exaltation (49:7; 52:13-15). Jewish scholars of the early Christian era in the Aramaic Targum on the prophets paraphrase Isaiah 42:1, “Behold my Servant Messiah” and begin Isaiah 53, “Behold my Servant Messiah will prosper.” While Cyrus may be spoken of as “anointed,” no final salvific work is attributed to him (45:1-5). Israel, although elect and loved by God (41:8), is ill-equipped as God’s servant to bring his redeeming work to mankind (42:18). The collapse of David’s dynasty points eloquently to Israel’s need for an anointed monarch who will heal the apostasy and disobedience (Ex 33:5; Hos 4:1). More and more, OT history presents Israel’s comprehensive moral failure. Her problem, which she shares with mankind, can only be solved by the making of a covenant whose surety and focal point is both a personal Savior and sovereign Lord (Jer 31:31-34). The advent of such a champion lives in the recorded promise of a shoot from the stump of Jesse’s fallen tree, who will bring the light of life to God’s benighted people (Is 9:2; 11:1).<\/p>\nIt is difficult to get away from the idea that the concept of servanthood and lowliness belongs within the sphere of royalty (Zec 9:9). The concept of the Messiah filling the complementary offices of priest and king is incontrovertible (Ps 110:1-4); a suffering priest-king is far less obvious. Some among the Talmudic writers apparently recognized the likelihood that the Messiah would have to suffer. In the Babylonian Talmud, tractate Sanhedrin<\/em> 98b, the Messiah is said to bear sicknesses and pain. Among the prayers for the Day of Atonement may be found the words of Eleazar ben Qalir (perhaps as late as AD<\/span> 1000): “Our righteous Messiah has departed from us; we are horror-stricken, and there is none to justify us. Our iniquities and the yoke of our transgressions he carries, and is wounded for our transgressions. He bears on his shoulders our sins to find pardon for our iniquities. May we be healed by his stripes.” In a similar vein Rabbi Eliyya de Vidas writes, “The meaning of ‘He was wounded for our transgressions, bruised for our iniquities,’ is that since the Messiah bears our iniquities, which produce the effect of His being bruised, it follows that whosoever will not admit that the Messiah thus suffers for our iniquities must endure and suffer for them himself.” For all this, it is highly doubtful that anyone imagined the Messiah would accomplish his salvational work by means of his own death (cf. Is 53:12). When rabbinic speculation failed to satisfactorily harmonize the paradoxical facts of humiliation and exaltation, some hypothesized that God would send a Messiah to suffer as well as a Messiah to reign. Biblically, it is evident that the Anointed One’s terrible ordeal of suffering is but the necessary prelude to infinite glory. He is pictured not only as a great king (52:13; 53:12) but also as humble (53:2), humiliated (52:14), rejected (53:3), and bearing the consequences of mankind’s rebellion (vv 5-6). Yet he is raised up to intercede for, and richly bless, his people (v 12). The Messiah, having accomplished that full obedience that Adam and Israel failed to achieve, will bring Israel and the nations back to God (42:18-19; 49:3, 6).<\/p>\nThe writings of Daniel contain important messianic data. Daniel is unique in that he boldly speaks of “Messiah the Prince” (Dn 9:25), identifies him as the “Son of Man” (7:13), and says he suffers (“cut off,” 9:26). This statement of the cutting off (i.e., death) of the Messiah makes possible his work of atonement (9:24). The doctrine of a vicarious substitutionary atonement is the only doctrine of atonement found in the Bible (cf. Lv 17:11). Israel understood that to bear sin meant enduring the consequences, or penalty, for sin (cf. Nm 14:33). The same penal substitution is evident in the working principle of the Messiah’s atoning sacrifice. He is the victim’s substitute to whom is transferred the suffering due the sinner. The penalty having been thus borne vicariously, the suppliant is fully pardoned.<\/p>\nPsalm 22:1 records the plaintive cry of the Messiah bearing man’s penalty for sin (cf. Mt 27:46) as he becomes sin on behalf of his people (2 Cor 5:21). Yet his cry, “My God,” indicates an intimate relationship that cannot be radically severed. Once again the motif of messianic humiliation prior to great exaltation is in view (Ps 22:27). In the so-called “royal psalms” (e.g., 2; 72; 110) it is the priestly intercessor who is also ordained to function as monarch and judge.<\/p>\nJeremiah brings the portrait a step further. The one who will enable humans to enter into a salvational covenant with God conveys God’s imputed righteousness: the Messiah, God’s righteous branch, becomes “the Lord our Righteousness.” Paradoxically, under the law no one could be crucified who was not guilty of sin (Dt 21:22). But it is Christ the righteous one who was crucified, thereby forever undermining any supposed legalistic confidence (Dt 21:23; Gal 3:13). More than forgiven, believers are deemed righteous in him (Jer 23:5-6).<\/p>\nWhile the birthplace of the Messiah was well established (Mi 5:2), his deity was a hotly contested matter. Although few in ancient Israel disputed the belief in a superhuman Messiah, it is doubtful that anyone imagined him to be “God with us” in the fullest sense of the expression (cf. Heb 1:3).<\/p>\nMessiah in the New Testament<\/p>\nThe NT writers present the picture that he who was the child of supernatural origins (Is 7:14; Mi 5:2) carried the full weight of divinity (Is 9:6; Phil 2:6; Col 1:19). He is the Son of God, worthy to receive the worship of all people (Ps 45:6-7; cf. Heb 1:8-9).<\/p>\nThe Jews of first-century Palestine knew that the messianic promise would be fulfilled in the coming of one like Moses (Dt 18:18). Parallels between Jesus and Moses are abundant. As mediators, innovators, and propagators of new phases of spiritual life for the people, they are unexcelled. Specifically, both are miraculously spared in infancy (Ex 2; Mt 2:13-23); both renounce a royal court for the sake of serving the people of God (Phil 2:5-8; Heb 11:24-28); both exhibit intense compassion for others (Nm 27:17; Mt 9:36); both commune “face to face” with God (Ex 34:29-30; 2 Cor 3:7); and each mediates a covenant of redemption (Dt 29:1; Heb 8:6-7). But, as Luther observes, “Christ is no Moses.” In the final analysis Moses is but a household servant; the Messiah is the maker and master of all things (Heb 3:3-6; cf. Jn 1:1-2, 18).<\/p>\nFamily genealogies are important in Scripture. Rabbis agreed upon the absolute necessity of the Messiah’s Davidic lineage based on Hosea 3:5 and Jeremiah 30:9. The angelic announcement immediately establishes the correct lineage for Jesus (Lk 1:32-33; cf. 2:4), as does Matthew’s (Mt 1:1-17). The Lukan list, like that of Matthew, sets forth the exclusive kingly descent verifying Jesus as Messiah (Lk 3:23-38). Although variations occur between the two genealogies, there is a firm solidarity emphasizing an ancestry within the unique messianic stock. Fully aware of the messianic focus of Scripture (Jn 5:46; 8:56), Jesus acknowledged himself to be the Christ on numerous occasions. He accepted the title from blind Bartimaeus (Mk 10:46-48); from the crowds when he entered Jerusalem (Mt 21:9); from the children at the temple (v 15); and in other contexts as well (Mt 16:16-18; Mk 14:61-62; Lk 4:21; Jn 4:25-26). Nonetheless, he warned his disciples not to broadcast his mighty acts as Messiah prior to his resurrection (Mt 17:9; cf. Lk 9:20-21). Owing to the commonly held (but false) notion that the Messiah’s role was primarily that of a political liberator, Jesus actually avoided use of that term and preferred to identify himself as “the Son of Man.” It was by no means assumed that both designations referred to the same person (cf. Mk 14:61-62). Borrowing essentially from Daniel’s vision of a heavenly conqueror (Dn 7:13-14), Jesus consistently employed this less-known title and filled it with the true character and scope of messianic salvation. Jesus’ teaching in this regard enabled his disciples to correct their erroneous views concerning his mission (Mt 16:21-23). In the fullness of time they would come to see him not only as Messiah but also as the theme of the entire OT (Mt 5:17; Lk 24:27, 44; Jn 5:39; cf. Heb 10:7). When Jesus expounded the Scriptures beginning with the Torah (Lk 24:27), he did so as the living exegesis of God, the Word made flesh (Jn 1:14, 18). Legitimate messianic exposition is found in a host of texts, such as Psalms 2; 16; 22; 40; 110; Isaiah 7:14; 9:6; 11:1; 40:10-11; 50:6; 52:13–53:12; 61:1; 63:1-6; Jeremiah 23:5-6; 33:14-16; Ezekiel 34:23; 37:25; Daniel 9:24-27; Hosea 11:1; Micah 5:2; Zechariah 9:9; 11:13; 12:10; 13:7; Malachi 3:1; 4:2.<\/p>\nThe messiahship of Jesus is firmly proclaimed by all four evangelists (Mt 1:1; Mk 1:1; Lk 24:26; Jn 20:31). Peter on Pentecost, Philip before the Ethiopian eunuch, and Apollos in open debate all argue convincingly that Jesus is the Messiah (Acts 2:36; 8:35; 28:28). Peter says he was “made” both Lord and Christ (2:36), signifying that the resurrection rightfully confirms him as such. Similarly, the apostle Paul speaks of Jesus’ resurrection as a patent declaration of his inalienable right to the title (Rom 1:4). For the ex-Pharisee and former persecutor of the church, “Jesus the Christ” is the very heart and soul of Paul’s preaching. Nothing is worthy to be compared to the glory of the Messiah; everything pales by comparison (Phil 3:5-10). The apostle’s all-consuming passion is for others to know the fullness of God in the person of his only Son (Eph 3:14-19).<\/p>\nThe Holy Spirit in Scripture speaks of Jesus with wide-ranging appellatives—Holy One, Judge, Righteous One, King, Son of God, and Lord—but these are not exhaustive. In him all the lines of messianic prediction converge; he is the touchstone whereby their validity is firmly established. The Lord Jesus Christ is himself the heart and substance of that covenant through which sinful people may be reconciled to a holy God (Is 42:6; Jn 14:6). That Jesus is the Messiah of Israel, God incarnate, exhaustively fulfills prophecy, type, and symbol—all shadows of his coming. Therefore, all should trust in him, the source of all grace, the only abiding treasure (Mt 12:21; Jn 1:16-17; Col 2:3). Anointed as prophet, he leads us into all truth (Jn 6:14; 7:16); as priest he intercedes for us (Heb 7:21); and as king he reigns over us (Phil 2:9-10).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Atonement; Branch; Christology; Jesus Christ, Life and Teachings of; Redeemer, Redemption; Son of God; Son of Man.<\/p>","summary_ro":"MESSIAH Title derived from the Hebrew, mashiach, a verbal adjective meaning “anointed one.” Along with its NT equivalent, christos (Christ), it refers to an act of consecration whereby an individual is set apart to serve God and then anointed with oil. The verbal root (mashach) conveys this idea as well. Israel’s practice of ceremonially anointing with oil is present in several contexts. Priests were regularly anointed prior to their divinely given service at the altar of sacrifice (Lv 4:3). ...","summary_en":"MESSIAH Title derived from the Hebrew, mashiach, a verbal adjective meaning “anointed one.” Along with its NT equivalent, christos (Christ), it refers to an act of consecration whereby an individual is set apart to serve God and then anointed with oil. The verbal root (mashach) conveys this idea as well. Israel’s practice of ceremonially anointing with oil is present in several contexts. Priests were regularly anointed prior to their divinely given service at the altar of sacrifice (Lv 4:3). ...","source":"Articles\/M.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":51665,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 42:18","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 42:18","content_ro":"42:18-20<\/strong> The Israelites who refused to listen to what God said and to understand what they saw God doing in history were rendered spiritually blind<\/em> and deaf<\/em> (see 6:9-10). They had knowledge of the truth through God’s word and the prophets, but their closed minds refused to act upon it.<\/p>","content_en":"42:18-20<\/strong> The Israelites who refused to listen to what God said and to understand what they saw God doing in history were rendered spiritually blind<\/em> and deaf<\/em> (see 6:9-10). They had knowledge of the truth through God’s word and the prophets, but their closed minds refused to act upon it.<\/p>","summary_ro":"42:18-20 The Israelites who refused to listen to what God said and to understand what they saw God doing in history were rendered spiritually blind and deaf (see 6:9-10). They had knowledge of the truth through God’s word and the prophets, but their closed minds refused to act upon it.","summary_en":"42:18-20 The Israelites who refused to listen to what God said and to understand what they saw God doing in history were rendered spiritually blind and deaf (see 6:9-10). They had knowledge of the truth through God’s word and the prophets, but their closed minds refused to act upon it.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":79291,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 42:18","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 42:18","content_ro":"42:18-20<\/strong> The Israelites who refused to listen to what God said and to understand what they saw God doing in history were rendered spiritually blind<\/em> and deaf<\/em> (see 6:9-10). They had knowledge of the truth through God’s word and the prophets, but their closed minds refused to act upon it.<\/p>","content_en":"42:18-20<\/strong> The Israelites who refused to listen to what God said and to understand what they saw God doing in history were rendered spiritually blind<\/em> and deaf<\/em> (see 6:9-10). They had knowledge of the truth through God’s word and the prophets, but their closed minds refused to act upon it.<\/p>","summary_ro":"42:18-20 The Israelites who refused to listen to what God said and to understand what they saw God doing in history were rendered spiritually blind and deaf (see 6:9-10). They had knowledge of the truth through God’s word and the prophets, but their closed minds refused to act upon it.","summary_en":"42:18-20 The Israelites who refused to listen to what God said and to understand what they saw God doing in history were rendered spiritually blind and deaf (see 6:9-10). They had knowledge of the truth through God’s word and the prophets, but their closed minds refused to act upon it.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":106917,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 42:18","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 42:18","content_ro":"42:18-20<\/strong> The Israelites who refused to listen to what God said and to understand what they saw God doing in history were rendered spiritually blind<\/em> and deaf<\/em> (see 6:9-10). They had knowledge of the truth through God’s word and the prophets, but their closed minds refused to act upon it.<\/p>","content_en":"42:18-20<\/strong> The Israelites who refused to listen to what God said and to understand what they saw God doing in history were rendered spiritually blind<\/em> and deaf<\/em> (see 6:9-10). They had knowledge of the truth through God’s word and the prophets, but their closed minds refused to act upon it.<\/p>","summary_ro":"42:18-20 The Israelites who refused to listen to what God said and to understand what they saw God doing in history were rendered spiritually blind and deaf (see 6:9-10). They had knowledge of the truth through God’s word and the prophets, but their closed minds refused to act upon it.","summary_en":"42:18-20 The Israelites who refused to listen to what God said and to understand what they saw God doing in history were rendered spiritually blind and deaf (see 6:9-10). They had knowledge of the truth through God’s word and the prophets, but their closed minds refused to act upon it.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":134543,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 42:18","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 42:18","content_ro":"42:18-20<\/strong> The Israelites who refused to listen to what God said and to understand what they saw God doing in history were rendered spiritually blind<\/em> and deaf<\/em> (see 6:9-10). They had knowledge of the truth through God’s word and the prophets, but their closed minds refused to act upon it.<\/p>","content_en":"42:18-20<\/strong> The Israelites who refused to listen to what God said and to understand what they saw God doing in history were rendered spiritually blind<\/em> and deaf<\/em> (see 6:9-10). They had knowledge of the truth through God’s word and the prophets, but their closed minds refused to act upon it.<\/p>","summary_ro":"42:18-20 The Israelites who refused to listen to what God said and to understand what they saw God doing in history were rendered spiritually blind and deaf (see 6:9-10). They had knowledge of the truth through God’s word and the prophets, but their closed minds refused to act upon it.","summary_en":"42:18-20 The Israelites who refused to listen to what God said and to understand what they saw God doing in history were rendered spiritually blind and deaf (see 6:9-10). They had knowledge of the truth through God’s word and the prophets, but their closed minds refused to act upon it.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"19":[{"id":25355,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Messenger","title_en":"Messenger","content_ro":"<h3>MESSENGER<\/h3>\nOne who carries a message, a herald. The word “messenger” is used in the Bible in four ways.<\/p>\n<li>1. The word is used of messengers carrying messages from one person to another. Such messengers might bring news (2 Sm 11:22), requests or demands (1 Sm 11:3; 16:19), or act as envoys of one nation to another (Is 37:9). In the NT we read of messengers of the churches (2 Cor 8:23; Phil 2:25). The blessing of a good messenger is spoken of in Proverbs 25:13: “Faithful messengers are as refreshing as snow in the heat of summer. They revive the spirit of their employer” (nlt<\/span>).<\/li>\n<li>2. The word is used of messengers bringing messages from God. Israel was intended to be God’s messenger but often showed herself blind and deaf (Is 42:19). Prophets (Hg 1:13) and priests (Mal 2:7) were God’s messengers. God sent many such messengers to his people, even though they were often unheeded (2 Chr 36:15-16). In Malachi 3:1 we have the prophecy of a special messenger, “Look! I am sending my messenger, and he will prepare the way before me. Then the Lord you are seeking will suddenly come to his Temple. The messenger of the covenant, whom you look for so eagerly, is surely coming” (nlt<\/span>). This verse is quoted in the NT in Matthew 11:10, Mark 1:2, and Luke 7:27 as fulfilled in John the Baptist.<\/li>\n<li>3. In both the OT and NT the most common word for “messenger” is also that for “angel.” God’s angels are distinctively his messengers. See<\/em> Angel.<\/li>\n<li>4. The word is used in a metaphorical sense, as in Proverbs 16:14, “The wrath of a king is as messengers of death” (kjv<\/span>), and in 2 Corinthians 12:7, where Paul’s constant physical ailment is called “a messenger from Satan to torment” him.<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>MESSENGER<\/h3>\nOne who carries a message, a herald. The word “messenger” is used in the Bible in four ways.<\/p>\n<li>1. The word is used of messengers carrying messages from one person to another. Such messengers might bring news (2 Sm 11:22), requests or demands (1 Sm 11:3; 16:19), or act as envoys of one nation to another (Is 37:9). In the NT we read of messengers of the churches (2 Cor 8:23; Phil 2:25). The blessing of a good messenger is spoken of in Proverbs 25:13: “Faithful messengers are as refreshing as snow in the heat of summer. They revive the spirit of their employer” (nlt<\/span>).<\/li>\n<li>2. The word is used of messengers bringing messages from God. Israel was intended to be God’s messenger but often showed herself blind and deaf (Is 42:19). Prophets (Hg 1:13) and priests (Mal 2:7) were God’s messengers. God sent many such messengers to his people, even though they were often unheeded (2 Chr 36:15-16). In Malachi 3:1 we have the prophecy of a special messenger, “Look! I am sending my messenger, and he will prepare the way before me. Then the Lord you are seeking will suddenly come to his Temple. The messenger of the covenant, whom you look for so eagerly, is surely coming” (nlt<\/span>). This verse is quoted in the NT in Matthew 11:10, Mark 1:2, and Luke 7:27 as fulfilled in John the Baptist.<\/li>\n<li>3. In both the OT and NT the most common word for “messenger” is also that for “angel.” God’s angels are distinctively his messengers. See<\/em> Angel.<\/li>\n<li>4. The word is used in a metaphorical sense, as in Proverbs 16:14, “The wrath of a king is as messengers of death” (kjv<\/span>), and in 2 Corinthians 12:7, where Paul’s constant physical ailment is called “a messenger from Satan to torment” him.<\/li>","summary_ro":"MESSENGER One who carries a message, a herald. The word “messenger” is used in the Bible in four ways. 1. The word is used of messengers carrying messages from one person to another. Such messengers might bring news (2 Sm 11:22), requests or demands (1 Sm 11:3; 16:19), or act as envoys of one nation to another (Is 37:9). In the NT we read of messengers of the churches (2 Cor 8:23; Phil 2:25). The blessing of a good messenger is spoken of in Proverbs 25:13: “Faithful messengers are as refreshi...","summary_en":"MESSENGER One who carries a message, a herald. The word “messenger” is used in the Bible in four ways. 1. The word is used of messengers carrying messages from one person to another. Such messengers might bring news (2 Sm 11:22), requests or demands (1 Sm 11:3; 16:19), or act as envoys of one nation to another (Is 37:9). In the NT we read of messengers of the churches (2 Cor 8:23; Phil 2:25). The blessing of a good messenger is spoken of in Proverbs 25:13: “Faithful messengers are as refreshi...","source":"Articles\/M.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":63994,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God’s Servant","title_en":"God’s Servant","content_ro":"<h3>God’s Servant<\/h3>\nIn Isaiah 40–66 the figure of God’s servant features prominently. The servant proclaims a new order of justice and righteousness to the world (42:3-4) and serves as God’s instrument to prepare the world for God’s coming (52:7).<\/p>\nWho is the Lord’s servant? Isaiah identifies the servant with Israel (41:8; 44:1-2), who serves as God’s witness (43:10) and as a light to the Gentiles. Yet Israel could not fully complete this mission: Israel was deaf, blind, and in need of God’s forgiveness (42:19; 44:21-22). Israel failed again and again. By contrast, God’s servant is faithful and waits for the coming redemption (see 61:1-3; 62:1-5). The servant thus represents the godly in Israel. The servant is God’s faithful witness to humanity, and he stands in opposition to the idolatrous practices of paganism.<\/p>\nIsaiah portrays the servant as an obedient individual who suffers. The notion of the “suffering servant” found fulfillment in one particular Israelite who was perfectly faithful and suffered on behalf of others: Jesus Christ. By his suffering, God’s blessings came to many, including other nations (see Acts 26:22-23). In union and fellowship with Christ, the apostles ministered as his servants to both Jews and Gentiles (Acts 13:47; 26:14-18). All those who have faith in Christ share in the mission of the servant and fulfill the role of God’s servants in the world (e.g., Col 1:7; 4:12; 1 Tim 4:6; 2 Tim 2:24).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nLev 25:42, 55; 1 Kgs 11:36; 2 Kgs 9:7; Pss 89:20-29; 113:1; Isa 41:8-10; 42:1-4, 19-20; 43:10; 44:1-5, 21-22; 49:1-7; 52:7, 13–53:12; 61:1-3; Jer 30:10; 33:20-22, 26; 46:27-28; Ezek 28:25; 34:23-24; 37:24-25; Zech 3:8; Matt 12:15-21; Acts 2:18; 2 Tim 2:24<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God’s Servant<\/h3>\nIn Isaiah 40–66 the figure of God’s servant features prominently. The servant proclaims a new order of justice and righteousness to the world (42:3-4) and serves as God’s instrument to prepare the world for God’s coming (52:7).<\/p>\nWho is the Lord’s servant? Isaiah identifies the servant with Israel (41:8; 44:1-2), who serves as God’s witness (43:10) and as a light to the Gentiles. Yet Israel could not fully complete this mission: Israel was deaf, blind, and in need of God’s forgiveness (42:19; 44:21-22). Israel failed again and again. By contrast, God’s servant is faithful and waits for the coming redemption (see 61:1-3; 62:1-5). The servant thus represents the godly in Israel. The servant is God’s faithful witness to humanity, and he stands in opposition to the idolatrous practices of paganism.<\/p>\nIsaiah portrays the servant as an obedient individual who suffers. The notion of the “suffering servant” found fulfillment in one particular Israelite who was perfectly faithful and suffered on behalf of others: Jesus Christ. By his suffering, God’s blessings came to many, including other nations (see Acts 26:22-23). In union and fellowship with Christ, the apostles ministered as his servants to both Jews and Gentiles (Acts 13:47; 26:14-18). All those who have faith in Christ share in the mission of the servant and fulfill the role of God’s servants in the world (e.g., Col 1:7; 4:12; 1 Tim 4:6; 2 Tim 2:24).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nLev 25:42, 55; 1 Kgs 11:36; 2 Kgs 9:7; Pss 89:20-29; 113:1; Isa 41:8-10; 42:1-4, 19-20; 43:10; 44:1-5, 21-22; 49:1-7; 52:7, 13–53:12; 61:1-3; Jer 30:10; 33:20-22, 26; 46:27-28; Ezek 28:25; 34:23-24; 37:24-25; Zech 3:8; Matt 12:15-21; Acts 2:18; 2 Tim 2:24<\/p>","summary_ro":"God’s Servant In Isaiah 40–66 the figure of God’s servant features prominently. The servant proclaims a new order of justice and righteousness to the world (42:3-4) and serves as God’s instrument to prepare the world for God’s coming (52:7). Who is the Lord’s servant? Isaiah identifies the servant with Israel (41:8; 44:1-2), who serves as God’s witness (43:10) and as a light to the Gentiles. Yet Israel could not fully complete this mission: Israel was deaf, blind, and in need of God’s forgive...","summary_en":"God’s Servant In Isaiah 40–66 the figure of God’s servant features prominently. The servant proclaims a new order of justice and righteousness to the world (42:3-4) and serves as God’s instrument to prepare the world for God’s coming (52:7). Who is the Lord’s servant? Isaiah identifies the servant with Israel (41:8; 44:1-2), who serves as God’s witness (43:10) and as a light to the Gentiles. Yet Israel could not fully complete this mission: Israel was deaf, blind, and in need of God’s forgive...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":91620,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God’s Servant","title_en":"God’s Servant","content_ro":"<h3>God’s Servant<\/h3>\nIn Isaiah 40–66 the figure of God’s servant features prominently. The servant proclaims a new order of justice and righteousness to the world (42:3-4) and serves as God’s instrument to prepare the world for God’s coming (52:7).<\/p>\nWho is the Lord’s servant? Isaiah identifies the servant with Israel (41:8; 44:1-2), who serves as God’s witness (43:10) and as a light to the Gentiles. Yet Israel could not fully complete this mission: Israel was deaf, blind, and in need of God’s forgiveness (42:19; 44:21-22). Israel failed again and again. By contrast, God’s servant is faithful and waits for the coming redemption (see 61:1-3; 62:1-5). The servant thus represents the godly in Israel. The servant is God’s faithful witness to humanity, and he stands in opposition to the idolatrous practices of paganism.<\/p>\nIsaiah portrays the servant as an obedient individual who suffers. The notion of the “suffering servant” found fulfillment in one particular Israelite who was perfectly faithful and suffered on behalf of others: Jesus Christ. By his suffering, God’s blessings came to many, including other nations (see Acts 26:22-23). In union and fellowship with Christ, the apostles ministered as his servants to both Jews and Gentiles (Acts 13:47; 26:14-18). All those who have faith in Christ share in the mission of the servant and fulfill the role of God’s servants in the world (e.g., Col 1:7; 4:12; 1 Tim 4:6; 2 Tim 2:24).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nLev 25:42, 55; 1 Kgs 11:36; 2 Kgs 9:7; Pss 89:20-29; 113:1; Isa 41:8-10; 42:1-4, 19-20; 43:10; 44:1-5, 21-22; 49:1-7; 52:7, 13–53:12; 61:1-3; Jer 30:10; 33:20-22, 26; 46:27-28; Ezek 28:25; 34:23-24; 37:24-25; Zech 3:8; Matt 12:15-21; Acts 2:18; 2 Tim 2:24<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God’s Servant<\/h3>\nIn Isaiah 40–66 the figure of God’s servant features prominently. The servant proclaims a new order of justice and righteousness to the world (42:3-4) and serves as God’s instrument to prepare the world for God’s coming (52:7).<\/p>\nWho is the Lord’s servant? Isaiah identifies the servant with Israel (41:8; 44:1-2), who serves as God’s witness (43:10) and as a light to the Gentiles. Yet Israel could not fully complete this mission: Israel was deaf, blind, and in need of God’s forgiveness (42:19; 44:21-22). Israel failed again and again. By contrast, God’s servant is faithful and waits for the coming redemption (see 61:1-3; 62:1-5). The servant thus represents the godly in Israel. The servant is God’s faithful witness to humanity, and he stands in opposition to the idolatrous practices of paganism.<\/p>\nIsaiah portrays the servant as an obedient individual who suffers. The notion of the “suffering servant” found fulfillment in one particular Israelite who was perfectly faithful and suffered on behalf of others: Jesus Christ. By his suffering, God’s blessings came to many, including other nations (see Acts 26:22-23). In union and fellowship with Christ, the apostles ministered as his servants to both Jews and Gentiles (Acts 13:47; 26:14-18). All those who have faith in Christ share in the mission of the servant and fulfill the role of God’s servants in the world (e.g., Col 1:7; 4:12; 1 Tim 4:6; 2 Tim 2:24).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nLev 25:42, 55; 1 Kgs 11:36; 2 Kgs 9:7; Pss 89:20-29; 113:1; Isa 41:8-10; 42:1-4, 19-20; 43:10; 44:1-5, 21-22; 49:1-7; 52:7, 13–53:12; 61:1-3; Jer 30:10; 33:20-22, 26; 46:27-28; Ezek 28:25; 34:23-24; 37:24-25; Zech 3:8; Matt 12:15-21; Acts 2:18; 2 Tim 2:24<\/p>","summary_ro":"God’s Servant In Isaiah 40–66 the figure of God’s servant features prominently. The servant proclaims a new order of justice and righteousness to the world (42:3-4) and serves as God’s instrument to prepare the world for God’s coming (52:7). Who is the Lord’s servant? Isaiah identifies the servant with Israel (41:8; 44:1-2), who serves as God’s witness (43:10) and as a light to the Gentiles. Yet Israel could not fully complete this mission: Israel was deaf, blind, and in need of God’s forgive...","summary_en":"God’s Servant In Isaiah 40–66 the figure of God’s servant features prominently. The servant proclaims a new order of justice and righteousness to the world (42:3-4) and serves as God’s instrument to prepare the world for God’s coming (52:7). Who is the Lord’s servant? Isaiah identifies the servant with Israel (41:8; 44:1-2), who serves as God’s witness (43:10) and as a light to the Gentiles. Yet Israel could not fully complete this mission: Israel was deaf, blind, and in need of God’s forgive...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":119246,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God’s Servant","title_en":"God’s Servant","content_ro":"<h3>God’s Servant<\/h3>\nIn Isaiah 40–66 the figure of God’s servant features prominently. The servant proclaims a new order of justice and righteousness to the world (42:3-4) and serves as God’s instrument to prepare the world for God’s coming (52:7).<\/p>\nWho is the Lord’s servant? Isaiah identifies the servant with Israel (41:8; 44:1-2), who serves as God’s witness (43:10) and as a light to the Gentiles. Yet Israel could not fully complete this mission: Israel was deaf, blind, and in need of God’s forgiveness (42:19; 44:21-22). Israel failed again and again. By contrast, God’s servant is faithful and waits for the coming redemption (see 61:1-3; 62:1-5). The servant thus represents the godly in Israel. The servant is God’s faithful witness to humanity, and he stands in opposition to the idolatrous practices of paganism.<\/p>\nIsaiah portrays the servant as an obedient individual who suffers. The notion of the “suffering servant” found fulfillment in one particular Israelite who was perfectly faithful and suffered on behalf of others: Jesus Christ. By his suffering, God’s blessings came to many, including other nations (see Acts 26:22-23). In union and fellowship with Christ, the apostles ministered as his servants to both Jews and Gentiles (Acts 13:47; 26:14-18). All those who have faith in Christ share in the mission of the servant and fulfill the role of God’s servants in the world (e.g., Col 1:7; 4:12; 1 Tim 4:6; 2 Tim 2:24).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nLev 25:42, 55; 1 Kgs 11:36; 2 Kgs 9:7; Pss 89:20-29; 113:1; Isa 41:8-10; 42:1-4, 19-20; 43:10; 44:1-5, 21-22; 49:1-7; 52:7, 13–53:12; 61:1-3; Jer 30:10; 33:20-22, 26; 46:27-28; Ezek 28:25; 34:23-24; 37:24-25; Zech 3:8; Matt 12:15-21; Acts 2:18; 2 Tim 2:24<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God’s Servant<\/h3>\nIn Isaiah 40–66 the figure of God’s servant features prominently. The servant proclaims a new order of justice and righteousness to the world (42:3-4) and serves as God’s instrument to prepare the world for God’s coming (52:7).<\/p>\nWho is the Lord’s servant? Isaiah identifies the servant with Israel (41:8; 44:1-2), who serves as God’s witness (43:10) and as a light to the Gentiles. Yet Israel could not fully complete this mission: Israel was deaf, blind, and in need of God’s forgiveness (42:19; 44:21-22). Israel failed again and again. By contrast, God’s servant is faithful and waits for the coming redemption (see 61:1-3; 62:1-5). The servant thus represents the godly in Israel. The servant is God’s faithful witness to humanity, and he stands in opposition to the idolatrous practices of paganism.<\/p>\nIsaiah portrays the servant as an obedient individual who suffers. The notion of the “suffering servant” found fulfillment in one particular Israelite who was perfectly faithful and suffered on behalf of others: Jesus Christ. By his suffering, God’s blessings came to many, including other nations (see Acts 26:22-23). In union and fellowship with Christ, the apostles ministered as his servants to both Jews and Gentiles (Acts 13:47; 26:14-18). All those who have faith in Christ share in the mission of the servant and fulfill the role of God’s servants in the world (e.g., Col 1:7; 4:12; 1 Tim 4:6; 2 Tim 2:24).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nLev 25:42, 55; 1 Kgs 11:36; 2 Kgs 9:7; Pss 89:20-29; 113:1; Isa 41:8-10; 42:1-4, 19-20; 43:10; 44:1-5, 21-22; 49:1-7; 52:7, 13–53:12; 61:1-3; Jer 30:10; 33:20-22, 26; 46:27-28; Ezek 28:25; 34:23-24; 37:24-25; Zech 3:8; Matt 12:15-21; Acts 2:18; 2 Tim 2:24<\/p>","summary_ro":"God’s Servant In Isaiah 40–66 the figure of God’s servant features prominently. The servant proclaims a new order of justice and righteousness to the world (42:3-4) and serves as God’s instrument to prepare the world for God’s coming (52:7). Who is the Lord’s servant? Isaiah identifies the servant with Israel (41:8; 44:1-2), who serves as God’s witness (43:10) and as a light to the Gentiles. Yet Israel could not fully complete this mission: Israel was deaf, blind, and in need of God’s forgive...","summary_en":"God’s Servant In Isaiah 40–66 the figure of God’s servant features prominently. The servant proclaims a new order of justice and righteousness to the world (42:3-4) and serves as God’s instrument to prepare the world for God’s coming (52:7). Who is the Lord’s servant? Isaiah identifies the servant with Israel (41:8; 44:1-2), who serves as God’s witness (43:10) and as a light to the Gentiles. Yet Israel could not fully complete this mission: Israel was deaf, blind, and in need of God’s forgive...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":146872,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God’s Servant","title_en":"God’s Servant","content_ro":"<h3>God’s Servant<\/h3>\nIn Isaiah 40–66 the figure of God’s servant features prominently. The servant proclaims a new order of justice and righteousness to the world (42:3-4) and serves as God’s instrument to prepare the world for God’s coming (52:7).<\/p>\nWho is the Lord’s servant? Isaiah identifies the servant with Israel (41:8; 44:1-2), who serves as God’s witness (43:10) and as a light to the Gentiles. Yet Israel could not fully complete this mission: Israel was deaf, blind, and in need of God’s forgiveness (42:19; 44:21-22). Israel failed again and again. By contrast, God’s servant is faithful and waits for the coming redemption (see 61:1-3; 62:1-5). The servant thus represents the godly in Israel. The servant is God’s faithful witness to humanity, and he stands in opposition to the idolatrous practices of paganism.<\/p>\nIsaiah portrays the servant as an obedient individual who suffers. The notion of the “suffering servant” found fulfillment in one particular Israelite who was perfectly faithful and suffered on behalf of others: Jesus Christ. By his suffering, God’s blessings came to many, including other nations (see Acts 26:22-23). In union and fellowship with Christ, the apostles ministered as his servants to both Jews and Gentiles (Acts 13:47; 26:14-18). All those who have faith in Christ share in the mission of the servant and fulfill the role of God’s servants in the world (e.g., Col 1:7; 4:12; 1 Tim 4:6; 2 Tim 2:24).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nLev 25:42, 55; 1 Kgs 11:36; 2 Kgs 9:7; Pss 89:20-29; 113:1; Isa 41:8-10; 42:1-4, 19-20; 43:10; 44:1-5, 21-22; 49:1-7; 52:7, 13–53:12; 61:1-3; Jer 30:10; 33:20-22, 26; 46:27-28; Ezek 28:25; 34:23-24; 37:24-25; Zech 3:8; Matt 12:15-21; Acts 2:18; 2 Tim 2:24<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God’s Servant<\/h3>\nIn Isaiah 40–66 the figure of God’s servant features prominently. The servant proclaims a new order of justice and righteousness to the world (42:3-4) and serves as God’s instrument to prepare the world for God’s coming (52:7).<\/p>\nWho is the Lord’s servant? Isaiah identifies the servant with Israel (41:8; 44:1-2), who serves as God’s witness (43:10) and as a light to the Gentiles. Yet Israel could not fully complete this mission: Israel was deaf, blind, and in need of God’s forgiveness (42:19; 44:21-22). Israel failed again and again. By contrast, God’s servant is faithful and waits for the coming redemption (see 61:1-3; 62:1-5). The servant thus represents the godly in Israel. The servant is God’s faithful witness to humanity, and he stands in opposition to the idolatrous practices of paganism.<\/p>\nIsaiah portrays the servant as an obedient individual who suffers. The notion of the “suffering servant” found fulfillment in one particular Israelite who was perfectly faithful and suffered on behalf of others: Jesus Christ. By his suffering, God’s blessings came to many, including other nations (see Acts 26:22-23). In union and fellowship with Christ, the apostles ministered as his servants to both Jews and Gentiles (Acts 13:47; 26:14-18). All those who have faith in Christ share in the mission of the servant and fulfill the role of God’s servants in the world (e.g., Col 1:7; 4:12; 1 Tim 4:6; 2 Tim 2:24).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nLev 25:42, 55; 1 Kgs 11:36; 2 Kgs 9:7; Pss 89:20-29; 113:1; Isa 41:8-10; 42:1-4, 19-20; 43:10; 44:1-5, 21-22; 49:1-7; 52:7, 13–53:12; 61:1-3; Jer 30:10; 33:20-22, 26; 46:27-28; Ezek 28:25; 34:23-24; 37:24-25; Zech 3:8; Matt 12:15-21; Acts 2:18; 2 Tim 2:24<\/p>","summary_ro":"God’s Servant In Isaiah 40–66 the figure of God’s servant features prominently. The servant proclaims a new order of justice and righteousness to the world (42:3-4) and serves as God’s instrument to prepare the world for God’s coming (52:7). Who is the Lord’s servant? Isaiah identifies the servant with Israel (41:8; 44:1-2), who serves as God’s witness (43:10) and as a light to the Gentiles. Yet Israel could not fully complete this mission: Israel was deaf, blind, and in need of God’s forgive...","summary_en":"God’s Servant In Isaiah 40–66 the figure of God’s servant features prominently. The servant proclaims a new order of justice and righteousness to the world (42:3-4) and serves as God’s instrument to prepare the world for God’s coming (52:7). Who is the Lord’s servant? Isaiah identifies the servant with Israel (41:8; 44:1-2), who serves as God’s witness (43:10) and as a light to the Gentiles. Yet Israel could not fully complete this mission: Israel was deaf, blind, and in need of God’s forgive...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"21":[{"id":51666,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 42:21","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 42:21","content_ro":"42:21<\/strong> exalted his glorious law:<\/em> God’s word is a witness to his righteous rule (see 1:10).<\/p>","content_en":"42:21<\/strong> exalted his glorious law:<\/em> God’s word is a witness to his righteous rule (see 1:10).<\/p>","summary_ro":"42:21 exalted his glorious law: God’s word is a witness to his righteous rule (see 1:10).","summary_en":"42:21 exalted his glorious law: God’s word is a witness to his righteous rule (see 1:10).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":79292,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 42:21","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 42:21","content_ro":"42:21<\/strong> exalted his glorious law:<\/em> God’s word is a witness to his righteous rule (see 1:10).<\/p>","content_en":"42:21<\/strong> exalted his glorious law:<\/em> God’s word is a witness to his righteous rule (see 1:10).<\/p>","summary_ro":"42:21 exalted his glorious law: God’s word is a witness to his righteous rule (see 1:10).","summary_en":"42:21 exalted his glorious law: God’s word is a witness to his righteous rule (see 1:10).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":106918,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 42:21","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 42:21","content_ro":"42:21<\/strong> exalted his glorious law:<\/em> God’s word is a witness to his righteous rule (see 1:10).<\/p>","content_en":"42:21<\/strong> exalted his glorious law:<\/em> God’s word is a witness to his righteous rule (see 1:10).<\/p>","summary_ro":"42:21 exalted his glorious law: God’s word is a witness to his righteous rule (see 1:10).","summary_en":"42:21 exalted his glorious law: God’s word is a witness to his righteous rule (see 1:10).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":134544,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 42:21","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 42:21","content_ro":"42:21<\/strong> exalted his glorious law:<\/em> God’s word is a witness to his righteous rule (see 1:10).<\/p>","content_en":"42:21<\/strong> exalted his glorious law:<\/em> God’s word is a witness to his righteous rule (see 1:10).<\/p>","summary_ro":"42:21 exalted his glorious law: God’s word is a witness to his righteous rule (see 1:10).","summary_en":"42:21 exalted his glorious law: God’s word is a witness to his righteous rule (see 1:10).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"22":[{"id":51667,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 42:22","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 42:22","content_ro":"42:22-25<\/strong> Throughout its history, Israel’s sin (42:24) made Israel fair game<\/em> for foreign oppressors. Many nations, Assyria and Babylon in particular, became instruments God used to pour out his fury<\/em> (42:25) on his rebellious people.<\/p>","content_en":"42:22-25<\/strong> Throughout its history, Israel’s sin (42:24) made Israel fair game<\/em> for foreign oppressors. Many nations, Assyria and Babylon in particular, became instruments God used to pour out his fury<\/em> (42:25) on his rebellious people.<\/p>","summary_ro":"42:22-25 Throughout its history, Israel’s sin (42:24) made Israel fair game for foreign oppressors. Many nations, Assyria and Babylon in particular, became instruments God used to pour out his fury (42:25) on his rebellious people.","summary_en":"42:22-25 Throughout its history, Israel’s sin (42:24) made Israel fair game for foreign oppressors. Many nations, Assyria and Babylon in particular, became instruments God used to pour out his fury (42:25) on his rebellious people.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":79293,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 42:22","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 42:22","content_ro":"42:22-25<\/strong> Throughout its history, Israel’s sin (42:24) made Israel fair game<\/em> for foreign oppressors. Many nations, Assyria and Babylon in particular, became instruments God used to pour out his fury<\/em> (42:25) on his rebellious people.<\/p>","content_en":"42:22-25<\/strong> Throughout its history, Israel’s sin (42:24) made Israel fair game<\/em> for foreign oppressors. Many nations, Assyria and Babylon in particular, became instruments God used to pour out his fury<\/em> (42:25) on his rebellious people.<\/p>","summary_ro":"42:22-25 Throughout its history, Israel’s sin (42:24) made Israel fair game for foreign oppressors. Many nations, Assyria and Babylon in particular, became instruments God used to pour out his fury (42:25) on his rebellious people.","summary_en":"42:22-25 Throughout its history, Israel’s sin (42:24) made Israel fair game for foreign oppressors. Many nations, Assyria and Babylon in particular, became instruments God used to pour out his fury (42:25) on his rebellious people.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":106919,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 42:22","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 42:22","content_ro":"42:22-25<\/strong> Throughout its history, Israel’s sin (42:24) made Israel fair game<\/em> for foreign oppressors. Many nations, Assyria and Babylon in particular, became instruments God used to pour out his fury<\/em> (42:25) on his rebellious people.<\/p>","content_en":"42:22-25<\/strong> Throughout its history, Israel’s sin (42:24) made Israel fair game<\/em> for foreign oppressors. Many nations, Assyria and Babylon in particular, became instruments God used to pour out his fury<\/em> (42:25) on his rebellious people.<\/p>","summary_ro":"42:22-25 Throughout its history, Israel’s sin (42:24) made Israel fair game for foreign oppressors. Many nations, Assyria and Babylon in particular, became instruments God used to pour out his fury (42:25) on his rebellious people.","summary_en":"42:22-25 Throughout its history, Israel’s sin (42:24) made Israel fair game for foreign oppressors. Many nations, Assyria and Babylon in particular, became instruments God used to pour out his fury (42:25) on his rebellious people.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":134545,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 42:22","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 42:22","content_ro":"42:22-25<\/strong> Throughout its history, Israel’s sin (42:24) made Israel fair game<\/em> for foreign oppressors. Many nations, Assyria and Babylon in particular, became instruments God used to pour out his fury<\/em> (42:25) on his rebellious people.<\/p>","content_en":"42:22-25<\/strong> Throughout its history, Israel’s sin (42:24) made Israel fair game<\/em> for foreign oppressors. Many nations, Assyria and Babylon in particular, became instruments God used to pour out his fury<\/em> (42:25) on his rebellious people.<\/p>","summary_ro":"42:22-25 Throughout its history, Israel’s sin (42:24) made Israel fair game for foreign oppressors. Many nations, Assyria and Babylon in particular, became instruments God used to pour out his fury (42:25) on his rebellious people.","summary_en":"42:22-25 Throughout its history, Israel’s sin (42:24) made Israel fair game for foreign oppressors. Many nations, Assyria and Babylon in particular, became instruments God used to pour out his fury (42:25) on his rebellious people.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"25":[{"id":14495,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Gospel","title_en":"Gospel","content_ro":"<h3>GOSPEL<\/h3>\nWord derived from the Anglo-Saxon godspell<\/em> denoting “glad tidings” or “good news.”<\/p>\nPreview<\/p>\n• The Gospel Message of Isaiah<\/p>\n• The Gospel in the New Testament<\/p>\n• The Good News of Christ’s Coming<\/p>\n• The Gospel according to Jesus<\/p>\n• The Gospel after Jesus’ Resurrection<\/p>\nThe Gospel Message of Isaiah<\/p>\nOf all the passages cited, those of Isaiah provide the most important background for the gospel in the NT. According to Isaiah’s gospel, it is God alone who saves, and there is no explanation for his saving action except in his own nature. Israel’s deliverance is undeserved; she is no more worthy of the divine love now than when she went into captivity. In whatever measure she has paid the just due for her past sins (Is 40:2), she remains a sinful people (42:25; 46:12-13; 48:1). It is only by God’s grace that she is saved (55:1-7). By God’s design, Israel’s salvation depends not upon her own righteousness but upon his (41:10; 45:24; 46:13; 51:5-6). There being no righteousness to reward, the Lord acts to create<\/em> righteousness in Israel (45:8; 61:3, 10-11). Yet as these references indicate, salvation is not accomplished at the expense of justice. The penalty for Israel’s sins is to be paid in full. God’s mercy is not hereby called into question. On the contrary, it is precisely here that his mercy is most poignantly expressed, for the penalty is exacted not from his people but from the Servant appointed to stand in their place (53:4-12). Through the Servant’s work, many shall be justified (53:11). The coming of the Evangelist—the preacher of the good news—is predicted in Isaiah 61. He is called the anointed One (v 1) who proclaims the year of the Lord’s favor (v 2). God will be glorified through his preaching (v 3).<\/p>\nThe Gospel in the New Testament<\/p>\nIn only two places (Gal 3:8; Heb 4:2, 6) does the NT speak of the proclamation of the gospel prior to the Christian era. This is quite remarkable, given (1) the unmistakable presence of the gospel in the OT, (2) the extent of gospel terminology in the NT (in the Greek the noun appears 76 times; and the verb, 54), and (3) the fact that the NT presents Christ as the fulfillment of the OT and draws heavily on the OT to interpret his person and work. Not only is it remarkable; it is very significant. It indicates that the NT usage depends not only upon the character<\/em> of the message (truth about salvation) but also upon historical events.<\/em> Almost without exception, the NT restricts its application of gospel terminology to proclamations made during the time of fulfillment—the age in which the salvation promised in the OT is actually accomplished. The NT is preoccupied, not with promises of salvation, but with news of salvation. According to Mark 1:1-4, the gospel “begins” not in the OT but with John the Baptist, in whose work OT prophecy is fulfilled. In Romans 1:1-5 the gospel is represented as a blessing promised in the OT but not actually given until Jesus comes (see also Acts 13:32-33).<\/p>\nThe Good News of Christ’s Coming<\/p>\nThe promised birth of John the Baptist is good news (Lk 1:19), not only for his parents (vv 7, 24-25) but for all the people: John is sent to prepare them for Messiah’s coming (vv 14-17, 67-79). John’s own preaching is gospel (3:18) for the same reason. The Messiah would be coming to execute judgment, a process that involves both condemnation and salvation (vv 3-17). John’s message is gospel for sinners in that they are warned of impending doom and urged to repent before the ax falls (vv 7-9); it is gospel for the repentant in that they are promised forgiveness (v 3) and membership in Messiah’s community (v 17). The birth of the Savior himself is announced as good news bringing great joy (2:10-11).<\/p>\nThe Gospel according to Jesus<\/p>\n<h5>The Coming of the Kingdom of God<\/h5>\nJesus was authorized by God and anointed by the Spirit to proclaim the gospel (Mk 1:14; Lk 4:18). At the heart of his preaching stands the announcement “The time is fulfilled, and the kingdom of God is at hand; repent, and believe in the gospel” (Mk 1:15). (For further references to this gospel, see Mt 4:23; 9:35; 24:14; 26:13; Mk 8:35; 10:29; 13:10; 14:9; Lk 4:43; 8:1; 16:16.) The message is good news for several reasons: (1) The kingdom is coming. The God whom Jesus proclaims is sovereign over all he has made. Yet paradoxically his rule is incomplete: his will is not done on earth as it is in heaven; wrong, not right, prevails. But these conditions are not final, according to Jesus. With the coming of the kingdom, God’s rule will be completed; wrong will be judged, righteousness established, and his people blessed. (2) The kingdom is now<\/em> being inaugurated. “The time is fulfilled,” declares Jesus (Mk 1:15a). The time appointed for the fulfillment of the OT promises has arrived. (3) The consummation of the kingdom is therefore no longer a distant prospect; the full realization of God’s rule is “at hand” (Mk 1:15b). (4) God is establishing his rule for a saving purpose. This is implied in Jesus’ call to repentance (Mk 1:15c). It is especially clear in the passages to which we now turn.<\/p>\n<h5>The Salvation of the Poor<\/h5>\nInvited to read the Scripture in the synagogue at Nazareth, Jesus turns to Isaiah 61: “The Spirit of the Lord is upon me, because he has anointed me to preach good news to the poor. He has sent me to proclaim release to the captives and recovering of sight to the blind, to set at liberty those who are oppressed, to proclaim the acceptable year of the Lord” (Lk 4:18-19, rsv<\/span>). Having read the prophecy, Jesus announces its fulfillment in his own ministry (v 21). Included among those whom Jesus has come to free are the physically infirm, such as the blind (v 18) and the leprous (v 27) (cf. the references to healing miracles in vv 23, 33-41; the close connection between evangelizing and healing in Mt 4:23; 9:35; 11:5; Lk 7:21-22; 9:6; and the description in Mt 12:22-29; Lk 13:11-16, of the physically afflicted as captives of Satan now liberated by Jesus). Also included are the materially poor—people like the widow helped by Elijah during the famine (Lk 4:25-26). It is the literally poor and hungry whom Jesus pronounces “blessed” in Luke 6:20-21. Yet it is primarily “spiritual” poverty that is in view. Still applying Isaiah 61, Jesus speaks in Matthew 5:3 of the “poor in spirit.” These are people broken and grieved by misery and poverty, oppression and injustice, suffering and death, national apostasy and personal sin—people who in their extremity turn to God and longingly wait for him to bring forth justice, bestow his mercy, and establish his kingdom. It is to just such people that Jesus brings good news (Mt 5:3-10). God sent him to usher in the kingdom, to rescue the lost, to liberate the enslaved, to cure the afflicted, to bind up hearts that are broken, and to forgive the guilty (Mk 2:5, 10, 17; 10:45; Lk 4:18-21; 7:48-49; 15:1-32; 19:10).<\/p>\n<h5>The Gift of Grace<\/h5>\nThe coming of the kingdom is not the effect or the reward of human effort but God’s answer to the human predicament—the gift of his favor (Lk 12:32). Correspondingly, the explanation for the salvation of the poor lies nowhere but in God’s own character. As the prodigal himself recognized, he hardly deserved to be his father’s servant, much less his son. Nothing he did, not even his repentance, accounted for the father’s love (15:11-32). In the parable of Matthew 20:1-16, it is owing entirely to the goodness of the employer that the last workers to be hired receive a full day’s wages. The first debtor in the story of Matthew 18:23-35 earned nothing but the right to be sold into slavery; instead, the king canceled his enormous debt. The publican, who had nothing to offer God but a confession of sin and plea for mercy, went home justified (Lk 18:13-14). The same holds true for the more virtuous among the poor, such as the persons described in Matthew 5:7-10. Their virtue is real, not imagined. Yet in keeping God’s commands, they do not put him in their debt; they are simply doing their duty (Lk 17:7-10). Furthermore, even the most merciful need divine mercy (Mt 5:7). For even those most zealous to obey God’s law are unable to fulfill all its requirements (cf. 11:28-30). The first servant in Matthew 18:23-35 owes far more money than someone in such a situation could possibly pay—which serves to magnify the generosity of the king. Grace depends for its exercise upon the inability of its objects (Lk 14:12-14).<\/p>\n<h5>The Call to Salvation<\/h5>\nThe Israelites are without exception a sinful people, all of them needing the salvation that Jesus brings (Mt 1:21; Lk 1:77). In demonstration of God’s grace, Jesus proclaimed his gospel to the entire nation (Mt 4:23; 9:35; 15:24; Lk 4:43; 9:6; 20:1). From the most respectable to the least, all are summoned to submit to God’s rule, all are invited to come and partake freely of the banquet he has spread (Lk 14:16-24). But the gift of salvation must be received if it is to be experienced (Mk 10:15). And while it is indeed a gift that costs nothing, it is also a priceless treasure for which a wise person will freely sacrifice everything else (Mt 13:44-46), a sacrifice exceeded only by the cost of rejecting the gospel (Mt 11:20-24; Mk 8:34-39; Lk 14:24, 33). “Repent and believe in the gospel,” Jesus commands (Mk 1:15). The self-righteous and the self-sufficient must be jolted out of their false sense of security and humbly recognize their need for God (Lk 6:24-26). Only then will Jesus’ message to the poor be seen as gospel. An announcement of liberation (4:18-19) is good news only to people who are enslaved and know they are. The command applies also to the destitute and the afflicted. Those among them who bemoan their lot must repent of their sins. But something further is needed for the response to be complete: a person cannot believe Jesus’ gospel without a commitment to the Person<\/em> of Christ (Jn 3:16). Even those who are already “poor in spirit,” in the sense defined earlier, are not really “blessed” until they acknowledge the truth of Jesus’ claims (Mt 11:6) and commit themselves to a life of obedience on his terms (7:21-27). This prepares us for the next point.<\/p>\n<h5>Summary<\/h5>\nThroughout Jesus’ earthly ministry, the theme of his gospel remains the dawning of God’s kingdom (Mt 4:23; 24:14; Lk 4:43; 16:16), a message that is preached almost exclusively to Jews (Mt 10:5-6; 15:24). Yet Jesus also provides glimpses into what the gospel was to become once his work on earth was accomplished: (1) In Mark 8:35 and 10:29 Jesus speaks of individuals who needed to make great sacrifices “for my sake and for the gospel.” While distinguished from each other, the person of Jesus and the gospel are here associated in the closest possible way. The time was approaching when the Proclaimer of the gospel would become the Proclaimed. (2) In Mark 13:10 and Matthew 24:14 (and the textually doubtful Mk 16:15) Jesus foretells the preaching of the gospel of the kingdom to the gentile nations. (3) In Mark 14, having interpreted a woman’s action (v 3) as an anointing of his body beforehand for burial (v 8), Jesus declares, “And truly, I say to you, wherever the gospel is preached in the whole world, what she has done will be told in memory of her” (v 9, rsv<\/span>; cf. Mt 26:13). This statement strongly implies that both the person of Jesus and the event of his death will figure prominently in the message that is to be proclaimed; otherwise, it is strange that the gospel and this particular act should be so solemnly bound together. Thus, here in the text already is an indication of how crucial Jesus’ death is both for the provision of the salvation announced in his gospel (cf. Mk 14:22-24) and for the launching of the evangelistic mission to the Gentiles (Mt 20:28 is vital for explaining the shift from Mt 15:24 to 28:18-20).<\/p>\nThe Gospel after Jesus’ Resurrection<\/p>\nAfter the resurrection of Jesus, the gospel was proclaimed by his eyewitnesses. The contents of this gospel are recorded in the book of Acts and in Paul’s letters. Of the 43 instances of euangelizomai<\/span> (“evangelize”) beyond the Gospels, 15 occur in Acts and 21 in Paul’s writings; of the 64 instances of euangelion<\/span> (“gospel”), 2 occur in Acts and no fewer than 60 in Paul.<\/p>\n<h5>The Gospel of Christ<\/h5>\nHaving risen from the dead, Jesus Christ again evangelizes (Eph 2:16-17), doing so now through his appointed representatives (Rom 15:16-18; 1 Cor 1:17; 9:12-18; Gal 4:13-14; Eph 4:11; 2 Tm 1:9-11). More than that, Christ has become the central theme of the gospel; the Proclaimer is now the Proclaimed. This is repeatedly affirmed in Acts (5:42; 8:4-5, 35; 11:20; 17:18) and in Paul’s writings (Rom 1:1-4; 10:8-17; 15:19-20; 2 Cor 4:4-6; 11:4; Gal 1:16; Eph 3:8; Phil 1:15-18; 2 Tm 2:8). The NT always speaks of the gospel<\/em>—never the gospels—of Christ. A second gospel is as inconceivable and as unnecessary as a second Christ. This is the one gospel that God authorizes (e.g., Rom 1:1-17) and proclaims (e.g., 2 Thes 2:13-14). Galatians 2:7-9 speaks not of two gospels but of two mission fields. Paul (the apostle to the uncircumcised) and Peter (the apostle to the circumcised) are both entrusted with “the gospel of Christ” (Gal 1:7; cf. 1 Cor 15:1-11), the message that God has ordained for the salvation of Jews and Gentiles alike (Rom 1:16). The “different gospel” that Paul denounces in Galatians 1:6-9 and 2 Corinthians 11:4 is not another gospel about Jesus but a message about “another Jesus”—not the real one, but one who exists only in the minds and the messages of those who proclaim him. To preach the true Christ is to preach the true gospel, however questionable one’s motives (Phil 1:15-18, 27), and to respond rightly to the gospel is to turn to Christ (Acts 11:20-21; Rom 10:8-17; Gal 2:14-16).<\/p>\n<h5>The Gospel as a Witness to Saving Events<\/h5>\nThe gospel bears witness to every aspect of Christ’s saving work, from his birth (Rom 1:3; 2 Tm 2:8) and public ministry (Mk 1:1; Acts 10:36-38) to his second coming (Col 1:5, 23; cf. 3:1-4; 1 Thes 1:5-10) and the last judgment (Rom 2:16). But it is the death and the resurrection of Christ that are most crucial for the accomplishment of salvation, and that are therefore most prominent in the gospel’s witness. These are the events with which Mark’s proclamation climaxes (chs 15–16), and for which everything else prepares (8:31; 9:31; 10:33-34; 12:6-8); special stress is placed upon Jesus’ death as the means of salvation from sin (10:45; 14:3-9, 22-24). In Paul’s gospel, too, the death and resurrection of Jesus are central (Rom 4:25; 1 Cor 15:1-4), with the cross occupying the very center (1 Cor 1:17–2:5). Had Christ not risen from the dead, Paul argues, the preaching of the cross would be a waste of time (1 Cor 15:14, 17; cf. Rom 6:3-11). However, now that Christ has risen, his death deserves special emphasis as the place where God provides atonement for sins (Rom 3:21-26; 5:6-11; 2 Cor 5:14-21; Eph 1:7). The gospel according to Acts proclaims Jesus’ death (Acts 8:25; 20:24, 28; cf. 10:36-43) and preeminently his resurrection, the event by which he conquered death and was exalted as Lord and coming Judge (10:36-43; 13:32-33; 17:18, 31). According to 1 Peter, the bearers of the gospel (1 Pt 1:12) concentrated, as had the OT prophets, on “the sufferings of Christ and the subsequent glory” (1:11; cf. 1:18-19; 2:21-24; 3:18-22).<\/p>\n<h5>The Gospel as a Power for Salvation<\/h5>\nThe gospel is much more than a report of past events and an exposition of doctrine. Paul declares in 1 Corinthians 1:17-18 and again in Romans 1:16 that the gospel is “the power of God”—not merely a witness to his power but an expression<\/em> of his power. Thus, it cannot be fettered (2 Tm 2:8-9). “Our gospel came to you not only in word, but also in power,” Paul writes in 1 Thessalonians 1:5. His point is not that the gospel was accompanied by mighty works (though this happened; cf. Rom 15:18-19), but that the gospel itself is a mighty work. God makes it so through his Holy Spirit (Rom 15:18-19; 1 Cor 2:1-5; 1 Thes 1:6). Furthermore, God’s singular purpose in exercising his power is to change people’s lives, to liberate them from sin and death, and to reconcile them to himself—in short, to save them. The gospel has power to effect the salvation it announces and to impart the life it promises (e.g., Rom 1:16; 10:8-17; 1 Cor 1:17-18; 15:1-2; Eph 1:13; 2 Thes 2:13-14; 2 Tm 1:8-11; 1 Pt 1:23-25). If people are to experience salvation, they must hear and believe the gospel. It is precisely in and through this message that the saving power manifested in the person and work of Christ (especially in his death and resurrection) is conveyed to men and made effective in their lives. Similarly it is in association with the gospel, or as a direct result of the reception of the gospel, that the Holy Spirit is imparted to believers (Acts 10:36-44; 15:7-8; 2 Cor 11:4; Gal 3:1-2). In short, the gospel is the decisive place of encounter between the sinner and God the Savior.<\/p>\n<h5>The Gospel of Grace<\/h5>\nAccording to Peter’s testimony at the Jerusalem Council (Acts 15:7-11), an essential part of the gospel—for Gentiles and Jews alike—is salvation “through the grace of the Lord Jesus.” Toward the close of his missionary career, Paul states that his basic concern has been “to testify to the gospel of the grace of God” (Acts 20:24, rsv<\/span>). This statement can be understood only in relation to Paul’s concept of the righteousness of God, particularly as set forth in Romans. Paul is here not merely expounding a divine attribute. Rather, he is dramatizing a divine activity—the manifestation of God’s righteousness now, “in the present time” (Rom 3:26), in the new age inaugurated by the coming of Jesus. The manifestation is twofold. Viewing the two aspects together, and doing so in the light of the gospel declared by Isaiah and by Jesus (both of whom strongly influenced Paul), respectively, will help us to understand why Paul speaks of “the gospel of the grace of God.”<\/p>\nFirst, the gospel is a witness<\/em> to God’s grace. In offering his Son as a sacrifice for sins (Rom 3:25a), God demonstrates his righteousness (vv 25b-26). That is, in the death of Jesus sins formerly “passed over” (v 25c) become the object of God’s wrath (cf. 1:18) and judgment. Yet in the very place where God deals justly and decisively with sins, he shows his grace to sinners. For the judgment against sin is focused not upon the sinners themselves but upon the One appointed to act on their behalf and to stand in their place (Rom 4:25; 5:6, 11; cf. 2 Cor 5:21; Gal 3:13). On this basis, sinners are freely pardoned (Rom 3:24). “The grace of the Lord Jesus” (Acts 15:11) toward the sinful is also in evidence, for he willingly bears their iniquities and suffers the consequences of their wrongdoing (Gal 2:20; cf. 2 Cor 8:9; Phil 2:6-8).<\/p>\nSecond, the gospel is a channel<\/em> of God’s grace. “The righteousness of God is revealed” in the gospel, says Paul (Rom 1:17). By this he means, not that the gospel talks about the righteousness of God (though it does), but that God’s righteousness is actively at work in the gospel. This activity in turn explains how the gospel becomes “the power of God for salvation” (v 16). And just how does God demonstrate his righteousness at this stage? In short, by bestowing it as a free gift on sinful human beings. It remains the righteousness of God, but by God’s grace, it is a righteousness in which humans may share. Furthermore, partaking of God’s righteousness depends on being personally united with Jesus Christ. In Paul’s view the saved person is one who has been acquitted, justified, “declared righteous” by God the judge. The basis for the verdict is not that I in myself am righteous (God justifies the ungodly, Rom 4:5). Nor does God treat me as though I were righteous. According to Paul I am declared righteous because I really am<\/em> righteous—not in myself but in Christ (1 Cor 1:30; 2 Cor 5:21; Phil 3:9). This union is established through the revelation—and the free offer—of God’s righteousness in the gospel (Rom 1:16-17).<\/p>\n<h5>Responding to the Gospel<\/h5>\nThe gospel calls for a threefold response:<\/p>\n1. Believing.<\/em> The gospel, says Paul, is “the power of God for salvation to every one who has faith” (Rom 1:16). For Paul, faith is the abandonment of all reliance upon “works of law” for justification (3:28) and utter dependence upon the grace of God as demonstrated in the work of Christ, especially his death (v 25). Accordingly, the “different gospel” of Galatians 1:6 and 2 Corinthians 11:4 is spurious, for it preaches salvation by personal merit rather than (or together with) the work of Christ (cf. Gal 2:16). Ultimately faith rests upon God (Rom 4:24; 1 Thes 1:8-9) and upon Christ (Rom 3:22, 26; Gal 2:16, 20). Yet it is imperative that one believe the gospel also (Acts 8:12; 11:20-21; 15:7; Rom 1:16; 10:8-17; 1 Cor 1:17-24; Phil 1:27; Heb 4:2), for it is just by this means that God’s salvation is made known and mediated. Moreover, believing the gospel entails repentance (Acts 14:15; 20:21, 24; 1 Thes 1:5-10) and obedience (Rom 1:5; 15:16-18; Heb 4:6). Those who refuse to obey the gospel are imperiling their lives (2 Thes 1:5-10; 1 Pt 4:17).<\/p>\n2. Growing.<\/em> The Gospel is more than a message to be received—it is also a place in which to stand (1 Cor 15:1-2). It is sustainer of life as well as giver of life. One grows as a Christian not by turning from the gospel to other things (to turn away from the gospel is to abandon God and Christ, Gal 1:6), but by going ever more deeply into the gospel. In Romans 1:15 Paul expresses his eagerness to proclaim the gospel to the Christians in Rome. In the following chapters, anticipating his visit, he offers one of his most profound expositions of the gospel—one whose truth has never been fathomed and whose power has never been exhausted.<\/p>\n3. Hoping.<\/em> “The hope of the gospel” (Col 1:23) includes not only the return of Christ and the glory of heaven (Col 1:5; 3:1-4; 2 Thes 2:14-16) but the final judgment as well. For those who embrace the gospel, the last judgment holds no terrors, because the Judge is the very one who rescues them from the wrath to come (1 Thes 1:10). Those who are united to him need not dread condemnation now or at the end (Rom 8:1). Instead, the last judgment will mark their final vindication (1 Cor 4:5; Gal 5:5). Accordingly, this theme is not just a corollary but an integral part of the Good News (Rom 2:16). Those who have died since believing the gospel (1 Pt 4:6) may seem to have suffered a fate common to all people, or even the condemnation reserved for the lawless; in fact, their response to the gospel assures them of approval by the coming Lord (4:5-6; 5:4) and of a share in the imperishable inheritance of heaven (1:4).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>GOSPEL<\/h3>\nWord derived from the Anglo-Saxon godspell<\/em> denoting “glad tidings” or “good news.”<\/p>\nPreview<\/p>\n• The Gospel Message of Isaiah<\/p>\n• The Gospel in the New Testament<\/p>\n• The Good News of Christ’s Coming<\/p>\n• The Gospel according to Jesus<\/p>\n• The Gospel after Jesus’ Resurrection<\/p>\nThe Gospel Message of Isaiah<\/p>\nOf all the passages cited, those of Isaiah provide the most important background for the gospel in the NT. According to Isaiah’s gospel, it is God alone who saves, and there is no explanation for his saving action except in his own nature. Israel’s deliverance is undeserved; she is no more worthy of the divine love now than when she went into captivity. In whatever measure she has paid the just due for her past sins (Is 40:2), she remains a sinful people (42:25; 46:12-13; 48:1). It is only by God’s grace that she is saved (55:1-7). By God’s design, Israel’s salvation depends not upon her own righteousness but upon his (41:10; 45:24; 46:13; 51:5-6). There being no righteousness to reward, the Lord acts to create<\/em> righteousness in Israel (45:8; 61:3, 10-11). Yet as these references indicate, salvation is not accomplished at the expense of justice. The penalty for Israel’s sins is to be paid in full. God’s mercy is not hereby called into question. On the contrary, it is precisely here that his mercy is most poignantly expressed, for the penalty is exacted not from his people but from the Servant appointed to stand in their place (53:4-12). Through the Servant’s work, many shall be justified (53:11). The coming of the Evangelist—the preacher of the good news—is predicted in Isaiah 61. He is called the anointed One (v 1) who proclaims the year of the Lord’s favor (v 2). God will be glorified through his preaching (v 3).<\/p>\nThe Gospel in the New Testament<\/p>\nIn only two places (Gal 3:8; Heb 4:2, 6) does the NT speak of the proclamation of the gospel prior to the Christian era. This is quite remarkable, given (1) the unmistakable presence of the gospel in the OT, (2) the extent of gospel terminology in the NT (in the Greek the noun appears 76 times; and the verb, 54), and (3) the fact that the NT presents Christ as the fulfillment of the OT and draws heavily on the OT to interpret his person and work. Not only is it remarkable; it is very significant. It indicates that the NT usage depends not only upon the character<\/em> of the message (truth about salvation) but also upon historical events.<\/em> Almost without exception, the NT restricts its application of gospel terminology to proclamations made during the time of fulfillment—the age in which the salvation promised in the OT is actually accomplished. The NT is preoccupied, not with promises of salvation, but with news of salvation. According to Mark 1:1-4, the gospel “begins” not in the OT but with John the Baptist, in whose work OT prophecy is fulfilled. In Romans 1:1-5 the gospel is represented as a blessing promised in the OT but not actually given until Jesus comes (see also Acts 13:32-33).<\/p>\nThe Good News of Christ’s Coming<\/p>\nThe promised birth of John the Baptist is good news (Lk 1:19), not only for his parents (vv 7, 24-25) but for all the people: John is sent to prepare them for Messiah’s coming (vv 14-17, 67-79). John’s own preaching is gospel (3:18) for the same reason. The Messiah would be coming to execute judgment, a process that involves both condemnation and salvation (vv 3-17). John’s message is gospel for sinners in that they are warned of impending doom and urged to repent before the ax falls (vv 7-9); it is gospel for the repentant in that they are promised forgiveness (v 3) and membership in Messiah’s community (v 17). The birth of the Savior himself is announced as good news bringing great joy (2:10-11).<\/p>\nThe Gospel according to Jesus<\/p>\n<h5>The Coming of the Kingdom of God<\/h5>\nJesus was authorized by God and anointed by the Spirit to proclaim the gospel (Mk 1:14; Lk 4:18). At the heart of his preaching stands the announcement “The time is fulfilled, and the kingdom of God is at hand; repent, and believe in the gospel” (Mk 1:15). (For further references to this gospel, see Mt 4:23; 9:35; 24:14; 26:13; Mk 8:35; 10:29; 13:10; 14:9; Lk 4:43; 8:1; 16:16.) The message is good news for several reasons: (1) The kingdom is coming. The God whom Jesus proclaims is sovereign over all he has made. Yet paradoxically his rule is incomplete: his will is not done on earth as it is in heaven; wrong, not right, prevails. But these conditions are not final, according to Jesus. With the coming of the kingdom, God’s rule will be completed; wrong will be judged, righteousness established, and his people blessed. (2) The kingdom is now<\/em> being inaugurated. “The time is fulfilled,” declares Jesus (Mk 1:15a). The time appointed for the fulfillment of the OT promises has arrived. (3) The consummation of the kingdom is therefore no longer a distant prospect; the full realization of God’s rule is “at hand” (Mk 1:15b). (4) God is establishing his rule for a saving purpose. This is implied in Jesus’ call to repentance (Mk 1:15c). It is especially clear in the passages to which we now turn.<\/p>\n<h5>The Salvation of the Poor<\/h5>\nInvited to read the Scripture in the synagogue at Nazareth, Jesus turns to Isaiah 61: “The Spirit of the Lord is upon me, because he has anointed me to preach good news to the poor. He has sent me to proclaim release to the captives and recovering of sight to the blind, to set at liberty those who are oppressed, to proclaim the acceptable year of the Lord” (Lk 4:18-19, rsv<\/span>). Having read the prophecy, Jesus announces its fulfillment in his own ministry (v 21). Included among those whom Jesus has come to free are the physically infirm, such as the blind (v 18) and the leprous (v 27) (cf. the references to healing miracles in vv 23, 33-41; the close connection between evangelizing and healing in Mt 4:23; 9:35; 11:5; Lk 7:21-22; 9:6; and the description in Mt 12:22-29; Lk 13:11-16, of the physically afflicted as captives of Satan now liberated by Jesus). Also included are the materially poor—people like the widow helped by Elijah during the famine (Lk 4:25-26). It is the literally poor and hungry whom Jesus pronounces “blessed” in Luke 6:20-21. Yet it is primarily “spiritual” poverty that is in view. Still applying Isaiah 61, Jesus speaks in Matthew 5:3 of the “poor in spirit.” These are people broken and grieved by misery and poverty, oppression and injustice, suffering and death, national apostasy and personal sin—people who in their extremity turn to God and longingly wait for him to bring forth justice, bestow his mercy, and establish his kingdom. It is to just such people that Jesus brings good news (Mt 5:3-10). God sent him to usher in the kingdom, to rescue the lost, to liberate the enslaved, to cure the afflicted, to bind up hearts that are broken, and to forgive the guilty (Mk 2:5, 10, 17; 10:45; Lk 4:18-21; 7:48-49; 15:1-32; 19:10).<\/p>\n<h5>The Gift of Grace<\/h5>\nThe coming of the kingdom is not the effect or the reward of human effort but God’s answer to the human predicament—the gift of his favor (Lk 12:32). Correspondingly, the explanation for the salvation of the poor lies nowhere but in God’s own character. As the prodigal himself recognized, he hardly deserved to be his father’s servant, much less his son. Nothing he did, not even his repentance, accounted for the father’s love (15:11-32). In the parable of Matthew 20:1-16, it is owing entirely to the goodness of the employer that the last workers to be hired receive a full day’s wages. The first debtor in the story of Matthew 18:23-35 earned nothing but the right to be sold into slavery; instead, the king canceled his enormous debt. The publican, who had nothing to offer God but a confession of sin and plea for mercy, went home justified (Lk 18:13-14). The same holds true for the more virtuous among the poor, such as the persons described in Matthew 5:7-10. Their virtue is real, not imagined. Yet in keeping God’s commands, they do not put him in their debt; they are simply doing their duty (Lk 17:7-10). Furthermore, even the most merciful need divine mercy (Mt 5:7). For even those most zealous to obey God’s law are unable to fulfill all its requirements (cf. 11:28-30). The first servant in Matthew 18:23-35 owes far more money than someone in such a situation could possibly pay—which serves to magnify the generosity of the king. Grace depends for its exercise upon the inability of its objects (Lk 14:12-14).<\/p>\n<h5>The Call to Salvation<\/h5>\nThe Israelites are without exception a sinful people, all of them needing the salvation that Jesus brings (Mt 1:21; Lk 1:77). In demonstration of God’s grace, Jesus proclaimed his gospel to the entire nation (Mt 4:23; 9:35; 15:24; Lk 4:43; 9:6; 20:1). From the most respectable to the least, all are summoned to submit to God’s rule, all are invited to come and partake freely of the banquet he has spread (Lk 14:16-24). But the gift of salvation must be received if it is to be experienced (Mk 10:15). And while it is indeed a gift that costs nothing, it is also a priceless treasure for which a wise person will freely sacrifice everything else (Mt 13:44-46), a sacrifice exceeded only by the cost of rejecting the gospel (Mt 11:20-24; Mk 8:34-39; Lk 14:24, 33). “Repent and believe in the gospel,” Jesus commands (Mk 1:15). The self-righteous and the self-sufficient must be jolted out of their false sense of security and humbly recognize their need for God (Lk 6:24-26). Only then will Jesus’ message to the poor be seen as gospel. An announcement of liberation (4:18-19) is good news only to people who are enslaved and know they are. The command applies also to the destitute and the afflicted. Those among them who bemoan their lot must repent of their sins. But something further is needed for the response to be complete: a person cannot believe Jesus’ gospel without a commitment to the Person<\/em> of Christ (Jn 3:16). Even those who are already “poor in spirit,” in the sense defined earlier, are not really “blessed” until they acknowledge the truth of Jesus’ claims (Mt 11:6) and commit themselves to a life of obedience on his terms (7:21-27). This prepares us for the next point.<\/p>\n<h5>Summary<\/h5>\nThroughout Jesus’ earthly ministry, the theme of his gospel remains the dawning of God’s kingdom (Mt 4:23; 24:14; Lk 4:43; 16:16), a message that is preached almost exclusively to Jews (Mt 10:5-6; 15:24). Yet Jesus also provides glimpses into what the gospel was to become once his work on earth was accomplished: (1) In Mark 8:35 and 10:29 Jesus speaks of individuals who needed to make great sacrifices “for my sake and for the gospel.” While distinguished from each other, the person of Jesus and the gospel are here associated in the closest possible way. The time was approaching when the Proclaimer of the gospel would become the Proclaimed. (2) In Mark 13:10 and Matthew 24:14 (and the textually doubtful Mk 16:15) Jesus foretells the preaching of the gospel of the kingdom to the gentile nations. (3) In Mark 14, having interpreted a woman’s action (v 3) as an anointing of his body beforehand for burial (v 8), Jesus declares, “And truly, I say to you, wherever the gospel is preached in the whole world, what she has done will be told in memory of her” (v 9, rsv<\/span>; cf. Mt 26:13). This statement strongly implies that both the person of Jesus and the event of his death will figure prominently in the message that is to be proclaimed; otherwise, it is strange that the gospel and this particular act should be so solemnly bound together. Thus, here in the text already is an indication of how crucial Jesus’ death is both for the provision of the salvation announced in his gospel (cf. Mk 14:22-24) and for the launching of the evangelistic mission to the Gentiles (Mt 20:28 is vital for explaining the shift from Mt 15:24 to 28:18-20).<\/p>\nThe Gospel after Jesus’ Resurrection<\/p>\nAfter the resurrection of Jesus, the gospel was proclaimed by his eyewitnesses. The contents of this gospel are recorded in the book of Acts and in Paul’s letters. Of the 43 instances of euangelizomai<\/span> (“evangelize”) beyond the Gospels, 15 occur in Acts and 21 in Paul’s writings; of the 64 instances of euangelion<\/span> (“gospel”), 2 occur in Acts and no fewer than 60 in Paul.<\/p>\n<h5>The Gospel of Christ<\/h5>\nHaving risen from the dead, Jesus Christ again evangelizes (Eph 2:16-17), doing so now through his appointed representatives (Rom 15:16-18; 1 Cor 1:17; 9:12-18; Gal 4:13-14; Eph 4:11; 2 Tm 1:9-11). More than that, Christ has become the central theme of the gospel; the Proclaimer is now the Proclaimed. This is repeatedly affirmed in Acts (5:42; 8:4-5, 35; 11:20; 17:18) and in Paul’s writings (Rom 1:1-4; 10:8-17; 15:19-20; 2 Cor 4:4-6; 11:4; Gal 1:16; Eph 3:8; Phil 1:15-18; 2 Tm 2:8). The NT always speaks of the gospel<\/em>—never the gospels—of Christ. A second gospel is as inconceivable and as unnecessary as a second Christ. This is the one gospel that God authorizes (e.g., Rom 1:1-17) and proclaims (e.g., 2 Thes 2:13-14). Galatians 2:7-9 speaks not of two gospels but of two mission fields. Paul (the apostle to the uncircumcised) and Peter (the apostle to the circumcised) are both entrusted with “the gospel of Christ” (Gal 1:7; cf. 1 Cor 15:1-11), the message that God has ordained for the salvation of Jews and Gentiles alike (Rom 1:16). The “different gospel” that Paul denounces in Galatians 1:6-9 and 2 Corinthians 11:4 is not another gospel about Jesus but a message about “another Jesus”—not the real one, but one who exists only in the minds and the messages of those who proclaim him. To preach the true Christ is to preach the true gospel, however questionable one’s motives (Phil 1:15-18, 27), and to respond rightly to the gospel is to turn to Christ (Acts 11:20-21; Rom 10:8-17; Gal 2:14-16).<\/p>\n<h5>The Gospel as a Witness to Saving Events<\/h5>\nThe gospel bears witness to every aspect of Christ’s saving work, from his birth (Rom 1:3; 2 Tm 2:8) and public ministry (Mk 1:1; Acts 10:36-38) to his second coming (Col 1:5, 23; cf. 3:1-4; 1 Thes 1:5-10) and the last judgment (Rom 2:16). But it is the death and the resurrection of Christ that are most crucial for the accomplishment of salvation, and that are therefore most prominent in the gospel’s witness. These are the events with which Mark’s proclamation climaxes (chs 15–16), and for which everything else prepares (8:31; 9:31; 10:33-34; 12:6-8); special stress is placed upon Jesus’ death as the means of salvation from sin (10:45; 14:3-9, 22-24). In Paul’s gospel, too, the death and resurrection of Jesus are central (Rom 4:25; 1 Cor 15:1-4), with the cross occupying the very center (1 Cor 1:17–2:5). Had Christ not risen from the dead, Paul argues, the preaching of the cross would be a waste of time (1 Cor 15:14, 17; cf. Rom 6:3-11). However, now that Christ has risen, his death deserves special emphasis as the place where God provides atonement for sins (Rom 3:21-26; 5:6-11; 2 Cor 5:14-21; Eph 1:7). The gospel according to Acts proclaims Jesus’ death (Acts 8:25; 20:24, 28; cf. 10:36-43) and preeminently his resurrection, the event by which he conquered death and was exalted as Lord and coming Judge (10:36-43; 13:32-33; 17:18, 31). According to 1 Peter, the bearers of the gospel (1 Pt 1:12) concentrated, as had the OT prophets, on “the sufferings of Christ and the subsequent glory” (1:11; cf. 1:18-19; 2:21-24; 3:18-22).<\/p>\n<h5>The Gospel as a Power for Salvation<\/h5>\nThe gospel is much more than a report of past events and an exposition of doctrine. Paul declares in 1 Corinthians 1:17-18 and again in Romans 1:16 that the gospel is “the power of God”—not merely a witness to his power but an expression<\/em> of his power. Thus, it cannot be fettered (2 Tm 2:8-9). “Our gospel came to you not only in word, but also in power,” Paul writes in 1 Thessalonians 1:5. His point is not that the gospel was accompanied by mighty works (though this happened; cf. Rom 15:18-19), but that the gospel itself is a mighty work. God makes it so through his Holy Spirit (Rom 15:18-19; 1 Cor 2:1-5; 1 Thes 1:6). Furthermore, God’s singular purpose in exercising his power is to change people’s lives, to liberate them from sin and death, and to reconcile them to himself—in short, to save them. The gospel has power to effect the salvation it announces and to impart the life it promises (e.g., Rom 1:16; 10:8-17; 1 Cor 1:17-18; 15:1-2; Eph 1:13; 2 Thes 2:13-14; 2 Tm 1:8-11; 1 Pt 1:23-25). If people are to experience salvation, they must hear and believe the gospel. It is precisely in and through this message that the saving power manifested in the person and work of Christ (especially in his death and resurrection) is conveyed to men and made effective in their lives. Similarly it is in association with the gospel, or as a direct result of the reception of the gospel, that the Holy Spirit is imparted to believers (Acts 10:36-44; 15:7-8; 2 Cor 11:4; Gal 3:1-2). In short, the gospel is the decisive place of encounter between the sinner and God the Savior.<\/p>\n<h5>The Gospel of Grace<\/h5>\nAccording to Peter’s testimony at the Jerusalem Council (Acts 15:7-11), an essential part of the gospel—for Gentiles and Jews alike—is salvation “through the grace of the Lord Jesus.” Toward the close of his missionary career, Paul states that his basic concern has been “to testify to the gospel of the grace of God” (Acts 20:24, rsv<\/span>). This statement can be understood only in relation to Paul’s concept of the righteousness of God, particularly as set forth in Romans. Paul is here not merely expounding a divine attribute. Rather, he is dramatizing a divine activity—the manifestation of God’s righteousness now, “in the present time” (Rom 3:26), in the new age inaugurated by the coming of Jesus. The manifestation is twofold. Viewing the two aspects together, and doing so in the light of the gospel declared by Isaiah and by Jesus (both of whom strongly influenced Paul), respectively, will help us to understand why Paul speaks of “the gospel of the grace of God.”<\/p>\nFirst, the gospel is a witness<\/em> to God’s grace. In offering his Son as a sacrifice for sins (Rom 3:25a), God demonstrates his righteousness (vv 25b-26). That is, in the death of Jesus sins formerly “passed over” (v 25c) become the object of God’s wrath (cf. 1:18) and judgment. Yet in the very place where God deals justly and decisively with sins, he shows his grace to sinners. For the judgment against sin is focused not upon the sinners themselves but upon the One appointed to act on their behalf and to stand in their place (Rom 4:25; 5:6, 11; cf. 2 Cor 5:21; Gal 3:13). On this basis, sinners are freely pardoned (Rom 3:24). “The grace of the Lord Jesus” (Acts 15:11) toward the sinful is also in evidence, for he willingly bears their iniquities and suffers the consequences of their wrongdoing (Gal 2:20; cf. 2 Cor 8:9; Phil 2:6-8).<\/p>\nSecond, the gospel is a channel<\/em> of God’s grace. “The righteousness of God is revealed” in the gospel, says Paul (Rom 1:17). By this he means, not that the gospel talks about the righteousness of God (though it does), but that God’s righteousness is actively at work in the gospel. This activity in turn explains how the gospel becomes “the power of God for salvation” (v 16). And just how does God demonstrate his righteousness at this stage? In short, by bestowing it as a free gift on sinful human beings. It remains the righteousness of God, but by God’s grace, it is a righteousness in which humans may share. Furthermore, partaking of God’s righteousness depends on being personally united with Jesus Christ. In Paul’s view the saved person is one who has been acquitted, justified, “declared righteous” by God the judge. The basis for the verdict is not that I in myself am righteous (God justifies the ungodly, Rom 4:5). Nor does God treat me as though I were righteous. According to Paul I am declared righteous because I really am<\/em> righteous—not in myself but in Christ (1 Cor 1:30; 2 Cor 5:21; Phil 3:9). This union is established through the revelation—and the free offer—of God’s righteousness in the gospel (Rom 1:16-17).<\/p>\n<h5>Responding to the Gospel<\/h5>\nThe gospel calls for a threefold response:<\/p>\n1. Believing.<\/em> The gospel, says Paul, is “the power of God for salvation to every one who has faith” (Rom 1:16). For Paul, faith is the abandonment of all reliance upon “works of law” for justification (3:28) and utter dependence upon the grace of God as demonstrated in the work of Christ, especially his death (v 25). Accordingly, the “different gospel” of Galatians 1:6 and 2 Corinthians 11:4 is spurious, for it preaches salvation by personal merit rather than (or together with) the work of Christ (cf. Gal 2:16). Ultimately faith rests upon God (Rom 4:24; 1 Thes 1:8-9) and upon Christ (Rom 3:22, 26; Gal 2:16, 20). Yet it is imperative that one believe the gospel also (Acts 8:12; 11:20-21; 15:7; Rom 1:16; 10:8-17; 1 Cor 1:17-24; Phil 1:27; Heb 4:2), for it is just by this means that God’s salvation is made known and mediated. Moreover, believing the gospel entails repentance (Acts 14:15; 20:21, 24; 1 Thes 1:5-10) and obedience (Rom 1:5; 15:16-18; Heb 4:6). Those who refuse to obey the gospel are imperiling their lives (2 Thes 1:5-10; 1 Pt 4:17).<\/p>\n2. Growing.<\/em> The Gospel is more than a message to be received—it is also a place in which to stand (1 Cor 15:1-2). It is sustainer of life as well as giver of life. One grows as a Christian not by turning from the gospel to other things (to turn away from the gospel is to abandon God and Christ, Gal 1:6), but by going ever more deeply into the gospel. In Romans 1:15 Paul expresses his eagerness to proclaim the gospel to the Christians in Rome. In the following chapters, anticipating his visit, he offers one of his most profound expositions of the gospel—one whose truth has never been fathomed and whose power has never been exhausted.<\/p>\n3. Hoping.<\/em> “The hope of the gospel” (Col 1:23) includes not only the return of Christ and the glory of heaven (Col 1:5; 3:1-4; 2 Thes 2:14-16) but the final judgment as well. For those who embrace the gospel, the last judgment holds no terrors, because the Judge is the very one who rescues them from the wrath to come (1 Thes 1:10). Those who are united to him need not dread condemnation now or at the end (Rom 8:1). Instead, the last judgment will mark their final vindication (1 Cor 4:5; Gal 5:5). Accordingly, this theme is not just a corollary but an integral part of the Good News (Rom 2:16). Those who have died since believing the gospel (1 Pt 4:6) may seem to have suffered a fate common to all people, or even the condemnation reserved for the lawless; in fact, their response to the gospel assures them of approval by the coming Lord (4:5-6; 5:4) and of a share in the imperishable inheritance of heaven (1:4).<\/p>","summary_ro":"GOSPEL Word derived from the Anglo-Saxon godspell denoting “glad tidings” or “good news.” Preview • The Gospel Message of Isaiah • The Gospel in the New Testament • The Good News of Christ’s Coming • The Gospel according to Jesus • The Gospel after Jesus’ Resurrection The Gospel Message of Isaiah Of all the passages cited, those of Isaiah provide the most important background for the gospel in the NT. According to Isaiah’s gospel, it is God alone who saves, and there is no explanation for his...","summary_en":"GOSPEL Word derived from the Anglo-Saxon godspell denoting “glad tidings” or “good news.” Preview • The Gospel Message of Isaiah • The Gospel in the New Testament • The Good News of Christ’s Coming • The Gospel according to Jesus • The Gospel after Jesus’ Resurrection The Gospel Message of Isaiah Of all the passages cited, those of Isaiah provide the most important background for the gospel in the NT. According to Isaiah’s gospel, it is God alone who saves, and there is no explanation for his...","source":"Articles\/G.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":17768,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Book of Isaiah","title_en":"Book of Isaiah","content_ro":"<h3>ISAIAH, Book of<\/h3>\nPreview<\/p>\n• Author<\/p>\n• Date<\/p>\n• Background<\/p>\n• Literary Unity<\/p>\n• Theological Teaching<\/p>\n• Content<\/p>\nAuthor<\/p>\nThe prophet Isaiah, whose name means “the Lord saves,” lived and ministered in Jerusalem. Because of his repeated contact with the kings of Judah, some scholars believed that Isaiah was related to the royal family, but this is not certain. According to chapters 7 and 8, Isaiah was married and had at least two sons, Shear-jashub and Maher-shalal-hash-baz, whose symbolic names illustrated God’s dealings with the nation as a whole. The “disciples” mentioned in 8:16 probably assisted Isaiah in his ministry and may have helped him record the book that bears his name.<\/p>\nWhen Isaiah saw the Lord in the famous temple vision described in chapter 6, he was willing to go wherever God sent him, even though he would face strong opposition (6:9-10). King Ahaz proved to be particularly resistant to Isaiah’s advice (7:4-17), and the people in general ridiculed his preaching (5:10-12; 28:9-10). During the reign of the godly Hezekiah, however, Isaiah’s ministry was much appreciated, and the king consulted him eagerly during times of crisis (37:1-7, 21-35).<\/p>\nIsaiah is usually regarded as the greatest of the writing prophets. Some of the chapters in his book display an unparalleled literary beauty and make use of poetic devices and a rich variety of symbols. Chapters 40–66 contain many powerful passages that underscore the grandeur of the book. It is ironic, then, that many scholars attribute these chapters to a “second” or “third” Isaiah, unknown authors who wrote much later than Isaiah in connection with the Babylonian exile. Yet elsewhere in the OT, the names of all who wrote the prophetic books are preserved, and it would be most unusual for the Jews not to know who wrote such magnificent prophecy as chapters 40–66.<\/p>\nDate<\/p>\nSince many of the events recorded in chapters 1–39 took place during the ministry of Isaiah, most of these chapters were probably written by about 700 BC<\/span> or shortly thereafter. The destruction of the Assyrian army in 701 BC<\/span> represents the climax of the first half of the book, fulfilling the prophecy of 10:16, 24-34 and 30:31-33. In 37:38 Isaiah refers to the death of King Sennacherib, which did not occur until 681 BC<\/span>. This means that some of the earlier chapters, along with 40–66, were probably written later, during Isaiah’s retirement years. A gap of several decades could help account for the change in subject matter that is found in the last half of the book. In these chapters Isaiah projects into the future as he addresses the Jews who would be in exile in Babylon about 550 BC<\/span>.<\/p>\nBackground<\/p>\nIsaiah’s public ministry occurred primarily from 740–700 BC<\/span>, a period marked by the rapid expansion of the nation of Assyria. Under King Tiglath-pileser III (745–727 BC<\/span>), the Assyrians moved to the west and south, and by 738 BC<\/span> the Assyrian monarch was demanding tribute from Damascus and Israel. About 734 BC<\/span> Rezin of Damascus (Syria) and Pekah of Israel organized a coalition to rebel against Assyria, and they tried to enlist the support of King Ahaz of Judah. But Ahaz refused to join, and when the kings of Damascus and Israel invaded Judah (see 7:1), Ahaz appealed directly to Tiglath-pileser for help (cf. 2 Kgs 16:7-9). With little hesitation the Assyrians returned to capture Damascus and to turn the northern kingdom of Israel into an Assyrian province.<\/p>\nThe puppet king Hoshea ruled over Israel from 732–723 BC but was imprisoned when he joined a revolt against Shalmaneser V, the new Assyrian king. Shalmaneser besieged the capital city of Samaria, which finally fell in 722 BC<\/span>, spelling the end of the northern kingdom. Sargon succeeded Shalmaneser in 722 and had to quell a number of revolts. In 711 BC<\/span> Sargon captured the Philistine city of Ashdod in a campaign that became the occasion of Isaiah’s prophecy of chapter 20.<\/p>\n\nEven more important was the widespread rebellion that broke out with the accession of Sennacherib in 705 BC<\/span>. King Hezekiah of Judah withheld his normal tribute payment, and by 701 BC<\/span> Sennacherib had invaded Palestine to punish the rebels. The details of this campaign are given in Isaiah 36–37 and tell how city after city was captured by the Assyrians before the invaders stood at the gates of Jerusalem and demanded total surrender. With almost no hope of survival, Hezekiah nevertheless was encouraged by Isaiah to trust God, and in one night the angel of the Lord struck down 185,000 Assyrian soldiers, virtually wiping out Sennacherib’s army (Is 37:36-37).<\/p>\nIn an effort to befriend the enemies of Assyria, Hezekiah showed his treasures to envoys of the king of Babylon (39:1-4). Isaiah warned that someday the Babylonian armies would conquer Jerusalem and carry off those very treasures, along with the residents of the city (vv 5-7). Not only did Isaiah predict the Babylonian captivity of 586–539 BC<\/span> (cf. 6:11-12), but he also foretold that Israel would be released from Babylon (48:20). The Chaldean kingdom led by Nebuchadnezzar would be God’s instrument of judgment upon Judah, but they too would suffer defeat. One of Isaiah’s most remarkable prophecies was the naming of Cyrus, king of Persia, the ruler who would conquer the Babylonians in 539 BC<\/span> and release Israel from exile (cf. 44:28). Along with the Medes (cf. 13:17), Cyrus won several important victories before sending his troops against Babylon. Isaiah hailed him as one anointed by the Lord to bring deliverance for Israel (45:1-5).<\/p>\nLiterary Unity<\/p>\nLargely because of the references to the later kingdoms of Babylon and Persia, the unity of Isaiah has been called into question. Chapters 40–66 move abruptly into the exilic period of 550 BC<\/span>, almost 150 years after Isaiah lived. Moreover, the Servant of the Lord plays a prominent role in these chapters and the messianic king fades into the background. Brilliant poetic passages are found in chapters 40, 53, 55, and 60, demonstrating remarkable depth and power.<\/p>\nAlthough these factors are sometimes cited as a sign of disunity, there are actually strong indications for unity in the book. For example, the historical interlude (chs 36–39) forms a hinge or bridge that links chapters 1–35 and 40–66. Chapters 36–37 complete the Assyrian section, and chapters 38–39 introduce the Babylonian material. Most of the linking chapters are written in prose, while the others (in some translations) are largely poetry. From the standpoint of verbal or stylistic unity, one can point to Isaiah’s favorite title for God, “the Holy One of Israel.” This title appears 12 times in chapters 1–39, and 14 times in chapters 40–66, but only seven times in the rest of the OT. A study of the famous Servant Songs of 52:13–53:12 reveals several ties with earlier passages, especially in chapters 1–6. The servant who is smitten and wounded (53:4-5) receives the same punishment as the beaten and injured nation of 1:5-6 (also cf. 52:13 with 2:12 and 6:1).<\/p>\nTheological Teaching<\/p>\nIsaiah is to the OT as the book of Romans is to the NT—a book filled with rich theological truth. Like Romans, Isaiah unveils the sinfulness of God’s rebellious people and his gracious provision of salvation. Because God is the Holy One of Israel (1:4; 6:3), he cannot ignore sin but must punish those who are guilty. Both Israel (5:30; 42:25) and the other nations (2:11, 17, 20) experience a time of judgment known as the Day of the Lord. In anger God raises his hand against his people (cf. 5:25), but ultimately his wrath is poured out upon Babylon and the nations (cf. 13:3-5; 34:2).<\/p>\nWith the fall of Assyria and Babylon, the Day of the Lord becomes a day of joyous victory (10:27; 61:2). According to Isaiah 63:4, it is the year of the Lord’s redemption. Earlier, Israel had been redeemed from slavery in Egypt; now the return from the Babylonian captivity brings equal joy (52:9; 61:1). The ultimate redemption is to be accomplished through the death of Christ, and Isaiah 53 describes our Lord’s suffering and death in graphic terms. His ministry as the Suffering Servant is also introduced in 49:4 and 50:6-7; meanwhile, 49:6 states that the servant will be “a light for the Gentiles.” Looking ahead to the Second Coming, Isaiah predicts a messianic age of peace and righteousness. Nations will “beat their swords into plowshares” (2:4) and the “Prince of Peace” will rule forever (9:6-7).<\/p>\nThroughout the book God is pictured as the all-powerful Creator (48:13)—the sovereign One seated on a throne, high and exalted; the King, the Lord Almighty (6:1, 5). He controls the armies of the earth (13:4) and removes rulers as he wills (40:23-24). Before him, nations “are but a drop in the bucket” (40:15, nlt<\/span>), and compared with him all idols are worthless and without power (41:29; 44:6). This is the God who shows his fury to his foes and his love to his servants (66:14).<\/p>\n\nContent<\/p>\n<h5>Messages of Judgment and Hope (1–12)<\/h5>\nIn the opening chapter Isaiah characterizes Israel (including Judah) as “a sinful nation” that has rebelled against God. Although the people regularly bring offerings to him, their worship is hypocritical, an attempt to mask their oppression of the poor and helpless. The Lord encourages the nation to repent of their sin or face the fires of judgment. After this introduction, Isaiah turns to describe the peace of the messianic age in 2:1-4. The day will come when all nations will obey God’s word and live at peace. “The mountain of the Lord<\/span>”—Jerusalem—will be raised up “and all the nations shall flow to it” (2:2-3, rsv<\/span>). In the meantime, however, both Israel and the nations have exalted themselves against the Lord, and he will judge them in an awesome display of power. For Israel, God’s judgment will bring great upheaval, including the loss of its leaders. Defiant and ruthless, the rulers will face either death or deportation. Chapter 3 ends by denouncing the pride and vanity of the women of Zion; they, too, will suffer disgrace. After Jerusalem is cleansed of its sin, the remnant will enjoy the rule of “the branch of the Lord<\/span>,” who will protect and shield his people (4:2-6).<\/p>\nIn 5:1-7 Isaiah presents a short song about Israel as God’s vineyard. The Lord did everything possible to ensure a yield of good grapes, but the vineyard produced nothing but bad fruit and had to be destroyed. Isaiah then pronounces six woes against Israel, and announces that the Assyrian army will invade the land. Against the backdrop of Israel’s sin, Isaiah (ch 6) gives an account of the vision through which he was called as a prophet. Overwhelmed by the holiness of God and by his own sinfulness, Isaiah thought he was ruined, but when he was assured that his sins were forgiven, he responded positively to God’s call in spite of the stubbornness of the nation to which he was sent.<\/p>\nOne of the most stubborn individuals in all the nation was King Ahaz of Judah, and chapter 7 describes Isaiah’s encounter with this godless ruler. When Ahaz was threatened by Damascus and the northern kingdom, he refused to believe Isaiah’s promise that God would protect him. This was the occasion on which Isaiah gave Ahaz the sign of Immanuel (7:14). The “virgin” refers ultimately to Mary and “Immanuel” to Christ (Mt 1:23), but in the near fulfillment the child could be Isaiah’s own son Maher-shalal-hash-baz (Is 8:3). (See<\/em> four interpretations of this passage in Virgin Birth of Jesus.) This name (meaning “swift to plunder and quick to spoil,” v 1, nlt<\/span> mg) would be a sign that soon Judah’s enemies would fall; “Immanuel” signified that God would be with Judah (v 10, nlt<\/span> mg). However, if Ahaz appealed for help to the king of Assyria, Isaiah warned him, Assyria’s powerful armies would one day invade Judah also (cf. 7:17-25; 8:6-8). The destruction brought by Assyria would plunge Judah into a time of famine and distress (8:21-22).<\/p>\nNevertheless, the gloom and darkness associated with the Assyrian invasion would not last indefinitely, and 9:1-5 speaks of a time of peace and joy. Verses 6-7 introduce a child who would become a righteous King and would rule forever. This “Prince of Peace” is the Messiah, the “Mighty God” whose kingdom is described in 2:2-4.<\/p>\nFor the immediate future, however, both Israel and Judah will suffer the agony of war as punishment for their sins. God is angry with his people because they are proud and arrogant, and their leaders disregard the pleas of the poor and needy. Civil war and foreign invasion will crush the hapless nation (9:8–10:4). But once Israel has been judged, God will turn his hand against Assyria, the instrument he has used to judge other nations. Because of her string of victories, Assyria is filled with pride and is eager for more triumph. Yet even at the moment when Jerusalem is about to succumb, God will cut down the Assyrian army like a cedar in Lebanon and spare his people (10:26-34).<\/p>\nAfter Assyria’s defeat, Isaiah describes the restoration of Israel and the powerful rule of the Messiah (ch 11). Both Jews and Gentiles will be attracted to Jerusalem to enjoy an era of peace and justice. Like David, the Messiah will have the Spirit of God resting upon him as he judges the wicked and protects the needy. To conclude these opening messages, Isaiah offers two short songs of praise that celebrate God’s past deliverance and his promise of future blessing (ch 12).<\/p>\n<h5>Oracles against the Nations (13–23)<\/h5>\nAlthough Babylon is not the major power of the day, Isaiah begins his announcements of judgment with two chapters about the destruction of Assyria’s neighbor to the south. Babylon will eventually conquer Jerusalem (between 605 and 586 BC<\/span>), but the Medes (13:17) along with the Elamites will capture Babylon (539 BC<\/span>). In spite of the glory to be achieved by future kings of Babylon, God will bring their pomp down to the grave (14:9-10). The chapter ends with short prophecies against Assyria and the Philistines.<\/p>\nOne of Israel’s oldest enemies was the nation of Moab, situated east of the Dead Sea. Even though it was a small country, Isaiah devotes two chapters to these descendants of Lot. Chapter 15 describes the extensive mourning that will overwhelm their cities. After a brief interlude urging the Moabites to submit to Israel and to her God (16:1-5), Isaiah notes that pride will lead to Moab’s downfall. Sounds of weeping fill the land as the vines and fields wither and are trampled.<\/p>\nIn chapter 17 the fourth oracle is directed against Damascus and Ephraim (the northern kingdom of Israel), probably reflecting their alliance against Judah about 734 BC<\/span>. Both nations will face ruin, and Ephraim is condemned for abandoning the Lord, her “Savior” and “Rock” (17:10).<\/p>\nIn chapters 18 and 19 Isaiah turns to the south and addresses Ethiopia and Egypt, countries that had strong links from 715–633 BC<\/span>, when an Ethiopian named Shabako became pharaoh in Egypt. But Egypt is plagued with disunity and suffers greatly at the hands of Assyrian kings. In spite of the supposed wisdom of her leaders, Egypt faces economic and political ruin (19:5-15). Yet the time is coming when the Egyptians will be restored and will worship the God of Israel. Along with Assyria and Israel, Egypt will become a blessing (19:24). Some interpreters think this is a prophecy of the salvation of Gentiles during the church age, but others relate this day to the peace of the millennial age (cf. 2:2-4; 11:6-9). For the immediate future, however, Isaiah announces that Assyria will take many Egyptians and Ethiopians into captivity (ch 20).<\/p>\nA second oracle about Babylon (cf. 13:1–14:23) is contained in chapter 21, and Isaiah is staggered as he considers the impact of Babylon’s fall (21:3-4). When Babylon collapses, the world will know that her gods were powerless (21:9; cf. Rv 14:8; 18:2).<\/p>\nAlthough it seems out of place among these oracles against the nations, chapter 22 condemns the city of Jerusalem. Like the nations, Jerusalem is full of revelry (22:2) but will soon experience the terrors of a siege. Since the people no longer rely on the Lord (v 11), he will hand them over to the enemy. Jerusalem’s unfaithfulness is exemplified by Shebna, a high official guilty of pride and materialism whose position will be taken by the godly Eliakim (vv 15-23).<\/p>\nThe last oracle (ch 23) is directed against the city of Tyre, which resisted capture until Alexander the Great conquered the island fortress in 332 BC<\/span>. When Tyre fell, the economy of the entire Mediterranean world was shaken, for her ships had carried the goods of the nations far and wide.<\/p>\n<h5>Final Judgment and Blessing (24–27)<\/h5>\nThis section functions as a grand finale to chapters 13–23 in that it anticipates God’s judgment upon the nations and the inauguration of the kingdom of God. A defiled earth must bear its punishment (24:5-6) and even the forces of Satan face judgment (vv 21-22).<\/p>\nIn chapter 25 Isaiah rejoices over God’s great triumph and looks ahead to a day when death will be swallowed up and tears will be wiped from all faces (25:8). Israel’s longtime enemies, symbolized by Moab, will be laid low (vv 10-12), but Jerusalem will be a stronghold for the righteous (26:1-3). In 26:7-19 the nation prays that these promises will become a reality. Verses 20-21 indicate that the Lord will indeed respond, pouring out his wrath upon a sin-cursed earth and upon Satan himself (27:1). When that takes place, Israel will be a fruitful vineyard, a blessing to the whole world (27:2-6; contrast 5:1-7). First, however, Israel will have to endure war and exile, and then the remnant will return to Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<h5>A Series of Woes (28–33)<\/h5>\nReturning to his own historical period, Isaiah pronounces a series of woes upon both the northern and southern kingdoms, as well as one upon Assyria (ch 33). Chapter 28 begins with a description of the fading power of Samaria, the capital of the northern kingdom. Verses 7-10 portray the leaders of Judah in the same light; they have disregarded Isaiah’s message and are out of touch with God. Judgment is on the way, and their false preparation (vv 15, 18) will be of no avail. God will fight against Israel (vv 21-22), and even Jerusalem will be put under siege until God in his mercy intervenes (29:1-8). Because of their hypocritical worship, the people deserve to be punished, but in the future Israel will again acknowledge the Lord and be made physically and spiritually whole (29:17-24).<\/p>\nChapters 30 and 31 denounce Judah’s proposed alliance with Egypt in the effort to thwart Assyria. God wants his people to trust him, not their unreliable neighbors to the south. The Lord promises to protect Jerusalem (30:18; 31:5) and defeat the invading Assyrian army (30:31-33; 31:8-9). None can stand before his mighty sword.<\/p>\nContinuing on this positive note, Isaiah goes on to emphasize the righteous rule of the messianic king in chapters 32 and 33. Zion will enjoy peace and security at last (32:2, 17-18; 33:6), a great change from Isaiah’s own time. In eighth-century BC<\/span> Judah the women might feel secure (32:9), but the Assyrian troops will devastate the crops and precipitate widespread mourning. However, the lamenting will soon end, as the prophet pronounces woe upon Assyria in 33:1. After Isaiah prays for the destruction of Assyria (33:2-9), God promises to take action (vv 10-12). Gone will be the enemy soldiers and officials, for the Lord will save his people and bring them justice and security.<\/p>\n<h5>More Judgment and Blessing (34–35)<\/h5>\nThis section forms a climax to chapters 28–33. Once more, cataclysmic judgment precedes a time of blessing and restoration. In chapter 34 Isaiah depicts a judgment of cosmic dimensions as he moves to a consideration of the last days. Heaven and earth endure the wrath of God that is poured out upon the nations, and verse 4 provides the basis for John’s description of the great tribulation in Revelation 6:13-14. Edom (like Moab; see Is 25:10-12) represents a world judged by the sword of the Lord in his day of vengeance.<\/p>\nChapter 35, on the other hand, speaks of joy and restoration in a passage that pulsates with life. A blooming desert corresponds to the physical and spiritual age when God will come to redeem his people. Both the return of the Israelites from the Babylonian captivity and the second coming of Christ fit this glorious scene.<\/p>\n<h5>Historical Interlude (36–39)<\/h5>\nThese chapters form the hinge that connects the two halves of the book. Chapters 36 and 37 contain the fulfillment of Isaiah’s prophecies about Assyria’s collapse, and chapters 38 and 39 introduce the Babylonian captivity that forms the backdrop for chapters 40–66. In 701 BC<\/span> King Sennacherib of Assyria demands the unconditional surrender of Jerusalem. He sends his field commander to address the people and try to gain their submission. With persuasive words, the commander tries to convince the city that surrender is the best policy. Amazingly the people do not panic, and King Hezekiah asks Isaiah to pray for the beleaguered city. The prophet does so and announces that the proud Assyrians will not triumph. Instead, they suffer a terrible disaster as the angel of the Lord strikes down 185,000 men.<\/p>\nChapters 38 and 39 relate another crisis in Hezekiah’s life when he becomes desperately ill. Miraculously, God heals him, and Hezekiah praises the Lord for his gracious intervention. When the king of Babylon sends envoys to congratulate Hezekiah on his recovery, Hezekiah foolishly shows these messengers his royal treasures. Isaiah solemnly announces that someday the armies of Babylon will capture Jerusalem, plunder the land, and take away these treasures.<\/p>\n<h5>The Return from Babylon (40–48)<\/h5>\nThe Babylonian captivity eventually comes, but Isaiah promises that it will end. God, the incomparably powerful Creator, is far greater than any king, nation, or god, and he will bring his people back to Jerusalem. To accomplish this return from exile, God raises up Cyrus, the king of Persia (41:2, 25). The Lord does not forget his people, and he encourages them to take heart and to rejoice.<\/p>\nIn chapter 42 we are introduced to a person even more significant than Cyrus the Persian. Verses 1-7 (the first of four Servant Songs) describe the servant of the Lord, who will bring justice to the nations and will be “a light for the Gentiles” (42:6). This is the Messiah, and the redemption he will accomplish on Calvary (cf. ch 53) is greater than the release from Babylon. In light of the good news associated with the servant, Isaiah praises the Lord for punishing the wicked and rescuing his wayward people. Chapter 43 declares that nothing will stand in the way of Israel’s return, and the Lord will remember their sins no more. In fact, he will pour out his Spirit on their descendants (44:3).<\/p>\nA God so great is far more powerful than any idol. In 44:6-20 Isaiah makes use of satire to show the worthlessness of man-made images. God alone has the power to create and to restore, and he will bring Cyrus on the scene to effect the release of the exiles and to begin the rebuilding of Jerusalem. Chapters 46 and 47 contrast the God of Israel and the idols of Babylon. When God raises up Cyrus, Babylon’s idols will be unable to save their nation, and the queen of kingdoms (47:5) will collapse along with her sorcerers and astrologers. The final chapter in this section (ch 48) restates God’s purpose of gaining release of the Israelites from Babylon through his chosen ally, Cyrus of Persia.<\/p>\n<h5>Salvation through the Servant of the Lord (49–57)<\/h5>\nChapters 49–53 contain the final three Servant Songs (cf. also 42:1-7), culminating in the death of the servant for the sins of the world (52:13–53:12). In the second Servant Song (49:1-7), Isaiah describes the call and ministry of the servant, noting that he will face strong opposition as he accomplishes salvation for Israel and the nations. The rest of chapter 49 deals primarily with the way God will bring Israel back from exile. Soon the land will be filled with a mighty throng (vv 19-21), and the Gentiles will acknowledge Israel and her God (vv 22-23).<\/p>\nAlthough Israel has fully deserved the exile because of her sins (50:1-3), the suffering endured by the servant (vv 4-11; the third Servant Song) is wholly undeserved. The beating and mocking of verse 6 are prophetic of Christ’s experience (cf. Mt 27:26, 30; Mk 15:19). In verses 10-11 of Isaiah 50 the whole nation is challenged to trust in the Lord, as the servant did. There is, in fact, a believing remnant who obey the Lord (51:1-8), and the Lord promises that he will restore them to their homeland. Israel has drunk the cup of God’s wrath (vv 17, 22), but the good news of release from exile causes even the ruins of Jerusalem to burst into songs of joy (52:7-10).<\/p>\nYet the best news of all is salvation from sin; the final Servant Song (52:13–53:12) tells how Christ wins freedom for those held in bondage to sin. In this brief passage we learn how Christ suffers rejection (53:3) and even disfigurement (52:14). Led like a lamb to the slaughter (53:7), he carries our sins in his body as he dies in ignominy. The people think he is suffering for his own sins (v 4), but he is “pierced” and “crushed for our iniquities” (v 5). The first and last paragraphs of this section (52:13-15; 53:10-12) state that through his suffering the servant is highly exalted. What seems like a terrible defeat is actually victory over death and Satan and brings salvation for many.<\/p>\nAs a direct result of the servant’s death, great joy comes to all people. In chapter 54 this joy is reflected in Jerusalem’s new status as the Lord’s wife. Her descendants will be numerous and eager to learn from the Lord. For the first time the plural “servants of the Lord<\/span>” appears (54:17), apparently including all believers, whether Jew or Gentile (cf. 65:8-9, 13-15). Joy and prosperity also characterize chapter 55, an invitation to a great spiritual banquet. All people are urged to turn to the Lord who keeps his promises to Israel. In 56:1-8, foreigners are invited to come to God’s “holy mountain” in Jerusalem, for the temple will be a house of prayer for all the nations (56:7; cf. Mt 21:13).<\/p>\nBelieving Gentiles are contrasted sharply with unbelieving Jews, and in 56:9–57:13 Isaiah returns again to the theme of judgment. Israel suffers because her leaders are wicked and because the people are guilty of idolatry. Spiritual healing is available, but unless individuals repent, they cannot be part of the remnant who will return from exile and enjoy peace in the Promised Land.<\/p>\n<h5>Ultimate Blessing and Final Judgment (58–66)<\/h5>\nThe last nine chapters of Isaiah emphasize redemption and glory, but the reality of judgment is also very much in evidence. In fact, chapters 58 and 59 bemoan the sins of Israel. The people are hypocritical in their worship; they are selfish and fail to keep the Sabbath. Lying, oppression, and murder separate the people from God. When Isaiah openly confesses these sins (59:12-13), the Lord suddenly takes action on behalf of his people. Like a mighty warrior, he rescues the believing remnant from Babylon and brings them back to Jerusalem.<\/p>\nIn chapter 60 the glory and wealth of Jerusalem reach new heights. Both the city and the sanctuary are adorned with splendor, matching the prosperity of Solomon’s reign. Just as the nations treated Solomon with honor, so earth’s leaders will assist and strengthen the returning exiles. While it is true that the Persian government did help the Jews repeatedly, the conditions described here will have their ultimate fulfillment during the Millennium and in connection with the new Jerusalem (cf. Rv 21:23; 22:5). The ancient ruins will be rebuilt (Is 61:4), and the Lord will fulfill the covenant made with Abraham and David (Is 61:8; cf. Gn 12:1-3; Is 55:3). Jerusalem will be the city of the holy people, the redeemed of the Lord (Is 62:12), and the Lord will take delight in her (v 4).<\/p>\nIn order to accomplish salvation for his people, God will have to judge the ungodly first. The great trampling of the winepress (63:2-3) graphically portrays the judgment process and is linked with the Day of the Lord (cf. 13:3; 34:2). Since God has promised to intervene on behalf of his people, Isaiah prays for the realization of that promise (63:7–64:12). He recalls God’s faithfulness in the past and pleads that he will again have mercy upon his suffering people.<\/p>\nThe answer to Isaiah’s prayer is found in chapter 65. God does promise to give the Holy Land back to his servants, to those who worship him and obey him. But for that segment of the nation that continues in its obstinacy, God promises anguish and destruction. The ultimate joy of God’s servants is contained in a description of new heavens and a new earth (65:17-25). Peace, long life, and prosperity will be among the blessings enjoyed in an era that seems to combine features of the Millennium and the eternal state (cf. ch 60).<\/p>\nIn a fitting summary, chapter 66 ties together the themes of salvation and judgment. God will comfort Jerusalem and abundantly bless her, but sinners are the objects of his wrath. Those who honor him will endure forever, but those who rebel will suffer everlasting rejection.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Isaiah (Person); Israel, History of; Messiah; Prophecy; Prophet, Prophetess; Servant of the Lord; Virgin Birth of Jesus.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ISAIAH, Book of<\/h3>\nPreview<\/p>\n• Author<\/p>\n• Date<\/p>\n• Background<\/p>\n• Literary Unity<\/p>\n• Theological Teaching<\/p>\n• Content<\/p>\nAuthor<\/p>\nThe prophet Isaiah, whose name means “the Lord saves,” lived and ministered in Jerusalem. Because of his repeated contact with the kings of Judah, some scholars believed that Isaiah was related to the royal family, but this is not certain. According to chapters 7 and 8, Isaiah was married and had at least two sons, Shear-jashub and Maher-shalal-hash-baz, whose symbolic names illustrated God’s dealings with the nation as a whole. The “disciples” mentioned in 8:16 probably assisted Isaiah in his ministry and may have helped him record the book that bears his name.<\/p>\nWhen Isaiah saw the Lord in the famous temple vision described in chapter 6, he was willing to go wherever God sent him, even though he would face strong opposition (6:9-10). King Ahaz proved to be particularly resistant to Isaiah’s advice (7:4-17), and the people in general ridiculed his preaching (5:10-12; 28:9-10). During the reign of the godly Hezekiah, however, Isaiah’s ministry was much appreciated, and the king consulted him eagerly during times of crisis (37:1-7, 21-35).<\/p>\nIsaiah is usually regarded as the greatest of the writing prophets. Some of the chapters in his book display an unparalleled literary beauty and make use of poetic devices and a rich variety of symbols. Chapters 40–66 contain many powerful passages that underscore the grandeur of the book. It is ironic, then, that many scholars attribute these chapters to a “second” or “third” Isaiah, unknown authors who wrote much later than Isaiah in connection with the Babylonian exile. Yet elsewhere in the OT, the names of all who wrote the prophetic books are preserved, and it would be most unusual for the Jews not to know who wrote such magnificent prophecy as chapters 40–66.<\/p>\nDate<\/p>\nSince many of the events recorded in chapters 1–39 took place during the ministry of Isaiah, most of these chapters were probably written by about 700 BC<\/span> or shortly thereafter. The destruction of the Assyrian army in 701 BC<\/span> represents the climax of the first half of the book, fulfilling the prophecy of 10:16, 24-34 and 30:31-33. In 37:38 Isaiah refers to the death of King Sennacherib, which did not occur until 681 BC<\/span>. This means that some of the earlier chapters, along with 40–66, were probably written later, during Isaiah’s retirement years. A gap of several decades could help account for the change in subject matter that is found in the last half of the book. In these chapters Isaiah projects into the future as he addresses the Jews who would be in exile in Babylon about 550 BC<\/span>.<\/p>\nBackground<\/p>\nIsaiah’s public ministry occurred primarily from 740–700 BC<\/span>, a period marked by the rapid expansion of the nation of Assyria. Under King Tiglath-pileser III (745–727 BC<\/span>), the Assyrians moved to the west and south, and by 738 BC<\/span> the Assyrian monarch was demanding tribute from Damascus and Israel. About 734 BC<\/span> Rezin of Damascus (Syria) and Pekah of Israel organized a coalition to rebel against Assyria, and they tried to enlist the support of King Ahaz of Judah. But Ahaz refused to join, and when the kings of Damascus and Israel invaded Judah (see 7:1), Ahaz appealed directly to Tiglath-pileser for help (cf. 2 Kgs 16:7-9). With little hesitation the Assyrians returned to capture Damascus and to turn the northern kingdom of Israel into an Assyrian province.<\/p>\nThe puppet king Hoshea ruled over Israel from 732–723 BC but was imprisoned when he joined a revolt against Shalmaneser V, the new Assyrian king. Shalmaneser besieged the capital city of Samaria, which finally fell in 722 BC<\/span>, spelling the end of the northern kingdom. Sargon succeeded Shalmaneser in 722 and had to quell a number of revolts. In 711 BC<\/span> Sargon captured the Philistine city of Ashdod in a campaign that became the occasion of Isaiah’s prophecy of chapter 20.<\/p>\n\nEven more important was the widespread rebellion that broke out with the accession of Sennacherib in 705 BC<\/span>. King Hezekiah of Judah withheld his normal tribute payment, and by 701 BC<\/span> Sennacherib had invaded Palestine to punish the rebels. The details of this campaign are given in Isaiah 36–37 and tell how city after city was captured by the Assyrians before the invaders stood at the gates of Jerusalem and demanded total surrender. With almost no hope of survival, Hezekiah nevertheless was encouraged by Isaiah to trust God, and in one night the angel of the Lord struck down 185,000 Assyrian soldiers, virtually wiping out Sennacherib’s army (Is 37:36-37).<\/p>\nIn an effort to befriend the enemies of Assyria, Hezekiah showed his treasures to envoys of the king of Babylon (39:1-4). Isaiah warned that someday the Babylonian armies would conquer Jerusalem and carry off those very treasures, along with the residents of the city (vv 5-7). Not only did Isaiah predict the Babylonian captivity of 586–539 BC<\/span> (cf. 6:11-12), but he also foretold that Israel would be released from Babylon (48:20). The Chaldean kingdom led by Nebuchadnezzar would be God’s instrument of judgment upon Judah, but they too would suffer defeat. One of Isaiah’s most remarkable prophecies was the naming of Cyrus, king of Persia, the ruler who would conquer the Babylonians in 539 BC<\/span> and release Israel from exile (cf. 44:28). Along with the Medes (cf. 13:17), Cyrus won several important victories before sending his troops against Babylon. Isaiah hailed him as one anointed by the Lord to bring deliverance for Israel (45:1-5).<\/p>\nLiterary Unity<\/p>\nLargely because of the references to the later kingdoms of Babylon and Persia, the unity of Isaiah has been called into question. Chapters 40–66 move abruptly into the exilic period of 550 BC<\/span>, almost 150 years after Isaiah lived. Moreover, the Servant of the Lord plays a prominent role in these chapters and the messianic king fades into the background. Brilliant poetic passages are found in chapters 40, 53, 55, and 60, demonstrating remarkable depth and power.<\/p>\nAlthough these factors are sometimes cited as a sign of disunity, there are actually strong indications for unity in the book. For example, the historical interlude (chs 36–39) forms a hinge or bridge that links chapters 1–35 and 40–66. Chapters 36–37 complete the Assyrian section, and chapters 38–39 introduce the Babylonian material. Most of the linking chapters are written in prose, while the others (in some translations) are largely poetry. From the standpoint of verbal or stylistic unity, one can point to Isaiah’s favorite title for God, “the Holy One of Israel.” This title appears 12 times in chapters 1–39, and 14 times in chapters 40–66, but only seven times in the rest of the OT. A study of the famous Servant Songs of 52:13–53:12 reveals several ties with earlier passages, especially in chapters 1–6. The servant who is smitten and wounded (53:4-5) receives the same punishment as the beaten and injured nation of 1:5-6 (also cf. 52:13 with 2:12 and 6:1).<\/p>\nTheological Teaching<\/p>\nIsaiah is to the OT as the book of Romans is to the NT—a book filled with rich theological truth. Like Romans, Isaiah unveils the sinfulness of God’s rebellious people and his gracious provision of salvation. Because God is the Holy One of Israel (1:4; 6:3), he cannot ignore sin but must punish those who are guilty. Both Israel (5:30; 42:25) and the other nations (2:11, 17, 20) experience a time of judgment known as the Day of the Lord. In anger God raises his hand against his people (cf. 5:25), but ultimately his wrath is poured out upon Babylon and the nations (cf. 13:3-5; 34:2).<\/p>\nWith the fall of Assyria and Babylon, the Day of the Lord becomes a day of joyous victory (10:27; 61:2). According to Isaiah 63:4, it is the year of the Lord’s redemption. Earlier, Israel had been redeemed from slavery in Egypt; now the return from the Babylonian captivity brings equal joy (52:9; 61:1). The ultimate redemption is to be accomplished through the death of Christ, and Isaiah 53 describes our Lord’s suffering and death in graphic terms. His ministry as the Suffering Servant is also introduced in 49:4 and 50:6-7; meanwhile, 49:6 states that the servant will be “a light for the Gentiles.” Looking ahead to the Second Coming, Isaiah predicts a messianic age of peace and righteousness. Nations will “beat their swords into plowshares” (2:4) and the “Prince of Peace” will rule forever (9:6-7).<\/p>\nThroughout the book God is pictured as the all-powerful Creator (48:13)—the sovereign One seated on a throne, high and exalted; the King, the Lord Almighty (6:1, 5). He controls the armies of the earth (13:4) and removes rulers as he wills (40:23-24). Before him, nations “are but a drop in the bucket” (40:15, nlt<\/span>), and compared with him all idols are worthless and without power (41:29; 44:6). This is the God who shows his fury to his foes and his love to his servants (66:14).<\/p>\n\nContent<\/p>\n<h5>Messages of Judgment and Hope (1–12)<\/h5>\nIn the opening chapter Isaiah characterizes Israel (including Judah) as “a sinful nation” that has rebelled against God. Although the people regularly bring offerings to him, their worship is hypocritical, an attempt to mask their oppression of the poor and helpless. The Lord encourages the nation to repent of their sin or face the fires of judgment. After this introduction, Isaiah turns to describe the peace of the messianic age in 2:1-4. The day will come when all nations will obey God’s word and live at peace. “The mountain of the Lord<\/span>”—Jerusalem—will be raised up “and all the nations shall flow to it” (2:2-3, rsv<\/span>). In the meantime, however, both Israel and the nations have exalted themselves against the Lord, and he will judge them in an awesome display of power. For Israel, God’s judgment will bring great upheaval, including the loss of its leaders. Defiant and ruthless, the rulers will face either death or deportation. Chapter 3 ends by denouncing the pride and vanity of the women of Zion; they, too, will suffer disgrace. After Jerusalem is cleansed of its sin, the remnant will enjoy the rule of “the branch of the Lord<\/span>,” who will protect and shield his people (4:2-6).<\/p>\nIn 5:1-7 Isaiah presents a short song about Israel as God’s vineyard. The Lord did everything possible to ensure a yield of good grapes, but the vineyard produced nothing but bad fruit and had to be destroyed. Isaiah then pronounces six woes against Israel, and announces that the Assyrian army will invade the land. Against the backdrop of Israel’s sin, Isaiah (ch 6) gives an account of the vision through which he was called as a prophet. Overwhelmed by the holiness of God and by his own sinfulness, Isaiah thought he was ruined, but when he was assured that his sins were forgiven, he responded positively to God’s call in spite of the stubbornness of the nation to which he was sent.<\/p>\nOne of the most stubborn individuals in all the nation was King Ahaz of Judah, and chapter 7 describes Isaiah’s encounter with this godless ruler. When Ahaz was threatened by Damascus and the northern kingdom, he refused to believe Isaiah’s promise that God would protect him. This was the occasion on which Isaiah gave Ahaz the sign of Immanuel (7:14). The “virgin” refers ultimately to Mary and “Immanuel” to Christ (Mt 1:23), but in the near fulfillment the child could be Isaiah’s own son Maher-shalal-hash-baz (Is 8:3). (See<\/em> four interpretations of this passage in Virgin Birth of Jesus.) This name (meaning “swift to plunder and quick to spoil,” v 1, nlt<\/span> mg) would be a sign that soon Judah’s enemies would fall; “Immanuel” signified that God would be with Judah (v 10, nlt<\/span> mg). However, if Ahaz appealed for help to the king of Assyria, Isaiah warned him, Assyria’s powerful armies would one day invade Judah also (cf. 7:17-25; 8:6-8). The destruction brought by Assyria would plunge Judah into a time of famine and distress (8:21-22).<\/p>\nNevertheless, the gloom and darkness associated with the Assyrian invasion would not last indefinitely, and 9:1-5 speaks of a time of peace and joy. Verses 6-7 introduce a child who would become a righteous King and would rule forever. This “Prince of Peace” is the Messiah, the “Mighty God” whose kingdom is described in 2:2-4.<\/p>\nFor the immediate future, however, both Israel and Judah will suffer the agony of war as punishment for their sins. God is angry with his people because they are proud and arrogant, and their leaders disregard the pleas of the poor and needy. Civil war and foreign invasion will crush the hapless nation (9:8–10:4). But once Israel has been judged, God will turn his hand against Assyria, the instrument he has used to judge other nations. Because of her string of victories, Assyria is filled with pride and is eager for more triumph. Yet even at the moment when Jerusalem is about to succumb, God will cut down the Assyrian army like a cedar in Lebanon and spare his people (10:26-34).<\/p>\nAfter Assyria’s defeat, Isaiah describes the restoration of Israel and the powerful rule of the Messiah (ch 11). Both Jews and Gentiles will be attracted to Jerusalem to enjoy an era of peace and justice. Like David, the Messiah will have the Spirit of God resting upon him as he judges the wicked and protects the needy. To conclude these opening messages, Isaiah offers two short songs of praise that celebrate God’s past deliverance and his promise of future blessing (ch 12).<\/p>\n<h5>Oracles against the Nations (13–23)<\/h5>\nAlthough Babylon is not the major power of the day, Isaiah begins his announcements of judgment with two chapters about the destruction of Assyria’s neighbor to the south. Babylon will eventually conquer Jerusalem (between 605 and 586 BC<\/span>), but the Medes (13:17) along with the Elamites will capture Babylon (539 BC<\/span>). In spite of the glory to be achieved by future kings of Babylon, God will bring their pomp down to the grave (14:9-10). The chapter ends with short prophecies against Assyria and the Philistines.<\/p>\nOne of Israel’s oldest enemies was the nation of Moab, situated east of the Dead Sea. Even though it was a small country, Isaiah devotes two chapters to these descendants of Lot. Chapter 15 describes the extensive mourning that will overwhelm their cities. After a brief interlude urging the Moabites to submit to Israel and to her God (16:1-5), Isaiah notes that pride will lead to Moab’s downfall. Sounds of weeping fill the land as the vines and fields wither and are trampled.<\/p>\nIn chapter 17 the fourth oracle is directed against Damascus and Ephraim (the northern kingdom of Israel), probably reflecting their alliance against Judah about 734 BC<\/span>. Both nations will face ruin, and Ephraim is condemned for abandoning the Lord, her “Savior” and “Rock” (17:10).<\/p>\nIn chapters 18 and 19 Isaiah turns to the south and addresses Ethiopia and Egypt, countries that had strong links from 715–633 BC<\/span>, when an Ethiopian named Shabako became pharaoh in Egypt. But Egypt is plagued with disunity and suffers greatly at the hands of Assyrian kings. In spite of the supposed wisdom of her leaders, Egypt faces economic and political ruin (19:5-15). Yet the time is coming when the Egyptians will be restored and will worship the God of Israel. Along with Assyria and Israel, Egypt will become a blessing (19:24). Some interpreters think this is a prophecy of the salvation of Gentiles during the church age, but others relate this day to the peace of the millennial age (cf. 2:2-4; 11:6-9). For the immediate future, however, Isaiah announces that Assyria will take many Egyptians and Ethiopians into captivity (ch 20).<\/p>\nA second oracle about Babylon (cf. 13:1–14:23) is contained in chapter 21, and Isaiah is staggered as he considers the impact of Babylon’s fall (21:3-4). When Babylon collapses, the world will know that her gods were powerless (21:9; cf. Rv 14:8; 18:2).<\/p>\nAlthough it seems out of place among these oracles against the nations, chapter 22 condemns the city of Jerusalem. Like the nations, Jerusalem is full of revelry (22:2) but will soon experience the terrors of a siege. Since the people no longer rely on the Lord (v 11), he will hand them over to the enemy. Jerusalem’s unfaithfulness is exemplified by Shebna, a high official guilty of pride and materialism whose position will be taken by the godly Eliakim (vv 15-23).<\/p>\nThe last oracle (ch 23) is directed against the city of Tyre, which resisted capture until Alexander the Great conquered the island fortress in 332 BC<\/span>. When Tyre fell, the economy of the entire Mediterranean world was shaken, for her ships had carried the goods of the nations far and wide.<\/p>\n<h5>Final Judgment and Blessing (24–27)<\/h5>\nThis section functions as a grand finale to chapters 13–23 in that it anticipates God’s judgment upon the nations and the inauguration of the kingdom of God. A defiled earth must bear its punishment (24:5-6) and even the forces of Satan face judgment (vv 21-22).<\/p>\nIn chapter 25 Isaiah rejoices over God’s great triumph and looks ahead to a day when death will be swallowed up and tears will be wiped from all faces (25:8). Israel’s longtime enemies, symbolized by Moab, will be laid low (vv 10-12), but Jerusalem will be a stronghold for the righteous (26:1-3). In 26:7-19 the nation prays that these promises will become a reality. Verses 20-21 indicate that the Lord will indeed respond, pouring out his wrath upon a sin-cursed earth and upon Satan himself (27:1). When that takes place, Israel will be a fruitful vineyard, a blessing to the whole world (27:2-6; contrast 5:1-7). First, however, Israel will have to endure war and exile, and then the remnant will return to Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<h5>A Series of Woes (28–33)<\/h5>\nReturning to his own historical period, Isaiah pronounces a series of woes upon both the northern and southern kingdoms, as well as one upon Assyria (ch 33). Chapter 28 begins with a description of the fading power of Samaria, the capital of the northern kingdom. Verses 7-10 portray the leaders of Judah in the same light; they have disregarded Isaiah’s message and are out of touch with God. Judgment is on the way, and their false preparation (vv 15, 18) will be of no avail. God will fight against Israel (vv 21-22), and even Jerusalem will be put under siege until God in his mercy intervenes (29:1-8). Because of their hypocritical worship, the people deserve to be punished, but in the future Israel will again acknowledge the Lord and be made physically and spiritually whole (29:17-24).<\/p>\nChapters 30 and 31 denounce Judah’s proposed alliance with Egypt in the effort to thwart Assyria. God wants his people to trust him, not their unreliable neighbors to the south. The Lord promises to protect Jerusalem (30:18; 31:5) and defeat the invading Assyrian army (30:31-33; 31:8-9). None can stand before his mighty sword.<\/p>\nContinuing on this positive note, Isaiah goes on to emphasize the righteous rule of the messianic king in chapters 32 and 33. Zion will enjoy peace and security at last (32:2, 17-18; 33:6), a great change from Isaiah’s own time. In eighth-century BC<\/span> Judah the women might feel secure (32:9), but the Assyrian troops will devastate the crops and precipitate widespread mourning. However, the lamenting will soon end, as the prophet pronounces woe upon Assyria in 33:1. After Isaiah prays for the destruction of Assyria (33:2-9), God promises to take action (vv 10-12). Gone will be the enemy soldiers and officials, for the Lord will save his people and bring them justice and security.<\/p>\n<h5>More Judgment and Blessing (34–35)<\/h5>\nThis section forms a climax to chapters 28–33. Once more, cataclysmic judgment precedes a time of blessing and restoration. In chapter 34 Isaiah depicts a judgment of cosmic dimensions as he moves to a consideration of the last days. Heaven and earth endure the wrath of God that is poured out upon the nations, and verse 4 provides the basis for John’s description of the great tribulation in Revelation 6:13-14. Edom (like Moab; see Is 25:10-12) represents a world judged by the sword of the Lord in his day of vengeance.<\/p>\nChapter 35, on the other hand, speaks of joy and restoration in a passage that pulsates with life. A blooming desert corresponds to the physical and spiritual age when God will come to redeem his people. Both the return of the Israelites from the Babylonian captivity and the second coming of Christ fit this glorious scene.<\/p>\n<h5>Historical Interlude (36–39)<\/h5>\nThese chapters form the hinge that connects the two halves of the book. Chapters 36 and 37 contain the fulfillment of Isaiah’s prophecies about Assyria’s collapse, and chapters 38 and 39 introduce the Babylonian captivity that forms the backdrop for chapters 40–66. In 701 BC<\/span> King Sennacherib of Assyria demands the unconditional surrender of Jerusalem. He sends his field commander to address the people and try to gain their submission. With persuasive words, the commander tries to convince the city that surrender is the best policy. Amazingly the people do not panic, and King Hezekiah asks Isaiah to pray for the beleaguered city. The prophet does so and announces that the proud Assyrians will not triumph. Instead, they suffer a terrible disaster as the angel of the Lord strikes down 185,000 men.<\/p>\nChapters 38 and 39 relate another crisis in Hezekiah’s life when he becomes desperately ill. Miraculously, God heals him, and Hezekiah praises the Lord for his gracious intervention. When the king of Babylon sends envoys to congratulate Hezekiah on his recovery, Hezekiah foolishly shows these messengers his royal treasures. Isaiah solemnly announces that someday the armies of Babylon will capture Jerusalem, plunder the land, and take away these treasures.<\/p>\n<h5>The Return from Babylon (40–48)<\/h5>\nThe Babylonian captivity eventually comes, but Isaiah promises that it will end. God, the incomparably powerful Creator, is far greater than any king, nation, or god, and he will bring his people back to Jerusalem. To accomplish this return from exile, God raises up Cyrus, the king of Persia (41:2, 25). The Lord does not forget his people, and he encourages them to take heart and to rejoice.<\/p>\nIn chapter 42 we are introduced to a person even more significant than Cyrus the Persian. Verses 1-7 (the first of four Servant Songs) describe the servant of the Lord, who will bring justice to the nations and will be “a light for the Gentiles” (42:6). This is the Messiah, and the redemption he will accomplish on Calvary (cf. ch 53) is greater than the release from Babylon. In light of the good news associated with the servant, Isaiah praises the Lord for punishing the wicked and rescuing his wayward people. Chapter 43 declares that nothing will stand in the way of Israel’s return, and the Lord will remember their sins no more. In fact, he will pour out his Spirit on their descendants (44:3).<\/p>\nA God so great is far more powerful than any idol. In 44:6-20 Isaiah makes use of satire to show the worthlessness of man-made images. God alone has the power to create and to restore, and he will bring Cyrus on the scene to effect the release of the exiles and to begin the rebuilding of Jerusalem. Chapters 46 and 47 contrast the God of Israel and the idols of Babylon. When God raises up Cyrus, Babylon’s idols will be unable to save their nation, and the queen of kingdoms (47:5) will collapse along with her sorcerers and astrologers. The final chapter in this section (ch 48) restates God’s purpose of gaining release of the Israelites from Babylon through his chosen ally, Cyrus of Persia.<\/p>\n<h5>Salvation through the Servant of the Lord (49–57)<\/h5>\nChapters 49–53 contain the final three Servant Songs (cf. also 42:1-7), culminating in the death of the servant for the sins of the world (52:13–53:12). In the second Servant Song (49:1-7), Isaiah describes the call and ministry of the servant, noting that he will face strong opposition as he accomplishes salvation for Israel and the nations. The rest of chapter 49 deals primarily with the way God will bring Israel back from exile. Soon the land will be filled with a mighty throng (vv 19-21), and the Gentiles will acknowledge Israel and her God (vv 22-23).<\/p>\nAlthough Israel has fully deserved the exile because of her sins (50:1-3), the suffering endured by the servant (vv 4-11; the third Servant Song) is wholly undeserved. The beating and mocking of verse 6 are prophetic of Christ’s experience (cf. Mt 27:26, 30; Mk 15:19). In verses 10-11 of Isaiah 50 the whole nation is challenged to trust in the Lord, as the servant did. There is, in fact, a believing remnant who obey the Lord (51:1-8), and the Lord promises that he will restore them to their homeland. Israel has drunk the cup of God’s wrath (vv 17, 22), but the good news of release from exile causes even the ruins of Jerusalem to burst into songs of joy (52:7-10).<\/p>\nYet the best news of all is salvation from sin; the final Servant Song (52:13–53:12) tells how Christ wins freedom for those held in bondage to sin. In this brief passage we learn how Christ suffers rejection (53:3) and even disfigurement (52:14). Led like a lamb to the slaughter (53:7), he carries our sins in his body as he dies in ignominy. The people think he is suffering for his own sins (v 4), but he is “pierced” and “crushed for our iniquities” (v 5). The first and last paragraphs of this section (52:13-15; 53:10-12) state that through his suffering the servant is highly exalted. What seems like a terrible defeat is actually victory over death and Satan and brings salvation for many.<\/p>\nAs a direct result of the servant’s death, great joy comes to all people. In chapter 54 this joy is reflected in Jerusalem’s new status as the Lord’s wife. Her descendants will be numerous and eager to learn from the Lord. For the first time the plural “servants of the Lord<\/span>” appears (54:17), apparently including all believers, whether Jew or Gentile (cf. 65:8-9, 13-15). Joy and prosperity also characterize chapter 55, an invitation to a great spiritual banquet. All people are urged to turn to the Lord who keeps his promises to Israel. In 56:1-8, foreigners are invited to come to God’s “holy mountain” in Jerusalem, for the temple will be a house of prayer for all the nations (56:7; cf. Mt 21:13).<\/p>\nBelieving Gentiles are contrasted sharply with unbelieving Jews, and in 56:9–57:13 Isaiah returns again to the theme of judgment. Israel suffers because her leaders are wicked and because the people are guilty of idolatry. Spiritual healing is available, but unless individuals repent, they cannot be part of the remnant who will return from exile and enjoy peace in the Promised Land.<\/p>\n<h5>Ultimate Blessing and Final Judgment (58–66)<\/h5>\nThe last nine chapters of Isaiah emphasize redemption and glory, but the reality of judgment is also very much in evidence. In fact, chapters 58 and 59 bemoan the sins of Israel. The people are hypocritical in their worship; they are selfish and fail to keep the Sabbath. Lying, oppression, and murder separate the people from God. When Isaiah openly confesses these sins (59:12-13), the Lord suddenly takes action on behalf of his people. Like a mighty warrior, he rescues the believing remnant from Babylon and brings them back to Jerusalem.<\/p>\nIn chapter 60 the glory and wealth of Jerusalem reach new heights. Both the city and the sanctuary are adorned with splendor, matching the prosperity of Solomon’s reign. Just as the nations treated Solomon with honor, so earth’s leaders will assist and strengthen the returning exiles. While it is true that the Persian government did help the Jews repeatedly, the conditions described here will have their ultimate fulfillment during the Millennium and in connection with the new Jerusalem (cf. Rv 21:23; 22:5). The ancient ruins will be rebuilt (Is 61:4), and the Lord will fulfill the covenant made with Abraham and David (Is 61:8; cf. Gn 12:1-3; Is 55:3). Jerusalem will be the city of the holy people, the redeemed of the Lord (Is 62:12), and the Lord will take delight in her (v 4).<\/p>\nIn order to accomplish salvation for his people, God will have to judge the ungodly first. The great trampling of the winepress (63:2-3) graphically portrays the judgment process and is linked with the Day of the Lord (cf. 13:3; 34:2). Since God has promised to intervene on behalf of his people, Isaiah prays for the realization of that promise (63:7–64:12). He recalls God’s faithfulness in the past and pleads that he will again have mercy upon his suffering people.<\/p>\nThe answer to Isaiah’s prayer is found in chapter 65. God does promise to give the Holy Land back to his servants, to those who worship him and obey him. But for that segment of the nation that continues in its obstinacy, God promises anguish and destruction. The ultimate joy of God’s servants is contained in a description of new heavens and a new earth (65:17-25). Peace, long life, and prosperity will be among the blessings enjoyed in an era that seems to combine features of the Millennium and the eternal state (cf. ch 60).<\/p>\nIn a fitting summary, chapter 66 ties together the themes of salvation and judgment. God will comfort Jerusalem and abundantly bless her, but sinners are the objects of his wrath. Those who honor him will endure forever, but those who rebel will suffer everlasting rejection.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Isaiah (Person); Israel, History of; Messiah; Prophecy; Prophet, Prophetess; Servant of the Lord; Virgin Birth of Jesus.<\/p>","summary_ro":"ISAIAH, Book of Preview • Author • Date • Background • Literary Unity • Theological Teaching • Content Author The prophet Isaiah, whose name means “the Lord saves,” lived and ministered in Jerusalem. Because of his repeated contact with the kings of Judah, some scholars believed that Isaiah was related to the royal family, but this is not certain. According to chapters 7 and 8, Isaiah was married and had at least two sons, Shear-jashub and Maher-shalal-hash-baz, whose symbolic names illustrat...","summary_en":"ISAIAH, Book of Preview • Author • Date • Background • Literary Unity • Theological Teaching • Content Author The prophet Isaiah, whose name means “the Lord saves,” lived and ministered in Jerusalem. Because of his repeated contact with the kings of Judah, some scholars believed that Isaiah was related to the royal family, but this is not certain. According to chapters 7 and 8, Isaiah was married and had at least two sons, Shear-jashub and Maher-shalal-hash-baz, whose symbolic names illustrat...","source":"Articles\/I.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":51668,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 42:25","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 42:25","content_ro":"42:25<\/strong> Generation after generation of Israelites did not learn their lesson,<\/em> even when God disciplined them through military defeat.<\/p>","content_en":"42:25<\/strong> Generation after generation of Israelites did not learn their lesson,<\/em> even when God disciplined them through military defeat.<\/p>","summary_ro":"42:25 Generation after generation of Israelites did not learn their lesson, even when God disciplined them through military defeat.","summary_en":"42:25 Generation after generation of Israelites did not learn their lesson, even when God disciplined them through military defeat.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":79294,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 42:25","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 42:25","content_ro":"42:25<\/strong> Generation after generation of Israelites did not learn their lesson,<\/em> even when God disciplined them through military defeat.<\/p>","content_en":"42:25<\/strong> Generation after generation of Israelites did not learn their lesson,<\/em> even when God disciplined them through military defeat.<\/p>","summary_ro":"42:25 Generation after generation of Israelites did not learn their lesson, even when God disciplined them through military defeat.","summary_en":"42:25 Generation after generation of Israelites did not learn their lesson, even when God disciplined them through military defeat.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":106920,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 42:25","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 42:25","content_ro":"42:25<\/strong> Generation after generation of Israelites did not learn their lesson,<\/em> even when God disciplined them through military defeat.<\/p>","content_en":"42:25<\/strong> Generation after generation of Israelites did not learn their lesson,<\/em> even when God disciplined them through military defeat.<\/p>","summary_ro":"42:25 Generation after generation of Israelites did not learn their lesson, even when God disciplined them through military defeat.","summary_en":"42:25 Generation after generation of Israelites did not learn their lesson, even when God disciplined them through military defeat.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":134546,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 42:25","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 42:25","content_ro":"42:25<\/strong> Generation after generation of Israelites did not learn their lesson,<\/em> even when God disciplined them through military defeat.<\/p>","content_en":"42:25<\/strong> Generation after generation of Israelites did not learn their lesson,<\/em> even when God disciplined them through military defeat.<\/p>","summary_ro":"42:25 Generation after generation of Israelites did not learn their lesson, even when God disciplined them through military defeat.","summary_en":"42:25 Generation after generation of Israelites did not learn their lesson, even when God disciplined them through military defeat.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}]},"labels":{"article":"Articol","map":"Hartă","chart":"Diagramă","textbox":"Notă explicativă","picture":"Imagine","profile":"Profil","study_note":"Notă de studiu","theme_note":"Temă biblică"},"icons":{"article":"📖","map":"🗺️","chart":"📊","textbox":"💡","picture":"🖼️","profile":"👤","study_note":"📝","theme_note":"🎯"},"typeColors":{"article":"#d4af37","map":"#2d7d46","chart":"#3b82f6","textbox":"#8b5cf6","picture":"#ec4899","profile":"#f59e0b","study_note":"#06b6d4","theme_note":"#ef4444"}}

Isaia 42

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Isaia 42

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